ELECTRON ICS, COMPUTERS, TECH NOLOGY

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PHOTO: 3W

Fr

TuismB

Projeets
&
[eA[ures
Touch Intercom

13

A handy intercom design to use about the house. Colin Meikle talks thru the
design.

Digital TV

18

James Archer is back once again with the very latest in ideas and developments

for the digital world of television.

Si.nart Charger
A car battery charger with a difference. Andrew Armstrong has designed
chargdr that treats your battery with,respect.

26
a safe

A cover-mount PCB project.

Dynamic Noise Limiter

Jeff Macaulay unveils another design for the reduction of noise in audio

30

circuits.

Solar Secrets
Douglas Clarkson presents some interesting facts about our nearest star.

Adding MIDI to a Keyboard

Yolume 2l IIo B
August lggz

Stephen Lenham shows how an ordinary keyboard can be adapted with some
simple circuitry and claftmanship into a MIDI controlled synthesiser.

DIY Aerial System

TV transmitter can be a problem. It can also be a
problem living in a flat without easy access to an aerial point. Stephen
Sometimes being too near a

34
40

48

Waddington reports

AutoMate Mixing Desk

Mike Meechan concentrates on Input amplifier design

Begulars
OpenChannel
News.
NewsStateside.
Read/Write
PCBFoits
PhotocopyService

.:..

Page 26

fn

our world of digital electronics.

the

ldevelopmental driving force almost seems

totally geared to packing in more power to
givemore facilities at a cheaperprice. The last
of these I think most of us would encourage,
but the drive for miniaturisation and greater
complexity has become inextricably linked to
consumerism. T[e consumer is being sold a
wonder gadget that not only has the builfin
redundancy element but also is so complex
that probably most of the functions it offers
will never be used. I speak cif computers,
calculators, videos, synthesisers, and now TV
sets. Only the very few will exploit their fulI
potential. It seems one has to buy the
complexity to keep the product viable.
Another significant factor not thought about
by the manufacturer is associated with the

DTI AUGUST 1992

... 4
.....5
. . .. 11
...12
... .76
... 67

physical size of data storage. Take the CD,

an enormous store of information, but good

old-fashioned readable sized printing

placed on the disc has to tell us something
about the contents. Smaller discs, although
valuable for what they contain may well be

limited as a consumer durable simply

because sufficient information cannot be
printed directly on the disc.
In the desire to steam speedily ahead with
miniaturisation, one major world player in
mass data storage had not given this simple

visual indication ofconrents any thought. lt

could be that only space for a printed code
number is available. Then the user would

be faced with consulting an index for

contents.

odern electronic telecommunications is

wonderful. ain't it? Despite many years to get it
right, thousands upon thousands of standards,

recommendations and

a reliable and
reasonably accurate method of transferring files, albeit a bit
Heath Robinson in appearance and style.

regulations,

communications between electronics gadgetry such as

computers, workstations and PCs is still largely a black art.
Let me explain. Until a year ago, my copy for this
column and anything else I wrote for ETI was produced on my
computer, at my house. I would print out the copy and send it
to Paul, the Editor, by good old-fashioned post. Then, he
would mark-up the copy to suit, send it onto ETI's typesetters,
where it would be re-typed into high-quality image-set film,
ready for printing.
Now, anyone could be forgiven for thinking that ETI
as a flagship electronics magazine should have been produced
by totally electronic methods. It should have been all written
by writers like myself on computer, downloadedby telephone
line to ETI editorial offices where the magazine was produced
on computer screen. Finally the resultant pages should have
been simply downloaded by telephone line, again, to the
printer. In an ideal world this should have been so. But
magazine publishing has had its financial ups and downs over
the last seven or eight years, and ETI was not yet at the
electronic stage.
About a year ago, however, ETI took its first tentative
steps in this direction. ETI's computer system (ie, Paul's
personal computer) could finally accept electronic copy from
writers. Great, except that we couldn't get it to work. My
computer still couldn't talk to his computer. My computer
disks are still different to his. So much for all these standardsl
So we hit upon an interim arrangement, which lasts
to this day and will probably last a while longer, too. I write
my copy and fax it to Paul. This is not a fax in the traditional
sense, though. Plugged into the back of my computer I have
a special modem which doubles as a direct fax connection. I
can send a fax directly from my computer screen. So what I see
on the screen I know will be printed out from any fax machine
I want to send the fax to. So, I send my computer-generated
Open Channel copy to Paul, via ETI's fax machine.
When Paul gets it seconds later, he scans it into his
computer's scanner. Once he's done this he uses optical
character recognition software to read in the scanned copy.
Quality of my faxed material is so good (simply because it's
coming directly frommy computer- andnotbeing faxed inthe
traditional sense) Paul tells me he can expect over 98Vo of
words to be recognised by the optical character reader. So a
typical length column like Open Channel which has around
1000 words, he has to correct something less than 20 words.
From then on in, ETI' s computer takes.over.
We know there are easier and better ways to do all
this. But when we first tried to do-it-all electronically we
wasted so much time and still couldn't get it to work that we
simply ran out of time (ETI' s press days can't slip, or the
magazine just doesn't get printed) and so gave up. Yes, we
know that with a bit of investment, the right software, and a

few days more work we could have got it working, but

deadlines are deadlines. We now have. instead.

Pheonix Rises From the Ashes

While I've talked about telepoint often enough in past Open
Channels, it's time to air it yet again. Telepoint is the name
for the one-way portable telephone system, which forms part
of the CT2 technology.

At one time there seemed to be hundreds of telepoint

services (we11. four actually) which was, I am convinced, one
of the two main reasons why they all failed dismall-v to attract

users. The other main reason was that the1, uere ail
incompatible with each other. Users of one si stem couldn't
use base-stations

of another.

All that's history,

and hopefully won't happen again

(UK Govemment permitting!.). Now there is a ne\\ s) stem based on the old ones but much more promisirig - curently
being set up by Hutchison Personal Communicati ons. Planned

to launch in the Granada television region at the end of June

and expected to spread to highly populated areas br October,
Rabbit is the first system to operate on the common air
interface (CAI) standard. This means any handsers using the
CAI standard should work on the system.
Hutchison appears to have a realistic pncing policy,
too. Its basic handset will retail for less rhan !100, with
network charges off6 per month and call charges comparable
with public telephone boxes.
While I never ceased from complainin-e about the lack
of coordination which previous telepoint nets ork operators
putinto their systems,I have nothing butpraise for Hutchison's
Rabbit. Despite a bad start, telepoint finally looks ser ro pay
its way. Unless the Govemment decides to licence another 50
operators with incompatible systems again. that is.

NICAM Starts to pay

Technology found in all MCAM televisions and videocassetterecorders is patented by BBC. This is the good nervs. for
without the BBC it' s doubtful that we would ever hav e srereo
terrestrial television. The BBC was instrumental in developing

NICAM, and instrumental in persuading television

videocassette-recorder manufacturers to implement

and

NICAM

circuits in their equipment.

Naturally, we should expect the BBC to benefit from
this. There were over a million television receivers sold last
NICAM circuits, there'Il be double

year in the UK alone with

that this year.

Following discussions with alI the related

manufacturers, it now looks as though the BBC is set to get
royaltypayments, whichcouldeasily amounttomany millions
of pounds a year - even if a royalty payment ofjust f,l per
appliance is agreed. The potential is even greater.
Once the BBC receives royalties, they'11 naturally be
doing the decent thing, and reducing all our television licence
fees. Won't they?

Keith Brindley

ETI AUGUST 1992

NHS
D T's fibre optic technology
-fD lu, helped to virtually

eliminate car crime from the

places where closed circuit TV
(CCTV) cameras have been
installed in the Norfolk town of

King's Lynn. The project

has

generated great interest, with

visits and enquiries being made
from all overthe UK andeven the
USA.

Barrie Loftus,
Borough Council Project
Officer for the system

said: "In the first three

months of this year there
were 164 vehicle thefts
in the King's Lynn area, only one
of those was from a car park. On

average, there used to be two

vehicles a week stolen from the
car parks, now that kind of theft
has been eliminated."
And he added that it is notjust car
thefts that have disappeared:
"There also used to be three or
four incidents of damage to cars
or thefts from vehicles on the car
parks a week. Since February,
when the CCTV system went

'live', there hasn't been ohe

incident of this kind reported.'.'

The council points out

that

of

it is not just the installation

the cameras that has

contributed to their success. Staff

put out a press release, held

formal press day and have made

numerous appearances on local

TV and in the local press.
The local press has also

canvassed

local

people's

opinions. "The majority of them

were infavour," saidRoy Daynes,
crime prevention officer in the
town, "What we are trying to do

is take away the fear of crime.

The cameras are there to make
people feel safer as well as catch

criminals and vandals. King's

Lynn is now a safer place to go
shopping."
There will soon be a total
of 46 cameras in the scheme, all
connected to a central control
room in the Council's HQ by

BT' s latest fibre optic technology.

In the control room, a single

Guarding Services, monitors

movement not just in the town's
l7 car parks, but also in a leisure

centre, in the area around the

council offices and on a major
housing estate, Hillington Square.

A manager at the leisure

centre remarked: "The level of
crime here is far less than in any
other centre I've worked in. Most
crime is petty vandalism by kids.
Now they know the cameras are
here and there is hardly any
graffiti at all. Moreover, because
we can record incidents, we have
broughtkids into the control room
and shown them the screens word of the scheme spreads more
quickly that way.

double section bobbins to provide

maximumisolation - 4kV between

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encapsulated

Manufactured for Cirkit

Mains

these high quality, PCB mounting

Transformers are now available

transformers are ideal for

from Cirkit.

applications where space is at a

DTI AUGUST 1992

It is sad that yearly

running costs are about f,180,000

including contract security

security staff, BT line rentals and
equipment ren tals. This is cbvered

by users of the

scheme

contributing roughly f1,000 for

each camera provided, and by a
10p increase on car park tariffs.

rugged moulded case to provide

independent secondaries which

may .be connected lor series.
parallel or center tap operation,
giving a choice ofvoltage/current
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of

again."

encapsulated with UL94V-O self-

operation, together with

Profile

bike thefts, now Ican'tremember

the last time a bike was stolen. At
one stage a new artificial cricket
pitch was set alight. There is not
much chance of that happening

MA size, for

example, is only

range

importantly,

serious crime in the centre has

stopped altogether. At one time
we had awhole spate of mountain

44x53x22mm.
Independent primary windings
allow 120 or 240Y 50/60KHz

premium, the

A new
ALow

"More

operator, provided by Broadland

characteristics.

These low profile

transformers have industry

standard pinouts,

extinquishing resin and

excellent

in

environmental

protection and designed to BS

415, VDE 0550-0551, IEC 65

and BS 3535, Class

specifications.

