Radar Fundamentals

Prof. David Jenn

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
833 Dyer Road, Room 437
Monterey, CA 93943
(831) 656-2254
[email protected], [email protected]
http://www.nps.navy.mil/faculty/jenn

Overview

Introduction
Radar functions
Antennas basics
Radar range equation
System parameters
Electromagnetic waves
Scattering mechanisms
Radar cross section and stealth
Sample radar systems
2

Radio Detection and Ranging

Bistatic: the transmit and receive antennas are at different locations as
viewed from the target (e.g., ground transmitter and airborne receiver).
Monostatic: the transmitter and receiver are colocated as viewed from
the target (i.e., the same antenna is used to transmit and receive).
Quasi-monostatic: the transmit
and receive antennas are slightly
separated but still appear to
SCATTERED
WAVE FRONTS
be at the same location as RECEIVER
(RX)
viewed from the target
Rr
(e.g., separate transmit

TARGET
and receive antennas on
TRANSMITTER
Rt
the same aircraft).
(TX)

INCIDENT
WAVE FRONTS
3

Radar Functions
Normal radar functions:
1. range (from pulse delay)
2. velocity (from Doppler frequency shift)
3. angular direction (from antenna pointing)
Signature analysis and inverse scattering:
4. target size (from magnitude of return)
5. target shape and components (return as a function of
direction)
6. moving parts (modulation of the return)
7. material composition
The complexity (cost & size) of the radar increases with the extent
of the functions that the radar performs.
4

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wavelength (, in a vacuum and approximately in air)

10-3

Microns
10-2 10-1

10-5

10-4

10-3

10-2

EHF

Meters
10-1

SHF

UHF

101
VHF

102
HF

103

104

MF

LF

100

105

Radio
Microwave
Millimeter
Ultraviolet

Typical radar
frequencies

Infrared
Visible
Optical

300 GHz

109

108

107

106

105

104
Giga

103

102

10

Frequency (f, cps, Hz)

300 MHz

100
10
Mega

10
Kilo

1
5

Radar Bands and Usage

(Similar to Table 1.1 and Section 1.5 in Skolnik)

Time Delay Ranging

Target range is the fundamental quantity measured by most radars.
It is obtained by recording the round trip travel time of a pulse, TR ,
and computing range from:
Bistatic: Rt + Rr = cTR
cT
Monostatic: R = R ( Rt = Rr = R)
2

AMPLITUDE

where c = 3x108 m/s is the velocity of light in free space.

TRANSMITTED
PULSE

TR

RECEIVED
PULSE

TIME

Classification by Function
Radars

Civilian

Military
Weather Avoidance
Navagation & Tracking
Search & Surveillance
High Resolution
Imaging & Mapping
Space Flight
Sounding

Proximity Fuzes
Countermeasures
8

Classification by Waveform
Radars

CW

FMCW

Pulsed

Noncoherent

Low PRF
MTI
Note:
CW = continuous wave
FMCW = frequency modulated continuous wave
PRF = pulse repetition frequency
MTI = moving target indicator

Coherent

Medium
High PRF
PRF
("Pulse
doppler")
Pulse Doppler

Plane Waves
Wave propagates in the z
direction
Wavelength,
Radian frequency = 2 f
(rad/sec)
Frequency, f (Hz)
Phase velocity in free space
is c (m/s)
x-polarized (direction of the
electric field vector)
Eo, maximum amplitude of
the wave

Ex

Eo

DIRECTION OF
PROPAGATION

t1

t2
z

Eo

Electric field vector

10

Wavefronts and Rays

In the antenna far-field the waves are
spherical ( R > 2 D 2 / )
Wavefronts at large distances are
locally plane
Wave propagation can be accurately
modeled with a locally plane wave
approximation

RADIATION
PATTERN

Local region in the far field of

the source can be approximated
by a plane wave

PLANE WAVE FRONTS

D
ANTENNA

RAYS

11

Superposition of Waves
If multiple signal sources of the same frequency are present, or multiple

paths exist between a radar and target, then the total signal at a location
is the sum (superposition principle).
The result is interference: constructive interference occurs if the waves
add; destructive interference occurs if the waves cancel.
Example: ground bounce multi-path can be misinterpreted as multiple
targets.
Airborne Radar

ht

Target

Grazing Angle,

dt

hr

dr
12

Wave Polarization
Polarization refers to the shape of the curve traced by the tip of the

electric field vector as a function of time at a point in space.

