CHANDIGARH POLYTECNIC

COLLEGE
COURSE FILE
Department of Civil Engineering

3rd Semester
SUBJECT CODE :

E3146

SUBJECT NAME

FACULTY NAME

Building Construction
Er.Taranvir Kaur

Contents of Course file

S. No.
1
2

Item
Time Table
(Department)

Annexure/Pag
e no.
4

Time Table (Individual)

5-10
3

Academic Calendar

8
4

Study Scheme
7

Syllabus (Theory)
11

Instructional Plan

MST's (with Solution)

Assignments (With Solution)

12
13-16
18
9
Class Test (After compilation of each Chapter)
10

11

Latest 3 Board Question Papers (Including 1, 5 and 10

marks)

19
20

PPT's
20-23

12
General PPT(Whole syllabus)

24-27

13
Chapter wise PPTs
28-37

Time Table (Department)

Time Table (Individual)

Academic Calendar

Study Scheme

Syllabus (Theory)
3.5 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
LTP5-2
RATIONALE
Diploma holders in Civil Engineering are supposed to effectively supervise construction of
buildings. Effective supervision is essential to obtain/provide a fault free service from
contractors to users. To perform above task, it is essential that students should have knowledge
of various sub components of buildings like foundations, walls, roofs, staircases, floors etc.,
and their constructional details as well as preventive, remedial and corrective methods of
common construction faults. Therefore, the subject of Building Construction is very important
for Civil Engineering diploma holders.
DETAILED CONTENTS
THEORY:
1.

Introduction:

(1 hr)

1.1 Definition of a building, classification of buildings based on occupancy

2.

1.2 Different parts of a building

Foundations:

(6 hrs)

2.1 Concept of foundation and its purpose

2.2 Types of foundation-shallow and deep
**2.2.1 Shallow foundation - constructional details of: Spread foundations for
walls, thumb rules for depth and width of foundation and thickness of concrete
block, stepped foundation, masonry pillars and concrete columns
2.3 Earthwork
2.3.1
2.3.2

Layout/setting out for surface excavation, cutting and filling

Excavation of foundation, trenches, shoring, timbering and de-

waterin
3.

Walls

(7 hrs)

3.1 Purpose of walls

3.2 Classification of walls - load bearing, non-load bearing, dwarf wall, retaining, breast
walls and partition walls
3.3 Classification of walls as per materials of construction: brick, stone, reinforced brick,
reinforced concrete, precast, hollow and solid concrete block and composite masonry
walls

3.4 Partition walls: Constructional details, suitability and uses of brick and wooden
partition walls
3.5 Mortars: types, selection of mortar and its preparation
3.6 Scaffolding, construction details and suitability of masons brick layersand tubular
scaffolding, shoring, underpinning
4.
Masonry
(8 hrs)
4.1 Brick Masonry: Definition of terms like header, stretcher, queen closer, king
closer, frog and quoin, course, bond, facing, backing, hearting, jambs, reveals,
soffit, plinth, pillars and pilasters
4.1.1
Bond meaning and necessity; English, flemish bond and other
types of bonds
4.1.2
Construction of brick walls methods of laying bricks in walls,
precautions observed in the construction of walls, methods of bonding
new brick work with old (toothing, raking, back and block bonding),
Expansion and contraction joints
4.1.3
Importance towards special care during execution on: soaking of
bricks, maintenance of bonds and plumb, filling of horizontal and
vertical joints, masonry work, restriction height of construction on a
given day, every fourth course, earthquake resistance measure, making
of joints to receive finishes
4.2 Stone Masonry
4.2.1
Glossary of terms natural bed, bedding planes, string course,
corbel, cornice, block in course grouting, moulding, templates, corner
stone, bond stone, throating, through stone, parapet, coping, pilasters and
buttress
4.2.2
Types of stone masonry: rubble masonry - random and coursed;
Ashlar masonry, principles to be observed in construction of stone
masonry walls

5.

4.2.3
Importance towards special care during execution of stone
masonry work on dressing of stone, size and placing of bond and corner
stones, filling joints, proper packing of internal cavities of rubble
masonry wall, raking of joints to receive finishes
Arches and Lintels:
(6 hrs)
5.1 leaning and use of arches and lintels:
5.2 Glossary of terms used in arches and lintels - abutment, pier, arch ring, intrados,
soffit, extrados, voussoiers, springer, springing line, crown, key
stone, skew back, span, rise, depth of
an arch, haunch, spandril,
jambs, bearing, thickness of lintel, effective span
5.3

Arches:
5.3.1

Types of Arches - Semi circular,

segmental, elliptical and

parabolic, flat, inverted and relieving

**6.

5.3.2

Stone arches and their construction

5.3.3
5.4 Lintels

Brick arches and their construction

5.4.1

Purpose of lintel

5.4.2

Materials used for lintels

5.4.3

Cast-in-situ and pre-cast lintels

5.4.4
Lintel along with sun-shade or chhajja
Doors, Windows and Ventilators:

(5 hrs)

6.1 Glossary of terms with neat sketches

6.2 Classification based on materials i.e. wood, metal and plastic and their
suitability for different situations. Different type of doors- panel door, flush
door, flazed door, rolling shutter, steel door, sliding door, plastic and
alumininium doors
6.3 Window Panel window, glazed windows (fixed and openable) ventilators, sky
light window, Louvres shutters, plastic and aluminium windows.
6.4 Door and window frames materials and sections, door closures, hold fasts
*7.

Damp Proofing and Water Proofing

(8 hrs)

7.1 Dampness and its ill effects on bricks, plaster, wooden fixtures, metal fixtures and
reinforcement, damage to aesthetic appearance, damage to heat insulating materials,
damage to stored articles and health, sources and causes of dampness
7.2 Sources of dampness - moisture penetrating the building from outside e.g.
rainwater, surface water, ground moisture. Moisture entrapped during
construction i.e. moisture in concrete, masonry construction and plastering work
etc. Moisture which originates in the building itself i.e. water in kitchen and
bathrooms etc.

**8.

7.3 Damp proofing materials and their specifications: rich concrete and mortar,
bitumen, bitumen mastic, polymer coating, use of chemicals
7.4 Damp proofing of : basement, ground floors, plinth and walls, special damp
proofing arrangements in bathrooms, WC and kitchen, damp proofing for roofs
and window sills
Floors
(7 hrs)
8.1 Glossary of terms-floor finish, topping, under layer, base course, rubble filling
and their purpose
8.2 Types of floor finishes - cast-in-situ, concrete flooring (monolithic, bonded)
Terrazzo tile flooring, stone (marble and kota) flooring, PVCflooring, Terrazzo

flooring, glazed tiles flooring, Timber flooring,description with sketches. The

methods of construction of concrete, terrazzo and timber floors and their BIS
specifications

9.

8.3 Special emphasis on level/slope/reverse slope in bathrooms, toilets, kitchen,

balcony and staircase
Roofs
(5 hrs)
9.1 Types of roofs, concept of flat, pitched and arched roofs
9.2 Glossary of terms for pitched roofs - batten, eaves, facia board, gable, hip, lap, purlin,
rafter, rag bolt, valley, ridge, rain water gutter, anchoring bolts
9.3 False ceilings using gypsum, plaster boards, cellotex, fibre boards

9.4 Special emphasis on maintenance of slopes, overlaps of roofing materials, applicability

and problems of wind ties, size of anchoring bolts
10.
Stairs
(5 hrs)
10.1
Glossary of terms: Staircase, winders, landing, stringer, newel, baluster, riser,
tread, width of staircase, hand-rail, nosing
10.2
Classification of staircase on the basis of material RCC, timber, steel,
Aluminium
10.3
Planning and layout of staircase: Relations between rise and tread,
determination of width of stair, landing etc
10.4
Various types of layout - straight flight, dog legged, open well, quarter turn, half
turn (newel and geometrical stairs), bifurcated stair, spiral stair
11.
Surface Finishes
(5 hrs)
11.1
Plastering - classification according to use and finishes like plain plaster,
grit finish, rough cast, pebble dashed, concrete and stone cladding etc.,
dubbing, proportion of mortars used for different plasters, techniques of
plastering and curing
11.2

Pointing - different types of pointing and their methods

11.3
Painting - preparation of surface, primer coat and application of paints on
wooden, steel and plastered wall surfaces
11.4
Application of white washing, colour washing and distempering, polishing,
application of cement and plastic paints
11.5
Selection of appropriate paints/finishes for interior and exterior surfaces
11.6
Importance of preparation of surfaces such as hacking, grooving etc before
application of surface finishes
12.
Anti Termite Measures (As per IS 6313 I III)
(4 hrs)
12.1
Introduction, site preparation and chemicals used in anti-termite
treatment
12.2

Treatment of masonry foundation

12.3

Treatment of RCC foundation

12.4

Treatment of top surface of earth filling

12.5

Treatment of junction of walls and floors

12.6

Treatment along external perimeter of building

12.7

Treatment and selection of timber

12.8
Treatment in existing buildings
Building Planning

13.

(6 hrs)

13.1
Site selection: Factors to be considered for selection of site for residential,
commercial, industrial and public building
13.2
Basic principles of building planning, arrangement of doors, windows,
cupboards etc for residential building
13.3
Orientation of building as per IS: 7662 in relation to sun and wind direction,
rains, internal circulation and placement of rooms within the available area, concept of
Vastu-Shastra
13.4 Planning of building services
13.5 Introduction to National Building code.
Building Services

14

Introduction to fire fighting systems, Ducting for Air-conditioning,

(5 hrs)
service

lines for cable telephone, and electrical wiring , garbage disposal systems.
15.

Elementary idea of interior decoration, wall paneling, false ceiling,

(2 hrs)

flooring etc.
Note

An expert may be invited from field/industry for extension lecture

*

A field visit may be planned to explain and show the relevant things

PRACTICAL EXERCISES
i) Demonstration of tools and plants used in building construction
ii) To prepare Layout of a building: two rooms building with front verandah
iii) To construct brick bonds (English bond only) in one, one and half and two brick thick:
(a) Walls for L, T and cross junction (b) Columns
iv) Demonstration of following items of work at construction site by:
a) Timbering of excavated trenching
b) Damp proof courses laying
c) Construction of masonry walls
d) Laying of flooring on an already prepared lime concrete base

e) Plastering and pointing exercise

f) Constructing RCC work
g) Pre-construction and post construction termite treatment of building and woodwork
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY
While imparting instructions in this subject, teachers are expected to take students to work site
and explain constructional process and special details for various sub-components of a
buildings. It is also important to make use of audio visual aids/video films (if available) to
show specialised operations. The practical work should be given due importance and efforts
should be made that each student should perform practical work independently. For carrying
out practical works, polytechnics should have construction yard where enough raw materials is
made available for students to perform practical work

RECOMMENDED BOOKS
1. Gupta, Sushil Kumar, Singla, DR, and Juneja BM; "A Text Book of Building
Construction"; Ludhiana, Katson Publishing House.
2. Deshpande, RS and Vartak, GV; "A Text Book of Building Construction"; Poona,
United Book Corporation.
3. Rangwala, SC: "Building Construction"; Anand, Charotar Book Stall
4. Kulkarni, GJ; "A Text Book of Building Construction"; Ahmedabad Book Depot
5. Arora, SP and Bindra, SP; "A Text Book of Building Construction"; New Delhi Dhanpt
Rai and Sons.
6. Sharma,SK and Kaul, BK; "A Text Book of Building Construction"; Delhi, S Chand
and Co.
7. Sushil Kumar; "Building Construction"; Standard Publishers Distributors, Delhi
8. Moorthy, NKR; "A Text Book of Building Construction"; Poona, Engineering Book
Publishing Co.
9. SP 62 Hand Book of BIS
10. B.I.S. 6313 Part 1, 2, 3
11. National Building Code
12. Handbook of Civil Engineering by PN Khanna
13. Video films on Damp proofing, water proofing, surface finishes

ASSIGNMENT 1

Q1. What are merits and demerits of English bond?

Q2. What are load bearing walls? Why are they provided?
Q3. What is a cavity wall? What are its advantages and disadvantages?
Q4. What are the causes of Dampness? Explain?

Assignment no. 2
What are Different Types of Brick bonds? Describe with clean Sketches?
What is Stone Masonry? Differentiate between Ashlar and Rubble
masonry?
Describe estimation of load on walls and footings?
How can you use cement concrete hollow blocks in place of bricks?

Give the sources of Dampness?

Assignment no. 2

s
1.
2.
3.
4.

What are different types of arches?

What are the functions of Lintels?
Mention the phenomenon of rain proofing?
What are different types of Windows? Explain any two?
What is the Purpose of Ventilators? What Should be their specified Location?

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Occupancy Classification
Every building or portion thereof and land-use shall be classified according to its
use or the character of its occupancy as a building of Occupancy A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
H, I, J, K, L or M as defined below:

Occupancy A

Residential

Occupancy B

Educational

Occupancy C

Institution for care

Occupancy D

Health Care

Occupancy E

Business

Occupancy F

Mercantile

Occupancy G

Industrial

Occupancy H

Storage

Occupancy I

Assembly

Occupancy J

Hazardous

Occupancy K

Garages

Occupancy L

Utilities

Occupancy M

Miscellaneous

Utilities under Occupancy L is incidental to operation in all other type of occupancy

except Occupancy J shall be considered as non-separated use of the main
occupancybut shall be taken special safety measure as per provision of this code.
Any occupancy or use type not mentioned specifically inTable 3.2.6 (A-Z list) or
elsewhere in this code shall be classified by the Board of Appeals under the
occupancy group to which its use most closely resembles, considering the life safety
and fire hazard.

Each occupancy group shall be subdivided as detailed in the following sections.

The detail classification including mixed occupancy provided in the Table 3.2.6 (A-Z
list)is non-exhaustive. If there is any use or character of occupancy in a building
which is not mentioned here, it shall be classified as per provision of sub-section
2.1.3 of this chapter.
Occupancy A: Residential Buildings
This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof providing sleeping and
living accommodations to related or unrelated groups of people, with or without independent
bathroom,
cooking or dining facilities, except any building classified under Occupancy C or D. This
Occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

A1:Single Family Dwelling

These shall include any building, row type or semi-detached or detached from neighboring
buildings by distances required by this Code and having independent access to the plot, which
is used as private dwelling by members of a single family.

A2:Two Family Dwelling

These shall include any building, row type or semi-detached or detached from neighboring
buildings by distances required by this Code and having shared or independent access for two
families and having facilities for living, cooking and bathroom facilities independent of each
other.
A3:Flats or Apartments
These shall include any building or portion thereof which is provided for more than two
families, having facilities for living, cooking and bathroom facilities independent of each other.

A4:Mess, Boarding Houses, Dormitories and Hostels

These shall include any building or portion thereof in which sleeping, living accommodations
and bathroom are provided for groups of related or unrelated persons, with or without
common dining and facilities, and with common cooking under single management control or
with individual or group cooking facilities.

A5:Hotels and Lodging Houses

These shall include any building, a portion thereof or group of buildings under single
management, in which sleeping, living accommodation and bathroom facilities are provided
with or without dining facilities but without cooking facilities for adult individuals, is
provided for hire on transient or permanent basis.

Occupancy B : Educational Facilities

This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof in which education, training
and care are provided to children or adults. This Occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

B1: Educational Facilities up to Higher Secondary level

These shall include any building or portion thereof used for purposes involving assembly for
instruction, education and recreation of more than six persons on regular basis to fulfill the
requirement of an academic curriculum approved by the Government up to H.S.C (12th
Grade), and which is not covered by occupancy I.

B2: Facilities for Training and for Above-secondary level

These shall include any building or portion thereof used for purposes involving assembly for
instruction, education, training and recreation of more than six persons, and which is not
covered by occupancy I and B1.

B3: Pre-school Facilities

These shall include any building or portion thereof used for purposes involving care,
recreation and education of children more than six in number, who have not yet reached the
age to attend the school.
Occupancy C : Institution for care
Buildings classified under this occupancy shall include those used for purposes of
institutional care of the occupants, such as detention for correctional or penal purposes,
medical or nursing care of persons suffering from illness or infirmity due to mental condition,
or accommodation of children or minor, where the personal liberty of the inmate is restricted.
These buildings shall ordinarily provide accommodation for sleeping, dining and other

provisions approved by the authority for the occupants. This occupancy shall be subdivided
as follows:

C1: Institution for care of Children

These shall include any building or portion thereof or group of buildings under single
management used as an institution for the full time care of children or minor, each providing
accommodation for sleeping, dining and other provisions approved by the authority for more
than six children.

C2: Custodial Institution for physically capable Adults

These shall include any building or portion thereof or group of buildings under single
management used for purposes of full time care and custody of adult or mentally disabled persons
but physically capable of responding to emergency.

C3: Custodial Institution for the incapable Adults

These shall include any building or portion thereof or group of buildings under single
management used for purposes of full time care and custody of persons physically or mentally
incapable of responding to emergency.

C4: Penal and Mental Institution for Children

These shall include any building or portion thereof or group of buildings under single
management used for housing children under restraint, or who are detained for penal and
corrective purposes, in which personal liberty of the inmates is restricted.

C5: Penal and Mental Institution for Adults

These shall include any building or portion thereof or group of buildings under single
management used for housing persons under restraint, or who are detained for penal and
corrective purposes, in which personal liberty of the inmates is restricted.

Occupancy D: Health Care Facilities

Buildings under this Occupancy group shall include those used for purposes of providing medical
care, diagnostic facilities and treatment to persons suffering from physical discomfort, in which
sleeping accommodation may or may not be provided. This Occupancy shall be subdivided as
follows:

D1: Normal Medical Facilitie

These shall include any building or portion thereof or group of buildings under single
management in which essential medical facilities having surgery, emergency and casualty
treatment facilities, general or specialized medical and other treatment is provided to persons
suffering from physical discomfort.

D2: Emergency Medical Facilities

These shall include any building or portion thereof used for purposes of providing essential
medical facilities having surgery, emergency, casualty treatment facilities, general or specialized
medical and other treatment is provided to persons suffering from physical discomfort. This Type
shall be equipped and designated to handle post disaster emergency, by construction it is required
to remain operational during and after disasters, built as a part of disaster preparedness program.

Occupancy E: Business
These shall include any building or portion thereof which is used for any business transaction
other than mercantile. This Occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

E1: Office
These shall include any building or part thereof which is used for paper works,
documentations,only display of samples of Products but notfor direct sale, maintaining
accounts and records for administrative or consulting services, banking or activities for
business purposes and professional training.

E2: Research and Testing Laboratories

These shall include any building or portion thereof which is used as research establishment
and/ or test laboratory involving hazardous materials within the limit of exempted quantity
permitted in this code.

E3: Essential Services

These shall include any building or portion thereof used for purposes of providing emergency
services and utilities which are required to remain operational during and after a disaster or
other emergency situations.

Occupancy F: Mercantile

This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof or group of buildings which
is used for display and sale of merchandises. This Occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

F1: Small Shops and Market

These shall include any building or portion thereof with an area divided or undivided not
exceeding 300 m, used for purposes of display and sale of merchandise, either wholesale or
retail, with or without incidental storage and service facilities.
F2: Large Shops and Market

These shall include any building or portion thereof with an area divided or undivided more
than 300 m used for purposes of display and sale of merchandise, either wholesale or retail,
with or without incidental storage and service facilities.
F3: Refueling Station
These shall include any building or portion thereof used for providing refueling and
maintenance without repair services for automobiles which is moderately hazardous in na

Occupancy G: Industrial Buildings

Buildings under this Occupancy shall be subdivided on the basis of hazard potential of the
contents and the processes of the industry. The hazard shall generally mean the relative
danger of the start of fire and the rapidity of its spread, the danger of smoke and gases
generated that pose a potential threat to the safety of the occupants of the building. Unless
areas with different degrees of hazard are effectively segregated and separated in accordance
with the provisions of this Code, the most hazardous area in a building shall govern its
classification. This occupancy shall also include facilities for public utility services at the
producer or distributors end that deals with generation and distribution of utility
facilities.Any such building or portion thereof, which is not

using hazardous material quantified and categorized in occupancy group J, shall be

subdivided as follows:

G1: Low Hazard Industry

These shall include any industrial building in which the contents are of such low
combustibility and the processes conducted therein are of such low hazardous nature that
danger of self-ignition and self-propagation of fire is nonexistent, the only danger being an
onset of fire from external sources with the resulting danger to life and property.

G2: Moderate Hazard Industry

These shall include any industrial building in which the contents are moderately combustible
and the industrial processes conducted therein are liable to give rise to a fire which will
spread with moderate rapidity, giving off considerable smoke.

Occupancy H: Storage Buildings

Buildings under this Occupancy group shall include any building or portion thereof used
primarily for storage or sheltering of goods, wares, merchandises, vehicles or animals. Any
such building or portion thereof, which is not used for storing hazardous material quantified
and categorized in occupancy group J, shall be subdivided as follows:

H1: Low Fire-risk Storage

These shall include any building or portion thereof which is used for storage of materials or
other contents which do not constitute the danger of self-ignition, and in the event of fire the
rate of burning shall be less than moderate rapidity.

H2: Moderate Fire-risk Storage

These shall include any building or portion thereof which is used for storage of materials
which do not constitute the danger of self-ignition but which in the event of fire will burn
with moderate rapidity.
Items which shall be deemed to render a building hazardous are specified in Sec 2.14.3along
with the exempted amount for each item.

Occupancy I: Assembly

Buildings under this Occupancy group shall include any building or portion thereof in which
groups of people congregate or assemble for recreation, amusement, social, religious,
political, cultural, travel and similar purposes. This Occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

I1:Large Assembly with Fixed seats

This occupancy shall include a building or a portion thereof for assembly in a space provided
with fixed seats for 1000 or more persons. Assembly buildings under this subdivision may be
for theatrical, operatic performances or cinema projection having or not a raised stage,
proscenium curtains, scenery loft or projection screen, lighting equipment, projection booth
and necessary theatrical and mechanical equipment.

I2: Small Assembly with Fixed seats

This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof primarily meant for use as
described for buildings under Occupancy I1, but with fixed seats for less than 1000 persons in
a space. These assembly buildings may or may not be provided with a legitimate theatrical
stage or related accessories or equipment.
I3:Large Assembly without Fixed seats
This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof for assembly in a space, in
which there are no fixed seats, which may or may not be provided with a legitimate stage or
theatrical accessories, and which has accommodation for 300 or more persons.

I4:Small Assembly without Fixed seats

This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof primarily intended for use
as described in Occupancy I3, but with accommodation for less than 300 persons in a space.

I5:Sports Facilities
This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof meant for assembly of
spectators for recreational and amusement purpose mainly related to sports.

Occupancy J : Hazardous Buildings

Any Building or portion thereof used as storage, industrial, research and other facilities
dealing with hazardous material in excess of exempted quantity defined in the table 3.2.5 or
any micro-biological facilities shall be categorized in this Occupancy group.
Definition of hazard and the amount of such materials which shall be deemed to render a
building hazardous are set forth in Sec 2.14.3.This Occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

J1: Explosion Hazard Buildings

These shall include any building or portion thereof which is used for storage, handling,
processing or manufacture of explosive materials and products that have explosion hazard.