The stock range covers

4VA to 30VA in the

most

commonly used voltages with

custom wound versions available
to special order.
Further information contact Cirkit

Distribution Ltd,Tel:(0992)
44t306

are

.D

aplin Electronics has

introduced a pair of high
quality headphones intended for

signal to noise ratio of compact

disc.

listening to compact disc and

sensitivity and stability at low

digital music material.

The

The unit

volume

maintains

levels. It has

an

adjustable padded steel headband

and leather earpads, and a 2.7m

long extra flexible

plug. A
included.

designed to bring out the best in

the dynamic range and superior

response of 16Hz
cost f 14.95.

,Tl he US sovernment has

I- awarded iterated Systems a

Fractal Transform chip to

$2 million grant to help develop

a special Fractal Transform video
decompression chip for use in

high definition

(HDTV),

videophones and multimedia

computer systems.

The fractal chip project.

funded by the National Institute

of

via

Control Units for the control of

Network' (CAN) databus in order

functions such as fuelling,

transmission and braking. As a
result considerable improvements
in vehicle performance for both

systems have been interconnected

a

high speed 'Controller Area

to allow rapid

controller

interaction. This data bus

effectively replaces the

passenger cars and trucks.

electromechanical linkages which

would otherwise be necessary for

However, further improvements

the transmission and braking

in driveline performance are

possible if greater interaction

drivers feature high energy

magnets and diaphragms

f ucas Aulomotive Ltd., LJK,

IJ i. inrroducing Electronic

lead

3.5mm stereojack
U4in. jack adaptor is

terminated in

Standards and Technology

(NIST) under the Advanced

Technology Program, is called
High Fidelity Digital Image
Compression. The chip will
decompress digital images fast
enough to keep up with the frame

rate of television.
Alan McKeon, Managing
Director of Iterated Systems Ltd,
the UK subsidiary commented

The phones have a frequency

to 22kHz and

"The next step is developing

compress video images for HDTV

in real time, to save the production

industry time and money."

Referring to the strategic
importance of projects funded
under the program, George Bush,
President of the USA, said "Today
our government must help carry
that research forward and
contribute to the development of
generic technologies that build

on basic discoveries."

He

continued "In this way, we carl

help leverage the R&D of the

private sector, helping whole

industries advance in

an

increasingly competitive global

market."

controllers than is currently the

demonstrated significant
improvements in driveline
performance,
dynamic

case.

particularly during ABS/ASR

This opportunity has been

grasped by Lucas who in 1989

operation, owing to the improved

embarked on a collaborative
research project with two other

engine, transmission and braking

occurs between the sub-system

communication between the

controllers, compared with that
obtained with sub-systems

international vehicle component

suppliers. to explore the issues

connected

data bus communications

between driveline control

complexity is also reduced.

Further developments to
the interactive control strategies

systems.

In the first phase of work

mid-range diesel engined tnrck
has been equipped with a Lucas

electronic diesel engine

management system, an
electronic automated mechanical
transmission and electronic ABS/

ASR control. The Electronic

Control Units for these three sub

conventional

mechanical and wiring

performance by use ofhigh speed

by

electromechanical linkages. The

surrounding truck driveline

controllers to change the engine

torque during gear shifting and
ASR operation: in addition it
allows much greater exchange of
information between the control
units. This signifi cantly improves
the driveline performance.
At the outset of this work, no

agreed standards existep for

message struclures for the

are also being made to further

improve the dynamic driveline
performance and improve fuel

transmission of data in interactive

systems of this type so the project

economy.

team developed their own

please contact:Don Hiett at Lucas Automotive.

message format.

The vehicle fitted with the

interactive system

For further information

Tel:021-627 3939

has

ETI AUGUST 1992

Evidence will be given by live

video link for the first time in a
civil case in the UK on Wednesday
l3th May.
The County Courtis to sit
on that day in the Bar Council's

videoconferencing studio at 3
King's Bench Walk in the

Temple. The court

will

hear

evidence in the case ofHenderson

v SBS Realisations Ltd. live from

a studio in the

videoconferencing studio

Institute of Technology in the

following a decision in the Court

of Appeal.

United States. The case concerns

a claim for damages arising from
the disappearance of an antique
clock from a family home in
England.

Committee, which has pioneered

the use of live video links in the
courts in the UK, said, "This is an

Massachusetts

The County Court was

allowed to sit in

the

Bernard Weatherill,
Chairman of the Bar Services

important

first.

justice much more affordable, not

only in cases where witnesses are
abroad. but also where they are in
different parts of the UK. I hope
that the use of this technique will
spread as a natural development

of the legal process."

The use of

videoconferencing can make

the tecbnology of zero-emission

racing cars, the stronger our

position will be when 'green'
pressures really start to bite. There

are fascinating challenges

involved in this project, some of
which will undoubtedly lead to
technology 'spin-offs' for our
more conventional
Arthur Large

racing

will

responsible for the funding

be

ofthe

company, its City contacts, and

also acts as company secretary.

Commented

Automotive

Consultants founder, Gerard

Sauer: "Over the last 6 years, we

have acted as marriagebrokers

between many'leading-edge'
techlology companies. Our role

f, new company has been

ll,formed called ZERO Ltd.
ZERO stands forZero Emissions
Racing Organisation. It is the aim

of ZERO to design, build

and

develop an electric racing car.

The desire to build such a vehicle,
has come fromthe clearobjective

for the

companies involved to
remain f,rmly at the fore-front of
technology.
Those involved in this
new comPany are all well known
in the Motor Industry. Day to day
running of ZERO will be in the

hands

Cl

of Managing Director,

imon Bull. Final vear student

Dat

Leeds Polytlchnic has

carried out his research project
on the subject of 'Repetitive

Gerard Sauer. He will also be

responsible for the gathering of
research-data and information.
Building of the chassis and its

auxillary components will be

undertaken by Lola Cars. All
electronics, electric motors, and
batteries will be developed by
Zytek Systems.

of Zytek Systems' business rs rn

the development and supply of
electronic equipment for use on
competition vehicles worldwide.
The electric vehicle is viewed by

many as the future

of

road
hansport and it is therefore logical
that Zytek should combine these
technologies in the development

Thecompanyshouldhave
its fustprototype carready by the
beginning of September 1993, in

readiness for the 1994

of the ZERO electric racing car".

A spokesman for Lola Cars
commented: "We see this as part
of our policy of always looking

competition season.

forward

Commentedaspokesman
for Zytek Systems: "A major part

sooner we seriously investigate

misinformation or even ignorance

could be devastating to many

- environmental issues
are not going to go away, so the

collar' workers since the 1970's

(having been around for thousands
ofyears) the cause ofthis damage

as

coordinators in the project suits

us particularly well, since it

represents the highest

technological challenges

undertaken by the foremost in

this field. It is also to record that

with Great Britain the

present

undisputed leader in the freld of

international motorsport, my
company will be directly involved
in the hrst real effort to maintain
that position in the future".
For further information
contact Gerard Sauer on 071-

7371769.

industries. The arguments in

industry, essentially lie along a

is widely disputed where 'white

collar' workers are concemed. It
has recently manifested itself

Blame

information is extremely limited,

companies. Repetetive Strain

Injury' or 'RSI' is just one of the
many names used to describe
damage to the soft tissue of the
hand, wrists, arms and neck.

following the introduction of

and yet the consequences of

Although recognised

electronic keyboards

or
'malingering' by management.

Strain Injury' or RSI. This subject

is something on

DII

which

AUGUST 1992

in

'blue

in

many

Management/Union.-continuum.

is placed' on
ergonomics' and

'poor
'bad

management' by the unions and

on 'mass hysteria'

There are many weird

and

wonderful theories that can be

placed along this continuum
although. there are three main

any one case in order to establish

the cause.The prevention and cure

change of attitude and increasing

awareness so that all the parties

of RSI are also contested.

involved can help their own

situations. Journalists must use

ergonomics and posture, 'stress'

(or other psychological factors
such as dislike of the job) and
social activities involving hand/

Prevention is seen by some to

simply mean a change of work
systems job rotation and screen
breaks, and by others to mean
ergonomic assessrirent and the
purchase of new equipment.
What. clearly. is missing is an

arms etc (e.g. sports such

as

assessment of the whole situation

squash). Until scientific evidence

before implementation of new

factors that tend to occur

regularly, These are; poor

suggests otherwise, it is the

authors beliefthat all ofthe above
factors should be considered in

technology is even considered.

RSI has past that stage in many
cases and what is now needed is

Both common law and

what equipment they have to the

best of their ability by leaming

the importance of posture and

sensible practice. Management

must perform assessment of

workstations (ergonomic and
environmental), provide
equipment where needed and
most importantly of all make

the impending EC legislation

will

probably have the most effect on

both RSI and the companies
involved although with a lead
time of four years the legislation's
impact is limited. The cost of the

'common law' approach will

undoubtedly be very high with
possible settlements of five times

each persons salary, not to

mention the time involved and
wasted human resources.

available information to it's

employees.

capable of delivering a minimum

power output of 22dBm.
The 1.9GHz ICs operate
on a low supply voltage ofjust
4.6V. Operating frequency range
is from 1.85 to l.95GHz. Input

power

M;H3l*1,Effff

Y5;?

digital cordless.

its 1.9GHz power amplifier IC

designed specihcally

Typical efhciency will be

for l.9GHz

cordless telephones presently

used in Japan and soon to be
adapted for the European DECT
system.

50Vo

MGF712I GaAs power

in

I interest rates might

provide a welcome boost in

confidence for the business
community, but it is not enough
to solve the problems faced by

Britain's

manufacturing

industry".

This was the warning

given by Brian Manley, President

of the Institution of Electrical

Engineers (IEE). MrManley was

addressing senior industrialists

at the Annual Meeting of ERA

Technology held at the Butchers
Hall in the City ol London.
"Unless the situation is resolved

long-term" he said "high and

fldctuating interest rates, the

mpsys
I lcompa

failing courage of the high street

interest rates as being the

'

banks andthe short-term approach

dominant factor in discouraging

innovation is not seen

manufacturing industry from

and as a result the country is

losing its ability to respond to

of the City of London will

continue to be the major causes of

Britain's decline as

manufacturing nation".
Mr Manley criticised UK
banks for their failure to support
new industries.
"To be lending money
like drunken sailors one minute
and to be withdrawing support
from viable businesses the next not because the company has
failed, but because the Bank has
lost courage - is no recipe for the

successful development of
enterprise."

He also cited high real

investing in enterprise - as aresult

British companies are forced to
achieve high short term results
'far beyond those that would be
smiled upon in Japan'."There is
no way that the British company
can compete

effectively" he said.

"Opportunities for innovation that

are grasped with enlhusiasm

overseas are passed over in
Britain as offering insufficient
return, or posing too high a
financial risk".
Research and development, Mr

FM signals. This

that co-channel interference is

reduced and two FM channels on

Brian Manley urged the

government to establish a system
of taxation which rewards long
term investment and

differentiates between capital

growth and dividend distribution.
He also stressed the need for new
policies which would exploit the

stability provided by the ERM

and would lower interest rates to

Amplitude Locked Loop in

Scotland - has announced a new

method ofdecoding narrow band

inaudible
squelching. These two effects

Although welcoming
in interest rates

yesterday's cut

international levels as quickly as

possible.

now be decoded without mutual

507o transmitted power for the

same reception range.
A further improvement is

intemational competition.

is

the same centre frequency can

FM PMR and/or a reduction of

apriority

an

especially over sustained periods.

