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ParallelDBs PDF

Parallel and distributed databases allow data to be stored across multiple machines to improve performance and handle large datasets. There are three main architectures: shared memory, shared disk, and shared-nothing. Parallel query processing distributes operations like scans, joins, and sorts across multiple machines through intra-operator and inter-operator parallelism. The performance of parallel algorithms depends on how the data is partitioned among the machines. Optimizing parallel query plans requires different techniques than optimizing sequential plans.

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76 views

ParallelDBs PDF

Parallel and distributed databases allow data to be stored across multiple machines to improve performance and handle large datasets. There are three main architectures: shared memory, shared disk, and shared-nothing. Parallel query processing distributes operations like scans, joins, and sorts across multiple machines through intra-operator and inter-operator parallelism. The performance of parallel algorithms depends on how the data is partitioned among the machines. Optimizing parallel query plans requires different techniques than optimizing sequential plans.

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heyramzz
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© © All Rights Reserved
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PARALLEL & DISTRIBUTED

DATABASES
CS561-SPRING 2012
W P I , M O H A M E D E L TA B A K H

INTRODUCTION
In centralized database:
Data is located in one place (one server)
All DBMS functionalities are done by that server
Enforcing ACID properties of transactions
Concurrency control, recovery mechanisms
Answering queries

In Distributed databases:
Data is stored in multiple places (each is running a DBMS)
New notion of distributed transactions
DBMS functionalities are now distributed over many machines
Revisit how these functionalities work in distributed environment
2

WHY DISTRIBUTED DATABASES


Data is too large
Applications are by nature distributed
Bank with many branches
Chain of retail stores with many locations
Library with many branches

Get benefit of distributed and parallel processing


Faster response time for queries

PARALLEL VS. DISTRIBUTED DATABASES


Distributed processing usually imply parallel processing
(not vise versa)
Can have parallel processing on a single machine

Assumptions about architecture


Parallel Databases

Machines are physically close to each other, e.g., same server room
Machines connects with dedicated high-speed LANs and switches
Communication cost is assumed to be small
Can shared-memory, shared-disk, or shared-nothing architecture

Machines can far from each other, e.g., in different continent


Can be connected using public-purpose network, e.g., Internet
Communication cost and problems cannot be ignored
Usually shared-nothing architecture

Distributed Databases

PARALLEL DATABASE
&
PARALLEL PROCESSING

WHY PARALLEL PROCESSING


At 10 MB/s
1.2 days to scan

1 Terabyte

Ba

1,000 x parallel
1.5 minute to scan.

nd

wi

1 Terabyte

dt
h

10 MB/s
Divide a big problem into many smaller ones to be solved in
parallel
Increase bandwidth (in our case decrease queries response
time)

DIFFERENT ARCHITECTURE
Three possible architectures for passing information
Shared-memory

Shared-disk
Shared-nothing

1- SHARED-MEMORY ARCHITECTURE
Every processor has its own disk
Single memory address-space for
all processors
Reading or writing to far memory can
be slightly more expensive

Every processor can have its own


local memory and cache as well

2- SHARED-DISK ARCHITECTURE
Every processor has its own
memory (not accessible by others)
All machines can access all disks
in the system
Number of disks does not
necessarily match the number of
processors

3- SHARED-NOTHING ARCHITECTURE
Most common architecture nowadays
Every machine has its own memory and
disk
Many cheap machines (commodity
hardware)

Communication is done through highspeed network and switches


Usually machines can have a hierarchy
Machines on same rack
Then racks are connected through highspeed switches

Scales better
Easier to build
Cheaper cost

10

TYPES OF PARALLELISM
Pipeline Parallelism (Inter-operator parallelism)
Ordered (or partially ordered) tasks and different machines
are performing different tasks

Order between
them

Pipeline

Sequential
Sequential

Sequential

Partitioned Parallelism (Intra-operator parallelism)


A task divided over all machines to run in parallel

Partition

Sequential
Sequential
11

More resources means


proportionally less time for
given amount of data.