J2: Chemical Hazard Buildings

These shall include any building or portion thereof which is used for storage, handling,
processing or manufacture of materials and products that are highly corrosive, toxic,
poisonous and physically harmful including corrosive and toxic alkalis, acid or other liquids
or chemicals, producing flame, fumes, radiation, and explosive, poisonous, irritant and
corrosive gases.

J3: Biological Hazard Buildings

These shall include any building or portion thereof which is used for storage, handling,
processing or manufacture of materials and products that use biological processes and in
which the risk of harmful biological threat to the occupants exist.

J4: Radiation Hazard Buildings

These shall include any building or portion thereof which is used for storage, handling,
processing or manufacture of materials and products that use nuclear and radioactive
processes and in which the risk of radioactive contamination exists.

Occupancy K : Garage

These occupancy types shall include any building or portion thereof used one or more vehicles
having containers of flammable liquid or compressed gas or carrying power or combination of
any of these as a supply source for self-propelling are kept for use, sale, rental purpose,
storage, repair, exhibition and all those floors of a building or portion thereof in which such
vehicles are not separated by suitable cutoff to prevent fire spreading.
K1: Parking Garage

This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof used solely for parking
Motor Vehicles for a limited period of time.

K2: Private Garage

This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof used as store of owner's or
tenant's Motor Vehicles for private use for unlimited period of time.

K3: Repair Garage and Showrooms

This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof wherein repair of electrical
or mechanical system or denting or painting works of body is performed on any type of
vehicles and includes associated floor spaces used as office, showrooms, incidental store and
parking.

Occupancy L : Utility

This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof used to install any type of
equipment to provide support service to any building or portion thereof or group of buildings
of all occupancy groups and with special provisions for occupancy J.
This shall also include all public and private utility facilities of the consumers end that are
located within the consumers site and all installations are required special care to ensure life
and property safety as per provisions of this code.

Occupancy M : Miscellaneous

Buildings under this Occupancy group shall include special buildings not covered in other
Occupancy groups. These Occupancies shall be subdivided as follows:

M1: Special Structure

Any building or structure which is neither listed in the A-Z list nor covered in any occupancy
groupprovided in this code but unique in character may be categorized in this occupancy by
the Board of Appeals. Each and every individual M1 Structure shall be complied with NFPA
or equivalent standards for the life and fire safety.

M2: Fences, Tanks and Towers

These shall include fences and boundary walls over 1.5 m high, standalone structures for
gravity water tank and towers for telecommunication, power distribution, air-traffic control
terminal or observation towers.
Change of Use
Without prior permission from the Authorities having jurisdiction no change shall
be made in the type of occupancy or use of any building that would place it in a
different occupancy group or in a different subdivision of the same occupancy
group. Such changes shall be permitted only when the land use and the building
complied with the provisions of this Code and the laws of the land for such group
of Occupancy.

Mixed Occupancy

The following occupancies shall not be required to designate as a separated

occupancy classification from uses to which they are accessory any occupancy
Group other than Occupancy Group J
a) Assembly rooms having a floor area not more than 75 m.
b) The administrative and clerical offices and similar offices not exceeding 25 per
cent of the floor area of the major occupancy and not related to Hazardous
Buildings as defined in Occupancy J.
c) Administrative offices, gift shops and other similar uses in Occupancy A
provided the uses do not exceed 10 per cent of the floor area of the major
occupancy.
d) Kitchens associated with a dining area.
Forms of Occupancy Separations

A building is permitted to have multiple occupancytype, each type of occupancy shall be in

groups, which may have combination of different occupanciesand shall be
separatedhorizontally or vertically or bothaccordingly as specified in the Table 3.2.1.

Types of Occupancy Separation

The occupancy separations shall be classified as follows:

a) Four Hour Fire Resistive: The four hour fire resistive separation wall or slab shall have
no unprotected openings therein and shall provide a fire resistance for at least three
hour.

Classification of Buildings Based on Occupancy

Three Hour Fire Resistive: The three hour fire resistive separation wall or slab shall provide a
fire

resistance of not less than three hour. The total width of all openings inseparation wall of any
one storey shall not exceed 25 per cent of the length of that wall in that storey and no single
opening shall have an area greater than 12 m. The openings shall be protected with a fire
resistance assembly doors or windows providing fire resistance of at least three hour.

In case of a floor slab having three hour fire resistance rating, the openings on floor
slab shall be protected by vertical enclosures extended above and below such floor
openings. The walls of such vertical enclosures shall be at least two hour of fire
resistance. All openings in such enclosuresshall be protected with fire assembly door
or window having fire resistance rating of at least one and one-half hour.

b) Two Hour Fire Resistive: The two hour fire resistive separation shall be of a
construction having a fire resistance rating of not less than two hour. All openings in
such separations shall be protected with a fire assembly door or window of a fire
protection rating of at least one and one-half hour.

c) One Hour Fire Resistive: The one hour fire resistive separation shall be of at least one
hour fire protection construction. All openings in such separations shall be protected
with a fire protection assembly door or window of at least one-half hour fire
resistance.
d)General Requirements of all Occupancies
e)
f)
g) Location on Property
h) All plots for building construction shall have access to a public road from atleast one
i) side.
j) Fire separation distance shall be measured from the face of peripheral wall of a
building to the adjacent property line. For the purpose of this section, if a public road
adjoining all along a property line shall get the benefit of half of Road width as a part
of Fire separation distance. For two or more buildings on the same plot, distances of
imaginary lines equidistant from all side of buildings shall be considered as the
k) required fire separation distances.
l) The exterior walls of a building shall have a fire resistance and opening protection as
specified in Tables 3.3.1 (a), 3.3.1 (b) and 3.2.3.
m)
n) Any outward projected elements from theperipheral wall of a building line shall be
limited to the sunshade line.
o)
p) When openings in exterior walls are required to be protected due to distance from the
property line, the aggregate area of such openings shall not exceed 50 per cent of the
total area of the wall in each storey.
q)
r) Dwellings separation walls in semi-detached or row type development shall comply
with sec. 2.4.3.
s)
t) Allowable Floor Areas
u)
v) The total area of the building shall comply with Sec 1.8.3. of Chapter 1 of this Part.
w)
x) The floor area of the mezzanines shall be included in the area of the main floor where
the mezzanines are located.
y)
z) Floor area calculation shall be divided in to two: a) All Floor areas at and above the
formation level which shall be generally included in the FAR calculation. b) Floor areas
aa) below the formation level which shall be generally excluded in the FAR calculation
ab) provided the Occupancy classifications remain within Utility or Private Garages.
of Construction

The types of construction for any occupancy shall conform to the specifications set
forth in Table 3.2.4.

Common walls in semi-detached or row type developmentshall not have any

unprotected openingsand shall beType I-A construction and all such wall shall
comply with requirements of Party wall or Fire wall or Separation wall.

Groundfloor or basement of a building used for car parking and utilities within the
barriers by at least three hour fire resistive construction shall be considered as nonseparated occupancy provided the building accommodate one or more of the
following occupancies:
i.

A3, A5

ii. I2, I3, I4

iii. E1, F1, F2

Entry lobbies, mechanical and electrical rooms and other similar uses incidental to
theoperation of the building may be provided in the car parking floors provided
that the
total area of such uses remains within of the parking floor area.
General provision for High-Rise Buildings
For the purpose of this Code, a building of any class of Occupancy will be considered as high-rise
when it has floors used for human occupancy located more than 23 m from ground level or the
lowest level of fire department vehicle access. The provisions of 2.9.6 shall be applicable to all such
buildings.

Maintenance and Inspection

All fire protection systems shall be maintained and inspected on a regular basis to keep them
in operative condition. The maintenance inspection shall be performed quarterly.
All plumbing installations shall be maintained and inspected periodically to keep them in
operative conditions.

Type of Construction
All high-rise buildings shall be of Type I-Aor I-B construction.

Fire detection, Alarm , Evacuation and Extinguishment system

All high-rise buildings shall conform to regulations set forth in Part 4 of this code

Helipads

General
Helipads on the roof top of a building or other locations shall be constructed in accordance
with this section.

2.4.5.2

Size

The minimum dimension of the landing area for helicopters weighing less than 1600 kg shall
be 6 m x 6 m. There shall be an average clearance of 4 m surrounding and at the level of the
landing area which shall not be less than 2 m at any point.

2.4.5.3

Construction

Helicopter landing areas and supports shall be constructed with non-combustible material.

2.4.5.4

Aviation Approval

Before helipads start operating formal approval shall be obtained from the civil aviation
authority.

2.4.6

Universal Accessibility

2.4.6.1 All Building (except Occupancies G, H, M and J) shall have universal

accessibility as per provisions of this code.
2.4.6.2 Buildings have universal accessibility shall have accessible egress system.

2.5 Requirements for Occupancy A - Residential Buildings

Buildings shall be classified as Occupancy A in accordance with Sec 2.1.5.

2.5.1 Construction, Height and Allowable Area

2.5.1.1 Buildingsor parts thereof classified as Occupancy A shall be limited to the type
of construction set forth in Table 3.2.4 and shall not exceed in area or height as
specified in Sec 1.8 and 2.4.2 of this part.
2.5.1.2 Walls and floors separating dwelling units in the same building shall not be
less than Type I-D construction.
2.5.1.3 Storage or laundry rooms in Occupancy A2, A3, A4 or A5 that are used in
common by the occupants shall be at least Type I-D construction.
2.5.1.4 When a basement or a ground floor of a building of Occupancy A3 or A5 is
used for parking or storage of private cars of the occupants, the parking floor shall
be of at least Type I-B construction.
2.5.1.5 When the basement or ground floor of a building of Occupancy A is used
wholly or partly for generator or electrical substation, the walls and floors
surrounding such use shall be of at least Type I-B construction.

2.5.2

Location on Property

Buildings of Occupancy A shall comply with the requirements for location on property and
fire resistive exterior walls and openings as specified in this code.

2.5.3

Access and Exit Facilities and Egress system

2.5.3.1 Facilities for access and exit and egress or escape shall comply with the
provisions set forth in this code.
2.5.3.2 Every sleeping room in ground, first and second floors shall have at least one
operable window or door for emergency escape which shall open directly into the
exterior or an interior courtyard. The units shall be openable from the inside
without the use of any tool to provide a minimum clear opening of 500 mm width
by 600 mm height with a maximum sill height of 1 m above the floor.

2.5.4

Lighting and Ventilation

All buildings or part of a building classified as Occupancy A shall conform to the provisions
of Part 3and Part 8, Chapters 1 and 3.

2.5.5

Sanitation

Sanitation facilities provided in all Occupancy A buildings shall conform to this Part and Part
8, Chapter 7.

2.5.6

Minimum dimension of Habitable and Non-habitable Rooms

The minimum dimensions of habitable and non-habitable rooms are specified in Sec 1.12.2 of
Chapter 1, Part 3.
Fire detection, Alarm, Evacuation and Extinguishment
All buildings shall conform to regulations set forth in Part 4 of this code.

2.5.7

Shaft and Exit Enclosure

Elevator shafts, vent shafts and other vertical openings shall be enclosed with a
construction as specified in Part 4. Exit requirements shall comply with Part 4 of this code.

2.6

Requirements for Occupancy B - Educational Buildings

Buildings shall be classified as Occupancy B in accordance with Sec 2.1.6.

2.6.1

Construction, Height and Allowable area

Buildings or parts of buildings classified as Occupancy B shall be limited to type of

construction set forth in Table 3.2.4 and comply with the provisions of Part 3, Chapter 1, Sec
1.8 and 2.4.2, to meet the requirements of height and area limitations.

2.6.1.1
Rooms or groups of rooms sharing a common space where flammable
liquids, combustible dust or hazardous materials are used, stored, developed or
handled in an amount exceeding that specified in Sec 2.14.3 shall be classified

as Occupancy J. Such rooms or groups of rooms shall comply with the

requirements of fire protection as specified in Part 4, Chapters 4 and 5.
2.6.1.2
Rooms or groups of rooms, sharing a common space or having separate
spaces, served by a common corridor or passage with less than 20 per cent
outdoor opening of wall in a building of height 11 m or less, or three storeys or
less, need not be provided with smoke detectors and standpipe or sprinkler
system for fire protection provided it conforms with the access and exit
requirements specified in Part 3, Chapter 1, Sec 1.6 and Part 4, Chapters 4 and 5.
2.6.1.3
Buildings of Occupancy B situated outside the jurisdiction of any
municipality shall have a construction of at least two hours fire resistance.

2.6.2

Location on Property

Buildings of Occupancy B shall comply with the requirements for location on property
and fire resistive exterior walls and openings as specified in Sec 2.4.1.

2.6.3

Access and Exit facilities and Egress system

Facilities for access and exit and Egress system shall comply with the provisions set
forth in Part 3, Chapter 1, Sec 1.6 and Part 4, Chapter 3.

2.6.4

Lighting, Ventilation and Sanitation

Lighting, ventilation and sanitation facilities provided in Occupancy Group B

buildings shall conform to Part 3, Chapter 1, Sec 1.16 and Part 8, Chapters 1 and 3.

2.6.5

Minimum Dimensions of Class Rooms, Common Toilets and Staircases

The dimension of a class room shall be not less than 4 m on any side and shall have an
area of not less than 0.75 m per student. Other provisions for minimum dimensions
shall comply with the requirements set forth in Sec 1.8. Chapter 1, Part 3.

2.6.6

Shaft and Exit Enclosure

Elevator shafts, vent shafts and other vertical openings shall be enclosed with a
construction of at least 3 hour fire resistance. Exit requirements shall comply with
Chapter 3 Part 4.

2.6.7

Fire detection, Alarm, Evacuation and Extinguishment system

All buildings shall conform to regulations set forth in Part 4 of this code

2.7

Requirements for Occupancy C - Institutional Buildings

Buildings shall be classified as Occupancy C in accordance with Sec 2.1.7.

2.7.1

Construction, Height and Allowable Area

The buildings or parts thereof classified as Occupancy C shall be limited to the type of
construction set forth in Table 3.2.4 and shall comply with the provisions of Sec 1.8 Chapter 1
Part 3 and 2.4.2 to meet the requirements of height and area limitations.

2.7.2

Location On Property

Buildings of Occupancy C shall comply with the requirements for location on property and
fire resistive exterior walls and openings as specified in Sec 2.4.1.

2.7.3

Access and Exit Facilities and Egress system

Facilities for access and exit and egress system shall comply with the provisions set forth in
Sec 1.6, Chapter 1 Part 3 and Chapter 3, Part 4.

2.7.4

Lighting, Ventilation and Sanitation

All buildings or part of a building classified as Occupancy C shall conformwith the provisions
of Sec 1.16, Chapter 1 Part 3 and Chapters 1 and 3, Part 8.

2.7.5

Shaft and Enclosure

Elevator shafts, vent shafts and other vertical openings shall be enclosed with a construction
of at least 4 hour fire resistance. Exit requirements shall comply with Chapter 3, Part 4.

2.7.6

Fire detection, Alarm, Evacuation and Extinguishment system

All buildings shall conform to regulations set forth in Part 4 of this code

2.8 Requirements for Occupancy DHealth Care Facilities

Buildings shall be classified as Occupancy D in accordance with Sec 2.1.8.

2.8.1

Construction, Height and Allowable Area

The buildings or parts thereof classified as Occupancy D shall be limited to the type of
construction set forth in Table 3.2.4 and shall comply with the provisions of Sec 1.8 Chapter 1
Part 3 and 2.4.2 to meet the requirements of height and area limitations.

2.8.2

Location On Property

Buildings of Occupancy D shall comply with the requirements for location on property and
fire resistive exterior walls and openings as specified in Sec 2.4.1.

2.8.3

Access and Exit Facilities and Egress system

Facilities for access and exit and egress system shall comply with the provisions set forth in
Sec 1.6 Chapter 1 Part 3; Chapter 3 of Part 4.

2.8.4

Lighting, Ventilation and Sanitation

All buildings or part of a building classified as Occupancy D shall conform to the provisions of
Sec 1.16 Chapter 1 Part 3, Chapters 1 and 3 of Part 8.

2.8.5

Shaft and Enclosure

Elevator shafts, vent shafts and other vertical openings shall be enclosed with a construction of
at least three hour fire resistance. Exit requirements shall comply with Chapter 3 of Part 4.

2.8.6

Fire detection, Alarm, Evacuation and Extinguishment system

All buildings shall conform to regulations set forth in Part 4 of this code

2.9 Requirements for Occupancy EBusiness

Buildings shall be classified as Occupancy E in accordance with Sec 2.1.9

2.9.1

Construction, Height and Allowable Area

The buildings or parts thereof classified as Occupancy E shall be limited to the type of
construction set forth in Table 3.2.4 and shall comply with the provisions of Sec 1.8, Chapter 1
Part 3 and 2.4.2 to meet the requirements of height and area limitations.

2.9.2

Location On Property

Buildings of Occupancy E shall comply with the requirements for location on property and
fire resistive exterior walls and openings as specified in Sec 2.4.1.

2.9.3

Access and Exit Facilities and Egress system

Facilities for access and exit and egress system shall comply with the provisions set forth in
Sec 1.6 Chapter 1 Part 3; Chapter 3 of Part 4.

2.9.4

Lighting, Ventilation and Sanitation

All buildings or part of a building classified as Occupancy E shall conformto the provisions of
Sec 1.16 Chapter 1 Part 3; Chapters 1 and 3 of Part 8.

2.9.5

Shaft and Enclosure

Elevator shafts, vent shafts and other vertical openings shall be enclosed with a construction of
at least 3 hour fire resistance. Exit requirements shall comply with Chapter 3, Part 4.

2.9.6

Fire detection, Alarm, Evacuation and Extinguishment system

All buildings shall conform to regulations set forth in Part 4 of this code

2.10 Requirements for Occupancy FMercantile Buildings

Buildings shall be classified as Occupancy F in accordance with Sec 2.1.10.

2.10.1 Construction, Height and Allowable Area

The buildings or parts thereof classified as Occupancy F shall be limited to the type of
construction set forth in Table 3.2.4 and shall comply with the provisions of Sec 1.8, Chapter 1
of Part 3 and 2.4.2 to meet the requirements of height and area limitations.

2.10.2 Location On Property

Buildings of Occupancy F shall comply with the requirements for location on property and
fire resistive exterior walls and openings as specified in Sec 2.4.1.

2.10.3 Access and Exit Facilities and Emergency Escapes

Facilities for access and exit and emergency escape shall comply with the provisions set forth
in Sec 1.6 Chapter 1 Part 3; Chapter 3, Part 4.

2.10.4 Lighting, Ventilation and Sanitation

All buildings or part of a building classified as Occupancy F shall conform with the
provisions of Sec 1.16 Chapter 1 Part 3; Chapters 1 and 3, Part 8.

2.10.5 Shaft and Enclosure

Elevator shafts, vent shafts and other vertical openings shall be enclosed with a construction
of at least 4 hour fire resistance. Exit requirements shall comply with Chapter 3, Part 4.

2.10.6

Fire detection, Alarm, Evacuation and Extinguishment system

All buildings shall conform to regulations set forth in Part 4 of this code

2.10.7

Special Hazards

Installations which are discharging exhaust, heating apparatus, boiler, central heating or airconditioning plant shall conform to the provisions of this Code as specified in this code.

2.11 Requirements for Occupancy GIndustrial Buildings

Buildings shall be classified as Occupancy G in accordance with Sec 2.1.11. A non-exhaustive
and indicative list of low hazard and moderate hazard industrial uses are listed in A to Z list.
Storage and use of hazardous materials shall not exceed the exempt amount specified in Sec
2.14.3.

2.11.1 Construction, Height and Allowable Area

The buildings or parts thereof classified as Occupancy G shall be limited to the type of
construction set forth in Table 3.2.4 and shall comply with the provisions of Sec 1.8 of Chapter
1, Part 3 and Sec 2.4.2 to meet the requirements of height and floor area limitations.
The ceiling height of the production area, shall confirm to the minimum volume required per
workers as specified by the Bangladesh Labour Act, 2006 and other laws of the land.In any
case the ceiling height and the head room clearance of a production floor shall not be less than
3.3 meter and 2.286 meter respectively.

2.11.2 Location On Property

Buildings of Occupancy G shall comply with the requirements for location on property and
fire resistive exterior walls and openings as specified in Sec 2.4.1.

2.11.3 Access and Exit Facilities and Egress system

Facilities for access and exit and emergency escape shall comply with the provisions set forth
in Sec 1.6 Chapter 1, Part 3 and Chapter 3, Part 4.

2.11.4 Lighting, Ventilation and Sanitation

All buildings or part of a building classified as Occupancy G shall conform to the provisions of
Sec 1.16 Chapter 1, Part 3 and Chapters 1 and 3, Part 8.
Special provisions: Industrial buildings having roof opening for day lighting and natural
ventilation shall comply with the following requirements:
i.

The aggregate opening in roof and external windows shall not be less than 10 per
cent of the floor area.

ii. For natural ventilation by means of exterior window openings, the operable
window area shall not be less than 5 per cent of the total floor area.
Exception:
Industrial buildings wherein artificial lighting and mechanically operated
ventilation systems of approved quality are installed need not be provided with
natural ventilation or natural lighting.

2.11.5 Shaft and Enclosure

Elevator shafts, vent shafts and other vertical openings shall be enclosed with a construction of
at least 4 hour fire resistance. Exit requirements shall comply with Chapter 3, Part 4.

2.11.6

Fire detection, Alarm, Evacuation and Extinguishment system

All buildings shall conform to regulations set forth in Part 4 of this code

2.11.7

Special Hazards

Chimneys, vents and ventilation ducts shall be constructed with noncombustible materials.
Every bailer, central heating plants, electrical rooms, or hot water supply boiler shall be
separated from the rest of the occupancy or use by not less than two hour fire resistive
construction.

2.12 Requirements for Occupancy HStorage Buildings

Buildings shall be classified as Occupancy H in accordance with Sec 2.1.12.

2.12.1 Construction, Height and Allowable Area

The buildings or parts thereof classified as Occupancy H shall be limited to the type of
construction set forth in Table 3.2.4 and shall comply with the provisions of Sec 1.8 of Chapter
1, Part 3 and Sec 2.4.2 to meet the requirements of height and area limitations.

2.12.2 Location On Property

The location on property for Occupancy H shall conform with Sec 2.4.1.

2.12.3 Access and Exit Facilities and Egress system

Facilities for access and exit and egress system shall comply with the provisions set forth in
Sec 1.6 of Chapter 1, Part 3 and Chapter 3, Part 4.

2.12.4 Lighting, Ventilation and Sanitation

All buildings or part of a building classified as Occupancy H shall conform with the
provisions of Sec 1.16 of Chapter 1, Part 3; Chapters 1 and 3, Part 8.

2.12.4.1
Special Provision: The provisions of Sec 1.16, does not apply to non-habitable
spaces of H1 and H2 occupancies unless otherwise required by this Code. Ventilators
of size not less than 0.25 m shall be provided where suitable 0.30 m above the floor
level for floor level ventilators and 0.30 m below the roof level for roof level ventilators.
There shall be one floor level ventilator and one roof level ventilator for every 0.25 m
of the floor area. Mechanized ventilation system of approved quality shall be installed
where required.
2.12.4.2
Though inhabitable, the minimum air quality of such indoor spaces shall be
maintained in a way that it does not pose any health hazard to the occasional users of
that space.