Microwave systems are generally designed for linear or circular
polarization.
Two orthogonal linearly polarized antennas can be used to generate
circular polarization.
LINEAR
VERTICAL, V

ELECTRIC
FIELDS

POLARIZATION

ELECTRIC FIELD
VECTOR AT AN
INSTANT IN TIME

1
2

ORTHOGANAL
TRANSMITTING
ANTENNAS

CIRCULAR
POLARIZATION

4
5

HORIZONTAL, H
HORIZONTAL ANTENNA RECEIVES ONLY
HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED RADIATION

2
3
4

13

Antenna Parameters
Gain is the radiation intensity relative to a lossless isotropic
Low gain
High gain
reference.
(Small in wavelengths)
(Large in wavelengths)
Fundamental equation for gain:
G = 4 Ae /
Ae = A , effective area
A = aperture area
= efficiency (0 1)
= c / f , wavelength

Aperture area

ANTENNA DIRECTIONAL
RADIATION PATTERN

In general, an increase in gain is accompanied by a decrease in

beamwidth, and is achieved by increasing the antenna size relative
to the wavelength.
With regard to radar, high gain and narrow beams are desirable for
long detection and tracking ranges and accurate direction
measurement.
14

Antenna Parameters
Half power beamwidth, HPBW (B)
SCAN
ANGLE

PEAK GAIN

3 dB
HPBW

GAIN (dB)

Polarization
Sidelobe level
Antenna noise temperature (TA)
Operating bandwidth
Radar cross section and other signatures

MAXIMUM
SIDELOBE
LEVEL

0.5G

PATTERN ANGLE

Rectangular dB pattern plot

Polar voltage pattern plot
15

Radar Antenna Tradeoffs

Airborne applications:

> Size, weight, power consumption

> Power handling
> Location on platform and required field of view
> Many systems operating over a wide frequency spectrum
> Isolation and interference
> Reliability and maintainability
> Radomes (antenna enclosures or covers)
Accommodate as many systems as possible to avoid operational
restrictions (multi-mission, multi-band, etc.)
Signatures must be controlled: radar cross section (RCS), infrared
(IR), acoustic, and visible (camouflage)
New antenna architectures and technologies
> Conformal, integrated
> Digital smart antennas with multiple beams
> Broadband
16

Radar Range Equation

Quasi-monostatic

Gt

TX
Pt

Pt = transmit power (W)

Pr = received power (W)
Gt = transmit antenna gain
Gr = receive antenna gain

RX

R
Gr

Pr

= radar cross section (RCS, m 2 )

Aer = effective aperture area of receive antenna

Pt GtAer Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr =
2 2 =
(4R )
(4 )3 R 4
17

Minimum Detection Range

The minimum received power that the radar receiver can "sense"
is referred to a the minimum detectable signal (MDS) and is
denoted Smin .
Given the MDS, the maximum detection range can be obtained:
Pr = Smin =
Pr

Pt Gt Gr
3 4 Rmax
(4 ) R
2

Pt Gt Gr 2

=
3
(4 ) Smin

1/4

Pr 1 / R 4

Smin
Rmax

R
18

Radar Block Diagram

This receiver is a superheterodyne receiver because of the intermediate

frequency (IF) amplifier. (Similar to Figure 1.4 in Skolnik.)
Coherent radar uses the same local oscillator reference for transmit and
receive.
19

Coordinate Systems
Radar coordinate systems
spherical polar: (r,,)
azimuth/elevation: (Az,El)
or ( , )
The radar is located at the origin of
the coordinate system; the Earth's
surface lies in the x-y plane.
Azimuth () is generally measured
clockwise from a reference (like a
compass) but the spherical system
azimuth angle ( ) is measured
counterclockwise from the x axis.

Therefore
= 90
x
= 360

Constant Az cut
ZENITH

Constant El cut

CONSTANT
Target
ELEVATION

Radar

r
y

HORIZON

20

Radar Display Types

"B" DISPLAY
TARGET
BLIP

RANGE

TARGET
RETURN

-180

RANGE (TIME)

PLAN POSITION
INDICATOR (PPI)