Scale-Up
If resources increased in
proportion to increase in
data size, time is constant.

sec./Xact
(response time)

Speed-Up

Xact/sec.
(throughput)

IDEAL SCALABILITY SCENARIO


Ideal

degree of ||-ism

Ideal

degree of ||-ism

PARTITIONING OF DATA
To partition a relation R over m machines
Range partitioning

Hash-based partitioning

Round-robin partitioning

A...E F...J K...N O...S T...Z

A...E F...J K...N O...S T...Z

A...E F...J K...N O...S T...Z

Shared-nothing architecture is sensitive to partitioning


Good partitioning depends on what operations are
common
13

PARALLEL ALGORITHMS FOR


DBMS OPERATIONS

14

PARALLEL SCAN c(R)


Relation R is partitioned over m machines
Each partition of R is around |R|/m tuples

Each machine scans its own partition and applies the selection
condition c
If data are partitioned using round robin or a hash function (over
the entire tuple)
The resulted relation is expected to be well distributed over all nodes
All partitioned will be scanned

If data are range partitioned or hash-based partitioned (on the


selection column)
The resulted relation can be clustered on few nodes
Few partitions need to be touched

Parallel Projection is also straightforward


All partitions will be touched
Not sensitive to how data is partitioned

15

PARALLEL DUPLICATE ELIMINATION


If relation is range or hash-based partitioned
Identical tuples are in the same partition
So, eliminate duplicates in each partition independently

If relation is round-robin partitioned


Re-partition the relation using a hash function
So every machine creates m partitions and send the ith
partition to machine i
machine i can now perform the duplicate elimination
Same idea applies to Set Operations (Union, Intersect,
Except)
But apply the same partitioning to both relations R & S
16

PARALLEL JOIN R(X,Y) S(Y,Z)


Re-partition R and S on the join attribute Y (natural join) or (equi join)
Hash-based or range-based partitioning

Each machine i receives all ith partitions from all machines (from R
and S)
Each machine can locally join the partitions it has

Depending on the partitions sizes of R and S, local joins can be


hash-based or merge-join
OUTPUT
1
Original Relations
(R then S)

...
Disk

INPUT
hash
function
h

Partitions
1

2
B-1

B-1

B main memory buffers

Disk
17

PARALLEL SORTING
Range-based

Re-partition R based on ranges into m partitions


Machine i receives all ith partitions from all
machines and sort that partition
The entire R is now sorted
Skewed data is an issue
Apply sampling phase first
Ranges can be of different width

Merge-based

Each node sorts its own data


All nodes start sending their sorted data (one
block at a time) to a single machine
This machine applies merge-sort technique as
data come
18

COMPLEX PARALLEL QUERY PLANS


All previous examples are intra-operator parallelism
Complex queries can have inter-operator parallelism
Different machines perform different tasks

Sites 1-8
Sites 1-4
A

Sites 5-8
B

19

PERFORMANCE OF PARALLEL
ALGORITHMS
In many cases, parallel algorithms reach their expected lower
bound (or close to)
If parallelism degree is m, then the parallel cost is 1/m of the sequential cost
Cost mostly refers to querys response time

Example

Ideal

degree of ||-ism

sec./Xact
(response time)

Xact/sec.
(throughput)

Parallel selection or projection is 1/m of the sequential cost


Ideal

degree of ||-ism

20

PERFORMANCE OF PARALLEL
ALGORITHMS (CONTD)
Total disk I/Os (sum over all machines) of parallel algorithms can
be larger than that of sequential counterpart
But we get the benefit of being done in parallel

Example
Merge-sort join (serial case) has I/O cost = 3(B(R) + B(S))
Merge-sort join (parallel case) has total (sum) I/O cost = 5(B(R) + B(S))
Considering the parallelism = 5(B(R) + B(S)) / m

Number of pages
of relations R and S

21

OPTIMIZING PARALLEL ALGORITHMS


Best serial plan != the best parallel one
Trivial counter-example:
Table partitioned with local secondary index at
two nodes
Range query: all data of node 1 and 1% of
node 2.
Node 1 should do a scan of its partition.
Node 2 should use secondary index.

Table
Scan

A..M

Index
Scan

N..Z

Different optimization algorithms for parallel plans (more


candidate plans)
Different machines may perform the same operation but using
different plans

22

SUMMARY OF PARALLEL DATABASES


Three possible architectures

Shared-memory
Shared-disk
Shared-nothing (the most common one)

Parallel algorithms
Intra-operator

Scans, projections, joins, sorting, set operators, etc.

Inter-operator

Distributing different operators in a complex query to different nodes

Partitioning and data layout is important and affect the


performance
Optimization of parallel algorithms is a challenge
23

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