2.12.5 Shaft and Enclosure

Elevator shafts, vent shafts and other vertical openings shall be enclosed with a construction
of at least 4 hour fire resistance. Exit requirements shall comply with Chapter 3, Part 4.

2.12.6 Fire detection, Alarm, Evacuation and Extinguishment system

All buildings shall conform to regulations set forth in Part 4 of this code

2.12.7 Special Hazards

The storage of hazardous materials shall not exceed the exempt amount as specified in Table
3.2.5. The storage of moderate and low hazardous materials shall be separated at least by a
two hour fire resistive construction.

2.13 Requirements for Occupancy IAssembly Buildings

Buildings shall be classified as Occupancy I in accordance with Sec 2.1.13.

2.13.1 Construction, Height and Allowable Area

The buildings or parts thereof classified as Occupancy I shall be limited to the type of
construction set forth in Table 3.2.4 and shall comply with the provisions of Sec 1.8 Chapter 1
Part 3 and 2.4.2 to meet the requirements of height and area limitations.

2.13.2 Location On Property

Buildings of Occupancy I shall comply with the requirements for location on property and fire
resistive exterior walls and openings as specified in Sec 2.4.1.

2.13.3 Access and Exit Facilities and Egress system

Facilities for access and exit and Egress system shall comply with the provisions set forth in
Sec 1.6, Chapter 1 of Part 3 and Chapter 3 of Part 4 and universally accessibility as per
provisions of this code.

2.13.4 Lighting, Ventilation and Sanitation

All buildings or part of a building classified as Occupancy I shall conform to the provisions of
Sec 1.16 Chapter 1 Part 3, Part 3 and Chapters 1 and 3, Part 8.

2.13.5 Shaft and Enclosure

Elevator shafts, vent shafts and other vertical openings shall be enclosed with a construction of
at least 4 hour fire resistance. Exit requirements shall comply with Chapter 3, Part 4.

2.13.6 Fire detection, Alarm, Evacuation and Extinguishment system

All buildings shall conform to regulations set forth in Part 4 of this code.
2.13.7 The specification of this section shall apply to all parts of buildings and structures
that contain stages or platforms and other similar appurtenances as herein defined.
a) Stages: A stage is a three side enclosed or partially enclosed portion of a building
which is designed or used for presentation of plays or lectures or other entertainment.
A stage shall be further classified as legitimate stage, regular stage and thrust stage.
b) Stage, Legitimate: A stage wherein curtains, drops, leg drops, scenery, lighting devices
or other stage effects are adjustable horizontally or vertically or suspended overhead.
c) Stage, Regular:A stage wherein curtains, fixed drops, valances, scenery and other stage
effects are suspended and are not adjustable or retractable.
d) Stage, Thrust: A stage or platform extended beyond the proscenium line and into the
audience.
2.13.5.1 Stage, Legitimate:
Legitimate stage shall be constructed as specified in Part 4, specifying the type of construction
but shall not be less than construction Type I-C. The position of the legitimate stage extending
beyond the proscenium opening line shall be permitted to be constructed with two hour fireresistive materials.
The floor of the stage may be constructed with one hour fire rating materials. Thickness of a
wooden floor shall not be less than 50 mm.

2.13.5.2 Stage, Regular and Thrust:

Regular stages and thrust stages shall be constructed by not less than two hour fire resistive
materials. Wooden floor when required in a stage shall not be less than 50 mm in thickness
with one hour fire resistive rating.

2.13.5.3 Trap Doors

All trap doors and any other opening in stage floors shall be equipped with tight fitting solid
wood trap doors with thickness not less than 50 mm.

2.13.5.4 Stage Rigging Loft

The grid iron frame in the loft, housing lighting and audio equipment, all the machinery for
flying scenery and fly galleries, along with their installations, shall be constructed of approved
noncombustible materials.

2.13.5.5 Foot Lights and Stage Electrical Equipment

Foot lights and border lights shall be installed in a protective cover constructed of
noncombustible materials.

2.13.5.6 Trim, Finish and Decorative Hangings

All materials used in moulding and decoration around the proscenium shall be of approved
noncombustible materials.
2.13.5.7 Proscenium Curtain
The proscenium curtain shall be of approved fire retardant material and shall protect against
passage of flame and smoke for at least 30 minutes.

2.13.6 Motion Picture Projection Rooms

2.13.6.1
Every projection room shall be constructed in conformity with the construction
requirements for the type of the building in which the projection room is located. The
wall opening required for projection need not have a fire protection assembly but shall
be closed with glass or other approved materials.
2.13.6.2
The floor area of a projection room shall not be less than 8 m for a single
machine. The working space between the machines when more than one machine is
used shall not be less than 0.75 m.
2.13.6.3 The height of the projection room shall have a minimum clear space of 2.5 m.

2.13.7 Sports Facilities

2.13.7.1 Vomiters, Aisles and Exits of Seating Galleries
Tunnels, aisles and exits of galleries shall be constructed conforming to the following
requirements.
a) There shall be a minimum of two exits remotely located from each other immediately
to the outside for each balcony or tier. There shall be at least three exits when seating
capacity exceeds 1000 persons and four exits when it exceeds 4000 persons.For every
additional 1000 persons the exit shall be designed to accommodate provision (f) given
below.

b) There shall be at least 0.6 m of space per person in the gallery. Minimum width
considered for a seat in the gallery shall be 0.45 m.
c) There shall be a maximum of 33 seats on each side of any aisle. Minimum width of the
main aisles and the secondary aisles shall be 1.0 m and 0.7 m respectively.
d) Entrance and exits shall be protected by safety railings.
e) Back to back space between two rows of seats shall not be less than 0.80 m.
f) The evacuation time in the galleries shall not be more than 10 minutes.
g) All tunnels, aisles and exits shall conform to safety guidelines for means of escape set
forth in Part 4, Fire.
h) One percent of the total seat capacity shall have provisions for accommodation with
universal accessibility at the approach or exit level.
2.13.7.2 Swimming Pools
Any swimming pool used or constructed for exclusive use by Occupancy A1 and is available
only to the occupants and private guests shall be classified as a private swimming pool. Any
swimming pool other than private swimming pool shall be classified as a public swimming
pool. Swimming pools, will be constructed in conformity with the following requirements.
a) There shall be at least 1.5 m space between any side of a swimming pool and a rear or
side property line. For street property lines, this distance shall be at least 2.0 m.
b) Swimming pools shall be provided with overflow provision to remove scum and other
materials from the surface of the water. When water skimmers are used for private
pools there shall be one skimming device for each 50 m
thereof.

of surface area or fraction

2.13.5.7 Proscenium Curtain

The proscenium curtain shall be of approved fire retardant material and shall protect against
passage of flame and smoke for at least 30 minutes.

2.13.6 Motion Picture Projection Rooms

2.13.6.4
Every projection room shall be constructed in conformity with the construction
requirements for the type of the building in which the projection room is located. The
wall opening required for projection need not have a fire protection assembly but shall
be closed with glass or other approved materials.
2.13.6.5
The floor area of a projection room shall not be less than 8 m for a single
machine. The working space between the machines when more than one machine is
used shall not be less than 0.75 m.
2.13.6.6 The height of the projection room shall have a minimum clear space of 2.5 m.

2.13.7 Sports Facilities

2.13.7.1 Vomiters, Aisles and Exits of Seating Galleries
Tunnels, aisles and exits of galleries shall be constructed conforming to the following
requirements.
i)

There shall be a minimum of two exits remotely located from each other immediately
to the outside for each balcony or tier. There shall be at least three exits when seating
capacity exceeds 1000 persons and four exits when it exceeds 4000 persons.For every
additional 1000 persons the exit shall be designed to accommodate provision (f) given
below.

j)

There shall be at least 0.6 m of space per person in the gallery. Minimum width
considered for a seat in the gallery shall be 0.45 m.

k) There shall be a maximum of 33 seats on each side of any aisle. Minimum width of the
main aisles and the secondary aisles shall be 1.0 m and 0.7 m respectively.
l) Entrance and exits shall be protected by safety railings.
m) Back to back space between two rows of seats shall not be less than 0.80 m.
n) The evacuation time in the galleries shall not be more than 10 minutes.

o) All tunnels, aisles and exits shall conform to safety guidelines for means of escape set
forth in Part 4, Fire.
p) One percent of the total seat capacity shall have provisions for accommodation with
universal accessibility at the approach or exit level.
2.13.7.2 Swimming Pools
Any swimming pool used or constructed for exclusive use by Occupancy A1 and is available
only to the occupants and private guests shall be classified as a private swimming pool. Any
swimming pool other than private swimming pool shall be classified as a public swimming
pool. Swimming pools, will be constructed in conformity with the following requirements.
c) There shall be at least 1.5 m space between any side of a swimming pool and a rear or
side property line. For street property lines, this distance shall be at least 2.0 m.
d) Swimming pools shall be provided with overflow provision to remove scum and other
materials from the surface of the water. When water skimmers are used for private

pools there shall be one skimming device for each 50 m of surface area or fraction
thereof.
c) The overflow gutters shall not be less than 75 mm deep and shall be pitched to
slope of one unit vertical to 50 units horizontal (1:50) toward drains.
d) Public swimming pools shall be so designed that the pool water turnover is at least
once every 8 hours.
e) Private swimming pools shall be designed so that there is a pool water turnover at
least once every 18 hours.
f) Public swimming pools shall be equipped with filters, the capacity of which shall
2
be controlled to filter 140 litres per minute per m of surface area. Private
2
swimming pool filters shall not filter more than 230 litres per minute per m of the
surface area.
g) The acidity and alkalinity of the pool water shall be between 7.0 and 7.5.
h) All recirculating systems shall be equipped with an approved hair and lint strainer
installed in the system ahead of the pump.
i)

All swimming pool and equipment shall be designed to be emptied completely of

water and the discharged water shall be disposed in an approved manner and shall
not create problems in the neighbouring property.

j)

Pumps, filters and other mechanical and electrical equipment shall be placed in
enclosed spaces and shall not be accessible to the bathers.

k) Used water from the pool when being discarded shall be reused as grey water for
the building and its premises as per provision of Appendix G.

2.13.8

Amusement Building Fire protection system

As per provisions of this code.

2.14 Requirements for Occupancy JHazardous Buildings

Buildings shall be classified as Occupancy J in accordance with Sec 2.1.14

2.14.1 General
The plans for buildings and structures accommodating Occupancy J shall clearly indicate the type
and intended use of materials and its processing or handling methods so as to reflect the nature of
use of each portion of such buildings.

2.14.1.1 Occupancy J1
Any building or portion thereof containing any of the followingitems more than exempted
quantity shall be classified as Occupancy J1.
a. Combustible dusts and any similar solid material sufficiently comminuted for suspension
in still air which, when so suspended, is capable of self-sustained combustion.
b. Combustible liquids - Any liquid having a flash point at or above 40C shall be known as
class II and class III liquids. Combustible liquids shall be classified as follows:
i.

Liquids having flash point at or above 40C and below 60C.

ii. Liquids having flash points at or above 60C and below 95C.
c.

Cryogenic liquids (flammable or oxidizing): Any liquid that has a boiling point below
-130C.

d. Flammable Gases : Any gas when mixed with air in a proportion of 13% (by volume) forms
a flammable mixture under atmospheric temperature and pressure.
e. Flammable Liquids : Any liquid that has a flash point below 40C and has a net vapour
pressure exceeding 275 kPa at 40C. Flammable liquids shall be known as Class I liquid
and shall be further classified as follows:

i. Liquids having flash point below 25C and having a boiling point below 40C.
ii. Liquids having flash point below 25C and having a boiling point at or above 40C.
iii. Liquids having flash points at or above 25C and below 40C.
f.

Oxidizers class 3: As determined in accordance with NFPA 43A.

g. Oxidizing gases: As determined in accordance with NFPA 43C.

h. Pyrophoric liquids, solids and gases that will ignite spontaneously in air at a temperature
of 55C or below.
i.

Unstable (reactive) materials class 3, non-detonable as determined in accordance with

NFPA 704.

j.

Combustible fibres: Includes readily ignitable fibres like cotton, sisal, jute hemp, tow, cocoa
fibre, oakum, baled waste, baled waste paper, kapok, hay, straw, excelsior, Spanish moss
and other similar materials.

k. Flammable solid: Any solid including blasting agent or explosive that is liable to cause fire
through absorption of moisture, spontaneous chemical change or retained heat from
manufacturing or processing, or which when ignited burns so vigorously and persistently
as to create a serious hazard.
l.

Organic peroxides, Class II and Class III as determined in accordance with NFPA 43B.

m. Oxidizers Class I and Class II as determined in accordance with NFPA 43A.

n. The bulk storage of unstable (reactive) materials Class 1 and Class 2 as determined in
accordance with NFPA 704, water reactive materials, Class 2 and Class 3 which react with
water to release a gas that is either flammable or present a health hazard as determined in
accordance with NFPA 704.

2.14.1.2 Occupancy J2
Any building or portion thereof containing the following shall be classified as Occupancy J2:
a. Corrosives: Any substance that causes visible destruction of or irreversible alteration in
living tissues by chemical action at the site of contact.
b. Highly toxic materials: The materials falling in this category are as follows:
i.

Oral Toxicity: A chemical that has a median lethal dose of 50 mg or less per kg of body
weight when administered orally to albino rats weighing between 200 and 300 gms
each.

ii. Toxicity of Inhalation: A chemical that has a median lethal concentration in air of 200
ppm or less by volume of gas or vapour, or 2 mg per litre or less of mist, fume or dust,
when administered by continuous inhalation for 1 hour (or less if death occurs within
1 hour) to albino rats weighing between 200 and 300 grams each.
iii. Toxicity by Skin Absorption : A chemical that has median lethal dose of 200 mg or less
per kg of body weight when administered by continuous contact for 24 hours (or less if
death occurs within 24 hours) with the bare skin of albino rabbits weighing between 2
and 3 kg each.
iv. Irritants: Any noncorrosive chemical or substance which causes a reversible
inflammatory effect on living tissues by chemical action at the site of contact.
v. Radioactive Material: Any material or combination of materials that spontaneously
emit ionizing radiation.
vi. Sensitizers: A chemical or substance that causes a substantial proportion of exposed
people or animals to develop an allergic reaction in normal tissue after repeated
exposure to the chemical.
c.

The Occupancy J2 shall also include among others the followings:

i. Dry cleaning establishments using flammable solvents.
ii. Explosive manufacturing.
iii. Paint or solvent manufacturing (flammable base).
iv. Pyrexin plastic manufacturing.
v. Sodium nitrate or ammonium nitrate
vi. Storage of combustible film.

2.14.1.3 Occupancy J3
Any building or portion thereof which is used for storage, handling, processing or manufacture of
materials and products that use biological processes and in which the risk of harmful biological
threat to the occupants exist, shall comply with the guidelines specified by the Department of
Health.

2.14.1.4 Occupancy J4
Any building or portion thereof which is used for storage, handling, processing or manufacture of
materials and products that use nuclear and radioactive processes and in which the risk of

radioactive contamination exists, shall comply with the guidelines specified by Bangladesh Atomic
Energy Commission.

2.14.2 Special Provisions

The following shall not be included in Occupancy J but shall be classified in the
occupancy group which they most nearly resemble and such classification shall be
approved by the Authority:
i.

All buildings and structures and parts thereof which contain less than the exempt
quantities as specified in Table 3.2.5, when such buildings comply with the fire
protection provisions of this Code.

ii. Rooms containing flammable liquid in lightly closed containers of 4 litre capacity or
less for retail sales or private use on the premises and in quantities not exceeding 820
litre/m of room area.
iii. Retail paint sales rooms with quantities not exceeding 820 litre/m of room area.
i.

Closed systems housing flammable or combustible liquids or gases used for the
operation of machinery or equipment.

ii. Cleaning establishments.

iii. Liquor stores and distributors without bulk storage.
iv. Tyre storage containing less than 10,000 vehicle tyres.
v. The storage or use of materials for agricultural purposes for use on the premises.
vi. Pyrophoric solids or liquids not exceeding 3 m3 in storage cabinet located in a building
that is equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system provided in
accordance with the fire protection provisions of this Code.
vii. Pyrophoric solids or liquids not exceeding 3 kg in storage cabinet located in a building
that is provided with an automatic sprinkler system installed in accordance with the
fire protection provisions in accordance to Part 4 of this Code.
viii.Class 2 water reactive materials not exceeding 100 kg in an approved storage cabinet
located in a building that is provided with automatic sprinkler installed in accordance
with the fire protection provisions in accordance to Part 4 of this Code.

2.14.3 Construction, Height and Allowable Area

2.14.3.1
The buildings or parts thereof classified as Occupancy J shall be limited to the
type of construction set forth in Table 3.2.4 and shall comply with the provisions of Sec
1.8 of Chapter 1, Part 3 and 2.4.2 to meet the requirements of height and area
limitations.
2.14.3.2
Floors: The floors and spaces containing hazardous materials and in areas
where motor vehicles, boats, helicopters or airplanes are stored, repaired or operated
shall be of noncombustible, liquid-tight construction.
Exception: In floors and areas where no repair works are carried out may be
surfaced or
waterproofed with asphaltic paving materials.
2.14.3.3 Spill Control: The floors containing hazardous repair or other works shall be
recessed a minimum of 100 mm so as to prevent flow of liquids to adjoining areas.
2.14.3.4 Drainage: The buildings and areas shall be provided with approved drainage
system to direct the flow of liquids to an approved location or room or area
designed to provide secondary containment of the hazardous materials and fire
protection water.
The drains shall be designed with adequate slope and section to carry the design
discharge of the sprinkler system. The material used in the drains shall be suitable
for drainage of the storage materials.

Separate drainage system shall be designed for materials which react with each
other producing undesirable results. They may be combined when they have been
provided with approved means of discharge into the public sewer or natural stream
or river.

2.14.3.5 Containment: The outflow from the drains shall be directed to a containment
system or other area that provide a secondary storage for the hazardous materials
and liquids and fire protection water. The containment capacity shall be capable of
containing the outflow from the drains for a period of at least one hour.
The overflow from secondary containment system shall be directed to a safe location
away from the building, adjoining properties and storm drain.

If the secondary containment storage area is open to rainfall it shall be designed to

accommodate 24 hour rainfall or a continuous rainfall of 100 mm per day.

2.14.3.6 Smoke and Heat Vents: Smoke and heat vents shall be provided in areas or
rooms containing hazardous materials exceeding the exempt amount of Table 3.2.5.
2.14.3.7 Standby Power: Standby power shall be provided in the occupancies where
Class I, II or III organic peroxides are stored.

2.14.4 Location on Property

The location on property for Occupancy J shall conform to Sec 2.4.1. andPart 4.

2.14.5 Access and Exit Facilities and Emergency Escapes

Facilities for access and exit and emergency escape shall comply with the provisions set forth in Sec
1.6 of Chapter 1 Part 3, and Chapter 3, Part 4.

2.14.6 Lighting and Ventilation

2.14.6.1
All spaces and rooms customarily occupied by human beings shall be provided
with natural light by means of exterior glazing with an area of not less than 10 per cent
of the floor area. Such rooms and spaces shall be provided with natural ventilation by
means of exterior openings with an openable area not less than 5 per cent of the total
floor area or artificial light and mechanically operated ventilation system as per
provisions of this Code.

CHAPTER 2
FOUNDATIONS

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundation Systems

Shallow Foundation

Deep Foundation

Pile Foundation

Pier (Caisson)
Foundation

Isolated spread

Wall footings

footings

Combined

Cantilever or

footings

strap footings

Raft or Mat foundation

Shallow Foundations are usually located no more than 6 ft below the lowest
finished floor. A shallow foundation system generally used when (1) the soil close the ground
surface has sufficient bearing capacity, and (2) underlying weaker strata do not result in undue
settlement. The shallow foundations are commonly used most economical foundation systems.
Footings are structural elements, which transfer loads to the soil from columns, walls

or lateral loads from earth retaining structures. In order to transfer these loads properly to the
soil, footings must be design to

Prevent excessive settlement

Minimize differential settlement, and
Provide adequate safety against overturning and sliding.

Types of Footings

Isolated spread footings under individual columns.

These can be square, rectangular, or circular.

Wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the
length of wall.
Combined Footing

Combined footings support two or more columns. These can be

rectangular or trapezoidal plan.

Cantilever or strap footings: These are similar to combined footings,

except that the footings under columns are built independently, and are
joined by strap beam

Mat or Raft
Raft or Mat foundation: This is a large continuous footing supporting
all the columns of the structure. This is used when soil conditions are poor
but piles are not used

Deep Foundations The shallow foundations may not be economical or even

possible
when the soil bearing capacity near the surface is too low. In those cases deep foundations are used to
transfer loads to a stronger layer, which may be located at a significant depth below the ground
surface. The load is transferred through skin friction and end bearing (Figure below).

Pile Foundation- (a) Vertical Piles; (b) Battered Piles

Pile Foundation

Pier Foundation (Caisson)

Soil properties and parameters, and Foundation Systems

Frost Depth (Frost Line or Freezing Depth) is the depth to which the
groundwater in soil is expected to freeze due to temperature drop.

The frost line varies by latitude; it is deeper closer to the poles. It

ranges in the United States from about zero to six feet.
Frost heaving is an upwards swelling of soil during freezing conditions caused
by an increasing presence of ice as it grows towards the surface.

Ice growth requires a water supply that delivers water to the freezing front
via capillary action in certain soils.

The weight of overlying soil restrains vertical growth of the ice and can
promote the formation of lens-shaped areas of ice within the soil.

Yet the force of one or more growing ice lenses is sufficient to lift a layer of
soil, as much as 30 cm or more.

The soil through which water passes to feed the formation of ice lenses must
be sufficiently porous to allow capillary action, yet not so porous as to break
capillary continuity. Such soil is referred to as "frost susceptible".

Differential frost heaving can crack pavementscontributing to

springtime pothole formationand damage building foundations.

M Capillary action (capillarity, capillary motion, or wicking) is the ability of a

liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, and in opposition to,
external forces like gravity.
M

M If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of

surface tension caused by cohesion
M

The capillary action is due to the pressure of cohesion and adhesion, which
cause the liquid to work against gravity.

Soil Bearing Pressure at base of Footing

A. Concentrically Loaded Footing

B. Eccentric load on Footings

CHAPTER 3
WALLS

A wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load, or provides shelter or security. There are
many kinds of walls: Defensivewalls in fortification.
Building wall
Building walls purposes are to support roofs, floors and ceilings, enclose a space as part of the building
envelope, along with a roof to give buildings form, and to provide shelter and security. In addition, the
wall may house various types of utilities such as electrical wiring or plumbing. Wall construction falls
into two basic categories: framed walls or mass-walls. In framed walls the load is transferred to the
foundation through posts, columns or studs. Framed walls most often have three or more separate
components: the structural elements (such as 24 studs in a house wall), insulation, and finish

elements or surfaces (such as drywall or panelling). Mass-walls are of a solid material

including masonry,concrete including slipform stonemasonry, log building, cordwood
construction, adobe, rammed earth, cob, earthbag construction, bottles, tin cans, straw-bale
construction, andice.
There are three basic methods walls control water intrusion: moisture storage, drained cladding, or
face-sealed cladding.[2] Moisture storage is typical of stone and brick mass-wall buildings where
moisture is absorbed and released by the walls of the structure itself. Drained cladding also known
as screened walls[3] acknowledges moisture will penetrate the cladding so a moisture barrier such
as housewrap or felt paper inside the cladding provides a second line of defense and sometimes
a drainage plane or air gap allows a path for the moisture to drain down through and exit the wall.
Sometimes ventilation is provided in addition to the drainage plane such as
in rainscreen construction. Face-sealed also called barrier wall or perfect barrier[3] cladding relies on
maintaining a leak-free surface of the cladding. Examples of face sealed cladding are the early exterior
insulation finishing systems, structural glazing, metal clad panels, and corrugated metal.
Building walls frequently become works of art, externally and internally, such as when
featuring mosaic work or when murals are painted on them; or as design foci when they exhibit textures
or painted finishes for effect.