0
AZIMUTH

180

"C" DISPLAY

AZIMUTH
RANGE
UNITS

TARGET
BLIP

RADAR AT
CENTER

90

ELEVATION

RECEIVED POWER

"A" DISPLAY

TARGET
BLIP

0
-180

0
AZIMUTH

180
21

Pulsed Waveform
In practice multiple pulses are transmitted to:
1. cover search patterns
2. track moving targets
3. integrate (sum) several target returns to improve detection
The pulse train is a common waveform
Po = peak instantaneous power (W)
= pulse width (sec)
f p = 1/ T p , pulse repetition frequency (PRF, Hz)
T p = interpulse period (sec)
N = number of pulses
Tp

Po
TIME

22

Range Ambiguities
For convenience we omit the sinusoidal carrier when drawing the pulse
train
Tp
Po
TIME

When multiple pulses are transmitted there is the possibility of a range

ambiguity.
TRANSMITTED
PULSE 1

TRANSMITTED
PULSE 2

TARGET
RETURN

TIME

T R2

T R1

2R

To determine the range unambiguously requires that Tp

. The
c
unambiguous range is
cTp
c
Ru =

2 fp
23

Range Resolution
Two targets are resolved if their returns do not overlap. The range
resolution corresponding to a pulse width is R = R2 R1 = c / 2 .
TIME STEP 1
to

TIME STEP 2
to + /2

c / 2

R1

R1

R2

R2

c / 2

TARGET

R1

R1
R2
R2

TIME STEP 3
to +

TIME STEP 4
t o + 3 /2
24

Range Gates
Typical pulse train and range gates
DWELL TIME = N / PRF
123

123

123

123

M
L

TRANSMIT PULSES

M RANGE GATES

Analog implementation of range gates

OUTPUTS ARE CALLED
"RANGE BINS"

RECEIVER

.
..
.
..
M

M ..
..
.
..
.
..
M
M
.
.
..
..

TO SIGNAL
PROCESSOR

Gates are opened and closed sequentially

The time each gate is closed corresponds to

a range increment
Gates must cover the entire interpulse period
or the ranges of interest
For tracking a target a single gate can remain
closed until the target leaves the bin

25

Clutter and Interference

INTERFERENCE
H
PAT
T
C
E
DIR

TX

A
IP
T
UL
M

RX

CLU

TARGET
TH

RANGE GATE

TTE
R

SPHERICAL WAVEFRONT
(IN ANTENNA FAR FIELD)

GROUND

TARGET

The point target

approximation is good
when the target extent
<< R

ANTENNA
MAIN LOBE

RAIN (MAINBEAM
CLUTTER)
SIDELOBE CLUTTER
IN RANGE GATE

GROUND

GROUND (SIDELOBE
CLUTTER)
26

Thermal Noise

RECEIVED POWER

In practice the received signal is "corrupted" (distorted from the ideal

shape and amplitude) by thermal noise, interference and clutter.
Typical return trace appears as follows:
TARGET RETURNS

RANDOM
NOISE

A
B

DETECTION
THRESHOLD
(RELATED TO S min )

TIME

Threshold detection is commonly used. If the return is greater than the

detection threshold a target is declared. A is a false alarm: the noise is
greater than the threshold level but there is no target. B is a miss: a
target is present but the return is not detected.
27

Thermal Noise Power

Consider a receiver at the standard temperature, To degrees Kelvin (K).
Over a range of frequencies of bandwidth Bn (Hz) the available noise
power is

No = kTo Bn

23
where k B = 1.38 10 (Joules/K) is Boltzman's constant.
Other radar components will also contribute noise (antenna, mixer,
cables, etc.). We define a system noise temperature Ts, in which case
the available noise power is

No = kTs Bn
NOISE
POWER
TIME OR FREQUENCY
28

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

Considering the presence of noise, the important parameter for detection is
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

Pt Gt Gr 2G p L
Pr
SNR =
=
N o (4 )3 R 4 k B Ts Bn
Factors have been added for processing gain Gp and loss L
Most radars are designed so that Bn 1/
At this point we will consider only two noise sources:
1. background noise collected by the antenna (TA)
2. total effect of all other system components (To, system effective
noise temperature)

Ts = TA + Te
29

Integration of Pulses
Noncoherent integration (postdetection
integration): performed after the envelope
detector. The magnitudes of the returns
from all pulses are added. SNR increases
approximately as N .
Coherent integration (predetection
integration): performed before the
envelope detector (phase information
must be available). Coherent pulses must
be transmitted. The SNR increases as N.
The last trace shows a noncoherent
integrated signal.
Integration improvement an example of
processing gain.

