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LEARNING PRINCIPLES
Introduction
Language and literacy development are complex processes that cannot be
reduced to a single set of skills to be acquired through memorization and
practice. If adults are to learn to communicate, solve problems, and write and
read more widely, they need extensive opportunities to use different modes
of learning and engage in a variety of tasks that are both meaningful and
cognitively challenging. They also need a chance to process ideas by
reflecting on them and by discussing them with others. They must see the
connection between the skills to be acquired and the tasks they are trying to
accomplish in their daily lives. Finally, adult learners must have occasion to
say what they feel and want to say (in oral communication and in writing) in a
supportive environment that encourages experimentation, so they gain both
the confidence and competence to continue learning on their own.
This section represents key aspects of what we know about second
language acquisition and literacy development for both native speakers and
immigrants learning English. We hope that the principles will encourage
developers to consider the underlying concepts that govern learning, while
the learning opportunities will suggest activities and task that keep adults
actively involved in the learning process. Later versions of this document,
revised after input from the field, will include examples of tasks and activities
that operationalize these learning opportunities.

Principles
1. Adult learners are goal driven.
2. Language and literacy are social processes that involve interaction with
others.
3. Language and literacy development require risk taking.
4. Language and literacy develop when the target language is slightly
above the current level of proficiency of the user.
5. Language and literacy development require focus, engagement and
practice.
6. Language and literacy are multi–dimensional and require different kinds
of interactions with different kinds of genres.
7. Language and literacy develop through interactions with tasks that
require cognitive involvement.
8. Language and literacy develop more deeply if skills are connected to an
overall topic or theme.

1. ADULT LEARNERS ARE GOAL DRIVEN.

Adult learners are not much interested in learning for learning sake. They get
involved in education in order to improve their skills in specific areas (to read
and write better, to finally learn to spell, to communicate in English, to build
their vocabulary). And they come to education with a purpose in mind (to get
a better job, to help their children with their home work, to deal more
effectively with the health care system or the police, or to hold their own in
conversations with neighbors or co–workers). Adults look for materials that
reflect real life challenges that advance them toward these goals. In addition,
most adults learn best if the knowledge, skills, and strategies to be acquired
are linked to real life contexts that either mirror their own circumstances or
illustrate a reality that they would like to know.
Learning Opportunities
Learners need the opportunity to:
• explore and discuss where they are in their learning, where they would
like to be and what keeps them from getting there.
• identify short term and long term goals; overarching and specific.
• self–assess current knowledge and skills and evaluate progress.
• be both challenged and supported as they try to upgrade their skills and
acquire new strategies.

2. Language and literacy are social processes that benefit

from interaction with others.
Reading, writing, and spoken language represent communication among
people (and sometimes with the self). Language and literacy grow as
learners gain experience in expressing their ideas and communicating with
others. Skills get refined through a process of discussion and reflection. In
life, language and literacy are often assisted and mediated activities, as
forms and applications are filled out jointly, friends and children translate for
immigrants and as “literacy brokers” assist others in dealing with paper work.
Learning Opportunities
Learners need the opportunity to:
• process information by talking about ideas and discussing them with
others.
• think about how they learn, what helps them and what gets in the way.
• get meaningful feedback from both peers and those who are more
expert.
• see how others similar to themselves deal with challenges.
• observe someone more experienced tackle tasks.
• work in groups where they learn collaboratively and be a resource to
others.

3. LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT REQUIRE

HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND RISK TAKING.
Acquiring another language and mastering the writing process requires
hypothesis testing and risk taking. While discovering how language works,
learners must generate their own notions of rules and principles since it is not
possible to acquire all the words and structures one might need to
communicate through memorization. Similarly, reading and listening
comprehension are not accomplished through the mere identification of
individual words and phrases, but require a certain amount of guessing so
that the overall meaning of a message can emerge. Since language and
literacy development require communication with others and interaction with
print, learners must be willing to engage in these processes, even if it means
using imperfect language forms to start. As a result, errors in grammar are
likely, misspellings may abound and whatever language is generated is likely
to represent only approximations of standard English.
Learning Opportunities
Learners need the opportunity to:
• see language as a system and discover patterns.
• generate their own rules of how language works.
• speak and write spontaneously even at very low levels of proficiency.
• guess what a text (oral or written) might be all about based on
background knowledge, context, and what they know about the
language.
• get their point across (in listening and speaking) as best as they can
without being immediately corrected.
• see how well they can do in authentic situations even with limited skills.
• use language and literacy in a supportive environment that encourages
experimentation.