LOAD BEARING WALLS:

A load-bearing wall (or bearing wall) is a wall that bears a load resting upon it by
conducting its weight to a foundation structure. The materials most often used to
construct load-bearing walls in large buildings are concrete, block, or brick.
By contrast, a curtain wall provides no significant structural support beyond what is
necessary to bear its own materials or conduct such loads to a load-bearing wall.
Non - Load Bearing
WallA wall capable only of supporting its own weight and (if it is an exterior wall) c
apable of resisting the force of the wind blowing againstit; it cannot support an impos
ed load. Compare with load-bearing
wall; also called a nonbearing wall.A wall subject only to its own weight and wind pr
essure.

Partition wall

Glass Partition Wall

A partition wall is a wall that separates rooms, or divides a room. Partition walls are
usually not load-bearing. Partition walls are constructed of many materials, including
steel panels, bricks, blocks of clay, terra-cotta, concrete, or glass blocks.
Some partition walls are made of sheet glass. Glass partition walls are a series of
individual toughened glass panels mounted in wood or metal framing. They may be
suspended from or slide along a robust aluminium ceiling track.The system does not
require the use of a floor guide, which allows easy operation and an uninterrupted
threshold.
A timber partition consists of a wooden framework, supported on the floor or by side
walls. Metal lath and plaster, properly laid, forms a reinforced partition wall.
Partition walls constructed from fibre cement sheeting are popular as bases for tiling
in kitchens or in wet areas like bathrooms. Galvanized sheet fixed to wooden or steel
members are mostly adopted in works of temporary character. Plain or reinforced
partition walls may also be constructed from concrete, including pre-cast concrete
blocks. Metal framed partitioning is also available. This partition consists of track
(used primarily at the base and head of the partition) and stud (vertical sections fixed
at 600mm centres).

Internal wall partitions, also known as office partitioning, is usually made of

plasterboard (drywall) or varieties of glass. Toughened glass is a common option, as
is low-iron glass (better known as opti-white glass, which increases light and solar
heat transmission.
Wall partitions are constructed using beads and tracking that is either hung from the
ceiling or fixed into the ground.[5] The panels are inserted into the tracking and fixed.
Some wall partition variations specify their fire resistance and acoustic performance
rating.

CAVITY WALLS
Cavity walls consist of two 'skins' separated by a hollow space (cavity).The skins are
commonly masonry such as brick or concrete block. Masonry is an absorbent
material, and therefore will slowly draw rainwater or even humidity into the wall.
The cavity serves as a way to drain this water back out through weep holes at the
base of the wall system or above windows, but is not necessarily vented. A cavity
wall with masonry as both inner and outer skins is more commonly referred to as a
double wythe masonry wall.
ADVANTAGES:
Resist wind driven rain
Insulation provided by slow moving air films & air gap
Enables use of low cost non rigid insulation batts

TYPES OF PARTITION WALLS FOR HOME AND OFFICES

Depending upon the material used partition walls may be divided into the
following different types:
1.

Brick partitions

2.

Hollow block partition of clay, terracotta or concrete

3.

Glass partitions

4.

Concrete partitions plain or reinforced

5.

Metal lath and plaster partitions

6.

A.C. sheet or G.I. sheet partitions

7.

Timber partitions
1. Brick Partitions:
This may be constructed with plain bricks, reinforced bricks or bricks nogged.
Plain brick partition
This type of wall is constructed by laying bricks as stretchers in cement mortar.
Thus the wall is generally 10cm (half brick) thick and plastered considerably on
both faces. If properly constructed, it is considerably strong and fire resistant.

Reinforced brick wall

This type of wall is similar to plain brick partition wall except that at every third or
fourth course, the bricks are reinforced with iron straps 25 to 28 mm wide and

1.6mm thick. Mild steel bars 6mm spaced at every third course of wall may be
used as a substitute for iron straps.

Fig.1: Reinforced Brick Wall

Brick nogging type partition wall
It consists of brickwork built within a framework of wooden members. The
framework consists of vertical posts called studs spaced at 60 cm to 150 cm apart
and held in position by horizontal members called nogging pieces. The nogging
pieces are housed into the studs at 60 cm to 90cm apart vertically. The function of
the wooden framework is to increase stability of the wall both along the length
and height and to make it more right to withstand vibrational effect produced on
account of careless opening or closing of the window or door leaves. The
brickwork is built by laying the brick flat or on edge and the surface is plastered
from both sides. Thus the size of the studs and nogging depends upon the
thickness of partition wall. For 10cm thick partition wall, the studs and nogging
should be 15 cm wide so that after the brickwork is plastered from both the faces,
the timber framework may finish flush with the wall face. This type of partition
wall suffers from the drawback of the timber getting delayed. Moreover, the
mortar used may not stick well to the timber members and thus the brickwork is
likely to become loose after sometime.

Fig.2: Bricknogged Partition Wall

2. Hollow brick partition of clay, terracotta or concrete
Hollow blocks moulded from clay, terracotta or concrete are now commonly used
for the construction of partition walls. Such walls are light, rigid, economical,
strong and fire resistant. They have good sound insulating properties. The sizes of
the blocks differ with the texture of the material. The thickness of this type of
partition wall varies between 6 cm to 15 cm. these walls are constructed in similar
manner as structural load bearing walls.

Fig.3: Hollow Brick Partition wall

3. Glass partition walls
These may be made from sheet glass or hollow glass bricks. In case of sheet glass
partitions, sheets of glass are fixed in the framework of wooden members dividing
the entire area into a number of panels. The panels may be square or rectangular
and their size varies with the choice of the individual. Glass partitions are cheap,
light, and easy in construction and provide reasonable privacy and sound
insulation. The cost of maintenance of such partition is much more as glass is
liable to break when struck hard by anything. With the introduction of reinforced
glass sheets, this danger is greatly minimized. Three-ply glass and armour plate
glass are some of the varieties of sheet glass.

Fig.4: Glass Partition Wall

4. Concrete Partition Plain or reinforced

Fig.5: Concrete Partition Wall

Partition walls construction in concrete, plain or reinforced may be cast in situ or
built from panels or blocks, precast wall in advance of the commencement of
work. Generally for cast in situ walls, 10 cm thick and below, the reinforcement
consisting of mild steel bars or B R C fabric is placed in the centre of the wall
thickness. Concrete mix usually adopted in the work is M15 (1:2:4). The wall is
cast monolithically with the intermediate columns so as to be rigid and stable both
along its length and height. In case of precast concrete partition walls, precast
concrete slab panels and special shaped concrete post are used. The slabs are
generally 32 mm thick and are inserted in the grooves of the precast post and the
joints are subsequently filled with mortar.

5. Metal lath and plaster partitions:

Metal lath and plaster when properly laid forms a reinforced wall which is thin,
strong, durable and is considerably fire resistant. The metal lath is available in
variety of patterns and it generally requires a framework of steel or timber for the
purpose of fixing it in position. In case of partition walls with steel frames, lath is
generally tied by galvanized iron wire to mild steel bars or channels spaced 15 to
30 cm apart. The latter is fixed on one side and the plaster is applied on both
sides of the lath. This type of partition wall may be 5 to 7.6 cm in thickness.
In order to achieve improved insulation against heat and sound, metal lath and
plaster partition walls can also be made with a cavity between the wall thickness.
This type of hollow partition wall is constructed by fixing the metal lath on both
sides of specially shaped steel channels spaced at 30 to 45 cm apart. Depending
upon the width of cavity desired, the channels are generally 3 to 10cm deep.
6. A.C. Sheet or G.I. Sheet partitions:
Partition walls constructed from asbestos cement sheeting or galvanized sheet
fixed to wooden or steel members are mostly adopted in works of temporary
character. These walls are economical, light and fairly rigid if constructed properly.
For superior type of asbestos cement sheet partition walls, specially manufactured
slabs of the above said material are used. Each slab consists of core or corrugated
asbestos cement sheet with the plain asbestos cement sheet attached to it on
either side. The use of such slabs renders the partition wall more fire-resistant
and makes it have good heat and sound insulation properties.
7. Timber partitions:
This type of partition walls consists of a wooden framework either supported on
the floor below or by side walls. The framework consists of a rigid arrangement of
timber members which may be plastered or covered with boarding etc from both
the sides. Such partitions are not fire-resistant and the timber forming the
partition is likely to decay or be eaten away by white ants. With the introduction
of new building materials, the use of timber partitions is getting gradually reduced
these days.

CHAPTER 4
MASONARY
RUBBLE and ASHLAR JOINTS IN STONE MASONARY
Rubble masonry, also called rubblework, the use of undressed, rough stone,
generally in the construction of walls. Dry-stone random rubble walls, for which
rough stones are piled up without mortar, are the most basic form. An intermediate
method is coursed rubble walling, for which stones are roughly dressed and laid in
courses. Snecked rubble features stones of varying sizes with small fillers or snecks
between them.

The primary reason for the use of rubble in masonry is the relative difficulty of
dressing most types of stone. Rubblework was preferred where the surface either
would be faced with ashlar (dressed stone), or otherwise hidden, as in a foundation,
or where the builder wanted or was indifferent to the rough effect.
Rubblework bound with mortar was often used as an infilling between dressed wall
faces. Used in this way it does not contribute significantly to the walls strength and
may even detract from it if the mortar is poorly prepared, leached out by moisture, or
otherwise unsuitable. Nevertheless, many medieval cathedrals were built in this
manner. Rubblework in walls was superseded even in ancient times by brick when
available and in modern construction by reinforced concrete.

Rubble Masonry:
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are laid in a
suitable mortar is called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of
uniform thickness. Rubble masonry is further sub-divided into the following three
types:
1. Random rubble masonry
2. Squared rubble masonry
3. Dry rubble masonry
1. Random rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which either undressed or
hammer dressed stones are used is called random rubble masonry. Further
random rubble masonry is also divided into the following three types:
a. Uncoursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in
which stones are laid without forming courses is known as un coursed
random rubble masonry. This is the roughest and cheapest type of
masonry and is of varying appearance. The stones used in this masonry
are of different sizes and shapes. before lying, all projecting corners of
stones are slightly knocked off. Vertical joints are not plumbed, joints
are filled and flushed. Large stones are used at corners and at jambs to
increase their strength. Once "through stone" is used for every square
meter of the face area for joining faces and backing.
Suitability: Used for construction of walls of low height in case of
ordinary buildings.
b. Coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in
which stones are laid in layers of equal height is called random rubble
masonry. In this masonry, the stones are laid in somewhat level courses.
Headers of one coursed height are placed at certain intervals. The stones

are hammer dressed.

Suitability: Used for construction of residential buildings, go downs,
boundary walls etc.
2. Squared rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which the face stones are
squared on all joints and beds by hammer dressing or chisel dressing before
their actual laying, is called squared rubble masonry.
There are two types of squared rubble masonry.
a. Coursed Square rubble masonry: The square rubble masonry in
which chisel dressed stones laid in courses is called coarse square rubble
masonry. This is a superior variety of rubble masonry. It consists of
stones, which are squared on all joints and laid in courses. The stones
are to be laid in courses of equal layers. and the joints should also be
uniform.
Suitability: Used for construction of public buildings, hospitals,
schools, markets, modern residential buildings etc and in hilly areas
where good quality of stone is easily available.
b. Un coursed square rubble masonry: The squared rubble in masonry
which hammer dressed stones are laid without making courses is called
un coursed square rubble masonry. It consists of stones which are
squared on all joints and beds by hammer dressing. All the stones to be
laid are of different sizes.
Suitability: Used for construction of ordinary buildings in hilly areas
where a good variety of stones are cheaply available.

3. Dry rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without
using any mortar is called dry rubble masonry or sometimes shortly as "dry
stones". It is an ordinary masonry and is recommended for constructing walls
of height not more than 6m. In case the height is more, three adjacent courses
are laid in squared rubble masonry mortar at 3m intervals.
Ashlar masonry:
The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is
known as ashlars masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all
the joints are regular, thin and have uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much
costly as it requires dressing of stones.
Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high
piers and abutments of bridges.
Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:
i.

Ashlars fine or coarse ashlar masonry

ii.

Random coarse ashlars masonry

iii.

Rough tooled ashlar masonry

iv.

Rock or quarry faced ashlars masonry

v.

Chamfered ashlars masonry

vi.

Block in coarse masonry

vii.

Ashlar facing
1. Ashlar fine or coarsed ashlar masonry: In this type of stone
masonry stone blocks of same height in each course are used.
Every stone is fine tooled on all sides. Thickness of mortar is
uniform through out. It is an expensive type of stone masonry as it
requires heavy labor and wastage of material while dressing.
Satisfactory bond can be obtained in this type of stone masonry.
2. Random coursed ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry
consists of fine or coursed ashlar but the courses are of varying
thick nesses, depending upon the character of the building.
3. Rough tooled ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry the
sides of the stones are rough tooled and dressed with chisels.
Thickness of joints is uniform, which does not exceed 6mm.
4. Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar
masonry is similar to rough tooled type except that there is chiseldrafted margin left rough on the face which is known as quarry
faced.
5. Chamfered ashlar masonry: It is similar to quarry faced except
that the edges are beveled or chamfered to 450 for depth of 2.5
cm or more.
6. Block-in course masonry: It is the name given to a class of
ashlar masonry which occupies an intermediate place between
rubble and ashlars. The stones are all squared and properly
dressed. It resembles to coursed rubble masonry or rough tooled
ashlar masonry.
7. Ashlar facing: Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars masonry.
Since this is type of masonry is very expensive, it is not
commonly used throughout the whole thickness of the wall,
except in works of great importance and strength. For economy
the facing are built in ashlars and the rest in rubble.

Masonry construction has been used for at least 10,000 years in a variety of structureshomes,
private and pub-lic buildings and historical monuments. The masonry of ancient times involved two
major materials: brick manu-factured from sun-dried mud or burned clay and shale; and natural
stone.
The first masonry structures were unreinforced and in-tended to support mainly gravity loads. The
weight of these structures stabilized them against lateral loads from wind and earthquakes.
Masonry construction has progressed through several stages of development. Fired clay brick
became the prin-cipal building material in the United States during the mid-dle 1800s. Concrete
masonry was introduced to construction during the early 1900s and, along with clay masonry,
expanded in use to all types of structures.
Historically, rules of thumb (now termed empirical de-sign) were the only available methods of masonry design. Only in recent times have masonry structures been engineered using structural calculations. In the last 45
years, the introduction of engineered reinforced masonry has resulted in structures that are stronger and more
sta-ble against lateral loads, such as wind and seismic.

Masonry consists of a variety of materials. Raw materi-als are made into masonry units of different
sizes and shapes, each having specific physical and mechanical properties. Both the raw
materials and the method of manufacture affect masonry unit properties.
The word masonry is a general term that applies to construction using hand-placed units of clay,
concrete, structural clay tile, glass block, natural stones and the like. One or more types of
masonry units are bonded together with mortar, metal ties, reinforcement and accessories to form
walls and other structural elements.
Proper masonry construction depends on correct de-sign, materials, handling, installation and
workmanship.
With a fundamental understanding of the functions and properties of the materials that comprise
masonry con-struction and with proper design and construction, quality masonry structures are not
difficult to obtain.
During the pioneer era of U.S. history, the fireplace was the central focus of residential cooking and heating. To

day, the fireplace is essentially a decorative feature of res-idential construction. For energy
conservation, existing fireplaces are sometimes converted and new fireplaces are designed to
provide supplemental heat.
Of the many types of fireplaces, the most common are single face. Multifaced fireplaces, such as a
corner fire-place with two adjacent open sides, fireplaces with two opposite faces open (common
exposure to two rooms) or fireplaces with three or all faces open also occur, but are less common.
While the provisions of this chapter are for single-faced fireplaces, almost all types of masonry
fireplaces include the same basic construction features: the base assembly, which consists of a
foundation and hearth support; the firebox assembly, which consists of a fireplace opening, a
hearth, a firebox or combustion chamber and the throat and the smoke chamber, which supports
the chimney liner.
Masonry fireplaces are made primarily of clay brick or natural stones, but also of concrete masonry
or cast-in-place concrete. Chimneys for medium- and high-heat appliances require special
attention for fire safety.
Purpose
The provisions of Chapter 21 require minimum accepted practices and the use of standards for the design and
construction of masonry structures and elements of structures. The provisions ad-dress: material specifications
and test methods; types of wall construction; criteria for engineered design (by work-ing stress and strength
design methods); criteria for em-pirical design; required details of construction and other aspects of masonry,
including execution of construction. The provisions are intended to result in safe and durable masonry. The
provisions of Chapter 21 are also intended to prescribe minimum accepted practices for the design and
construction of glass unit masonry, masonry fire-places, masonry heaters and masonry chimneys.

Scope. This chapter shall govern the materials, design, construction and quality of masonry.

Section 2101 prescribes general requirements for ma-sonry designed in accordance with
Chapter 21 of the code. It identifies masonry design methods and the condi-tions required for the
use of each method. The methods are intended as a practical means for safety under a vari-ety
of potential service conditions.
Minimum requirements for construction documents and fireplace drawings are also included in Section 2101.
Chapter 21 contains the minimum code requirements for acceptance of masonry design and construction by the
building official. Compliance with these requirements is in-tended to result in masonry construction with the minimum
required structural adequacy and durability. Requirements more stringent than these are appropriate where mandated by sound engineering and judgement. Less restric-tive requirements, however, are not permitted.

Design methods. Masonry shall comply with the provi-sions of one of the following design methods in
this chapter as well as the requirements of Sections 2101 through 2104. Ma-sonry designed by the working
stress design provisions of Sec-tion 2101.2.1, the strength design provisions of Section 2101.2.2 or the
prestressed masonry provisions of Section 2101.2.3 shall comply with Section 2105.

This section requires masonry to comply with one of six design methods and the requirements
contained in Sections 2101 through 2104 for construction docu-ments, materials and
construction.
The six design methods listed in Sections 2101.2.1 through 2101.2.6 can be categorized into
two general design approaches for masonry. The first approach, en-gineered design,
encompasses working stress, pre-stressed masonry and strength design. Use of these de-sign
methods necessitates a quality assurance program in accordance with Section 2105. The
second ap-proach, prescriptive design, includes the empirical de-sign method, provisions for
glass unit masonry and pro-visions for masonry veneer. Prescriptive design is permitted only
under limited conditions as noted in Sec-tion 2109.1.1.
When the design professional chooses engineered design, the prescriptive masonry
requirements of this chapter do not apply. For example, Section 2109 does not apply to
engineered masonry.
Other provisions of the code also apply to masonry. For example, fire-resistant construction using masonry is
required to comply with Chapter 7. Design loads and related requirements, including seismic forces and detailing, are required to comply with Chapter 16. Masonry foundations are required to comply with the provisions

Working stress design. Masonry designed by the working stress design method shall comply with the
provisions of Sections 2106 and 2107.

This section requires that masonry designed by the working stress design method meets both
the working stress design requirements in Section 2107 and the seismic design requirements in
Section 2106. Section 2107 requires working stress design to comply with Chapters 1 and 2 of
ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 with mi-nor exceptions. Additional information on these proce-dures
is given in the commentaries to Section 2107 and ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402.
ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 and ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602 are referenced throughout Chapter 21. A
description of these standards is warranted here. Both are joint publications of the American Concrete Institute
(ACI), the Structural Engineering Institute of the Ameri-can Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and The Ma-sonry
Society (TMS) and are produced through a joint committee of those societies, called the Masonry Stan-dards
Joint Committee (MSJC). These standards are typically referred to as the MSJC Code and Specifica-tion to
reflect their joint authorship and sponsorship of the committee that oversees their development. The standards
are developed through an ANSI-regulated consensus process and reflect the current state of tech-nical
knowledge on masonry design and construction.

The MSJC Code (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402) con-tains minimum requirements for masonry
elements of structures. Topics include: construction documents; quality assurance; materials;
analysis and design; strength and serviceability; flexural and axial stresses; shear;
reinforcement; walls; columns; pilasters; beams and lintels and empirical design.
The engineered method in ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 is a working stress design method, which assumes linearly elastic material behavior and properties and uses working loads (see Chapter 16). The strength design
method is also specified in the standard.

The MSJC Specification (ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602) sets minimum acceptable levels of
construction. It in-cludes minimum requirements for composition; prepara-tion and placement of
materials; quality assurance for ma-terials and masonry; execution of masonry construction;
inspection and verification of quality. ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602 contains both mandatory and
optional require-ments. The mandatory requirements are enforceable code requirements; the
optional requirements may be in-voked by the design professional. The specification is meant to
be modified for use with the particular project un-der design.

Strength design. Masonry designed by the strength design method shall comply with the provisions of
Sections 2106 and 2108.
Masonry is required to meet the strength design provi-sions referenced in Section 2108 and the
seismic de-sign requirements in Section 2106.

Prestressed masonry. Prestressed masonry shall be designed in accordance with Chapters 1 and 4 of
ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 and Section 2106. Special inspection during construction shall be provided as
set forth in Section 1704.5.
Prestressed masonry must comply with the applicable chapters of the ACI referenced standard, Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures. Additional re-quirements for prestressed masonry shear walls used to
resist earthquake loads are found in Section 2106.

Empirical design. Masonry designed by the empirical design method shall comply with the provisions of Sections 2106 and 2109
or Chapter 5 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402.

This section permits the empirical design of masonry ei-ther by the provisions of Sections 2106
and 2109, or Chapter 5 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402. This is be-cause nearly all of the
requirements in Section 2109 are based on the requirements in Chapter 5 of ACI 530/ASCE
5/TMS 402. Additional information on these provisions is given in the commentaries to Section
2109 and ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402.

Glass masonry. Glass masonry shall comply with the provisions of Section 2110 or with the requirements
of Chapter 7 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402.
Glass masonry must comply with either the provisions of Section 2110 or Chapter 7 of ACI
530/ASCE 5/TMS 402. The provisions in Section 2110 are based on the require-ments in
Chapter 7 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402. Addi-tional information on these provisions is given in
the com-mentaries to Section 2109 and ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402.

Masonry veneer. Masonry veneer shall comply with the provisions of Chapter 14.

This section requires masonry veneer to comply with the provisions of Chapter 14; specifically,
Sections 1405.5 for anchored masonry veneer and 1405.9 for ad-hered masonry veneer. These
sections reference the provisions in Chapter 6 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402. Additional
information on these provisions is given in the commentaries to Chapter 14 and ACI 530/ASCE
5/TMS 402.