Other advantages incl:ude a257o
increase in usable range for any

patented

as

Manley continued.

greatly reduce listener fatigue

technique removes the spikes (or

spurs) from the radio signal just
as the link is breaking down and

unaffordable luxury' engineering

progressively viewed as

Ee,

also provides

system as Class B or C operation

is possible. Minimum power gain
is quoted at 37dB with minimum
control voltage rated at -4V.

mounting devices. They measure

8.4 x 13.2 x 1.7mm and yet are

off

for the European DECT

are compact surface

amplifierlCs

557Tttre Govemment's cut

is -15dBm and typical

efficiency is 307c for the Japanese

destruction.
The circuitry is currently
under evaluation by a number of
multinationals. One evaluation
engineer was heard to remark

combination with

Loop to

Phase Locked

achieve

this

breakthrough.

For further information

contact Ampsys Ltd Tel: 041 848

3444

that "By the year 2000, every FM

radio will be using this technique
The new decoder uses an

DTI AUGUST 1992

,The latest Gartner Group

I research report now gives

increasing our probability to 0.5

President of

Advanced

continued "We base thiS primarily

said

is

performance, low cost still image

compression."
Iterated Systems. Inc. a

unquestionably an arena where

company

existing standards including

on the significant improvements

of fractals compared to anything
else. including discrete cosine
transform-based algorithms and
the recognition of Microsoft for
this technology."
The report concluded that
Companies requiring very high

JPEG, MPEG andH.26l.

compression ratios

Iterated Systems' Fractal

Transform image compression

technology a 507o probability of

setting the de facto standard. This
is an increase from their previous
assessment late last year of a

20Vo probability.

The

ramifications could be severe for

The report, from this

respected strategic consultancy,
stated "Forthe imaging and stored
multimedia markets, we are

TD T and Visa International

-fD today arnounceri that more

that fractals will rule." It

for high
resolution images should
investigate Iterated Systems'
products today."

Bill Caffery,

Vice

BT telephones in the UK. In

currently has 28 million Visacard

will be the first European
country to enrol in lhe service.
"The service will appeal
particularly to visitors to the UK,

addition, cardholders will be able

who

to use their Visa cards to phone

account as the cost of the calls

will be billed to their Visa card in

than 280 million Visa cards could

soon be used to pay for calls from

the

UKfrom abroadusing

the

UK

Direct service.
Under the arangement,
BT and Visa will extend the

VisaPhone service -which is

currently available in the Uniied
States - to the UK by eaiy 1993.
'This means that the UK, which

ewlett-Packard

introduced

holders,

will not need aBT telephone

their local curency.

The new facility will complement
BT's own Chargecard, and will
use the same calling method.
Users will dial144 in the UK or,
when abroad, special freephone
numbers from over 60 countries.

Technologies at Gartner Group

"Multimedia

the unrivalled superiority of

fractal decompression is a boon

to end users or consumers, and

therefore to developers and
publishers."

AIan McKeon,

Managing
Director of Iterated Systems' UK
subsidiary, commented "This is
further acknowledgement of the
momentum which is establishing
the Fractal Transform as the de

facto standard for

For security, callers will

have to provide their card number

plus a telecode

Service Development, said:

"Cashless calling is becoming
vital to our customers in the UK
and to travellers all overthe world.
"At BT we strive to ensure
that everyone who needs to use

Aimed at highly mobile

three feet. In comparison, today's

1.S-inch and 2.5-inch disk drives

DTI AUGUST 1992

can handle operating shocks

between l0-20g.
Our customers demanded a
no-compromise storage design,"

our network, and that includes

every visitor to this country. is
given the best service and the

most convenient method of

payment.

"With VisaPhone, which

our

existing

credit cards and

pre-paid

complements

Chargecard services - plus our

facilities for using commercial
Phonecards at selected Payphones
BT will offer customers the
most flexible range of telephone
card services in Europe."

She pointed out that solid-

five times as

expensive as the
rotating disk technology used in

the HP Kittyhawk PSM.

Mbytes

of

20

solid-state memory

currently costs about $1,000, or

$50 per Mbyte, compared to about

HP-

$12 per Mbyte for the HP

Kittyhawk PSM. HP storage
devices are already being designed

designed integrated
circuit based on the

into mobile computing

same technology used

consumer electronics.

sense

airbags. As a result, the HP

Kittyhawk PSM can sense and
brace for

establish and advance the Fractal

Image Format. Iterated Systems
Ltd is the Reading-based UK
subsidiary.

for their customers.

To achieve this,

collisions and trigger

operating shock of 1009 (nonoperating ol 2259\ to survive a

system drop of approximately

committed to fundamental

mathematical research to

computing devices

in cars to

inches high, measures 2 inches

by 1.44 inches and weighs less
than one ounce.

an

and

a special,

technology as larger disk drives

is

state technology is approximately

the drive incorporates

Though the HP Kittyhawk

PSM uses much of the same

independent manner at ultra.high

compression ratios. The company

Product Manager.
"They needed high
dependability - to
solid

solid-state technology with the

cost and power advantages of
disk-drive technology.

to handle pictures in a resolution

computers," continued Tunnicliff.

provide

durability and removability of

Atlanta,

provides fractal compression

products that enable computers

explained Anna
Tunnicliff, 11P

resilience

Mbytes of information in a device

the size of a small matchbox. It
comb,ines the miniaturisation,

the PSM can withstand

a four-digit

and will be different from the

PIN used for cash dispensers.
Tony Vardy, BT's Director of

has

applications, the HP Kittyhawk

PSM was designed to be rugged
using techniques leamed at HP's
calculator division. As a result,

personal identification number

(PIN). This number will be used
for making telephone calls only

the
HP
Kittyhawk Personal Storage
Module - the world's first l.3in
diskdrive, capable ofstoring 21.4

in desktop and portable

computers, it is less than 0.4

high

privately held
headquartered in

shock before it occurs,

keeping data safe.

The dimensions oftoday's 2.5-

in and 1.8-in drives, as well

as

their sensitivity to shock, limits

them as storage solutions for the

next generation of mobile

devices,

digital imaging peripherals and

Designed for long life, the
storage device feah-ues a meantime-between-failures (MTBF) of
300,000 hours. It offers an 18
millisecond average seek time
and supports active, idle, standby
and sleep modes.
Further information can be

obtained from the Customer

Information

Centre

Tel:0344369222

Take the Sensible Roule!

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ETI AUGUST 1992

or to get a

backup

generator online.
Generatol

NHS

stator

Instead of
conventional

Generator ercitation pole

generator field coil,

the device has an
excitation coil that

ilotor exciter pole

'writes'

...Stateside...
Preventing
electrical
surges

fluctuations), the
number

The advantage

Traditionally, suppliers have

Upsets inprocess equipment used

provided a motor-generator set,

Power conditioning or
uninterruptible supply can be
accomplishedin avariety of ways.

induction-motor

in which incoming power

energized an electric motor, which
in turn could be used to run the
generator. Interposing a fl ywheel
the
or other device

enabled

motor generator set to overcome

0.3s before frequency drops

below

59.5H2, unless substantial

oversizing of the equipment is
specified. The battery-based

systems require constant

monitoring and

squirrel-cage motor. Squirrel-

motor generator set emphasises

The Precise Power system

constant frequency for

minimum of 15 seconds at ful1-

of limitations. The
flywheel-based motor generator
set provides power for only about

rated load, and 45 seconds at no

load. This is often long enough to
ride through momentary outages,

degradation because the polymers

are permeable. The relatively

electrol u m i nescent lam p

thick package and edge seals also

limit applications.

Tll lectroluminescent Iamps

ILcontain a powdered

Durel Corp. of Tempe,

Arizona, has recently made

limited because the phosphors

degrade rapidly when exposed to

moisture and high humidity.

starting torque of ahigh resistance

cage windings embedded in the

annular rotor cause the motor to
start like an induction motor.
When it reaches about 807o of
operating speed. the stationary
excitation coil is energized at line
frequency. This means that a
high-inertia rotor can be used (it
weighs nearly 1 ton), to provide
high ride-through capability.

powered by lead-acid batteries to

get through the outage.

number

motor, and that it has the high-

maintenance, and if heavily used,

must have the batteries changed

out.

These setups have

driver are that it provides the

efficiency and constant-speed
characteristics of a synchronous

frequent

momentary outages. Later

systems employed inverters

lmproved

phosphor - usually zinc sulphide

- between two electrodes. When
alternating current passes

of

the pole-writing
motor over an

plant, continually affected the

frequency of plant power by
creating harmonic distortions.

South Carolina.

written

a constant frequency
. isinducedinthe stator
windings.

conditions, combined with a large

number of DC motors inside the

generator set from Precise Power

Corp. of Bradenton, Florida, most
of these problems have cleared
up, according to a plant engineer
at Alcoa-Fujikura Ltd. of Duncan,

of

poles varies such that

storms and other weather

By installing a motor-

layer

magnetic material on
the inner surface of a
rotating annulus core.
As rotor speed
changes (duetopower

panel

required the production to stop,

or could cause irregularities in
the final product.

of high-coercivity

Output
contactor
dlstrlbutlon

steps

magnetic

freld poles into

A n ootical fibre manufacturer

Arorna that outside lighrning

in continuous production

in EL technology that
increase lamp life, improve
reliability, and reduce the bulk
and cost of the lamp system.
advances

Encapsulated phosphors allow

engineers to make lamps much
thinner and more flexible. These
can be cut into intricate shapes
since the edges do not need to be
sealed. The Durel lamps are also
less expensive than conventional

EL lamps

because the outer

plastic frlm, some components,
and manufcturing steps required

between the electrodes, the

Conventional EL lamps use a

desiccant layer and a thick copolymer outer cover, which is

phosphor emits light.