From Byron Edde, Radar: Principles, Technology,

Applications, Prentice-Hall
30

Dwell Time
Simple antenna model: constant gain inside the half power beamwidth
(HPBW), zero outside. If the aperture has a diameter D with uniform
illumination B / D .
The time that the target is in the beam (dwell time, look time, or time on
target) is tot
tot = B &s
d

s
The beam scan rate is s in revolutions per minute or
= &s in degrees
dt
per second.
The number of pulses
ANTENNA POWER
PATTERN (POLAR PLOT)
HALF POWER
MAXIMUM
that will hit the target
ANGLE
VALUE OF
GAIN
in this time is
HPBW B
nB = tot f p

.
.

31

Doppler Shift
Targets in motion relative to the
radar cause the return signal
frequency to be shifted.
A Doppler shift only occurs when
the relative velocity vector has a
radial component. In general there
will be both radial and tangential
components to the velocity

14243
wave fronts
expanded

f d = 2vr /
r
vt

r
v

WAVE FRONT
EMITTED AT
POSITION 2

WAVE FRONT
EMITTED AT
POSITION 1

vr

14243
wave fronts
compressed

dR
< 0 fd > 0 (closing target)
dt
dR
> 0 fd < 0 (receeding target)
R increasing
dt
R decreasing

r
vr

32

Doppler Filter Banks

The radars operating band is divided into narrow sub-bands. Ideally there
should be no overlap in sub-band frequency characteristics.
The noise bandwidth of the Doppler filters is small compared to that of the
radars total bandwidth, which improves the SNR.
Velocity estimates can be made by monitoring the power out of each filter.
If a signal is present in a filter, the target's velocity range is known.
NARROWBAND
DOPPLER FILTERS
dB SCALE

CROSSOVER
LEVEL
AMP FREQUENCY
CHARACTERISTIC

f
fc

fc + fd
33

Velocity Ambiguities
The spectrum is the Fourier transform of the pulse train waveform.
Coherent pulse train spectrum
(fixed target -- no doppler)

Spectrum of doppler
shifted CW signal

1/PRF

c c + d

Expanded central lobe region with target doppler shift

CENTRAL
LOBE
FILTER

DOPPLER
SHIFTED
TARGET
RETURNS

f d observed

1/fp

fd

2vr

= n PRF +

mod(PRF)

f d apparent

c + d

34

Low, High, Medium PRF

If fd is increased the true target Doppler shifted return moves out of the
passband and a lower sideband lobe enters. Thus the Doppler measurement
is ambiguous.
APPARENT
DOPPLER
SHIFT

ACTUAL
DOPPLER
SHIFT

f d max = f p / 2
vu = f d max / 2
= f p / 4
vu = f p / 2

c + d

PRF determines Doppler and range ambiguities:

PRF
High
Medium
Low

RANGE
Ambiguous
Ambiguous
Unambiguous

DOPPLER
Unambiguous
Ambiguous
Ambiguous
35

Track Versus Search

Search radars
> Long, medium, short ranges (20 km to 2000 km)
> High power density on the target: high peak power, long pulses, long
pulse trains, high antenna gain
> Low PRFs, large range bins
> Search options: rapid search rate with narrow beams or slower search
rate with wide beams
Tracking radar
> Accurate angle and range measurement required
> Minimize time on target for rapid processing
> Special tracking techniques: monopulse, conical scan, beam switching
DIFFERENCE BEAM,

POINTING
ERROR

SIGNAL ANGLE
OF ARRIVAL

Monopulse
Technique

SUM BEAM,
36

Antenna Patterns

Fan beam for 2-d search

Pencil beam for tracking

for 3-d search

37

Attack Approach
A network of radars are arranged to provide continuous coverage of a
ground target.
Conventional aircraft cannot penetrate the radar network without being
detected.
ET
ARG
T
UND
O
R
G

Rmax

ATTACK
APPROACH

FORWARD EDGE OF
BATTLE AREA (FEBA)

RADAR DETECTION
RANGE, Rmax
38

Radar Jamming
The barrage jammer floods the radar with noise and therefore decreases
the SNR.
The radar knows it is being jammed.

AIR
DEFENSE
RADAR

GR O

UND

GET
R
A
T

ATTACK
APPROACH
STANDOFF
JAMMER
RACETRACK
FLIGHT PATTERN

39

Low Observability
Detection range depends on RCS, Rmax 4 , and therefore RCS
reduction can be used to open holes in a radar network.
There are cost and performance limitations to RCS reduction.