Construction documents. The construction documents shall show all of the items required by this code
including the following:
5.3.4 Specified size, grade, type and location of reinforcement, anchors and wall ties.

5.4.5

Reinforcing bars to be welded and welding procedure.

5.4.6

Size and location of structural elements.

5.4.7
Provisions for dimensional changes resulting from elastic deformation, creep, shrinkage,
temperature and moisture.
Construction requirements must be clearly identified in the contract documents so that the structure is properly
constructed using appropriate materials and methods. This section requires that, as a minimum, critical items
required by the code and by the particular design be shown in the construction documents. The list is a minimum and should not be considered all-inclusive by the design professional. Both the design professional and
the building official are permitted to require additional items as needed for a particular structure.

Definitions of terms brick masonry

1. Course: A course is a horizontal layer of bricks or stones.
2. Bed: it is the surface of stone perpendicular to the line of pressure. It indicates the
lower surface of bricks or stones in each course.
3. Back: the inner surface of a wall which is not exposed is called the back. The
material forming the back is known as backing.
4. Face: The exterior of wall exposed to weather is known as face. The material used
in the face of the wall is known as facing.
5. Hearting: It is the interior portion of a wall between the facing and backing.
6. Side: it is the surface forming the boundary of bricks or stones in a direction
transverse to the face and bed.

7. Joint: It is the junction of two or more bricks or stones. If the joint is parallel to
the bed of bricks or stones in a course then it is termed as bed joint. The joint which
are perpendicular to the bed joints are termed as vertical joints or side joints or
simply joints.
8. Header: it is a brick or stone which lies with its greatest length at right angles to
the face of the work..in case of stone masonry header is sometimes known as through
stone. The course of brick work in which all the bricks are laid as headers is known
as header course.
9. Stretcher: it is a brick or a stone which lies with its longest side parallel to the
face of the work. The course of brick work in which all the bricks are laid as
stretchers is known as stretcher course.
10. Bond: This is the method of arranging bricks so that the individual units are tied
together. Bonding is essential to eliminate conyinuous vertical joints both in body as
well as on the face of wall.
11. Spalls: these are the chips of stones used for filling the interstices in stone
masonry.
12. Quoins: these are the stones used for the corners of walls of a structure.
13. Bat: it is the portion of brick cut across the width.
14. Closer: it is the portion of the brick cut length wise in such a manner that its one
long face remains uncut.
15. Queen closer: It is the portion of brick obtained by cutting a brick length wise
into two portions.
16. King Closer: these are the portions of a brick obtained by cutting off the
triangular piece between the center of one end and the center of one side.
17. Bevelled Closer: it is that portion of a brick in which the whole length of the
brick is beveled for maintaining half width at one end and full width art the other.
18. Frog: it is an indentation or depression on the top face of a brick made with the
object of forming a key for the mortars. This reduces the weight of the brick also.
19. Plinth: it is the horizontal course of stone or brick provided at the base of the
wall above ground level. It indicates the height of the ground level above the natural
ground level. It protects the building from dampness.
20. Plinth Course: It is the top most course of the plinth masonry.

21. String Course: It is a horizontal projecting course of masonry projecting out of

the face of the wall for shedding rain water off the face. It imparts an aesthetic
appearance to the structure and is generally provided at every floor level.
22. Sill: it is a horizontal member of stone, concrete or wood, employed for the
purpose of shedding off rain water from the face of wall immediately below the
window opening. It gives support to the vertical members of a wooden window
frame.
23. Lintel: it is a horizontal member of stone, brick, wood, iron or RCC used to
support the masonry or load above an opening.
24. Jambs: these are the vertical sides of an opening for doors and windows. These
may be plain or splayed or may be provided with recesses to receive the frames of
doors and windows.
25. Reveals: These are exposed vertical surfaces left on the sides of an opening after
the door or window frame had been fitted in position
26. Cornice: It is a projecting ornamental course near the top of a building or at the
junction of a wall and ceiling.
27. Blocking Course: It is atop most course of stone masonry provided immediately
above the cornice to prevent the tendency of the cornice to overturn. It also adds to
the aesthetics of the cornice.
28. Coping: It is a course placed upon the exposed top of an external wall to prevent
the seepage of water.
29. Corbel: It is the extension of one or more course of stone or brick from the face
of a wall to serve as a support for wall plates.
30. Template: Pieces of stones placed under the end of a beam to distribute the load
over a greater area.

TYPES OF BRICK BONDS:

The brick bonds illustrated below represent the most common masonry coursing.
From these bonds, an infinite number of bonds can be developed.
Running Bond
The running bond is the most used bond and is composed of stretchers offset by 1/2
brick per course.

Common Bond
A common bond has a course of headers is inserted every five or six courses. A
header is always centered on a stretcher and the joints of each course of headers
always align.

English Bond
The English bond is comprised of alternating courses of stretchers and headers where
a header is centered above a stretcher. The joints of the stretcher courses align and
the joints of the header courses align.

Flemish Bond
For the Flemish bond, each course is made up of alternating stretchers and headers.
Each header is centered on a stretcher above and below.

Stack Bond
The stack bond is made up of courses of stretchers where each stretcher is stacked
directly above a stretcher and the joints align. This is not a structural bond and is
generally used on interiors for non-load bearing walls.

CHAPTER 5

Arches and Lintels

There are two ways to span openings in masonry walls. Beams and lintels are horizontal elements which carry
loads as flexural members. Masonry arches may be flat or curved, but carry loads in compression because of
the shape or orientation of the individual units.
Large wood or stone lintels were used in ancient Egypt and the Middle East to provide small window and door
openings in massive loadbearing masonry walls. The strength of individual stones or timbers, however, limited the size of such openings. Early corbeled arches were constructed by pro-gressively projecting the masonry
units themselves across the top of an open-ing until they met at the apex, carrying the load essentially by
cantilever action. True compressive arches were developed as early as 1400 B.C. in Babylonia and later
perfected by the Romans, along with barrel vaults and domes. In more recent history, brick arches have been
used for long spans with heavy loading, as in the railway bridge at Maidenhead, England, built in 1835, which
spans 128 ft with a rise of 24.3 ft. A railway bridge construct-ed in Baltimore in 1895 spans 130 ft with a rise
of 26 ft.
This chapter discusses the design of steel, concrete, and masonry lintels and masonry arches. Structural
masonry beams for large openings or heavy loads are discussed in Chapter 12.

LINTELS

Lintels of steel, reinforced masonry, stone, concrete, precast concrete, and

cast stone and wood are still used today to span small openings in masonry walls. Lintels must resist
compressive, bending, and shear stresses (see Fig. 11-1). Lintels must be analyzed to determine the actual
loads which must be carried and the resulting stresses which will be created in the member. Many of the cracks
that appear over door and window openings result from excessive deflection of lintels which have been
improperly or inadequately designed.

Load Determination

Regardless of the material used to form or fabricate a lintel, one of the most important aspects of design is the
deteination of applied loads. When

masonry is laid in a running bond pattern, it creates a natural corbeled arch which transfers much of the
vertical load to either side of the opening .The area inside a triangle with sides at 45 angles to the lintel
represents the masonry which must be supported by the lintel

Outside this area, the weight of the masonry is assumed to be carried to the supporting abutments by natural
arching. For this assumption to be true, however, the arching action must be stabilized by a minimum of 8 to
16 inch-es of masonry above the top of the triangle. There must also be sufficient masonry mass on both sides
of the opening to resist the horizontal thrust, and there cannot be a movement joint at either side of the
opening. If arching action cannot be assumed to occur because of inadequate height above the load triangle,
inadequate thrust resistance, movement joint locations, or because the masonry is not laid in running bond,
the lintel must be sized to carry the full weight of the masonry above its entire length .When arching action is
assumed, the lintel requires temporary support until the mortar has cured sufficiently to allow the masonry to
assume its share of the load. Figure 11-5 shows an elevation of an opening with a concrete plank floor and
concrete beam bearing on the wall, and a graphic illustration of the distribution of these loads. The triangular
area (ABC) immediately above the opening has sides at 45 angles to the base and represents the area of wall

INTRODUCTION
In the latter part of the 19th century, an arch was dis-covered in the ruins of Babylonia. Archeologists estimate that the arch was constructed about the year 1400 B.C. Built of well-baked, cigar-shaped brick and laid
with clay mortar, this arch is probably the oldest known to man. The Chinese, Egyptians and others also
made use of the arch before the Christian era. Later, more elaborate arches, vaults and domes with
complicated forms and intersections were constructed by Roman builders during the Middle Ages.
The brick arch is the consummate example of form following function. Its aesthetic appeal lies in the variety of forms which can be used to express unity, bal-ance, proportion, scale and character. Its structural advantage results from the fact that under uniform load, the induced stresses are principally compressive. Because brick masonry has greater resistance to compres-sion than tension, the masonry arch is frequently the
most efficient structural element to span openings.
This Technical Notes addresses the detailing and con - struction of brick masonry arches. The common
types of brick masonry arches are presented, along with prop-er arch terminology. Methods of selecting the
type and configuration of brick masonry arches most appropriate for the application are discussed. Proper
material selec-tion and construction methods are recommended. Other Technical Notes in this series discuss
the structural de-sign of brick masonry arches and lintels.

ARCH TYPES AND TERMINOLOGY

Many arch forms have been developed during the centuries of use, ranging from the jack arch through the
circular, elliptical and parabolic to the Gothic arch. Fig-

depicts examples of structural masonry arches used in contemporary construction. An arch is normal-ly
classified by the curve of its intrados and by its func-tion, shape or architectural style. Figure 2 illustrates
some of the many different brick masonry arch types. Jack, segmental, semicircular and multicentered
arches are the most common types used for building arches. For very long spans and for bridges,
semicircular arches are often used because of their structural efficiency.
Mainly due to their variety of components and ele-ments, arches have developed their own set of terminolo-gy.
Following is a glossary of arch terminology. Figure 3 illustrates many of the terms defined in this glossary. Technical
Notes in this series will use this terminology.

Abutment: The masonry or combination of masonry and other structural members which support one
end of the arch at the skewback.
Arch: A form of construction in which masonry units span an opening by transferring vertical loads
laterally to adjacent voussoirs and, thus, to the abutments. Some common arch types are as follows:
Blind - An arch whose opening is filled with masonry.
Bullseye - An arch whose intrados is a full circle. Al-so known as a Circular arch.
Elliptical - An arch with two centers and continually changing radii.
Fixed - An arch whose skewback is fixed in position and inclination. Masonry arches are fixed arches
by na - ture of their construction.
Gauged - An arch formed with tapered voussoirs and thin mortar joints.
Gothic - An arch with relatively large rise-to-span ra - tio, whose sides consist of arcs of circles, the
centers of which are at the level of the spring line. Also referred to as a Drop, Equilateral or Lancet arch,
depending up-on whether the spacings of the centers are respectively less than, equal to or more than the
clear span.
Horseshoe - An arch whose intrados is greater than a semicircle and less than a full circle. Also known
as an
Arabic or Moorish arch.
Jack - A flat arch with zero or little rise. Multicentered - An arch whose curve consists of sev-

eral arcs of circles which are normally tangent at their intersections.

Relieving - An arch built over a lintel, jack arch or smaller arch to divert loads, thus relieving the lower
arch or lintel from excessive loading. Also known as a
Discharging or Safety arch.
Segmental - An arch whose intrados is circular but less than a semicircle.
Semicircular - An arch whose intrados is a semicircle (half circle).
Slanted - A flat arch which is constructed with a key-stone whose sides are sloped at the same angle as
the skewback and uniform width brick and mortar joints.
Triangular - An arch formed by two straight, inclined sides.

Tudor - A pointed, four-centered arch of medium rise-to-span ratio whose four centers are all beneath
the extrados of the arch.
Venetian - An arch formed by a combination of jack arch at the ends and semicircular arch at the
middle. Also known as a Queen Anne arch.
Camber: The relatively small rise of a jack arch. Centering: Temporary shoring used to support an arch
until the arch becomes self-supporting.
Crown: The apex of the archs extrados. In symmetri-cal arches, the crown is at the midspan.
Depth: The dimension of the arch at the skewback which is perpendicular to the arch axis, except that
the depth of a jack arch is taken to be the vertical dimen-sion of the arch at the springing.
Extrados: The curve which bounds the upper edge of the arch.
Intrados: The curve which bounds the lower edge of the arch. The distinction between soffit and
intrados is that the intrados is a line, while the soffit is a surface.
Keystone: The voussoir located at the crown of the arch. Also called the key.
Label Course: A ring of projecting brickwork that forms the extrados of the arch.
Rise: The maximum height of the arch soffit above the level of its spring line.
Skewback: The surface on which the arch joins the supporting abutment.
Skewback Angle: The angle made by the skewback from horizontal.

Soffit: The surface of an arch or vault at the intrados. Span: The horizontal clear dimension between
abut-ments.
Spandrel: The masonry contained between a horizontal line drawn through the crown and a vertical line
drawn through the upper most point of the skewback.
Springing: The point where the skewback intersects the intrados.
Springer: The first voussoir from a skewback.
Spring Line: A horizontal line which intersects the springing.
Voussoir: One masonry unit of an arch.
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF ARCHES
The brick masonry arch has been used to span open-ings of considerable length in many different applica-tions.
Structural efficiency is attributed to the curvature of the arch, which transfers vertical loads laterally along the arch to the
abutments at each end. The transfer of vertical forces gives rise to both horizontal and vertical reactions at the abutments.
The curvature of the arch and the restraint of the arch by the abutments cause a combination of flexural stress and axial
compression. The arch depth, rise and configuration can be manipu-lated to keep stresses primarily compressive. Brick
ma-sonry is very strong in compression, so brick masonry arches can support considerable load.

Historically, arches have been constructed with unre-inforced masonry. Most brick masonry arches
continue to be built with unreinforced masonry. The structural design of unreinforced brick masonry
arches is dis-cussed in Technical Notes 31A. Very long span arches and arches with a small rise may
require steel reinforce-ment to resist tensile stresses. Also, reduction in abut-ment size and arch thickness
for economy may require incorporation of reinforcement for adequate load resis-tance. Refer to the
Technical Notes 17 Series for more information on reinforced brick masonry. Elaborate and intricate
arches are sometimes prefabricated to avoid the complexity of on-site shoring. Most prefabri-cated brick
masonry arches are reinforced. Prefabricat-ed arches are built off site and transported to the job or built at
the site. Cranes are often used to lift the arch into place in the wall. Such fabrication, handling and
transportation should be considered in the structural de-sign of the arch. Refer to Technical Notes 40 for a
dis-cussion of prefabricated brick masonry.
If an unreinforced or reinforced brick masonry arch is not structurally adequate, the arch will require
sup-port. Typically, this support is provided by a steel an-gle. This is the most common means of
supporting brick masonry arches in modern construction. The steel angle is bent to the curvature of the
intrados of the arch. Curved sections of steel angle are welded to horizontal steel angles to form a
continuous support. The angle ei-ther bears on the brickwork abutments or is attached to a structural
member behind the wall. One example is shown in Fig. 4. When an arch is supported by a steel angle, the
angle is designed to support the entire weight of brick masonry loading the arch, and the structural resistance of the arch is neglected. Consult Technical Notes 31B Revised for a discussion of the structural
de-sign of steel angle lintels.

WEATHER RESISTANCE
Water penetration resistance is a primary concern in most applications of the building arch. In the past,
the mass of a multi-wythe brick masonry arch was suffi-cient to resist water penetration. Today, thinner
wall sections are used to minimize material use for economy and efficiency. Still, the arch must provide
an effective

weather resistant facade. Some arch applications do not require provisions for water penetration
and insulation. For example, arch arcades and arches supported by porch columns typically do
not conceal a direct path for water migration to the interior of the building they serve and may not
require insulation. If this is the case, pro-visions for weather resistance need not be included in
the arch design and detailing.
Preventing water entry at an arch in an exterior build-ing wall is just as important as at any other wall opening.
Water penetration resistance can be provided by using a barrier wall system or a drainage wall system. Refer to
Technical Notes 7 Revised for definitions and discussion of barrier and drainage wall systems. A drainage wall
system, such as a brick veneer or cavity wall, is the most common brick masonry wall system used today. For either wall system, the arch should be flashed, with weep holes provided above all flashing locations.

Flashing and Weep Holes

Installation of flashing and weep holes around an arch can be difficult. Installation of flashing
is easiest with jack arches because they are flat or nearly flat. Flashing should be installed below
the arch and above the window framing or steel angle lintel. Flashing should extend a minimum
of 4 in. (100 mm) past the wall opening at either end and should be turned up to form end dams.
This is often termed tray flashing. Weep holes should be provided at both ends of the flashing and
should be placed at a maximum spacing of 24 in. (600 mm) on centers along the arch span, or 16
in. (400 mm) if rope wicks are used. An example of flashing a jack arch in this manner is shown
in Fig. 5a. Attachment of the flashing to the backing and formation of end dams should follow
standard procedures. If the arch is constructed with reinforced brick masonry, flashing and weep
holes can be placed in the first ma-sonry course above the arch.

Installation of flashing with other arch types, such as segmental and semicircular arches, can be more
diffi-cult. This is because most rigid flashing materials are
hard to bend around an arch with tight curvature. If the arch span is less than about 3 ft (0.9 m), one
section of tray flashing can be placed in the first horizontal mortar joint above the keystone, as illustrated
in Fig. 5b. For arch spans greater than 3 ft (0.9 m), flashing can be bent along the curve of the arch with
overlapping sections, as illustrated in Fig. 4. Alternately, a combination of stepped and tray flashing can
be used, as shown in Fig. 5c. To form a step, the end nearest the arch should be turned up to form an end
dam, while the opposite end is laid flat. A minimum of No. 15 building paper or equivalent moisture
resistant protection should be in-stalled on the exterior face of the backing over the full height of the arch
and abutments. The building paper or equivalent should overlap the arch flashing.
The design of a structural masonry arch should in-clude consideration of the effect of flashing on the
strength of the arch. Flashing acts as a bond break. If flashing is installed above the arch, the loading on
the arch will likely be increased, and the structural resis-tance of the arch will be reduced. Installation of
flash-ing at the abutments will affect their structural resis-tance and should also be considered. Consult
Technical Notes 31A for a more extensive discussion of arch loads and structural resistance of brick
masonry arches.

DETAILING CONSIDERATIONS
The brick masonry arch should serve its structural purpose and also provide an attractive architectural
ele-ment to complement its surrounding structure. Careful consideration should be given to the options

available for the arch, soffit and skewback. Proper configuration of the abutments and location of
expansion joints should be considered for any arch design.
Arch
Arches can be configured in a variety of arch depths, brick sizes and shapes and bonding patterns. The arch is normally
composed of an odd number of units for aesthetic purposes. Some of the more common arch configurations are illustrated
in Fig. 6. Arch voussoirs are typically laid in radial orientation and are most often of similar size and color to the
surrounding brickwork. However, the arch can be formed with brick which are thinner or wider than the surrounding
brickwork and of a different color for variation. Another variation is to project or recess rings of multiple-ring arches to
pro-vide shadow lines or a label course.

Brick masonry arches are constructed with two dif-ferent types of units. The first is tapered or wedgeshaped brick. These brick are tapered in the appropriate manner to obtain mortar joints of uniform
thickness along the arch depth. The second is uncut, rectangular brick. When rectangular brick are used,
the mortar joints are tapered to obtain the desired arch curvature. In some cases, a combination of these is
used. For ex-ample, a slanted arch is formed with a tapered keystone and rectangular brick. This arch is
similar to a jack
arch, but can be more economical because it requires only one special-shaped brick.
Selection of tapered or rectangular brick can be de-termined by the arch type, arch dimensions and by
the appearance desired. Some arch types require more unique shapes and sizes of brick if uniform mortar
joint thickness is desired. For example, the brick in a tradi-tional jack arch or elliptical arch are all
different sizes and shapes from the abutment to the keystone. Con-versely, the voussoirs of a semicircular
arch are all the same size and shape. Arch types with many different brick shapes and sizes should be
special ordered from the brickmanufacturer rather than cut in the field.
The arch span should also be considered when select-ing the arch brick. For short arch spans, use of tapered brick is
recommended to avoid excessively wide mortar joints at the extrados. Larger span arches require less taper of the
voussoirs and, consequently, can be formed with rectangular brick and tapered mortar joints. The thickness of mortar
joints between arch brick should be a maximum of 34 in. (19 mm) and a minimum of 18 in. (3 mm). When using mortar
joints thinner than 14 in. (6 mm), consideration should be given to the use of very uniform brick that meet the dimensional
tolerance limits of ASTM C 216, Type FBX, or the use of gauged brick-work. Refer to Table 1 for determination of the
mini-

mum segmental and semicircular arch radii permitted for rectangular brick and tapered mortar
joints. Typi-cally, the use of tapered brick and uniform thickness mortar joints will be more
aesthetically appealing.
Depth. The arch depth will depend upon the size and orientation of the brick used to form the
arch. Typ-ically, the arch depth is a multiple of the bricks width. For structural arches, a
minimum arch depth is deter-mined from the structural requirements. If the arch is supported by a
lintel, any arch depth may be used.
The depth of the arch should also be detailed based on the scale of the arch in relation to the
scale of the building and surrounding brickwork. To provide proper visual balance and scale, the
arch depth should increase with increasing arch span. Because aesthetics of an arch are
subjective, there are no hard rules for this. However, the following rules-of-thumb will help provide an arch with proper scale. For segmental and semicircular arches, the arch depth should
equal or ex-ceed 1 in. (25 mm) for every foot (300 mm) of arch span or 4 in. (100 mm),
whichever is greater. For jack arches, the arch depth should equal or exceed 4 in. (100 mm) plus

1 in. (25 mm) for every foot (300 mm) of arch span or 8 in. (200 mm), whichever is greater. For
example, the minimum arch depth for an 8 ft (2.4 m) span should be 8 in. (200 mm) for
segmental arches and 12 in. (300 mm) for jack arches.
The depth of jack arches will also be a function of the coursing of the surrounding brick
masonry. The springing and the extrados of the jack arch should coin-cide with horizontal mortar
joints in the surrounding brick masonry. Typically, the depth of a jack arch will equal the height
of 3, 4 or 5 courses of the surrounding brickwork, depending upon the course height.
Keystone. The keystone may be a single brick, mul-tiple brick, stone, precast concrete or terra cotta.
Avoid using a keystone which is much taller than the adjacent voussoirs. A rule-of-thumb is that the
keystone should not extend above adjacent arch brick by more than one-third the arch depth. When a
keystone is used that is larger than adjacent arch brick or formed with different material, one option is to
use springers that match the keystone.
The use of a large keystone has its basis in both pur-pose and visual effect. With most arch types, the
likely location of the first crack when the arch fails is at the mortar joint nearest to the midspan of the
arch. Use of a large keystone at this point moves the first mortar joint further from the midspan and
increases the resis-tance to cracking at this point. Aesthetically, a large keystone adds variation of scale
and can introduce other masonry materials in the facade for additional color and texture.