Although these lamps are
used primarily for backlighting,
the range ofapplications has been

sealed at the edges to protect the

phosphor. While this packaging
increases lamp life, it does not
completely eliminate phosphor

World record

and maintains high CCD in a

magnetic field. At 4.2K and zerc
magnetic field, the CCD of the
3.2m film of thallium-barium-

coupling of grains in the

is spray-coated with an aqueous

polycrystalline structure, the

elevated magnetic fields,

solution of barium, calcium, and

copper nitrates, and oxidized to
produce aBa-Ca-CuO film. This

calcium-copper oxide (TBCCO)

exceeded 500,000 A/om'z. At
82K, CCD was 100,000 A/cm2.
The previous high was 60,000 A/
cmz at 77K and zero magnetic

indicating strong grain linkage.

is reacted with thallium-oxide

This is especially critical for

vapour to erect

power applications such

magnetlc resonance rmagers

predominant

field.

which operate in the presence of

proprietary process lends itself to

scale-up in thicknesses and
coating surfaces of extended
lengths. To date the longestlength
of oxide produced is only 100m.

critical
current
density
A superconducting
fllm
Apolycrystalline
prepared at General Electric

While the CCD of

Company, Schenectady, exhibits

previous superconductors falls

world-record critical current

density (CCD) for thick frlms,

ETI AUGUST T992

rapidly in the presence of

magnetic fields due to weak-link

Instead of the multilayer

approach, each individual

to produce the lamps are

eliminated.

phosphor granule is encapsulated

in glass to

protectitfrommoisfure.

TBCCO film retained CCD in

as

motor

windings, generators,

and

magnetic fields.

In the

film-making

process, a heated polycrystalline

yttria-stabilized zirconia substrate

superconducti ng

film of the

composition

TlBarCarCu,O* in

phase.

the

This

II

Lette
Hazadous
Waste Disposal

Fo$,Factor',Not

Suggestions

So,Cleni'

he letter in Read./Write from

[!
I

A Ward caught my attention

in the June issue as I have had the
problem of disposal of hazadous
waste myself in the past.

Having bought a pack of

unmarked regulator ICs from a
Tandy store and started to search
for data, I found a similar toxic

D eg
l\ab

hpr!

There havE,been r*any ather

tu'Lhe.{4 bf
lRudo$ Floqctl
argU!$ lSt t&e,.Closei ii nrord is to
itJ root the easier it is to
ollderstand. This implies that
tesig bf reada&i1ity-.
p|6iiy-:,Tal,k,]1, Dr

pqefixeq aud,suffIvos added !o

substances warning on the data

words

sheet for the TO3 style five

terminal regulators. Fortunately,

readabiliry.

was
employed by a fire exstinguisher
company, who happened to have
a toxic waste container on sight,
and permission was obained to
dispose of the devices in this

lfte.sty-le; is not simpte to elassify.

at the time a relative

way.

It is an intersting point, that

there are a number ofelectronic
components which contain toxic
substances. and the labelling is
not all it could be, good examples
of this being Ni-Cd rechargeable

cells, which contain'large

quantities of easily disposable
cadmium, also fluorescent
lighting tubes whichrarely ifever
carry any cautionary markings

'

'decrease' their

Unfoitunately, roadabilily,

o(. qualltiry,

Senlence lpngths

and syllable countsdo notprovide

areliAb.bgpide.Sy-nta_cticanalysis
alone; especially'al gord leveJ,ls

iuadqquaF bepause it ignores

Sernantic ' qnd pragmatic

considerations.
; For exlmpler in the mo 11word sentencosbelow, tho first is
sts$Eifiedby the Fog approachw
diffiaul1, to iread since'it has 11
wotds and saw]re'T7 syllables.
,was
1,',:t' ,tl!{arilyn , ,,

,.

.,re*[Izing,, that

individuat protests had become

totally ineffective.
2
The grrl saw the man

about the Mercury vapour and

rare earth elements they contain.,
not to mention smoke detectors
which contain a small quantity of

thc,hoy saw riding his bicyclCr

radioactive material.

is corrsiderably more difficult to

In recent years civic ammenity

sites (refuse container sites) have

become better equipped with in

addition tohousehold and garden
refuse compactors and scrap metal
skips as standard have been
augmented by the provision of

waste clothing containers for

charities and waste glass and

paper containers for recycling.
Unfortunately the nearest toxic
waste disposal is the provision

waste engine
suppose that

if

oil

of

containers. I

you had no other

'

Hdwever; the secofldseiltehcg;

also, 1 l,words; has mristly, single
$yllable w ords except for two. yet
read and is'highly ambiguous,

for

exemple:

a)Did the boy see the man

while he (the boy) was riding his
bicycle?

bi Did the boy sse the mitrl

riding hiq (the boyls) bicyele?
c)Did the boy see the man
riding his (*rp man's) bicycle?

q-f a

Vafious parts of, rvritten

English have been counted. Back

in 1852 Augustus de Morgan
ot Uathematics' at &e

fF$es1r

Type Token:ratio :,
Full concorilance,liefing
of all words (usei

I3
l4

".

writer's style. In 1887,

Meriilenhall,''(Profes*or
dextalked

will

U:rivemity of I-o:rdoo) suggested

wo*d ldngf h might bo a distinctive

choo$e fftg.:: ::: :'. :; ..

collcord{ne to $e,lisred

o-f

rEa.y:

trvlnthomatics' at. Ohio State

Univelsiry) was' countiag the
absolute word lengths of some
5000 words from l'OJiver Twistl'
Yule (1938 atrd 1944) sodied
sentence lengths and counted

b)

ronrrs. The Waring"Herdan

I6

Percentage

17

byeachword : ,,: .,i,

tist of a1! au4itiary and

formula (1969) altempted: to

utrsofted ::.

a)
c),.

I5

e.rd,

analyze and account for style by

looking ,dt ascending and

descending feetutes in
boncordanies

cf textt.

.1,, . ..
fu}l - positite ' , ,, .:
full - negative ,.,,

a)

b)
c)

ci.lrried numerous math+matieat

approaches: all complex and

di

contacted - positiye'.,.,
contracted negadve : 11.
The 30 rnost comrnonl,
used words in Englisli ,

L8

uDCOItVlIlClAg. :
I am presently conducting post

I
2
3
4
5
6

sentence

7
8
9
l0

Average syllables per

word
Average letters per
serl'tence

Average letters ger wofd

dverd.ge letters per

1l' ,

,.,

'

fqrms

tinguistic conrputing"; have also

gtaduate research into the style

aud readability of written English
Ftsse, hencb my. inteiest. Believe
ms - volumes,have. bebn writton
an the sutrject lknorry"I've had to
read the damn thi*gs!
I My own approgch is qquttf;
Ievel " I haye written a suite of
corilBilrer progrem$ which wilt
takQ. sny English,toxt andprovido
the following analysis:
Number of sentences
Number of words
Number of syllables
Numher of,Iettors
Average sentonca,length
Average sylJables per

ofthe total

Itrodftl vefbs in various

The

publications, 'tomputing ia tl.re

rLl1s16r,y
6nd
fiumarrities'l, :aird:

:,..,

alphabetically -ranked .
freq*engy ianked: : :.:

(accordingtoth
LOBcorpus of

i,

,.1

l urilliott

words)aodadfu.et r,

nur,nerical comparilon of
the usage of thsse wo-rd$
in the text under analy$is

I9

Individual ccunt of elqll

letter used
: :i,i
An individual cotrnt of:

2A
r

two dimensional tabl6,

in a 26x26 matrix
fr

The resultarrt

aualy$Ss,

together with the staiistical

analyses of them, are of'sonie
cornplerity yet these are only ona
level of the total analysis; there
are anol,her three levels of e4ual

cOmplexi.ly, , ,,

.:'

The few word$'above barely

scratches the suifac of the subjeCt

but it can be Seen that it is unwise

to classify a given fcxt merely:on
the basis ofa couple ofcounts.
Engli

sh j ust

cannot be reduced

a simple mathematical
equation,. ' .',. ....
'
D*vid Gibson,
1o

Tstal number of word$,

(Token*)

l,,Tolalnumberofdifferont

Littte GaddssdonrHerts

words Cfypes)

choice, then throwing such

devices in this container, whilst

There are companies which

Most scrap merchants will

An excellent starting point for

probably illegal, would at least

specialise in scrapping computer

have information on companies

preventthem from corroding, and

there is always the possiblity that
the people who process waste oil
would be better equiped to deal
with the hazadous materials than
any other sectors of the salvage
industry.

junk, who are mainly interested

in the gold used on the boards"

which specialise in computer

scrap as due to the difficulties
involved in recovering the
valuable metals.
Perhaps the local fire officer
could help as it is his job to know
of any premises in his area.

enquiries of this nature is the

Environment Department in the
FAX directory. Friends Of The
Earth might also tell you.

t2

Inevitably they

will

handle

quantities of components
containing toxic materials,

whether they realise this fact is

another matter.

hope this research is useful.

I Field,
Letchworth,Herts

ETI AUGUST 1992

Fig.l A remote station showing touch points

his is an intercom with some interesting differences from most common intercom designs. It
was designed as a simple two way intercom for
use around the home or between outhouses and
the home. As with most intercoms only one person can
speak at a time but this intercom has two way control i.e.
either person can control it. Other features include touch

by Colin Meikle

a2

BSIOT

lC3a

8M2

4001

R24

P.TIUED

o
o
r
E
o
3
o
F
U
F

o
E
=
E
E

o
G
E

c15
10n

tc2

40106

+12V

C21= R22
look
o.ouj

CALL.
lC5a

c16

4093

Rls

2il2

1On

o.lrr
=c24

c17
0.33!

Fig.2a Control logic for lntercom

DTI AUGUST 1992

*<e

HOW IT WORKS
The intercom consists oftwo distinct parts, the control logic and
the amplifier section each has its own PCB. The circuit diagram is
shown in Figure 2.
The amplifier section consists of two parts, a common-base

pre-ampliferfollowed
in each

by a single lC power amplifier. The speakers

ofthe remote stations act

as a mic rophone as well as a loud

speaker. The fun ction of the speaker is determ ined by the position
ofthe relay RLYI, which is underthe control ofthe control logic.

The input signal from the relay is fed into a common base
preamplifier, which consists of 0l and associated components.
The amplifier inc reases the input sig na I to a level wh ic h ca n drive
the power amp, a gain of approximately 100. This amplifier config uration is suitable due to the low input im pedan

c e ofthe spea ker

(8 ohms). The amplified signal is fed into RVt which allows the
volume to be controlled. The resultant signal from RVI drives the
input of the power amplifier lC1. The output from lCl drives the

appropriate speaker via the relay.

The potentially long cables which are used to connect the
control urlit to each of the remote stations can pick-up a lot of
electrical noise (50H2 mains and RF). C7 and C11 decouple this
noise fromthe signal.
D2 and D3 couple the 'Buzzer'tone from the control circuit
into each speaker line, when the amplifier is on, these have no

effect.

The control logic turns the amplifier on/off, controls the

a relay) and producesthe buzzer

direction ofspeech (byswitching

tone to each station.

The touch pads on the remote stations are arranged so that

when a pad is tou ched the user 'shorts' a signal pad to ground with

afingertip (the middle pad

is ground,the

two other

pads are signal

see Fig ure I ). Ea ch ofthe four sig n a I lines a re pulled high via
a high value resistor (R8-Rl 1 ), when a pad is touched the line is
pa ds

pulled low (due to the skins relatively low resistance - 1 00k or so)
I C2 buffers the signal to give a good log ic leve l. C I 3 to C1 6 de cou ple
any noise to prevent false triggering, H24 to R27 protect ICZ from
damage due to ESD (Electrostatic Discharge).