AIR
DEFENSE
RADAR

UND
O
R
G

GET
R
A
T

ATTACK
APPROACH
40

Radar Cross Section (RCS)

Typical values:
0.0001

0.01

100

10000

-40

-20

20

40

INSECTS

BIRDS

dBsm

CREEPING & FIGHTER BOMBER SHIPS

AIRCRAFT AIRCRAFT
TRAVELING
WAVES

Fundamental equation for the RCS of a electrically large

perfectly reflecting surface of area A when viewed directly by
the radar
4 A2

Expressed in decibels relative to a square meter (dBsm):

dBsm = 10log10 ( )
41

RCS Target Types

A few dominant scatterers (e.g., hull) and many smaller independent
scatterers
S-Band (2800 MHz), horizontal polarization, maximum RCS = 70
dBsm

42

RCS Target Types

Many independent random scatterers, none of which dominate
(e.g., large aircraft)

From Skolnik
S-Band (3000 MHz)
Horizontal Polarization
Maximum RCS = 40 dBsm

43

Scattering Mechanisms
Scattering mechanisms are used to describe wave behavior.
Especially important at radar frequencies:
specular = "mirror like" reflections that satisfy Snell's law
surface waves = the body surface acts like a transmission line
diffraction = scattered waves that originate at abrupt discontinuities
SPECULAR

SURFACE
WAVES

MULTIPLE
REFLECTIONS

Double diffraction from sharp corners

CREEPING
WAVES
DUCTING, WAVEGUIDE
MODES

EDGE
DIFFRACTION

Diffraction from rounded object

44

Example: Dipole and Box

f =1 GHz, 100 dBm (blue) to 35 dBm (red), 0 dBm Tx power, 1 m metal cube
BOX

REFLECTED

Reflected Field
Only

Incident + Reflected

Reflected + Diffracted

ANTENNA

Incident + Reflected
+ Diffracted
45

RCS Reduction Methods

Shaping (tilt surfaces, align edges, no corner reflectors)
Materials (apply radar absorbing layers)
Cancellation (introduce secondary scatterers to cancel the bare
target)

From Fuhs
46

AN/TPQ-37 Firefinder

Locates mortars, artillery, rocket launchers and missiles

Locates 10 weapons simultaneously
Locates targets on first round
Adjusts friendly fire
Interfaces with tactical fire
Predicts impact of hostile projectiles
Maximum range: 50 km
Effective range:
Artillery: 30 km, Rockets: 50 km
Azimuth sector: 90
Frequency: S-band, 15 frequencies
Transmitted power: 120 kW
Permanent storage for 99 targets; field exercise mode; digital data
interface
47

SCR-270 Air Search Radar

48

SCR-270-D-RADAR
Detected Japanese aircraft approaching Pearl Harbor
Performance characteristics:
SCR-270-D Radio Set Performance Characteristics (Source: SCR-270-D Radio Set Technical Manual, 1942)
Maximum Detection Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
250 miles
Maximum Detection altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50,000 ft
Range Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 miles*
Azimuth Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 degrees
Operating Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
104-112 MHz
Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Directive array **
Peak Power Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
100 kw
Pulse Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-40 microsecond
Pulse Repetition Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
621 cps
Antenna Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
up to 1 rpm, max
Transmitter Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 tridoes***
Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
superheterodyne
Transmit/Receive/Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
spark gap
* Range accuracy without calibration of range dial.
** Consisting of dipoles, 8 high and 4 wide.
*** Consisting of a push-pull, self excited oscillator, using a tuned cathode circuit.
49

AN/SPS-40 Surface Search

UHF long range two-dimensional surface search radar

50

AN/SPS-40 Surface Search

UHF long range two-dimensional
surface search radar. Operates in
short and long range modes
Range
Maximum: 200 nm
Minimum: 2 nm
Target RCS: 1 sq. m.
Transmitter Frequency:
402.5 to 447.5 MHz
Pulse width: 60 s
Peak power: 200 to 255 kW
Staggered PRF: 257 Hz (ave)
Non-staggered PRF: 300 Hz

Antenna
Parabolic reflector
Gain: 21 dB
Horizontal SLL: 27 dB
Vertical SLL: 19 dB
HPBW: 11 by 19 degrees
Receiver
10 channels spaced 5 MHz
Noise figure: 4.2
IF frequency: 30 MHz
PCR: 60:1
Correlation gain: 18 dB
MDS: 115 dBm
MTI improvement factor: 54 dB
51