If the keystone is formed with more than one mason-ry unit, avoid placing the smaller unit at the
bottom. Such units are more likely to slip when the arch settles under load. Also, it is preferred to have
the arch crown (the top of the keystone) coincident with a horizontal mortar joint in the surrounding
brickwork to give the arch a neater appearance.
Soffit
A brick masonry soffit is one attractive feature of a structural brick masonry arch. Many bonding
patterns and arrangements can be used to form the arch soffit. Deep soffits are common on building
arcades or arched entranceways. In this case, it is common to form a U-shaped wall section, as illustrated
in Fig. 7. The arches on either wall face should be bonded to the brick ma-sonry forming the soffit.
Bonding pattern or metal ties should be used to tie the brick masonry forming the sof - fit together
structurally and to tie the arches on either wall face to the soffit. If metal ties are used to bond the
masonry, corrosion resistant box or Z metal wire ties

ing should be cut or be a special cant-shaped brick. This allows vertical alignment with the brick
beneath, producing more accurate alignment of the arch.
When two arches are adjacent, such as with a two-bay garage or building arcades, intersection of the
arch-es may occur at the skewback. Attention should be giv-en to proper bonding of the arches for both
visual ap-peal and structural bonding. Creation of a vertical line between arches should be avoided.
Rather, special shape brick should be used to mesh the two arches properly. One example is illustrated in
Fig. 9.
Abutments
An arch abutment can be a column, wall or combina-tion of wall and shelf angle. Failure of an
abutment oc-curs from excessive lateral movement of the abutment or exceeding the flexural,
compressive or shear strength of the abutment. Lateral movement of the abutment is due to the
horizontal thrust of the arch. Thrust develops in all arches and the thrust force is greater for flatter
arches. The thrust should be resisted so that lateral movement of the abutment does not cause failure in
the arch. If the abutment is formed by a combination of brickwork and a non-masonry structural
member, rigid-ity of the non-masonry structural member and rigidity of the ties are very important.
Adjustable ties or single or double wire ties are recommended. Corrugated ties should not be used in this
application because they do not provide adequate axial stiffness. Consult Technical Notes 31A for
further discussion of abutment and tie stiffness requirements.
Lateral Bracing
In addition to gravity loads, out-of-plane loads should be considered when designing a masonry arch.
The arch should have adequate resistance to out-of-plane loads or lateral bracing should be provided. In
veneer construction, lateral bracing is provided by the backing through the use of wall ties. Arches

which are not laterally braced may require increased masonry thickness or reinforcement to carry loads
perpendicular to the arch plane in addition to vertical loads.
Expansion Joints
Thermal and moisture movements of brick masonry are controlled by the use of expansion joints.
Expan-sion joints avoid cracking of the brickwork and also re-duce the size of wall sections. Reduction
of wall size has a very important effect upon the performance of structural brick masonry arches. The
state of stress in a structural brick arch and the surrounding masonry is very sensitive to the relative
movements of the abut-ments. If an inadequate number of expansion joints are provided, the differential
movement of abutments can cause cracking and downward displacement of brick in the masonry arch
and surrounding masonry. Proper size and spacing of expansion joints is discussed in Techni - cal Notes
18A Revised.
If the arch is structural, care should be taken not to
affect the integrity of the arch by detailing expansion joints too close to the arch and its
abutments. Vertical expansion joints should not be placed in the masonry directly above a
structural arch. This region of masonry is in compression, so an expansion joint will cause displacement when centering is removed and possible col-lapse of the arch and surrounding
brickwork. In addi-tion, vertical expansion joints should not be placed in close proximity to the
springing. The expansion joint will reduce the effective width of the abutment and its ability to
resist horizontal thrust from the arch. If the arch is non-structural, placement of expansion joints
may be at the arch crown and also at a sufficient dis-tance away from the springing to avoid
sliding. While permitted, placement of an expansion joint at the arch crown is not preferred
because it disrupts ones traditional view of the arch as a structural element. Refer to Fig. 10 for suggested expansion joint locations
for structural and non-structural arches.
Detailing of expansion joints can be difficult with very long span arches or runs of multiple arches
along an arcade. Structural analysis of the arch should con-sider the location of expansion joints. For the
particular case of multiple arches closely spaced, vertical expan-sion joints should be detailed at a
sufficient distance away from the end arches so that horizontal arch thrusts are adequately resisted by the
abutments to avoid over-turning of the abutments. For long arcades, expansion joints should also be
placed along the centerline of abutments between arches when necessary. In this case, horizontal thrusts
from adjacent arches will not be counteracting, so the effective abutment length should be halved and
overturning of each half of the abutment should be checked. Refer to Technical Notes 31A for further
discussion of abutment design for adequate stiff-ness.

MATERIAL SELECTION
To provide a weather resistant barrier and maintain its structural resistance, the arch must be
constructed with durable materials. The strength of an arch depends upon the compressive strength and
the flexural tensile strength of the masonry. Selection of brick and mortar should consider these
properties.
Brick

Solid or hollow clay brick may be used to form the arch and the surrounding brickwork. Solid brick
should comply with the requirements of ASTM C 216 Specifi-cation for Facing Brick. Hollow brick
should comply with the requirements of ASTM C 652 Specification for Hollow Brick. Refer to Technical
Notes 9 Series for a discussion of brick selection and classification. The compressive strength of masonry
is related to the com-pressive strength of the brick, the mortar type and the grout strength. For structural
arches, brick should be selected with consideration of the required compressive strength of masonry.
Typically, compressive strength of the brick masonry will not limit the design of the arch.
Tapered voussoirs can be cut from rectangular units at the job site or special ordered from the brick
manu-facturer. Before specifying manufactured special arch shapes, the designer should determine the
availability of special shapes for the arch type and brick color and tex-ture desired. Many brick
manufacturers produce ta-pered arch brick for the more common arch types as part of their regular stock
of special shapes. Be sure to contact the manufacturer as early as possible if special shapes are needed. In
many instances, production of the special shapes may require a color matching process and adequate lead
time for the manufacturer.
Mortar
Mortar used to construct brick masonry arches should meet the requirements of ASTM C 270 Standard
Specification for Masonry Mortar. Consult Technical Notes 8 Series for a discussion of mortar types and
kinds for brick masonry. For structural arches, the flex-ural tensile strength of the masonry should be
consid-ered when selecting the mortar. The flexural tensile strength of the masonry will affect the load
resistance of the arch and the abutments.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKMANSHIP

The proper performance of a brick masonry arch de-pends upon proper methods of construction and attention to
workmanship. Layout of the arch prior to construction will help avoid poor spacing of voussoirs, which results in thicker
mortar joints and unsymmetrical arches. Some arch applications, such as barrel vaults and domes, can be entirely selfsupporting, even during construction. How-ever, most applications of the masonry arch used today require proper shoring
and bracing.

Centering
Both structural and non-structural arches should be properly supported throughout construction. Brick
ma-sonry arches are constructed with the aid of temporary shoring, termed centering, or permanent
supports, such as a structural steel angle.
Centering is used to carry the weight of a brick ma-sonry arch and the loads being supported by the arch
until the arch itself has gained sufficient strength. The term centering is used because the shoring is
marked for proper positioning of the brick forming the archCentering is typically provided by wood
construction. An example of centering for an arch is shown in Fig. 11. Careful construction of the
centering will ensure a more pleasing arch appearance and avoid layout prob-lems, such as an uneven
number of brick to either side of the keystone.
Immediately after placement of the keystone, very slight downward displacement of the centering,
termed easing, can be performed to cause the arch voussoirs to press against one another and compress
the mortar joints between them. Easing helps to avoid separation cracks in the arch. In no case should

centering be re-moved until it is certain that the masonry is capable of carrying all imposed loads.
Premature removal of the centering may result in collapse of the arch.
Centering should remain in place for at least seven days after construction of the arch. Longer curing
peri-ods may be required when the arch is constructed in cold weather conditions and when required for
struc-tural reasons. The arch loading and the structural resis-tance of the arch will depend upon the
amount of brick-work surrounding the arch, particularly the brick ma-sonry within spandrel areas.
Appropriate time of re-moval of centering for a structural arch should be deter-mined with consideration
of the assumptions made in the structural analysis of the arch. It may be necessary to wait until the
brickwork above the arch has also cured before removing the centering.
Workmanship
All mortar joints should be completely filled, espe-cially in a structural member such as an arch.
If hollow brick are used to form the arch, it is very important that all face shells and end webs
are completely filled with mortar. Brick masonry arches are sometimes construct-ed with the
units laid in a soldier orientation. It may be difficult to lay units in a soldier position and also
obtain completely filled mortar joints. This is especially true for an arch with tapered mortar
joints. In such cases, the use of two or more rings of arch brick laid in rowlock orientation can
help ensure full mortar joints.

CHAPTER 6

Doors, Windows and Ventilators

TYPES OF WINDOWS

Depending upon the manner of fixing, materials used for construction, nature of the operational
movements of shutters , etc., the common varieties of windows used in the building can be
grouped as follows:

3.5 Casement windows

3.6 Sliding windows

3.7 Metal windows

3.8 Corner windows
3.9 Gable windows bay windows
3.10

Lantern or lantern lights

3.11

Skylights

CASEMENT WINDOWS:

These are the windows, the shutters of which open like doors. The construction of a
casement window is similar to the door construction.

SLIDING WINDOWS:

These windows are similar to the sliding doors and the shutters moves on the roller bearings,
either horizontally or vertically. Such windows are provided in trains, buses, bank counter, shops
etc.

METAL WINDOWS:

These are now a days widely used, especially for public building. The metal used in
construction may be mild steel, bronze, or other alloys. The metal frame may be fixed direct
to the wall or it may be fixed on a wooden frame.

CORNER WINDOWS:

These windows are provided at the corner of a room .They are placed at the corner of the
room and thus they have two faces in two perpendicular direction. Due to such
situation,there is entry of light and air from two direction and in many cases , the elevation of
building is also improved.

GABLE WINDOWS:

These are the windows which are provided in the gable ends of a roof.

BAY WINDOWS:

These windows project outside the external wall of a room. They maybe square , splayed,
circular, polygonal or of any shape. The projection of bay windows may start from floor
level or sill level. These windows admit more lights, increase opening area , provide
ventilation and improve the appearance of building.

LANTERNS:

These are the windows which are fixed on flat roofs to provide light to the inner
portion of building where light coming from external windows are insufficient. They
maybe square or rectangular or curved.

SKYLIGHTS:

these are the windows which are provided on the sloping surface of a pitched roof. The
common rafter are suitably trimmed and the skylight is erected on a curb frame. As skylight
are mainly meant for light, they are usually provided with the fixed glass panel.

TYPES OF DOORS

A door is a moving structure used to block off, and allow access to, an entrance to or within
an enclosed space, such as a building or vehicle. Similar exterior structures are called gate.
Typically doors have an interior side that faces the inside of a space and an exterior side that
faces the outside of that space. While in some cases the interior side of a door may match its
exterior side, in other cases there are sharp contrasts between the two sides, such as in the
case of the vehicle door. Doors normally consist of a panel that swings on hinges or that
slides or spins inside of a space.

Panel doors:

Panel doors, also called stile and rail doors, are built withframeand panel
construction. EN 12519 is describing the terms which are officially used in European
Member States. The main parts are listed below:

1.3 Stiles - Vertical boards that run the full height of a door and compose its right and

left edges. The hinges are mounted to the fixed side (known as the "hanging stile"),
and the handle, lock, bolt, and/or latch are mounted on the swinging side (known
as the "latch stile").

2.3 Rails- Horizontal boards at the top, bottom, and optionally in the middle of a door

that join the two stiles and split the door into two or more rows of panels. The "top
rail" and "bottom rail" are named for their positions. The bottom rail is also known
as "kick rail". A middle rail at the height of the bolt is known as the "lock rail",
other middle rails are commonly known as "cross rails".
2.4 Mullions - Smaller optional vertical boards that run between two rails, and split the
door into two or more columns of panels, the term is used sometimes for verticals in
doors, but more often (UK and Australia) it refers to verticals in windows.
2.5 Muntin - Optional vertical members that divide the door into smaller panels.
2.6 Panels - Large, wider boards used to fill the space between the stiles, rails, and
mullions. The panels typically fit into grooves in the other pieces, and help to keep
the door rigid. Panels may be flat, or in raised panel designs. Can be glued in or stay
as a floating panel.
2.7 Light or Lite - a piece of glass used in place of a panel, essentially giving the
door a window.

Plank and batten doors:

Plank and batten doors are an older design consisting primarily of vertical slats:

2.3 Planks - Vertical boards that extend the full height of the door, and are placed side by

side filling the door's width.

Battens - Smaller slats that extend horizontally across the door which the planks are affixed to.
The battens hold the planks together. Sometimes a long diagonal slat or two are also
implemented to prevent the door from skewing. On some doors, especially antique ones, the
battens are replaced with iron bars that are often built into the hinges as extensions of the doorside plates

Ledged and braced doors:

This type consists of vertical tongue and grooved boards held together with
battens and diagonal braces.

Frame and filled doors:

This type consists of a solid timber frame, filled on one face, face with Tongue and Grooved
boards. Quite often used externally with the boards on the weather face.

Flush doors:

A flush door consists of a framework of rails and styles and it is covered with plywood. There
are two varieties of flush doors

1.framed flush door :

It consists of styles, rails, horizontal ribs, vertical ribs, and plywood. As shown in fig.

2.laminated flush door

It consists of styles, rails, laminated core and plywood as shown in fig.

Louvered Doors:

In this type of doors, the shutters are provided with louvers, either fully or partly. The louvers are
arranged at such an inclination that horizontal vision is obstructed. The louvers maybe movable or
fixed as shown in fig.
Collapsible Steel Doors:

It consists of a mild steel frame. A collapsible steel door works without hinges and it is used for
compound gates, residential building , schools, sheds, godowns , workshop, public building , etc.

Revolving Doors:

It essentially consists of a centrally placed mullion in a circular opening revolving shutters

which are 4 in number are radially attached to pivot as shown in fig.

CHAPTER 7
DAMP PROOFING AND WATER PROOFING

Damp Proofing Material

1- Flexible Materials:

The materials, which do not crack and deform their shape when subjected to loading, are
called Flexible Materials

a- Bitumen Mastic (Mastic Asphalt)

It consists of asphalt or bitumen mixed with fine sand in hot state to form an impervious
mass.
Due to this consistency it can be spread (when hot) to a depth of 2.5cm to 5cm, which
sets on cooling.
It provides good impervious layer but special care is needed in its laying.
o b- Bitumen Felts (Sheets):

It consists of 6mm thick sheet of bitumen prepared in rolls having width equal to that of
brick wall.
o c- Hot laid Bitumen:

This material is used on a bedding of cement concrete or mortar.

This should be applied in two layers at the rate of 1.75kg/ m2 of the area.
o d- Metal Sheets:

Metal sheets of Copper, Aluminum, or Lead are used to prevent dampness, but
they are costly.
Sheets of these materials are used through out the thickness of the wall.
The sheets of Lead are laid over Lime Mortar and not with Cement Mortar due to
the chemical reaction of Cement over the Lead.
The sheets of metal should be coated with asphalt.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Page 107

The thickness of the sheets should not be less than 3mm.

2- Rigid Materials:

The materials, which do not resist transverse stresses and cracks when subjected to
sever loading, are known as Rigid Materials.

1.2cm to 4cm thick layer of Rich Concrete (1:2:4) painted with two coats of hot bitumen
is used as horizontal D.P.C.
It also prevents the moisture penetration by capillary action.
These layers are laid where the damp is not excessive.

Bricks:

Over burnt or dense bricks in one or two layers can be used as cheap and effective DPC.
They are laid in Rich Cement and Sand Mortar (1:3)
Bricks are rarely used as DPC except in cheap houses.

Mortar:

2cm thick layer of Rich Cement and Sand Mortar (1:3) is applied on the inner face of
external wall.
This is a vertical D.P.C.
The surface is than painted with two coats of hot bitumen.

Rich Concrete

Stones or Slates:

Two layers of stone slabs or slates laid in Lime, Cement and Sand Mortar (1:1:6) make a
best DPC.
They can also be laid in Cement Sand Mortar.
It is used where a good quality of stone is easily and cheaply available

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Page 108

5.
6.

SURPRISE TEST III

Unit 3
1.
2.
3.
4.

What is Plastering? What are its objects and types?

What is Terrazo flooring? Give its construction?
What is anti-termite treatment for floors in construction?
Define: Plastered Surfaces, Distempering, White washing, Colour washing
of walls?

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

First One Hourly Test
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
CET-235
Time- One Hour

Maximum Marks- 24
Section A

Question No. I (Six Short question) all Questions are Compulsory

i)

ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

What are Different Types of Brick bonds? Enumerate?

What is the need of provision of load bearing walls?
What are sources of Dampness?
Give three Points of difference between Concrete block Masonry and brick masonry?
What are different types of footings? Show with neat diagrams the plan and elevation
of any two?
Define: a) Perpend b) Queen Closer c) Bevelled d) Bed.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Page 109

2*6=12
Section B
(Attempt any one question from Section-B)
i)

Explain the merits and demerits of English Bond? Why is it preferred over Flemish
bond? How are Loads estimated on any load bearing walls?

ii)

What are the bad effects of Dampness? Why is damp Proofing needed in
Construction? What are the Methods of Damp Proofing?

1*12=12
ID SEMESTER TEST II
Civil Engineering
Building Construction
Time: 2 hrMax.Marks: 48
Note:

Attempt all six questions from Section A

Attempt any three questions from Section B and C
SECTION-A

Question 1: Short Answer type (Each question carries equal marks (2))
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

vi)

What are different types of arches? Enumerate?

Write any three functions of lintels?
Define: a) Crown b) Abutment c) Impost

What are the various terms used in roof truss? Give any three?
What should be the specified Location of Ventilators?
What is a roof Truss and roof covering?
SECTION-B

Long Answer type (Each question carries equal marks (12))

Q2.Describe estimation of load on walls and footings? Draw a neat and clean sketch of cavity
wall and label it?
Q3 a) Whatare different types of arches? Why is the Arch shape given to any construction?
b) Where are roof trusses provided? What are the various terms used in roof truss?
SECTION-C

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Page 110

Q4 Mention the phenomenon of rain proofing? Discuss why are rain water pipes used?
Q5Ennumerate different types of Doors? Explain any two? What should be the preferred
location for Doors and Windows?

NIT 1

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LECTURE 3

LECTURE 4
INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS
Hollow and dense cement concrete blocks known as hollow blocks, have been
developed as an alternative to bricks. The products are widely used in construction
activity. The hollow blocks are made of cement, stone chips, stone dust and sand
are not only cheaper than bricks but have other specialities as well. These blocks
have more tensile strength, the walls constructed from these blocks act as thermal
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insulaters because of their hollowness. As the construction activity is growing day

by day, there is a good demand for hollow and cement concrete bricks. These
blocks find wide applicability and construction cost is largely reduced. It is also
observed that there is good demand for housing activity among tribals.
Manufacturing: Cement concrete blocks can be solid (dense) or hollow. Besides
different sizes and designs can be given to the blocks. The blocks are made in the
sizes of 12x8x4"; 12x8x3"; 12x8x6", etc. Firstly cement, stone chips, sand, etc are
mixed in the ratio of 1:6 or 1:12. This mixture is put in vibrator machine. This is
then poured into the desired size mould. After 24 hours of drying, the blocks are
put in wter tank for curing. The process of curing continues for two to three weeks
to give the blocks compression strength. The blocks are used in construction
process after drying
Advantages of Concrete Blocks over Brick Masonry
1. Highly Durable: The good concrete compacted by high pressure and
vibration gives substantial strength to the block. Proper curing increase
compressive strength of the blocks.
2. Low Maintenance, Color and brilliance of masonry withstands outdoor
elements.
3. Load Bearing, strength can be specified as per the requirement.
4. Fire Resistant
5. Provide thermal and sound insulation: The air in hollow of the block, does
not allow outside heat or cold in the house. So it keeps house cool in
summer and warm in winter.
6. Economical
7. Environment Friendly, fly ash used as one of the raw materials.
8. Low insurance rates

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Structural Advantages
1. In this construction system, structurally, each wall and slab behaves as a
shear wall and a diaphragm respectively, reducing the vulnerability of
disastrous damage to the structure/building, during the natural hazards.
2. Due to the uniform distribution of reinforcement in both vertical and
horizontal directions, through each masonry element, increased tensile
resistance and ductile behavior of elements could be achieved. Hence, this
construction system can safely resist lateral or cyclic loading, when
compared to other conventional masonry construction systems. This
construction system has also been proved to offer better resistance under
dynamic loading, when compared to other conventional systems of
construction.

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LECTURE 5
Constructional Advantages
1. No additional formwork or any special construction machinery is required
for reinforcing the hollow block masonry.
2. Only semi-skilled labour is required for this type of construction.
3. It is a faster and easier construction system, when compared to the other
conventional construction systems.
4. It is also found to be a cost-effective disaster resistant construction system.
Architectural and Other Advantages
1. This construction system provides better acoustic and thermal insulation for
the building.
2. This system is durable and maintenance free.
3. Reduction in Dead Load
4. Reduced Air Conducting Load: - Approx.50% saving.
5. No salt peter or leaching: - Reduction in maintenance.
6. Increased carpet area: - Due to smaller in size.
7. Faster construction: - Easy to work with bigger in size.
8. Assured Quality: - Fully automatic block plant.
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9. Better sound absorption: - Being hollow in nature.

10.Reduced thickness of plaster: - Due to size accuracy& less cement
consumption due to fewer joints. Load bearing walls: - Due to higher
strength of blocks. Recommended for earth quake resistance. Less
water absorption:- Approx. 3 to 4% Environmental Eco-Friendly
Reduce in total cost of project: - Being less dead load of walls

Lecture 6
DISADVANTAGES OF HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCKS.

People take short-cuts and not fill every block with mortar. By taking this
short-cut, the integrity of the foundation is compromised and the structure is
relatively weak.

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The mortar that is used to adhere the blocks together will crumble and
disintegrate over time. Leaks are a direct result and must be dealt with as soon
as they are detected.
High maintenance costs for block foundations. Mortar must constantly be
monitored and blocks must be sealed every so often to ensure that no leaks
occur.
Concrete blocks can be expensive. Traditional building supplies are less
expensive than purchasing enough blocks for a full foundation. Concrete
blocks are typically two to three times more expensive than wood construction.
Concrete blocks are not pretty. Generally laid out in the same pattern as
brick, concrete blocks are viewed as cold and utilitarian. Concrete is not easily
covered and is difficult to visually enhance. Some people stucco the blocks to
hide the ugliness. Others simply paint the blocks and leave them exposed for
people to see. Extra landscaping is also used to hide block foundations.
Waterproofing is a must. The blocks are porous and the mortar is not leak
proof. Therefore a commercial grade waterproof sealer is required to ensure
that the foundation does not leak.