When a Call/0n pad is touched, timer lC6b is triggered

enabling the oscillator formed by lC5d, this oscillator drives
0R3which producesthe Buzzertone.

(J
E'
-

-E

-t
-FE
-

trl

t4

lC6a
C17.

lf

the call/on pad is held timer

will be activated, after a shorttime determined by Rl5 and

This timer willturn 0R3 on and therefore enable the amplif ier

and disable timer lCOb, therefore stopping the buzzer. The amplifier will be shut off after timer lCOa times out (determined by C20

and R18) or if both talk and call/on pads are touched simultaneously. This causes the 0FF line (reset signaI to lC6a) to go low
therefore resetting the timer. This signal has small delays built-in
to stop accidental triggering.
The logic formed by I C3a, I C3b

nd I C4c c ontrol the dire ction

ofthe relay via 02. This logic ensures the direction of speech

is

always correctno matterwhich station is controllingthe intercom.

conffol and automatic tum off. The remote stations have

been designed to be suitable for use in harsh environments.

Most simple intercom systems are of the Master/

Slave type i.e. one unit, the master tums the units on/off
and controls the direction of speech. The slave can only
call the master, alerting someone to tum the intercom on.
This setup is often very inconvenient, especially for the
person at the master end who has to answer the intercom
when some one calls.
This design overcomes the above problem by effectively making both units physically and functionally identical. Either unit can call the other unit, tum the intercom
on/off or control the direction of speech. All controls
(except volume) are via three touch pads mounted on each
unit, see Figure l; these touch pads make controlling the
intercom very simple. The intercom has a built in timer
which turns the intercom off after a predetermined time (5
minutes on prototype). This is a very useful feature if you
have children who have a habit of forgetting to tum things

off.
The intercom itself consists of three separate units,

two identical remote stations and a central control unit

which contains all the electronics and the batteries to
supply it. The remote stations only contain a speaker and
three touch pads. As a result, it is very robust as well as
reliable. By using mylar speakers the remote stations can
be used almost anywhere including damp environments
like sheds, greenhouses, even the bathroom. The intercom
is battery powered, this avoids the problems of having to
site the control box near a mains outlet. Current consumption is very low in standby (a few micro-amps) and less

than l00mA when in operation (the prototype has been

operating for over a ye.u on the same batteries).

Operation Of Intercom
The operation ofthe intercom is done via touch pads on the
remote stations. The touch pads are arranged so that the
operator touches two pads simultaneously, see Figure I
(to turn the intercom off all three pads are touched).
Operation is as follows: A brief touch on the calVon and
common pads causes the intercom to put out a tone to each
of the remote stations. This tone can be used to attract the
attention ofthe person at the other end, ifrequired. Ifno
one turns the intercom on then the tone will terminate after
30 seconds.

ETI AUGUST 1992

o
sustained touch on the call/on and common pads
tums the intercom on, after atwo second tone has been put
out. This short tone stops someone tuming on the intercom
and listening in on your conversation without your knowl-

-I

edge.

rr

o
z
E

t
- x-E

I
D
r

f'!
(o

t,
o
o

The direction of speech is controlled by touching the

talk and common pad; touch to talk release to listen.
The intercom is tumed off by touching ali three pads

t3o

simultaneously. The intercom will automatically tum off

after a predetermined time (approximately 5 minutes), if
not tumed off manually.
Both units are controlled in the same way, either
remote station can control the intercom, no matter who

o
o

called or answered.

o
z0
-{

o
I
9

z-{

o
=
0)
CL

o
=

=
o

o
f.
o
a

o,

o
o
2

{!

o
r
tr

,o

Construction And Installation

The intercom consists of two PCBs, one for the control
logic and one for the amplifier. Construction of each is
straight forward, the component overlay is shown in Figure 3. Note the polarities of the polarized components,
especially the capacitors on the amplifier board. All the
ICs can be mounted in sockets if desired except for IC1'
where it is better to solder it directly to the board as the
tracks act as a heatsink. The interconnections between
boards is shown on the component overlay and the connections to the remote stations is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 shows the suggested dimensions for the

remote stations. To obtain neat results when drilling the
array of holes for the speakers, cover the front panel with
masking tape then draw six concentric circles 5mm apaft
(starting with a 5mm radius). The circles should now be
divided into eight equal segments and I .2mm hoies drilled
at the interceptions of the straight lines and the circles'
When the boxes have been drilled the lettering should be
added (dry lettering covered with a coat of lacquer to
protect it). When completed the speaker can be glued in
place and the wiring to it and the touch pads added. The
remote stations can now be connected to the control box,
standard 4-core telephone cable is suitable. You may wish
to add suitable connectors to the control box (eg DIN
sockets/plugs) rather than hard wiring it to the remote
stations. A suggested layout for the control box is shown
in Figure 5. Try to keep the wires going to RV1 short (use

screened cable if the wires are longer than 1") and if

possible solder the ground wire to the metal can on RV I ,
as well as to the tag. Be careful of ground loops if you
deviate from the suggested connections. For example do
not connect the ground retums from the remote stations
(common wires) together, at any point.

ETI AUGUST 1992

oz

H9
Dtri

x"
mo
ag
>3

zo
oz

oo
oo

=z
EE

d9

b-(,

tO
E9
B6

!=
tr
T

,E
o
,o
m

Testing Operation
sT_tgr-_JEE AUpLtFtEF TO THE LID UStr{G

When complete, place both remote units near each other

and tum the volume control down. Note: if you are testing
the circuit before you have mounted the speakers in their
boxes the sensitivity will be adversely affected. The first

DoUELE stDED

sncKy Foar paoS

check should be to check the current drawn with the

intercom in standby. With the intercom off (standby) the
current consumption should be a few micro-amps (if you
are able to measure it), if the current consumption is more,
firstcheckthe intercom is off-turn the volume up, nothing
should be heard from either remote station (touch all three
pads on a remote station to tum off). If all is OK briefly
touch the calVon - common pads on one of the remote
stations. A buzzing tone should be heard from both stations, this should stop after 30 seconds or so. Now do the
same again but hold your finger on the pads, the buzzing
tone should stop after 2 seconds (if it is replaced by a loud
screeching sound you have the volume set too high). Ifthe
volume is slowly turned up a screeching sound should be
heard (feedback), if the remote stations are moved apart,
considerably, this should stop. If the talk/common pad is
touched a few times the direction of speech should change
- you should hear the relay click orVoff. Ifall three pads are
now touched simultaneously the intercom should tum off.
Do the same checks for both remote stations, if all is OK
move one station to anotherroom and get someone to talk
to you. (The intercom is very sensitive, you do not have to

SoLDEB a L|NK Fhou rHE GND

TO THE P1OT UETAL BODY

CONTBOL BOABD

CUT TO LENGTH SO THAT IT FITS IN THE SLOTS

Fig.S Layout of the control box

be standing next to a remote station or shout at it to be

heard).

When in operation there should be no problems,

however a few precautions should be noted. Ifany ofthe
remote stations are to be used in very damp environments
(e.g. the bathroom) you may need to move the touch pads
further apart to stop condensation activating the intercom.
When routing the cables for the intercom try and avoid
routing them beside long runs of mains cables. Also try and
avoid positioning any of the boxes, or cables next to
electrical equipment that generate a lot of electrical noise
for example televisions.

BUYLNES
The mylarspeakers and relay can be obtained from

Rapid Electronics (Tel:0206

PARTS LIST

CAPACITORS

Cl,22470

C2

220

lc6 4538

axial/l6V

axial/16V

C3,4,5,6,11,23,24

00n poly or ceramic

BESISTOBS

C7,13,1 4,15,16,71 I 0n cerami c

R1 4R7

c8,r0,12,18

R2,71k2

C9 l00axial/l6V

R3 330R

Cli

R4,12,20,2110k

C1910/16V radial
C20 220/16V radial

R5,22 r00k

2?l6Vtant

SEMIGOI{DUCIOBS

lcr

Rl4,15,18,19 2M2
R16,17,24,25,26,27 1M

lc2 40106
lc3 4001

R23 l50R 0.6W

lc4 4070

lok

01 BCl09C
02 BSt70
03 8C558
04 TIPl27
MISCETI.ANEOUS

RLYI l2V DPDT relay (ormron G12V or similar)

Mylar speakers (60mm dia)
6 x triangular touch pads
2 x 8R

Rr3 220k

RV1

01,2,3,6,7 1N4001
D4,5 1N4148

330n poly

R6 r2k

88,9,10,118M2

751 166)

1M380

lc5 4093

2 x 0V
2

battery holders (4M type)

x'PP9'type battery connectors if required

8 x AA alkaline

batteries
x box for remote stations I l4x76x38mm
I x box for control station 1 50xg0x54mm approx

DTI AUGUST 1992

78L12
78115
79105
signal
auto

cket
d

ion,

battery

4tv

et+'zs

H
G

smm Plastic

2N3906
2N4036
2N5296

80.10
e0.31

80.57

NE5534
NE556N
NE567N
uA733
CA741CE
)A747CE
uAsrrutr
939199E,
LM748CN
ieAaios
IP+919P.

ilililf,,

lfi1?33"
ulN2oo4

r0.4
80,3

!0.3

e2.5

t1.1

i3l3

/4L51er r^1.71 +otz

7415195 e0.24
;oli
eo.24 i 1i
741s',196 ie:il
E0.64 74LS197 80.24 4015
C0.18 74LS20 e0.16 4oi;
t0.14 io11
e0.39 741521
/+Lozz
Bu.'o
4018
:919 111-:33.
!fl'l!
;;.# +ote
7415221
eO31
e0.32
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:991 11|:?19 :R':3

Eo.6r,

80.36
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e0.36

i;iEili

iiiSZlL
80.48 7415243
i3.22

'ooln,, riilllBoor i[:6i l?t333t 31.3? iXi33i3

PREsoErs skoreton Horz or vert l ooB i3:13 3l?3?3 i313 iiiS,tl
.r, Lir".u

AUGUST 1992

E0.31
C0.20

t0.29 SJo

C0'48;y377
1y36911

..1.72t1fl0
,=lirt31?,"". fl:il1l33
rLin4To'-1Mo2smmdia
Eo'40

DII

e0.25

llf

Bezel 0.04

I:llllSllLillliull

t0.95/1OO

Horz or vert

80.25

BNc

D t0.10
LED C0 10 TLOT4CN
LED e0.10 T1081
LED t0.08 TL082CP

E0.60/1oo
o2sws%cFEl2series e0.60/1oo
ifi=ot:13*=*"*o

4047
4048
4049

co.62

eo.l4

e0.09

5mm
5mm
smm Yellow
smm Orange
3mm Red

e0.15 smmTriColour

!u.zr ru.zu LU.or -

zarssss
zarsao
7lict2

BNC

gPm

C0.10 e0.10

E0.28

BNC

equipment

OA7
10

!9'!1

PL25

G5.e6

E0.05
0.47
e0.05
1.0
f0.05
2.2
c0.05
4.7
10
e0.05 t0.05 t0.06
e0.05 C0.05 e0.09
22
47
E0.06 t0.06 80.11 80.06 C0.09 C0.11 l00
220 CO.O9 C0.12 e0.31 -

l9'?1

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A vievv of the future by James Archer

e have seen how digital techniques effectively
allow a television picture to be broken into indi
vidual picture elements, pixels, and the informa_
tion sent along the microwave links or cables to
the transmitters is a sort of complex morse coded message
which effectively says 'picture element number x has bright_
ness

levely andcolourz'. Atthefarendof thelinkthemessage

can be decoded, and a completely new picture can be recon_

structed, a pixel at a time, by rebuilding each pixel according

to the brightness and colour levels specified in the coded

message. The received picture should therefore be a perfect
recreation of the original.
Surely the next step should be to leave the picture in
digital form, to transmit the digital bit stream over the air and
,
to receive it in your home, where a perfect picture could be
recreated in the digital receiver? There would be no need for
analogue to digital conversion before transmission or for
digital to analogue conversion right until the display stages of
the receiver, so any unavoidable degradations could be kept
to
a

minimum.