4. LANGUAGE AND LITERACY LEVELS ARE NOT CONSTANT.

Language and literacy learners who fall into similar levels of proficiency are
often quite different in terms of the tasks they are able to handle. In reality
each group, whether designated as beginning, intermediate, or advanced, is
multi–level when it comes to dealing with different kinds of language and
literacy challenges. In fact, individual learners have multiple levels of
language and literacy skills as well, and most are clearly better able to deal
with some tasks than others. Background knowledge of the topi, and
experience with how things work influence competence in handling particular
challenges and even tasks that seem doable on one day, may provide
difficulty on others.
Learning Opportunities
Learners need the opportunity to:
• work with different types of texts (oral and written) created at different
levels.
• deal with challenging materials that they find interesting and compelling
although it appears to be above their level of proficiency.
• work with tasks and materials that take advantage of their background
knowledge.
• tackle a wide range of tasks, so that both boredom and frustration are
minimized.
• recognize that skills they have mastered in a lesson might still be difficult
to apply accurately in daily life.

5. LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT REQUIRE

FOCUS, ENGAGEMENT AND PRACTICE.
Language and literacy develop as learners engage in different kinds of
reading and writing and communicate with various kinds of native speakers.
While a great deal of language can be acquired through mere engagement
with texts and opportunities for communication, language learning is helped
when learners focus on particular elements of the language to be learned,
whether those be common phrases, vocabulary needed for specific
purposes, or language structures (tenses, grammar, etc). Similarly, focusing
on particular aspects of literacy (how a letter is constructed, how a contract is
laid out, what typical components of a phone message are) aids in learning
especially for those with little experience in literacy. Engaging in activities
that require the use of particular types of language and literacy (trying to
understand a recorded message, leaving a note for the landlord; reading
information that comes from a child’s school), deepens understanding since
we learn to read by reading, learn to write by writing, and develop language
through meaningful interaction with others.
Learning Opportunities
Learners need the opportunity to:
• understand what a unit or lesson is all about before getting involved in
details.
• spend sufficient time on a skill in order to get it.
• select and stay engaged with tasks that are of interest to them.
• alternate between focusing on meaning and fluency and focusing on
accuracy and correctness.
• practice skills through tasks and texts that are interesting and compelling
so that engagement is maintained.

6. LANGUAGE AND LITERACY ARE MULTI–DIMENSIONAL

AND
REQUIRE DIFFERENT KINDS OF INTERACTIONS WITH
DIFFERENT KINDS OF TEXTS (ORAL AND WRITTEN).
Language and literacy are complex processes and can neither be learned
nor taught all at the same time. If strong skills are to develop, various
dimensions of literacy need to be addressed, including interpersonal,
expressive, reflective, linguistic, socio–cultural, political, affective and
cognitive elements. Language and literacy also represent interaction
between those aspects that are form and structure oriented (grammar or
writing conventions) and those that are more meaning oriented. Similarly,
functional literacy with the purpose of getting things done is different in
nature than literacy focused on inspiration, reflection or self–expression. Both
are an integral part of learning.
Learning Opportunities
Learners need the opportunity to:
• gain experience with both functional literacy and more expressive styles.
• interact in different modes (reading, listening, speaking, writing).
• engage in tasks that address the various dimensions of literacy,
separately or combined.
7. LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOP THROUGH
INTERACTIONS WITH TASKS THAT REQUIRE COGNITIVE
INVOLVEMENT.
Literacy development and second language acquisition are processes that
require engagement by the mind. Memorizations and drills, while helpful in
making some patterns stick, are not sufficient. We now know that active
learning occurs when the mind readies itself to take in information and uses
background information and prior knowledge to interpret and make sense out
of new information. Meaning occurs when knowledge about words, sentence
structure, and sound symbol relationships interact with an understanding of
how the world works and the kinds of messages that make sense.
Learning Opportunities
Learners need the opportunity to:
• think what a text, task or problem is all about before tackling it.
• connect what is already known and familiar to them to what is new.
• engage in problem solving tasks by themselves and with others.
• use a variety of cues (syntatic, grapho–phonemic, semantic) to make
sense of oral and written texts.

8. LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOP MORE DEEPLY IF

INFORMATION IS CONNECTED TO AN OVERALL TOPIC
THAT MATTERS TO LEARNERS.
Learning different bits and pieces of language makes it difficult for learners to
see a system and to remember what they learn. Learning goes much deeper
if adults can make associations among ideas and are able to see
connections between various concepts. In addition, adults tend to learn best
when what is to be learned is related to a real life context that they are
familiar with or associated with topics they find compelling. Relating ideas to
a central topic and presenting skills within that context deepens learning, as
does presenting concepts through multiple modes (print, visual, auditory).
Learning Opportunities
Learners need the opportunity to:
• make connections between familiar ideas and new ideas to be acquired.
• see how skills relate to an overall theme.
• associate skills and strategies with real life contexts.
• select from a variety of themes so they can engage with topics that they
find compelling.
• use different kinds of modes and styles.