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LECTURE 6

LECTURE 8
PILLAR
Freestanding columnar supporting member. It is a general term, little used as an ex
act architectural definition except as applied toan upright support in the medieval st
yles, consisting of an assemblage of juxtaposed shafts and moldings; unlike the col
umn, it does notadhere to the rules of the orders of architecture
or ,
A column for supporting part of a structureBased on their purposes various types o
f pillars are distin guished: protective pillars (between levels, above and below drift
s, betweenchambers), which protect objects during mining operations; fire safety pi
llars, which separate individual parts of the mine field from oneanother and help co
ntain the fire, should it begin, within small areas; barrier pillars, which prevent surf
ace or subterranean waters, gases, orloose silt from an excavation or unused mine f
rom entering working mines; and support pillars, which prevent the rocks of the ro
of of theseam or ore body from caving in into an excavated area. The pillar size de
pends on the mining-geological conditions and the purpose of thepillar and is built
according to standard guidelines.

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FOOTING
That portion of the foundation of a structure which transmits loads directly to the s
oil;may be the widened part of a wall or column, the spreading courses under a fou
ndationwall, a foundation of a column, etc.; used to spread the load over a greater a
rea toprevent or reduce settling.The part of a foundation bearing
directly upon the earth.the lower part of a foundation of a column, wall, building, e
tc

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LECTURE 9
Types of footings:
Following are the types of Footing:
1. Strip Footing:
A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is also provided
for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap
or nearly touch each other. In such a case, it is more economical to provide a strip
footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is
also known as continuous footing.

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2. Spread or Isolated Footing:

A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an individual
column. A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform
thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large
area.

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3. Combined Footing:
A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the two columns are so
close to each other that their individual footings would overlap. A combined
footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one column that a
spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the
property line. By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly
distributed. A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

4. Strap or Cantilever footing:

A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a
structural strap or a lever. The strap connects the two footings such that they
behave as one unit. The strap is designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings
are so designed that their combined line of action passes through the resultant of
the total load. a strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when
the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between the columns
is large.

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5. Mat or Raft Foundations:

A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls
under the entire structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the
allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so close that
individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other.
Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on nonhomogeneous soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual
columns.

LECTURE 10
Dampness:

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The access and penetration of moisture content into building through its walls,
floor, roof etc. is called dampness.
Causes of dampness in buildings
1. Rain penetration
2. Level of site
3. Drain ability of soil
4. climate condition
5. Defective orientation of building
6. Moisture entrapped during construction
7. Defective construction e.g. joints
Effects of dampness in buildings:
1. Causes rotting of wood.
2. Causes corrosion of metallic fixtures.
3. Deteriorate electric installations.
4. Deteriorate carpet & furnitures.
5. Causes spots on the floors and walls.
6. Causes petting off and removal of plaster.
7. Causes bleaching and blistering of paints.
8. Causes effloresce.
9. Dangerous for the health of occupants.
10.Reduce the life of structures
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Method of preventing dampness

1. By providing DPC ( Damp proof course )
2. By surface treatment i.e. by providing damp proof paint
3. By integral water proofing method
4. By special devices i.e. by providing chajjas& by providing cavity walls
etc

LECTURE 11
DAMP PROOF COURSE (DPC)
Materials for Damp Proof Course (DPC):
An effective damp proofing material should have the following properties;
1. It should be impervious.
2. It should be strong and durable, and should be capable of withstanding
both dead as well as live loads without damage.
3. It should be dimensionally stable.
4. It should be free from deliquescent salts like sulphates, chlorides and
nitrates.
The materials commonly used to check dampness can be divided into the
following three categories:
1. Flexible Materials: Materials like bitumen felts (which may be hessian
based or fibre/glass fibre based), plastic sheeting (polythene sheets) etc.
2. Semi-rigid Materials: Materials like mastic, asphalt, or combination of
materials or layers.
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3. Rigid Materials: Materials like first class bricks, stones, slate, cement
concrete etc.

LECTURE 12
SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR DAMP PROOF COURSE:
The choice of material to function as an effective damp proof course requires a
judicious selection. It depends upon the climate and atmospheric conditions, nature
of structure and the situation where DPC is to be provided. The points to be kept in
view while making selection of DPC materials are briefly discussed below:
1. DPC above ground level: For DPC above ground level with wall
thickness generally not exceeding 40cm, any one of the type of materials
mentioned above may be used. Cement concrete is however commonly
adopted material for DPC at plinth level, 38 to 50mm thick layer of
cement concrete M15 (1:2:4 mix) serves the purpose under normal
conditions.
In case of damp and humid atmosphere, richer mix of concrete should be used. The
concrete is further made dense by adding water proofing materials like Pudlo,
Impermo, Waterlocketc in its ingredients during the process of mixing. It is used to
apply two coats of hot bitumen over the third surface of the concrete DPC.
1. DPC Material for floors, roofs etc: For greater wall thickness or where
DPC is to be laid over large areas such as floors, roofs, etc, the choice is
limited to flexible materials which provide lesser number of joints like
mastic, asphalt, bitumen felts, plastic sheets etc.

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The felts when used should be properly bonded to the surface with bitumen and
laid with joints properly lapped and sealed.
1. DPC Material for situations where differential thermal movements
occur: In parapet walls and other such situations, materials like mastic,
asphalt, bitumen felts and metal (copper or lead) are recommended. It is
important to ensure that the DPC material is flexible so as to avoid any
damage or puncture of the material due to differential thermal movement
between the material of the roof and the parapet.
2. DPC material for Cavity Walls: In cavity wall construction, like cavity
over the door or window should be bridged by flexible material like
bitumen felt, strips or lead etc.

General principles to be observed while laying DPC are:

1. The DPC should cover full thickness of walls excluding rendering.
2. The mortar bed upon which the DPC is to be laid should be made level,
even and free from projections. Uneven base is likely to cause damage to
DPC.
3. When a horizontal DPC is to be continued up a vertical face a cement
concrete fillet 75mm in radius should be provided at the junction prior to
the treatment.
4. Each DPC should be placed in correct relation to other DPC so as to
ensure complete and continuous barrier to the passage of water from
floors, walls or roof.

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Quiz Unit 1
1.
In case of Raymond pile
A.

lengths vary from 6 m to 12 m

B.

diameter of top of piles varies from 40 cm to 60 cm

C.

diameter of pile at bottom varies from 20 cm to 28 cm

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D.

thickness of outer shell depends upon pile diameter

E.

all the above.

Answer: Option E

2.
Queen closer may be placed
A.

in header course

B.

in stretcher course

C.

in header course next to first brick

D.

in stretcher course next to first brick

E.

in any position.

Answer: Option C
3.
Dado is usually provided in
A.

dinning halls

B.

bath rooms

C.

living rooms

D.

Verandah

E.

roofs.

Answer: Option B
4.
The foundation in which a cantilever beam is provided to join two footings, is known as
A.

strip footing

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B.

strap footing

C.

combined footing

D.

raft footing

E.

none of these.

Answer: Option B
5.
The foundations are placed below ground level, to increase
A.

Strength

B.

Workability

C.

stability of structure

D.

all the above.

Answer: Option C
6.
Stud(s) of a common wooden partition
A.

are vertical wooden members

B.

is the upper horizontal wooden member

C.

is the lower horizontal wooden member

D.

are the intermediate horizontal wooden members.

Answer: Option A
7.
Pick up the correct statement from the following :
A.

inclined borings are made for taking samples under existing structures

B.

inclined borings are occasionally used instead of vertical holes.

C.

the spacing of inclined borings is kept such that one bore hole is vertically above

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the bottom of an adjacent bore hole.

D.

all the above.

Answer: Option D
8.
Pick up the commonly adopted geophysical method in civil engineering from the following :
A.

the seisomic method

B.

electrical resistivity method

C.

gravitational method

D.

magnetic method

E.

both (a) and (b) of the above.

Answer: Option E
9.
To ensure that supporting area of an offset footing of a boundary wall is fully compressive,
the C.G. of load must act
A.

at the centre of the base

B.

within the middle third of the base

C.

within the middle fifth of the base

D.

neither (a), (b) nor (c)

Answer: Option B
10.
The 9 cm x 9 cm side of a brick as seen in the wall face, is generally known as
A.

Stretcher

B.

face

C.

Front

D.

header

E.

side.

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Answer: Option D
11.
The taper of precast concrete pile should not be more than
A.

1 cm per metre length

B.

2 cm per metre length

C.

4 cm per metre length

D.

5 cm per metre length.

Answer: Option B
12.
The under surface of an arch, is called
A.
C.

Soffit

B.

Haunch

D.

Intrados
back.

Answer: Option A
13.
The raft slab is projected beyond the outer walls of the structure by
A.

5 to 10 cm

B.

15 to 20 cm

C.

25 to 30 cm

D.

30 to 45 cm

E.

60 cm.

Answer: Option D
14.
The process of making the back ground rough, before plastering, is

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A.

Dubbing

B.

Hacking

C.

Blistering

D.

peeling.

Answer: Option B
15.
Black cotton soil is unsuitable for foundations because its
A.

bearing capacity is low

B.

permeability is uncertain

C.

particles are cohesive

D.

property to undergo a volumetric change due to variation of moisture content.

Answer: Option D
16.
The loose pockets in soil mass can be bridged safely by providing a raft foundation provided
the soft area is smaller than
A.

the column spacing

B.

one-third the column spacing

C.

half the column spacing

D.

three-fourth the column spacing

E.

none of these.

Answer: Option B
17.
The portion of a brick cut across the width, is called
A.

Closer

B.

half brick

C.

Bed

D.

bat.

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Answer: Option D
18.
The concrete slump recommended for beams and slabs ; is
A.

25 to 50 mm

B.

25 to 75 mm

C.

30 to 125 mm

D.

50 to 100 mm

E.

none of these.

Answer: Option C
19.
The member which is placed horizontally to support common rafter of a sloping roof, is
A.

Purlin

B.

Cleat

C.

batten

D.

strut.

Answer: Option A
20.
Pick up the correct statement from the following:
A.

Louvered door is generally provided in bath rooms

B.

Flush door is generally provided in dinning room

C.

Revolving door is generally provided in cinema halls

D.

Sliding door is generally provided in show rooms

E.

All the above.

Answer: Option C
21.
Grillage foundation
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A.

is used to transfer heavy structural loads from steel columns to a soil having low
bearing capacity

B.

is light and economical

C.

does not require deep cutting as the required base area with required pressure
intensity is obtained at a shallow depth

D.

is constructed by rolled steel joists (R.S.J.) placed in single or double tier

E.

all the above.

Answer: Option E
22.
The exterior angle between outer faces of a wall, is known as
A.

Turn

B.

Junction

C.

quoin

D.

all the above.

Answer: Option C
23.
In jack arch floor, the rise is kept
A.

1/6th of the span

B.

1/8th of the span

C.

1/10th of the span

D.

1/12th of the span

E.

1/15th of the span.

Answer: Option D

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UNIT 2

LECTURE 13
ARCHES AND LINTELS:
Arch
A group of masonry units that span an opening.

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Terms:
Crown
The top section of a curved arch (or road camber etc).
Keystone
In stonework the keystone is a central voussoir that is quite often decorated
in some way. When the arch is being built it is always built up evenly from
side to side and the last stone placed is the keystone.
Springing Line.
A horizontal construction line denoting the starting of the curve in curved
arches, or the bottom of a flat arch.
Extrados
A construction line denoting outer limit of the arch. It is used in the setting
out.
Intrados
A construction line denoting inside limit of the arch. It is used in the setting
out. Not be be confused with the soffit which is a surface.
Haunch
The first few voussoirs up from the springing line.
Voussior
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The individual masonry pieces that make up an arch. (In the sketch above
their are nine of them.
Abutment
The general mass of masonry that supports one end of the arch. In bridge
building it is also the part that meets the roadway, and it is also the base part
of bridge piers,
Impost
The masonry piece that one end of the arch sits on.

LECTURE `14
TYPES:
Semi Circular:
A roman arch which is also known as a semi-circular arch. It forms a semicircle. It is generally made of brick masonry.

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Segmental Arch
A Syrian arch which is also known as a Segmental arch. It forms a partial curve
since it has a small rise in the centre and is semi-elliptical across the top.

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Flattened Gothic Arches

Flattened Gothic arches are also known as Tudor arches. Tudor arches have a low
rise because of which they are named as flattened gothic arches. Gothic arches are
generally narrower than the flattened gothic arches.

Flat arches
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Flat arches are also known as straight arches. As the name itself suggests, the arch
spans straight across the opening without any curvation.

Gothic Arches
Gothic arches are narrow arches with a pointed opening. It was considered to be a
more sinuous and elegant successor to the roman arch style. Gothic arches have
been used in cathedrals of the Middle ages across Europe.

Horseshoe Arches
A Moorish arches are also called Horseshoe arches. The arch resembles the look of
a horseshoe magnet. The curved arch line extends beyond the semi-circular line of
the arch.

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LECTURE 15
LINTELS
Lintel is a horizontal flexural member which spans over the openings in the walls
for doors, windows,
ventilators, cupboards etc. The load of masonry above the opening is transferred to
the wall by flexural
action of the lintel so that frames of doors, windows etc are not unduly loaded. The
end bearings for the
lintel should be at least 200 mm. The width of lintels is same as that of wall.
Lintels of various materials are used. They are:
(a) Wood
(b) Stone
(c) Brick
(d) R.C.C. and
(e) Steel.
(a) Wood Lintel: It may be a single piece or may be assembled by joining 2 to 3
pieces. Sometimes
the wooden lintels are strengthened by steel plates at top and bottom. Such lintels
are called
as flitched beams.
(b) Stone Lintels: Wherever stones are available stone beams are used as lintels.
As stone is
weak in tension they can be used only for small spans. Their depth is kept about 1
10
th span.
Stones are cut to the width of wall and dressed before using as lintels.
(c) Brick Lintels: Well burnt, good quality lintels are laid on ends or edges to form
lintels as
shown in Fig. 8.34. It needs temporary form work at the time of construction. The
lintel is to
be cured for 714 days before form work is removed. Such lintels are useful to
span small
openings.

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LECTURE 16
(d) R.C.C. Lintels: It is possible to provide R.C.C. lintels of any span required in
the building.
They can be isolated or continuous over the openings. They are provided with
suitable
reinforcementmain reinforcements beings on lower side in the opening.
Nowadays these
lintels are used very commonly in buildings.
SUPER STRUCTURES 123
(e) Steel Lintels: Steel angles or rolled steel I-sections are used as lintels. Tube
separators may
be provided to maintain the spacing between the sections. If the sections are
opened to
atmospheric action, regular painting is necessary. Many times they are encased in
concrete to
avoid maintenance problem. These lintels can be used for large openings.
LECTURE 17
ROOFS:
Roof is the upper most portion of the building which protects the building from
rain, wind and sun.
Various types of roofs used may be divided broadly into three types:
1. Flat roofs

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2. Pitched roofs
3. Shells and folded plates.

Flat roofs are used in plains where rainfall is less and climate is moderate.
Pitched roofs are
preferred wherever rainfall is more. Shells and folded plate roofs are used to
cover large
column free areas required for auditoriums, factories etc. Brief description of
these roofs is
presented below:

1. Flat Roofs: These roofs are nearly flat. However slight slope (not more
than 10) is given to
drain out the rain water. All types of upper storey floors can serve as flat
roofs. Many times
top of these roofs are treated with water proofing materials-like mixing
water proofing
chemicals in concrete, providing coba concrete. With advent of reliable
water proofing
techniques such roofs are constructed even in areas with heavy rain fall.
The advantages of flat roofs are:
(a) The roof can be used as a terrace for playing and celebrating functions.
(b) At any latter stage the roof can be converted as a floor by adding another
storey.
(c) They can suit to any shape of the building.
(d) Over-head water tanks and other services can be located easily.
(e) They can be made fire proof easily compared to pitched roof.
The disadvantages of flat roofs are:
(a) They cannot cover large column free areas.
(b) Leakage problem may occur at latter date also due to development of
cracks. Once leakage
problem starts, it needs costly treatments.
(c) The dead weight of flat roofs is more.
(d) In places of snow fall flat roofs are to be avoided to reduce snow load.
(e) The initial cost of construction is more.
(f) Speed of construction of flat roofs is less.
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Types of Flat Roofs: All the types listed for upper floors can be used as flat
roofs.
2. Pitched Roofs: In the areas of heavy rain falls and snow fall sloping roof
are used. The slope
of roof shall be more than 10. They may have slopes as much as 45 to 60
also. The sloped
roofs are known as pitched roofs. The sloping roofs are preferred in large
spanned structures
like workshops, factory buildings and ware houses. In all these roofs
covering sheets like
A.C. sheet, G.I. sheets, tiles, slates etc. are supported on suitable structures.
The pitched
roofs are classified into
(a) Single roofs (b) Double or purlin roofs
(c) Trussed roofs.

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LECTURE 18
(a) Single Roof: If the span of roof is less than 5 m the following types of
single roofs are
used.
(i) Lean to roofs (ii) Coupled roofs
(iii) Coupled-close roof (iv) Collar beam roof
In all these roofs rafters placed at 600 mm to 800 mm spacing are main
members
taking load of the roof. Battens run over the rafters to support tiles. Figure
8.13
shows various types of single roofs.

(b) Double or Purlin Roofs: If span exceeds, the cost of rafters increase and
single roof
becomes uneconomical. For spans more than 5 m double purlin roofs are
preferred. The
intermediate support is given to rafters by purlins supported over collar
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beams. Figure 8.14

shows a typical double or purlin roof.

c) Trussed Roof: If span is more, a frame work of slender members are used
to support
sloping roofs. These frames are known as trusses. A number of trusses may
be placed
lengthwise to get wall free longer halls. Purlins are provided over the trusses
which in
turn support roof sheets. For spans up to 9 m wooden trusses may be used
but for larger spans steel trusses are a must. In case of wooden trusses
suitable carpentry joints are
made to connect various members at a joint. Bolts and straps are also used.
In case of
steel trusses joints are made using gusset plates and by providing bolts or
rivets or welding.
Depending upon the span, trusses of different shapes are used. End of trusses
are supported
on walls or on column. Figure 8.15 shows different shapes of trusses used.
Figure 8.16
shows a typical wooden truss details and Fig. 8.17 shows the details of a
typical steel truss

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4. Shells and Folded Plate Roofs: Shell roof may be defined as a curved
surface, the thickness
of which is small compared to the other dimensions. In these roofs lot of
load is transferred
by membrane compression instead of by bending as in the case of
conventional slab and
beam constructions. Caves are having natural shell roofs. An examination of
places of worships
built in India, Europe and Islamic nations show that shell structures were in
usage for the last
800 to 1000 years. However the shells of middle ages were massive masonry
structures but
nowadays thin R.C.C. shell roofs are built to cover large column free areas.
Figure 8.18
shows commonly used shell roofs.

Roof Coverings for Pitched Roofs

Various types of covering materials are available for pitched roofs and their
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selection depends upon the

climatic conditions, fabrication facility, availability of materials and
affordability of the owner. Commonly
used pitched roof covering materials are:
(a) Thatch (b) Shingle
(c) Tiles (d) Slates
(e) Asbestos cement (A.C.) sheets ( f ) Galvanised iron (G.I.) sheets

(a) Thatch Covering: These coverings are provided for small spans, mainly
for residential
buildings in villages. Thatch is a roof covering of straw, reeds or similar
materials. The
thatch is well-soaked in water or fire resisting solution and packed bundles
are laid with their
butt ends pointing towards eves. Thickness varies from 150 mm to 300 mm.
They are tied
with ropes or twines to supporting structures. The supporting structure
consists of round
bamboo rafters spaced at 200 mm to 300 mm over which split bamboos laid
at right angles at
close spacing. It is claimed that reed thatch can last 50 to 60 years while
straw thatch may last
for 2025 years.
The advantage of thatch roof is they are cheap and do not need skilled
workers to build them.
The disadvantages are they are very poor fire resistant and harbour rats and
other insects.

(b) Shingles: Wood shingles are nothing but the split or sawn thin pieces of
wood. Their size
varies from 300 mm to 400 mm and length from 60 mm to 250 mm. Their
thickness varies
from 10 mm at one end to 3 mm at the other end. They are nailed to
supporting structures.
They are commonly used in hilly areas for low cost housing. They have very
poor fire and
termite resistance.
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(c) Tiles: Various clay tiles are manufactured in different localities. They
serve as good covering
materials. Tiles are supported over battens which are in turn supported by
rafters/trusses etc.
Allahabad tiles, Mangalore tiles are excellent inter-locking tiles. They give
good appearance
also.

(d) Slates: A slate is a sedimentary rock. Its colour is gray. It can be easily
split into thin sheets.
Slates of size 450 mm to 600 mm wide, 300 mm long and 4 to 8 mm thick
are used as
covering materials of pitched roofs in the areas where slate quarries are
nearby. A good slate
is hard, tough, durable. They are having rough texture and they give ringing
bell like sound
when struck. They do not absorb water.

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

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(e) A.C. Sheets: Asbestos cement is a material which consists of 15 per cent
of asbestos fibres
evenly distributed and pressed with cement. They are manufactured in
sufficiently large size.
The width of a A.C. sheet varies from 1.0 to 1.2 m and length from 1.75 to
3.0 m. To get
sufficient strength with thin sections they are manufactured with corrugation
or with traffords
[Fig. 8.20]. They are fixed to the steel purlins using J-bolts. The roofing is
quite economical,
waterproof. However not very good thermal resistant. They are commonly
used as covering
materials in ware houses, godowns or for larger halls. In auditorium etc., if
these sheets are
used, false ceilings are provided to get good thermal resistance.

(f )G.I. Sheets: Galvanised iron corrugated sheets are manufactured in the

sizes 1.0 to 1.2 m
wide and 1.65 m length. Galvanisation of iron makes them rust proof. They
are fixed to steel
purlins using J-bolts and washers. They are durable, fire proof, light in
weight and need no
maintenance. They are commonly used as covering materials for ware
houses, godown, sheds
etc.

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LECTURE 21
DOORS AND WINDOWS:
The function of a door is to give access to building and to different parts of the
building and to deny the
access whenever necessary. Number of doors should be minimum possible. The
size of the door should
be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest object likely to
use the doors.
In case of the residental buildings, the size of the door should not be less than 0.9
m 2.0 m.
Larger doors may be provided at main entrance to the building to enhance the
aesthetic view. Minimum
sized doors are used for bath rooms and water closets. The size recommended is
0.75 m 1.9 m. As a
thumb rule height of door should be 1 m more than its width.
Windows are provided to give light and ventilation. They are located at a height of
0.75 m to
0.90 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the window area should be
15 to 20 per cent of
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the floor area. It is preferable to have at least two openings in two different walls.
Another thumb rule
used to determine the size of the window opening is for every 30 m3 inside volume
there should be at
least 1 m2 window opening.
Types of Doors
Various types of doors are in use which may be classified on the basis of
arrangement of shutters,
method of constructions, principles of working operations and materials used.
Commonly used doors
are briefly explained below:

1. Battened and Ledged Doors: Battens are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 20 mm
thick wooden
boards. Their length is that of door opening. The battens are connected by
horizontal planks, known as
ledges of size 100 to 200 mm wide and 30 mm thick. Usually three ledges are used
one at top, one at
bottom and the third one at mid-height. This is the simplest form of door and the
cheapest also. Battens
are secured by tongued and grooved joint.

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LECTURE 22
2. Battened, Ledged and Braced Doors: If doors are wide apart from using
battens and ledges
diagonal members, known as braces, are provided to strengthen the door. Figure
8.22 shows
a typical battened, ledged and braced door. Some times above two types of shutters
are provided within wooden frame work and in those cases they may be called as
battened, ledges and framed doors.