Now all this is very fine in theory, but the actual amounts
of information required to convey a moving television picture
are absolutely huge, and it is this high

bitrate requirement, and

the corresponding wide bandwidth requirement, that proves
to be the problem.

than about two bits per cycle ofthe radio frequency carrier,
so
we would need abandwidth of around l0gMHz(i.e.216/2)to
convey our digital signal, whereas our initial baseband signal
took up only 5.5MHz.
in problem: you neverget anything

not
for

for

anddigital signalshavetopayaprice
bandwidth. In practical terms a DBS
satellite could transmit one digital signal wirh a bandwidth of
100MHz rather than four analogue ones each with a band_
,

width of 27MHz, which is notmuch of abargain whenyou are

a broadcaster. There are very real costs associated with
this
bandwidth, of course - with individual satellite transponder
leasing costs of several million pounds per year, you would
have to be a very altruistic broadcaster to decide that you

will

use and pay for four transponders rather than one, just
to give

your customers

a potential improvement in technical quality!

One beauty ofdigital electronics is that it is possible for
the engineers in the research laboratories to make reasonably

accurate assumptions as to what will be possible one year, two

years, and even five years ahead, and this is important,
since
it means that we can now see the way ahead in the digital

transmission field.

since

our'"j-'T'#:;;x,:":lli:;3;:

;";:;

we are seeking lies in the adoption

RATE REDUCTION.

Bit Rate Reduction

The last few years have seen great strides in the develop_

ment of bit-rate reduction techniques for television pictures,

these usually being based on the well_known fact that most
TV pictures carry a great deal ofredundant information, since
the picture occuring at any instant is generally very similar
to

As we saw in the first part of this series, CCIR Rec.60l,

the world standard for digital television studios, says that to
tum astandard studio signal intodigitalform, eachof the three
component signals Y, BY, and R-y must be sampled at the

following rates:

Y (luminance) ar l3.5MHz
BY (colour difference) at6.75MHz
R-Y (colour difference) at6.1-5Mljrz
Thus we must take a total of 13.5 + 6.i5 + 6.i5
Million samples per second.
:.

27

Since

eightbis per sample

are required to provide the necessary

256 grey levels, we thus need:

8

x 27 Million bits per second

= 2l6Mbit/sec.

Using simple pulse-code modulation we can carry no more

the one that came U50th of a second before it. Initially

the bit
rate reduction work was carried out with the aim of finding
practical ways of transmitting digital signals between studio
centres along links provided by pTTs (post & telegraph
authorities, the national & intemational carriers), but it now
looks as though the work will eventually lead to methods of

transmitting signals directly to the home. Most of the trans_

mission circuits around the world comply with standards laid
down by the CCITT, an organ of the International Telecom_
munications Union (ITU), which is the intemational body
responsible for regulating the world,s telecommunications
systems. CCITT standard digital transmission circuits offer
nominal capacities of l40Mbit/s, 6gMbit/s, 45Mbit/s, or
3OMbirA, so if full studio quality 2l6Mbit/s digital television
are to be sent along these circuits, some form ofdigital
bit rate
reduction is a must. In addition to the technical difficulties
there are often severe cost dis
circuits, and the cost of usin
single digital video picture

ETI AUGUST 1992

with the cost of sending an analogue video signal. In reality,

then, these digital circuits can only be used economically if
several digital picture signals can be squeezed down one
l40Mbit/s circuit; this requires significant amounts of bit rate
reduction.

Many different techniques have been examined in the

search for the optimum method of bit rate reduction, the aim

being to produce pictures that show only the smallest possible

loss of quality from the original, whilst using the lowest

possible bit rate. The two main techniques currently in vogue
for bit rate reduction are DPCM and DCT. Differential Pulse
Code Modulation is atechnique in which oniy the difference
between a predicted sample value and its actual value is
transmitted. The value of the predicted sample can be obtained by intrafield sampling, i.e. looking at the adacent
samples in the same freld, or by interheld sampling, where the

earlier, most research projects in this freld have converged on

the technique known as motion-compensated hybrid discrete
cosine transform (DCT) coding. Successive television images

nearly always contain a high degree of correlation, and by

cutting out the redundant or repeated information from one
image to the next, only essential data need be sent. Because
some parts ofpicfures contain less redundancy thanothers, the
result'is a variable data rate which must be smoothed by a
buffer store. As the buffer store is limited in size, pictures
which have little redundancy for the coder to exploit could be
subjected to some distortion, and while typical pictures will
easily be accommodated, the chosen processing system must
ensure that any unwanted effects on critical programme

prediction is based on adjacent sample values from adjacent

helds. DPCM has been used for some time now to caffy out
therelatively simplereductionfrom2l6Mbit/s tothe 140Mbit/

material are kept to a minimum, and any such effects must be

insignificant if the quality of the broadcast service is to be
maintained. This variable demand for data capacity in the
buffer circuitry is normally considered to be something of a
disadvantage, but any surplus capacity could be put to good
use for carrying additional data such as teletext or over-air

s required for digital contribution circuits, and intrafield

addressing for conditional access Purposes.

predictions have been shown to give excellent picture quality,

making the processed pictures indistinguishable from the
originals.

Discretc Cosine Thansformation

A second technique, Discrete Cosine Transform coding,
takes the data from a complete block ofpicture elements and
uses mathematical processes known as orthogonal transforms, which are similar to the better known Discrete Fourier
Transforms, to convert this data into an equivalent form from
which any redundant information can be removed before
transmission.

With both of these techniques some additional degree of

bit rate reduction can be achieved by removing the main
horizontal and vertical blanking periods before the main
coding is begun. Another useful technique, variable length
coding, can be used to suppletnent both DPCM and DCT.
Whereas in normal coding methods a fixed number of bits is
allocated to each sample, this method gives the mostcommonly
occurring sample values the shortest code words, the longer
words being allocated to less frequent sampled values.
Unfortunately there is no one technique that gives the
best results on all pictures; different types ofpicture respond

best to different bit rate reduction methods, and it always

seems possible to find some exceptional picture material
which can be used to 'crack' even the most sophisticated bit
rate reduction system. In spite of this,tests in 1989 and 1990
by aworking party of CCIR and CCITT members showed that
it is possible to obtain very good picture quality on nearly all
types of material at the lowest bit rates currently used by
broadcasters, 34Mbit/s in Europe and a6out 45Mbit/s for the
USA. The work in the various research laboratories around
the world has now crystallised in a general agreement that the

way forward is to use a complex technique called

motion-compensated hybrid Discrete Cosine Transformation
(DCT) of the original TV picture signal information. This is
not to say, that other techniques could not also be used, and we
shall also take a quick look at the exciting possibility ofusing
fractal mathematics and vector quantisation processing as
alternative bit rate reduction techniques.
The last few years have seen significant strides in the
development ofrugged and practical methods for redundancy

reduction coding of television pictures, and as mentioned

ETI AUGUST 1992

When an analogue signal is sampled at regular time

intervals, using the quantising process described in the first
part of this series, the result is a signal made up of a series of
these analogue samples, sometimes known as a discrete-time

signal, and more generally called a digital signal. For digital

signals we usually understand that both the time and the
amplitude of the signal are quantised.
Any such signal can be examined in at least two ways, in
the time domain, which has been the traditional approach, or
in the frequency domain, depending upon the kind ofanalysis

to which we need to subject the signal. As an example, filter

design can be carried out in either the time or the frequency
domain. The introduction of modern high speed computers in
the form of digital signal processing chips has given engineers
the capability of mapping signals into the frequency domain
reasonably easily, and the mathematical processes used to
carry this out are known as Discrete Fourier Transforms
@FT). A fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is merely a computer
algorithm (program) which enables the DFT to be calculated
hundreds oftimes faster than using standard techniques, and
FFFs now enable fairly modest computers to carry out the
calculations in real time. A particular type of DFT found to be
especially suited to image processing is the Discrete Cosine
Transform.
The essence ofthe Discrete Cosine Transform technique
when it used for bit rate reduction of video images is that the
differences between two successive video frames are calculated; since it would involve too much datato do this for every
individual picture element, or pixel, blocks of eight by eight
pixels are generally used. The DCT mathematically transforms each 8x8 block of pixels into blocks of 8x8 numerical
coefficients, and the statistical properties ofthese coefficients
are different from those of the parts of the television image
from which they were derived. Many of the coefficients turn
out to be effectively zero, since no change has occurred
between frames, and these coefFrcients do not therefore need
to be transmitted. The system is active in nature, adaptively
choosing the most suitable processing mode for the picture

with which it is dealing. Sometimes it will decide to process

the coefficients representing the actual blocks of pixels with
which it is dealing at a particular instant, whereas at other
times it will take into account and process the information
which it has stored from the equivalent blocks ofpixels from

.t.

|NTO
ruRE

2. D C T TBANSFO.-RI|_S

EL9CKS 3.

3[.'I3EPliti.,li+1i-'bfl3$'3'

ECTIVLY

oF ri{E

Fig.2 Principles of DCT image coding for bit rate reduction

previous television fields.

The current state of the art al.tows perfect decoding of
even the most critical picture material with a bit-rate of about
30Mbit/s, a big reduction from the original 216Mbit/s, and by
accepting that it would be practicable in the domestic TV
market to accept some reduction in vertical chrominance

resolution, and by using improved motion compensation

techniques, engineers are confident that high quality pictures
can be transmitted and received at a bit rate of as little as
12Mbit/s. This was demonstrated at the IBC exhibition in

Brighton in Seprember 1990.

Alternative digital compression methods.