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LECTURE 23
3. Framed and Panelled Doors: This type of door consists of vertical members,
called styles
and horizontal members called rails. The styles and rails are suitably grooved to
receive
panels. The panels may be of wood, A.C. sheet, glasses etc. The panels may be flat
or of
raised type to get good appearance. These are very commonly used doors. They
may be of
single shutter or of double shutter. Figure 8.23 show few types of panelled doors. If
glass
panels are used they may be called as glazed doors.

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4. Flush Doors: The shutters of these doors are made of plywood or block boards.
They are of
uniform thickness. These shutters are available with different attractive vineer
finishes. The
time consumed in making such doors at site is quite less. These doors are suitable
for interior
portion of a building. Nowadays flush doors are commonly used in residential and
office
buildings. Figure 8.24 shows typical flush door.

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LECTURE 24
6. Revolving Doors: It consist of a centrally placed pivot to which four radiating
shutters are
attached. The central pivot is supported on ball bearing at the bottom and has a
bush bearing
at the top. The shutters may be partly or fully madeup of glass. A circular space of
entrance is
provided within which shutters rotate. As shutters rotate they give entrance on one
side and
exit on other side. These doors are preferred in public buildings like stores, banks,
hotels,
theatres where continuous use of doors is necessary. They are very much required
in entrance
to air conditioned public buildings. Figure 8.26 shows a typical revolving door.

7. Swing Doors: Swing door has its shutter attached to the frame by means of
double action
springs. Hence shutter can move both inward and outward. They may be single
shuttered or
double shuttered. Such doors are preferred in offices and banks. Since these doors
can open
on both sides it is desirable to provide glass panels or peep holes to enable user to
see the
persons from other side. [Fig. 8.27]
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8. Sliding Doors: In this type of doors, shutter slides on the sides. For this purpose
runners and
guide rails are provided. Sliding shutters may be one, two or even three. Such
doors are used
in banks, offices etc. The arrangement of such shutters in plan is shown in Fig.
8.28

LECTURE 25
9. Collapsible Doors: Steel channels 16 to 20 mm wide are used as verticals. They
are placed
with 12 to 20 mm gap. Steel flats 16 mm to 20 mm wide and 5 mm thick are
hinged to them as shown in Fig. 8.29. The rollers are provided at their top as well
as at bottom so that shutter
can be pulled or pushed side ways with slight force. There may be single or double
shutters.
Usually these doors are used for additional safety. They are commonly used for
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front doors,
bank locker rooms, school and college entrance doors.

10. Rolling Shutters: Figure 8.30 show a typical rolling shutter door. It consists of
a frame, a
drum and a shutter made of thin steel plates. The width of the door may vary from
2 to 3 m.
The shutter moves on steel guides provided on sides and can easily roll up. For this
counterbalancing is made with helical springs on the drum. The shutter can be
easily pulled down.
This type of doors are commonly used as additional doors to shops, offices, banks,
factory,
buildings from the point of safety.

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LECTURE 26
Types of Windows

Various windows used may be classified on the basis of materials used, types of
shutters, types of
openings of shutters and the position of windows.
Timber, steel and aluminium are commonly used to make window frames. Timber
may get
termite attacks, steel may rust but aluminiumdo not have any such defects.
However they are costly.
Shutters of windows may be panelled, glazed or louvered. Louvered windows are
generally used
for bathrooms and toilets where vision is not to be allowed but ventilation is
required. Lower parts
panelled and upper parts glazed windows are commonly used. Instead of panelled
one may think of
using translucent glasses. Figure 8.31 show a louvered windows.

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Window shutters may be fixed, centrally pivoted, sliding type or double hung.
Figure 8.32 shows
a typical double hung window

Depending upon the position of windows, they may be classified as:

(a) Casement windows
(b) Bay windows
(c) Corner windows
(d) Clear storey windows
(e) Gable windows
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(f) Sky light windows

(g) Dormer windows
(h) Ventilators
Casement windows are common type of windows, provided in the outer walls.
They are provided
over 50 to 75 mm sill concrete at a height of 750 to 900 mm from floor level.
Bay windows are provided on the projected portion of walls.
Corner windows are provided in the corner of a room. They need heavy lintels.
Corner post of
window should be strong enough to take load due to deflection of lintel and impact
load from the
shutters.
Clear storey windows are provided when the height of the room is much more than
adjacent
room/varandah. It is provided between the gap of low height room and the top of
room with greater
height.
Gable windows are provided in the gable portion of the building. They are required
in the stair
cases or in the halls with gable walls.
Sky light windows are provided on a sloping roof. It projects above the top sloping
surface. The
common rafters are to be trimmed suitably.
LECTURE 27
Dormer windows are vertical windows on the sloping roof.
Ventilators are provided close to roof level or over the door frames. They help in
pushing out
exhaust air. They may be provided with two split and separated glasses or with
hung shutters.
Various type of windows based on their positions are shown in Fig. 8.33

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Quiz Unit 2

Q.1.Spread footing foundation is

(a)deep foundation
(b)shallow foundation
(c)suitable for black cotton soil
(d)both (b) and (c)
Q.2.Spread footing foundation consists of
(a)piles
(b)widened footings
(c)concrete columns to support load of super structure
(d)none of the above
Q.3.Usually a course of ___ is provided below the course of brick or stone
masonry in spread footing.
(a)strong concrete
(b)lean concrete
(c)cement paste
(d)crushed stone
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Q.4.The grade of cement concrete used in spread footing bottom support is

(a)1:2:4
(b)1:3:6
(c)1:4:8
(d)either (b) or (c)
Q.5.In spread footing, the thickness of concrete bed should not be less than
(a)10 cm
(b)15 cm
(c)20 cm
(d)30 cm
Q.6.In above question, the projection of concrete bed should not be more than
(a)10 cm
(b)15 cm
(c)depth of concrete
(d)width of super structure wall
Q.7.Various courses of spread footing are generally
(a)10 to 30 cm deep
(b)20 to 30 cm deep
(c)> 30 cm deep
(d)< 20 cm deep
Q.8.In spread footing, offsets for brick masonry are generally
(a)5 cm
(b)8 cm
(c)10 cm
(d)15 cm
Q.9.In above question, for stone masonry, offsets are
(a)5 cm
(b)8 cm
(c)15 cm
(d)30 cm
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Q.10.General thumb rules for spread footings are (T is thickness of wall)

(a)width of foundation concrete is 2T + 30 cm
(b)width of bottom most course of footing is 2T
(c)depth of concrete block is (2/3)T
(d)all the above

ASSIGNMENT II
UNIT 2

1. Give Arch Terminology?

2. What are Lintels? Discuss their types?
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3. Discuss why are rain water pipes used? What should be their precise
location?
4. What re methods of fixing doors and Windows in wall?

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Unit 3

LECTURE 28
PLASTERING

Applying mortar coats on the surfaces of walls, columns, ceiling etc. to get smooth
finish is termed as
plastering. Mortar used for plastering may be lime mortar, cement mortar or limecement mortar. Lime
mortar used shall have fat lime to sand ratio of 1 : 3 or 1 : 4. If hydraulic lime is
used mix proportion
(lime: sand) is 1 : 2. Cement mortar of 1 : 4 or 1 : 6 mix is very commonly used for
plastering, richer mix
being used for outer walls. To combine the cost effectiveness of lime mortar and
good quality of cement
mortar many use lime-cement mortar of proportion (cement : lime : sand) of 1 : 1 :
6 or 1 : 1 : 8
or 1 : 2 : 8.
The objective of plastering are:
1. to conceal defective workmanship
2. to give smooth surface to avoid catching of dust.
3. to give good look.
4. to protect the wall from rain water and other atmospheric agencies.
5. to protect surfaces against vermit.
Requirement of good plaster are:

1. It should adhere to the background easily.

2. It should be hard and durable.
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3. It should prevent penetration by moisture

4. It should be cheap.
Lime mortar is usually applied in 3 coats while cement mortar is applied in two or
three coats for
the stone and brick masonry. For concrete surfaces cement mortar may be applied
in two or three coats.
For concrete building blocks many times only one coat of cement mortar is
applied.
The first coat provides means of getting level surface. The final coat provides
smooth surface. If
three coats are used second coat is known as floating coat. The average thickness
of first coat is 10 to
15 mm. Middle coat thickness is 68 mm. The final coat is just 2 to 3 mm thick. If
single coat is used its
thickness is kept between 6 to 12 mm. Such coats are used on concrete surfaces not
exposed to rain.
LECTURE 29
POINTING
Instead of plastering entire surface of the masonry, special mortar finishing work is
done to the exposed
joints. This is called pointing. It consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 mm to
20 mm and filling
it with richer mortar mixes. In case of lime mortar pointing mix used is 1 : 2 and in
case of cement
mortar pointing mix used is 1 : 3. Pointing is ideally suited for stone masonry
because stones are having
attractive colours and good resistance to penetration by water. Pointing gives
prefection to weaker part
of masonry (i.e. to joints) and it adds to aesthetic view of the masonry.
The table 8.5 gives the comparison between plastering and pointing.

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LECTURE30
Table 8.5.Comparison between plastering and pointing.

LECTURE 31
FLOORING

Purpose of flooring is to get a good hard, level and beautiful surface for living. The
floors directly
resting on the ground are known as ground floors while the floors of each storey
are known as upper
floors.
Ground Floor
Apart from giving good finished surface, these floors should have good damp
resistance. The ground
surface is rammed well and a layer of red earth or sand is placed which is
compacted. A layer of broken
bricks, stones etc. is provided up to 150 mm below floor finish level and rammed.
While ramming the
surface is kept moist to get good compaction. Then 1 : 4 : 8 concrete of 100 to 150
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mm thickness is
provided as base course. Over this bed floor finish is laid.
The types of flooring used are:
1. Mud and moorum
2. Brick
3. Flag stone
concrete
5. Terrazo
6.Mosaic
7.Marble
8.Tiles
9. Timber
10. Rubber
11.P.V.C.

4. Cement

LECTURE 32
1. Mud and Moorum Flooring: These floorings are used in low cost housing,
specially in
villages. Over the hard layer of earth filling mud or moorum layer is
provided. The floor
needs a thin wash of cow dung at least once a weak.
2. Brick Flooring: This is also a cheap floor construction. It is commonly
used in godowns and
factories. Bricks are laid flat or on edges. Bricks of good quality should be
used for the
construction. Brick layer is provided on sand bed or on lean concrete (1 : 8 :
16) bed. In both
cases joints are rendered flush and finished with cement mortar.
3. Flag Stone Flooring: Laminated sand stones or slates of 20 mm to 40 mm
thick in the form
of slabs of 300 mm 300 mm or 450 mm 450 mm or in the form of
rectangles of size
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450 mm 600 mm are used as floor finishes. The stone slabs are laid on 20
to 25 mm thick
mortar spread over concrete bed. The joints are to be finished with rich
mortar.

LECTURE 33
4. Cement Concrete Floors: It is modestly cheap and durable floor and hence
commonly used
in residential, commercial and industrial buildings. It consists of two
courses-base course
and wearing coat. Base course is laid over well compacted soil. Its thickness
is usually 75
mm to 100 mm. It consists of lean cement concrete mix (1 : 4 : 8) or lime
concrete containing
40% of 1 : 2 lime mortar and 60% of coarse aggregate of 40 mm size. After
base coarse is
hardened wearing coat of 40 mm is laid. It consists of panels of 1 m 1 m, 2
m 2 m or 1 m
2 m. Alternate panels are laid with 1 : 2 : 4 concrete using wooden, glass
or asbestos strip
separators of 1.5 mm to 2.0 mm thickness. To get good bond between base
coarse and wearing
coat cement slurry wash is given before laying wearing coat panels. After 3
4 days of laying
of one set of panel, another alternate panels are laid. Top of these panels are
finished by
tamping the surface with wooden floats and tapping with trowels, till cement
slurry appears
on top. It needs curing for 7 to 14 days. To get good appearance many times
red-oxide
finishing coat is provided.

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5. Terrazo Flooring: Terrazo finishing coat is applied over concrete flooring

to get pleasing
appearance. Terrazo finish consists of 75 to 80% of surface marble chips
embedded in cement
mortar. Marble chips are mixed in cement in the proportion 1 : 1.25 to 1 : 2
and about 6 mm terrazo
topping is laid. The top is tamped and rolled. Additional marble chips are
spread during
tamping to get proper distribution of marble chips on the surface. After
drying it for 12 to 20
hours, it is cured for 23 days.
Then grinding is made in the following three steps:
Ist grindingUsing coarse grade (No. 60) carborundum stones.
IInd grindingUsing medium grade (No. 120) carborundum stones.
IIIrd grindingUsing fine grade (No. 320) carborundum stones.
Plenty of water is used during grinding. After each grinding cement grout of
cream-like
consistency is applied and cured for 67 days. After final grinding and
curing the floor is
washed with plenty of water and then with dilute oxalic acid solution. Then
floor is finished
with polishing using machines and wax polish.

LECTURE 34

6. Mosaic Flooring: It consists of a finishing coat of small pieces of broken

tiles of China
glazed or of marble arranged in different patterns set in lime-surkhi or
cement mortar. The
base coarse is concrete flooring and on it 30 to 40 mm mortar layer is
provided. On this
mortar layer broken pieces of China glazed or marble are set to get different
attractive patterns.
After 20 to 24 hours of drying the top is rubbed with carborundum stone to
get smooth and
polished surface.
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7. Marble Flooring: Marble slabs are cut to get marble tiles of 20 to 25 mm

thickness. They
are laid on floors similar to other tiles. With power driven machine surface is
polished to get
even and shining surface. This type of flooring is widely used in hospitals
and temples.

8. Tiled Flooring: This is an alternative to terrazo flooring, used commonly

used in residential,
office and commercial buildings. Tiles of clay, cement or terrazo of standard
sizes are
manufactured in factories under controlled conditions. On the concrete base,
25 mm to
30 mm thick mortar is laid and these tiles are placed and pressed with trowel
or wooden
mallet. Before placing tiles care is taken to see that, neat cement slurry is
applied to bottom
side and sides of tiles to get good bond. Next day joints are cleaned of loose
mortar and raked
up to 5 mm depth. Then that is filled with coloured cement slurry to get
uniform colour on
the top surface. After curing for 7 days grinding and polishing is made as in
the case of
terrazo flooring.

9. Timber Flooring: Timber flooring are used in dancing halls and in

auditoriums. Timber
plates may be directly placed on concrete bed or may be provided over
timber frame work. In
latter case it is necessary to provide proper ventilation below the floor. This
flooring is costly.
10. Rubber Flooring: Tiles or sheets of rubber with fillers such as cotton
fibres, asbestos fibre
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or granulated cork are manufactured in variety of patterns and colours.

These sheets or tiles
may be fixed to concrete or timber floors. These floors are attractive and
noise proof. However
they are costly.
LECTURE 35

11. P.V.C. Flooring: Poly-Vinyl-Chloride (PVC) is a plastic which is

available in different colour
and shade. Nowadays tiles of this material are used widely. Adhesives are
applied on concrete
base as well as on bottom of PVC tiles. Then the tile is pressed gently with 5
kg wooden
roller till the oozing of adhesive is seen. The oozed out adhesive is wiped
and the floor is washed with warm soap water. The floor finish is smooth,
attractive and can be easily cleaned.
However it is slippery and costly.

Upper Floors

In olden days upper floors were made of timber floors or steel joist and
stone slabs. For larger spans
jack arch floorings were used. Jack arch floor consisted of I-section steel
beams supported on walls and
gap between I-sections beams filled with concrete arch. Figure 8.8 shows a
typical jack arch flooring.

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Nowadays R.C.C. floors are commonly used. It may consist of only slab, if
span is less or it may
be beam and slab flooring. In halls of hotels and assembly, many provide
flat slabs i.e. slabs directly
supported over columns. The columns are provided with widened portion
called column head. They
give elegant look to halls, particularly when the head room is high. R.C.C.
floors need proper thickness
and reinforcements. They are arrived at by structural design engineers.
Figure 8.9 shows typical R.C.C.
slabs.

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LECTURE 36

In R.C.C. concrete is used to resist compression and steel to resist tension.

Hence the concrete in
tension zone do not contribute in resisting the load. It just keeps the steel at
required position. In reinforced
brick slab an attempt is made to replace concrete in tension zone by bricks.
It is better thermal efficient
than solid concrete floors. Figure 8.10 shows a typical reinforced brick slab.

In ribbed or hollow tiled flooring, the concrete in tension portion is replaced

by hollow tiles.
Figure 8.11 shows a typical floor of this type.
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In precast concrete floor panels may be used which helps in avoiding form
works, storing of
sand, coarse aggregates etc. at the site and also curing. Factories
manufacture these units which are to
be placed over supports in the structure. Figure 8.12 shows the cross-section
of a typical precast floor
unit. These units are available in 0.25 m widths and in various spans.
Interlocking grooves are provided
on the sides to get tight connection with adjoining units.

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Quiz Unit 3
1.
For constructing a terrazo floor. Pick up the incorrect statement from the following :
A.

a base course is prepared as in cement concrete flooring

B.

a 32 mm thick layer of cement concrete (1 : 2 : 4) is laid on the base course and the
surface is made smooth by trowelling

C.

glass strips are driven into the layer according to the pattern required

D.

after final grinding is over, oxalic acid mixed with water is spread over and rubbed
hard with soft material

E.

none of these.

2.
The entrained concrete is used in lining walls and roofs for making
A.

heat insulated

B.

sound insulated

C.

neither (a) nor (b)

D.

both (a) and (b).

3.
The pile which is provided with a bulb filled with concrete at its lower end, is known as

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A.

Simplex pile

B.

Mac-Arthur pile

C.

Raymond pile

D.

Franki pile

E.

none of these.

4.
In case of multi-storeyed buildings, the forms to be removed first are
A.

sides of beams and girders

B.

column forms

C.

bottom of beams and girders

D.

all the above at the same time.

5.
For providing a raft foundation, the following activities are involved
1. ramming the foundation bed
2. excavation of the soil upto required depth
3. laying the reinforcement over the foundation bed
4. curing the cement concrete placed over reinforcement
5. pouring the cement concrete over the reinforcement.
The correct sequence is
A.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5

B.

5, 4, 3, 2, 1

C.

2, 1, 3, 5, 4

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D.

3, 2, 5, 1, 4.

6.
The maximum permissible deflection of a timber beam supporting a roof, is
A.

L/100

B.

L/150

C.

L/260

D.

L/360

E.

none of these.

7.
The angular steps used for changing direction of the stairs, are called
A.

round steps

B.

angular steps

C.

Winders

D.

radial steps

E.

circular steps.

8.
During percussion drilling

A.

ground water observations are hindered due to entry of the slurry in the soil below
the bottom of the hole

B.

caving or mixing of strata are caused in soft soils or cohesionless soils

C.

the soil to a considerable depth below the bottom of the hole gets disturbed

D.

all the above.

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9.
In English garden wall bond
A.

one course of headers to three or five course of stretchers

B.

queen closer in provided in each heading course

C.

the middle course of stretchers is started with a header to give proper vertical joints

D.

all the above.

10.
A projecting piece usually provided to support a truss, is
A.

Cornice

B.

coping

C.

Frieze

D.

lintal.

11.
The line of intersection of the surfaces of a sloping roof forming an external angle exceeding
180, is
A.

Ridge

B.

Hip

C.

Valley

D.

none of these.

12.
A solid core of rock is formed in side the cylinder in the case of
A.

auger boring

B.

percussion drilling

C.

diamond drilling

D.

wash boring.

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13.
The single stage well point system of dewatering an excavation can be used if the depth of
excavation does not exceed
A.

5m

B.

10 m

C.

15 m

D.

20 m

E.

25 m.

14.
The piece of a brick cut with its one corner equivalent to half the length and half the width of
a full brick, is known as
A.

queen closer

B.

bevelled closer

C.

king closer

D.

half king closer.

15.
The brick laid with its breadth parallel to the face of a wall, is known as
A.

Header

B.

Stretcher

C.

Closer

D.

none of these.

16.
A wooden block hinged on post outside a door, is known
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A.

Cleat

B.

Stop

C.

Horn

D.

none of these.

17.
Pick up the incorrect statement from the following :

A.

The function of foundation is to distribute the load of super structure over a large
bearing area

B.

No timbering is required for shallow trenches

C.

Shallow foundations can be constructed on made-up soil

D.

Grillage foundation is classified as a shallow foundation

E.

Black cotton soil is very good for foundation bed.

18.
In horizontal D.P.C, thickness of cement concrete (1 : 2 : 4) is
A.

2 cm

B.

4 cm

C.

6 cm

D.

8 cm

E.

10 cm.

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19.
Which one of the following factors is considered for the orientation of buildings :
A.

the direction of the prevailing winds in the area

B.

the exposure of the walls and roof of the buildings to the rays of sun

C.

the extent up to which the sunrays penetrate with the verandah.

D.

all the above.

20.
Pick up the incorrect statement from the following :
A.

Cement is added to lime mortar to increase its hydraulic properties only

B.

Lime surkhi mortar is used for pointing the walls

C.

Lime should be slaked before preparing lime mortar

D.

High early strength concrete is generally used in cold weather.

21.
Which one of the following rocks is used for monumental buildings :
A.

Granite

B.

Marble

C.

sand stone

D.

slate.

22.
The Auger borings are not common
A.

in soils that require lateral support

B.

in cohesive soils

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C.

in soft soils

D.

none of the above.

23.
The form work from the underside of slabs, can be removed only after
A.

1 day

B.

4 days

C.

7 days

D.

14 days.

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ASSIGNMENT III
UNIT 3

1. Discuss the Suitability of floors for various types of buildings?

2. Why do we use marble as a floor material? Answer in brief?
3. Define: Plastered Surfaces, Distempering, White washing, Colour washing
of walls?
4. What are various types of Floors commonly used?
5. What are the objectives of plastering?

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SOLUTION QUIZ 1
1. Answer: Option E
2. Answer: Option C

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3.
4.
5.
6.

Answer: Option B
Answer: Option B
Answer: Option C
Answer: Option A

7. Answer: Option D
8. Answer: Option E
9. Answer: Option B
10. Answer: Option D
11. Answer: Option B
12. Answer: Option A
13. Answer: Option D
14. Answer: Option B
15. Answer: Option D
16. Answer: Option B
17. Answer: Option D
18. Answer: Option C
19. Answer: Option A
20. Answer: Option C
21. Answer: Option E
22. Answer: Option C
23. Answer: Option D

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SOLUTION QUIZ 2

1.b
2.b
3.b
4.d
5.b
6.c
7.a
8.a
9.b
10.D

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SOLUTIONS QUIZ 3
1 Answer: Option B
2Answer: Option D
3Answer: Option B
4Answer: Option A
5Answer: Option C
6Answer: Option D
7Answer: Option C
8Answer: Option D

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9Answer: Option D
10Answer: Option C
11Answer: Option B
12Answer: Option C
13Answer: Option A
14Answer: Option C
15Answer: Option A
16Answer: Option A
17Answer: Option E
18Answer: Option B
19Answer: Option D
20Answer: Option A
21Answer: Option B
22Answer: Option A
23Answer: Option C

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

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