Yector Quantisation (YQ).
Unlike the DCT based systems, Vector euantisation does not
rely on coding differences between successive frames of the
picture, and its exponents claim that it is therefore much better
at dealing with the fast moving parts of pictures,
which can give rise to problems, known as motion

has been stored in a standard vector codebook,

looking for the

stored vector which gives the closest match to the original.
Compression of the data before fansmission is then achieved
by transmittingonly the address of theparticularvector, rather
than the actual image data.
The receiver then takes the decoded addresses, and uses
a carefully selected set ofthe corresponding image vectors to
rebuild the original images, with only a limited amount of
degradation.

Scientific Atlanta has demonstrated NTSC quality pic_

tures, compressed using VQ techniques, at a bit rate ofonly
3.9MbiVs, and there is still some considerable doubt as to
whetherthe VQ system could be extendedto deal with HDTV
pictures. For VQ to work satisfactorily, very large code books
are needed, and the complexities of searching these for the
wanted vectors have only recently made itrealistic to use such
techniques.

artefacts, on other systems. The intraframe compression technique used by the Ve system is said
to require only low-cost read-only memory (ROM)
rather than the higher cost dynamic random-access
memory (DRAM) used by other systems. To make
use ofthe VQ technique a wide range ofdifferent
pictures, representative ofthose to be transmitted,
is processed, and the result is a large number of

'image vectors', which represent blocks ofpixels,

rather like those produced by the DCT process.
These vectors are then compared with a set of vect

Photo courtesy of lterated Systems Ltd

Fractal Transform Image

Compression
Microsoft, best known for its work in the
personal computer field,has recently
announced that it intends to licence its

Fractal Coding Image Compression

technology, claiming that it offers the highest
usable image compression on the market. In
parallel with this, a company called Iterated
Systems Inc., led by a former professor of
mathematics at the Institute of Technology in
Georgia, is claiming that fractal technology
will revolutionise image processing. Whether or
not these American claims can yet be justified,
there is no doubt that fractal transforms can
play a useful part in this work. Fractals are
associated in most peoples, minds with

f,TI AUGUSI 1992

clever computer generated displays that seem to take ages to

build up, and become more and more complex as they do so.
The mathematician Mandelbrot brought his ideas to the
attention of the public in the late 1970s, showing patterns that
appear equally complex no matter how much they are magnified, anditwas shownthatthis type of pattern could becreated
from relatively simple computer programmes - I remember
generating such images on a BBC microcomputer, and the
pattems kept on growing for hour after hour as the iterative
programme continued on its way; although the pattem grew
larger and appeared more complex, a keen examination ofthe
pattern would show that it was made up of a relatively small
number of similar elements, no matter how big it became.
Although much interest was generated when it was shown that
many naturally occurring but complex features, such as vein
patterns and the edges oftree leaves could be shown to follow
fractal formations, it is only in very recent times that TV
researchers have taken an in-depth look at this area, to see
whether there are anv techniques used in fractal mathematics
that could be applied to television images.
The two features that seem likely to appeal to TV image
processing researchers are that fractal images can effectively
be magnified or zoomed into 'ad infinitum' without losing
their basic structure, and that since such images can be
produced from fairly simple computerprogrammes, they may
have only a small essential information content, which could
make them suitable for use in compressed form. The generation of fractal images from computer programmes essentially
starts from a chosen place on the screen, 'the

origin', and then

merely tells the screen dot to move and tum in a regular series
of movements, and then torepeatthe process. Afterthousands

ofrepeated passes through this instruction set, apattembuilds

up on the screen, and it is fascinating to see how just a few
bytes of inforrnation can build up a complex pattem.
In a similar way to that used for image processing using
the Discrete Cosine Transform,it is now possible to math-

ematically process images using a 'fractal transform', an

invention claimed by Dr Bamsley, who now heads Iterated
Systems Inc., which has actually registered the 'fractal
transform' name. The fractal transform can take an image and
decide which fractal elements can be used to make up that
image. It is then possible to generate computer algorithms
which can create each fractal element, and by running these
algorithms the image can be re-created. As in the DCT
analysis of an image, the fractal analysis first divides the
image into small blocks, groups of pixels. Having done this,

the fractal process begins to search for similarities in the

image; what is being sought are similar blocks elsewhere
which make up the image - they may not be exactly the same
as theblock with which they are being compared, butthey will
have the same basic information, perhaps moved in position

Although this new technique promises much in the

television field, once again I have to caution against
over-optimism in the short term. A typical computer VGA
image currently now takes

few seconds to decompress, and

video frames, which can be compressed to take up only a few

kilobytes, take around a second. Thereis therefore quite along

way to go before this technique can be used for real time

moving TV pictures at 50 fields per second. Nevertheless, it
is possible to see where these techniques could lead, and to
predict that advances in computer processing power will have
an enormous

impact on the application of fractals to TV image

processlng.

Fractal techniques need not be used by themselves, and

the image compression that they can provide could readily be
combined with techniques such as differential coding and

motion compensation, which have been developed for use

with other systems. It does seem that for any particular quality
of image, fractal transforms will continue to be able to give
greater compression ratios than DCT, the problem being that
in order to increase the compression available from DCT it is
necessary to split the image into bigger and bigger blocks of
pixels, which means that the resolution of the image must
inevitably become coarser and coarser. The fractal compressed image theoretically still keeps the same resolution, no
matter how great the compression used, since you are effectivelyreconstructing thepicturefrom amathematical series of

instructions. At the limit, it seems likely that an image which

has been subjected to too much fractal compression would
start to lose some detail. Fractal techniques, as newcomers to
the television field, could have much to offer, and I shall be
keeping a close watch on their development over the next year
or two.

Transmitting the bit-rate reduced pictures

Now that we are able to see a possible way forward for the
generation ofbit-rate reduced digital television pictures, ways
in which we coutd possibly transmit these pictures have to be

found. In an ideal world the TV broadcasters would simply be

allocated a portion of unused radio frequency spectrum for
these new services, but in real life the lack of spectrum
availability means that this is most unlikely to happen. A most
useful aim would be to transmit this digital infomation, that
is, extra TV programme channels, in the existing UHF band,
sharing it with the existing analogue broadcast programmes.
As can be imagined, this is by no means simple.

Digital Television - Developments in

transmission
Although we have so far intimated that there is no real
possibility of transmitting television pictures digitally for

and twisted angularly from the original. The process is an

iterative one, so once some similar blocks have been found
another set will be sought for that are similar to the second set,

years to come, because of the high bit rates and wide bandwidths required, IBA UK research laboratories revealed in
September 1990 that new techniques that they have developed

and so on.

might bring digital TV forward by several years.

Using the acronym SPECTRE
Special

Fractal images can currently be compressed by as much

1 , and the mathematical processes are still being refined.
The compression process, whereby fractals are generateii
from movingimages, is currently very computerintensive, requiring much time and fast computer hardware, but the deas 77:

compression algorithms are very much simpler. This should

make it possible to regenerate the compressed pictures with
simpleequipment, andaplug-inPC cardis currentlyavailable.

DTI AUGUST 1992

Purpose

Extra
Channels for

Terrestrial
Radio-communication
Enhancements

A project is currently being undertaken in order to try to see

whether it might be possible to further develop the already
extensive use which is made of the UHF spectrum for carrying
television signals. The present situation is that the 44.gMHz
wide channels that make up the current UHF TV broadcast
band in the UK are actually used and reused by something like
3400 different television transmitters, most, of course, being
low power relay stations.
The idea of SPECTRE is ro investigate the feasibility of
additionally squeezing a large number of low-power digital
signals into this same chunk of bandwidth, without affecting
the existing analogue signals.
What makes such an idea possible is that although the

UIIF band was well planned back in the early 1960s,

making various assumptions about receiver technology and
transmitter performance capabilities, we can now see, with
our more up to date knowledge of digital signal performance,
that there is in fact some spare capacity, some redundancy in
this band that we could now perhaps make use of.
The first problem to be solved is how to transmit the
digital signals without causing interference to the existing
analogue PAL pictures.
This can be done, provided that the level of the digital
signals is kept extremely low, compared with that of the
present

analogue signals. It is possible to provide digital TV pictures

over the same coverage area as the analogue signals even with

the digital signals at very low power, because the carrier to

noise ratios required for the satisfactory reception of digital
signals are very much less than those forthe existing analogue
signals.

noisy and interference-prone environment. As well as this,

there may well be problems with multipath interference,
where signals are reflected from nearby buildings or hills and
arrive at the receiving aerial at various different times.
Whereas this would cause .ghost images' on an analogue
signal, a receiver that it is trying to pick up a digital transmis_
sion will effectively have to sort out the direct pulses from the
reflected 'ghost' pulses that arrive at different times, a very

difficult task under normal circumstances - how can a receiver

distinguish between a 'wanted, pulse and a reflected one?
Readers who have tried to receive teletextover difhcult signal
paths or without a proper aerial will know that the receiver
often d
the digital

signals

asdng, the

choice

Tx POWEF

(Kw)

Fig,5 9omparison of transmitter powers required to

provide similar covelage from anatogue and digital

transmissions.

Engineers from National Transcommunications Ltd.,

who have been at the forefront of this work, believe that the

be
Division
number of overlapp
best idea could

gonal
large

Frequency

40

some

form of QPSK (Quadrature phase Shift Keying) coding then

being used. QPSK is awell-triedmodulationmethod in which

S/N RATIO
FOR GRADE 4
PTCTURE (dB)

the phase ofthe radio frequency carrieris altered between

four
different states; very low error rates can be achieved, and the
decoding circuitry is simple. The rule of thumb for
epSK

ly
ly

Fig,4 Comparison of Signal to noise ratios required for

analogue and digital transmissions

Typical CA.{ figures for a grade four picture, almost

perfect, are about 40dB for our existing analogue pAL serv_
ice, but only 15dB suffices for a digital service. With modern
receiver front ends and the improved noise figures that have
become realistic over the past couple of
years, it should be possible to
OFFICE BLOCK
obtain matching coverage areas
from digital transmitters radiating
signals with 30dB less power, that is
one-thousandth of the power of the

Orthogonal
Frequency

Division
Multiplexing

TIILLSIDE

Slngle rotloctlon
HOUSES

THANSiIITTER

equivalent analogue transmitters.

This low power digital operation is

of great benefit in

reducing

potential interference to the existing

analogue PAL signals.
As I never tire of reminding
people, however, we never get
something for nothing in engineering,
and one disadvantage of the low power
operation is that the digital signal will
have to operate in a very hostile,

Dlrect wayo

itovD{c

VEHICLES

DTI AUGUSI IO92

We are familiar with the idea of FDM, frequency division multiplexing, where several different signals are modulated onto a group of adjacent carrier frequencies which are
then sent along a common channel. OFDM takes this a stage
further, and the diagram illustates what happens.

AIIPLITUDE

I
I

..-(- /\ fl
\-/

,/'

we can define

spectral template for the digital signal, and get

our receiver to look only at the information within that

template, ignoring the interference that would be caused by
the powerful sound and vision carriers.
UHF TV channels in the UK are spaced 8Mhz apart, so
that the frequency spectrum of transmissions
from a single transmitting station will, to a first
approximation, look like four equally spaced
pairs of sound and vision carriers. Whilst it is
true that there will also be energy in the form of
subcarriers present at the colour subcarrier frequency and at the frequency of the NICAM
digital sound carrier, the effects of these are
reduced by the dispersal effect oftheir modulating signals, so that they have much less peak
power than the sound and vision carriers. The

ofTV channels therefore makes

it possible to fit in extra low-level digital sig-

regular spacing

Fig.7: OFDM Waveforms

The OFDM technique breaks the digital data stream into

sections and uses these multiple signals to modulate a large
number of simple carriers, and it is the total of all these

nals, between the existing signals, as the diagram shows.

Theory suggests that we could actually
provide eight new digital channels for each
transmitting station, but in practice transmitlers
are not sited on an ideal frequency lattice, and there are
various otherproblems that restrict the frequencies that can be
used.

modulated carriers that makes up the OFDM signal. The

individual carriers are derived from the Discrete Fourier
Transform of the original signal.
The essential feature of the OFDM technique is that the
frequency spectrum of each modulated carrier is deliberately
allowed to overlap its neighbour, and careful selection of the
carrier frequencies, ofthe phaging ofeach ofthe signals, and
ofthe digital coding system that is used, allows the individual
carriers to be separated out again by the application ofthe Fast
Fourier Transform as the signal is demodulated. The same
circuitry that can distinguish between the individual carriers
is able to take account of out of phase reflected signals, such
as those that are produced by multipath interference.
The spectrum that is produced by the tightly packed
overlapping spectra ofeach ofthe individual carriers gives an
effect like that shown on the bottom of the diagram, from
which we can see that the system makes very efficient use of
the available radiofrequency bandwidth.
In practice there is some intersymbol interference caused
by the inevitable multipath interference, but the problem is

\
\
\
Li

FBEOUENCY

HOLES FOR VISION

Al{D SOUND CARRIERS

Fig.8 Spectral template to cut out vision and sound carriers

reduced or eliminated by leaving a guardband interval between

each symbol; provided that this is long enough to exceed the
delay sufferedby any ofthe reflected signals allthe orthogonal

carriers can be demodulated without difficulty.

The OFDM spectrum, gives excellent results in the
presence ofmultipath interference, and it also turns out to be
ideal for use in a hostile interference environment.
The main interference from existing analogue TV transmissions will take the form of two high power carriers at the
sound and vision frequencies. OFDM can cope well with this
because the large number of carriers used means that it is
possible to decide not to transmit any information on some of
them, if we wish. For our purposes this means that we can cut
out those carriers that fall in the portions of the spectrum near
to the analogue vision and sound carriers. Effectively, then,
FREQUENCY

Fig.9 Spectrum with digital signals inserted

ETI AUGUST 1992

'Taboo'channels affecting an analogue TV network

A television transmitter network generally consists of a

large number of different transmitting stations situated

all around the country, and since the amount ol

radiofrequency spectrum that is allocated to television
b roa d casting is inva ria bly restricted, seve ra ltra nsmitters
in different locations will have to share the same channels. lf thetransmitters arefarenough apartthen channel
sha ring should generally be possible withoutinterference,
but in many practical situations transmitters using the
same channels will not be as far apart as would be ideal,
and there is alwaysthe possibility of so-called'co-channel
interference'. Unfortunately, beca use domestic receivers are generally built down to a price, rather than to the
highest possible technical standards, it is found that
there a re other channels which could ca use interference
if they were to be used within a certain distance of
another transmitter.
Adiacent channel interference
let us assume that the channel to which the receiver is
currentlytuned in ordertoviewthe programme is channel

n.
Any nearbytransmitter radiating signals on the adjacent
channels, i.e. n + 1 and n - I would cause interference in
the form of patterning or buzz on sound, simply because
the selectivity ofthe ordinary receiver is not good enough
for it to separate two adjacent signals.

Local 0scillator lnterlerence

All modern receivers are of the superheterodyne type
which use a local oscillator to beat with the incoming

signals

in order to produce a

standard

intermediate-frequency signal that can be readily amplified and demodulated. This local oscillator (10) can be
considered as a small transmitter, and in UK television
receivers the L0 is usually 39.5MHz above the incoming
frequency to which the receiver is tuned, cha nnel n. The
L0 therefore generally radiates potentially interfering
signalp on channel n + 5 when the receiver is tuned to
channel n, since 39.5MHz is close to 40MHz, which
represents five SMHz-wide TV channels. The affected
channel obviously depends upon the intermediate fre-

as a'taboo'channel. Similar problems apply in reverse if

the n - 5 channels are used, so these too must be re-

garded as 'taboo'.
!ntermodulation products

combi
spur
patterning on
Certain

produce

utsigna
which
picture.

carrier frequencies, say'a' and 'b'. then various combinations of these, such as (2a-b) can cause problems.

Sometimes

similar phenomenon known

as

cross-modulation ca n occur. where the mod ulation from

one carrier is effectively transferred to the other, giving
the annoying effect of two pictures superimposed, or of
the sync pulses ofone picture showingup on the other.The
planners of the television spectrum usa ge therefore have

to ensure thattransmitters using frequencies which are

likely to generate these spurious signals are kept well
sepa rated.

lntermediate-Frequency Beat lnterference

When two television signa ls from two different transmitters are
he int
s can

se
receiverth
theyprodu

nal at
two frequencies, and this signal can be picked up bythe
receiver's intermediate frequency amplifier. Such an
arrangement of channels musttherefore be considered
as taboo, providing frequency planners with yet another
restriction.
Image interlerence
Since the front-end selectivity of the average domestic
television receiver is poor, signals at twice the intermediate frequency ofthe receiverfrom the wanted channel

can pass through the receiver. This applies to both sound

and vision signals, and in UK practice meansthatsignals
on n + 9 must also be considered taboo.

MAIN UHF TV ANTENNAS

Many of these taboos are

really only applicable to the current situation where other analogue transmissions could interfere with other analogue
transmissions, and much work
remains to be done to see what
the practical effects of various
combinations of analogue and
digital signals interfering with
each other will be. Since the

quency used, and is different in different countries.

This means that if a nearby receiver were to be
tuned to channel n + 5 itwould suffer interference from its
neighbouring set tuned to channel n, and in order to
preventthis from happening we must treat channel n + 5

VIDEO

AUDIO

level of the digital signals is

deliberately kept very low in
order to reduce potential interference to the existing services,
we can be fairly certain that
problems will not arise, but it
will be interesting to see the
effects of high power analogue

vision and sound carriers on

low-level digital signals closely
packed between them. The

first

.l0.Arrangements for field trials in Devon (ITC/NTL IBC g2 paperl

DTI AUGUST 1992

tests of SCEPTRE took place in the west of England during

the spring of this year, but there is a lot more work to do before
a usable system is develoPed.

At the International Broadcasting Convention in Holland at the beginning ofJlly 1992, details were given ofthe
arangements for field trials of the SPECTRE system that are
being carried out using the Stockland Hill and Beacon Hill
transmitters in Devon.
The transmitters are about 30 miles apart, and at each site
a log periodic aerial has been erected half way up
the existing mast; the aerials are directed at each
other, making possible a range of different experiments. Normally one transmitter will broadcast a
digital television signal using the OFDM modula-

thus freeing all the bandwidth to be used for dozens of

different digital HDTV transmissions. This is the basis of
some of the rather way out rePorts and predictions that have
appeared in the press, suggesting that digital television will
bring all this and more - it may well do so, but the likelihood
is that some of the predictions will not be fulfrlled for many
years to come.
One key question as to whether such ideas can be turned
into reality will centre around the ability of receiver manufac-

PHASE

]IIAGNITUDE

tion system, and the other will radiate an interfering

signal.
The arrangement shown in the diagram indicates that Stockland Hill is confrgured as the proFig.11 Block diagram of Plessey FFT processor
vider of the wanted digital signal, and Beacon Hill
hrrers to provide low-cost digital receivers which can process
as the source of potential interference. The Stockland Hill
Fourier transforms. lnitial discussions suggest that it will be
transmission is a compressed digital video signal modulated
the late 1990s before such receivers could be available at
using OFDM, whilst the interfering OFDM signal from Beacon
Hill is modulated by a pseudo-random data sequence. A realistic prices. Although it is not yet possible to buy off the
shelf large scale integrated circuits to carry out these procmobile field strength measuring vehicle can drive around the
esses for television images, new digital signal processor chips
service areas, checking on received picture quality and
are starting to appear in the manufacturers catalogues at
measuring both field strengths and error rates. The OFDM
prices, and one can easily extrapolate from the
reasonable
transmissions will take place at the same time as the two
performance
of today's chips to a time just a few years hence
PAL
UHF
transfour
stations are transmitting their normal
quality
TV pictures could be processed. An examwhen
high
for
tests
is
well
sited
Hill
transmitter
missions. The Stockland
ple of such technologies is the PDSP16510 stand-alone FFT
of the effects of SECAM transmissions from France, and of
processor chip that is cunently being made by GEC Plessey
co-channel interference from the main Rowridge UFIF TV
transmitter on the Isle of Wight.
The equipment has been arranged so that it is possible to
transmit signals from both Stockland Hill and Beacon Hill on
different 'taboo' channels, and,with both OFDM transmitters
working on the same frequency it is will be possible to
investigate the use of single frequency working, a technique
that could have enormous implications for future television
networks. Ifamethod couldbe devised ofoperating dozens of
television transmitters throughout the country on the same
frequency channel, without mutual intederence, as has alreadybeen triedfordigitalradiobroadcasts, thenthe use ofthe
existing frequency spectrum couldbe multiplied many times.

All sorts of claims have been made in the technical press

about SPECTRE being able to carry as many as forty simulcast channels, but those engineers closest to this work dismiss
such talk as nonsense, and taking into account all the various
factors that we have discussed above, a more realistic outcome might be to be able to provide four analogue and four
digital TV signals from each transmitting station, thus doubling the number of possible terrestrial TV programmes.

Semiconductors

in the UK. The PDSP16510

SCALE VALUE
AVATLABLE

performs

forwardor inverse Fast Fourier Transforms on data sets containing up to 1024 points. The input data and the numerical
coefficients are each represented by 16 bits. The 1024 point
complex transform can currently be completed in 96us, which
means that it can be configured to carry out continuous
transforms in real time. Now although the processing powers
ofthe current chip are still nowhere near good enough for our
projected TV use, even though it is possible to improve
system performance by connecting chips in parallel, it does
not take much imagination to see that future developments of
this sort of digital signal processing device could lead to full
function TV image processors becoming available in the not
too distant future.

DATA INPUT

Whilst this would be some considerable achievement, I

must stress that it will not happen ovemight. Much work still
has to be done before we can know whether a digital TV
service to the home would be feasible and economic, but the
rewards would be so great that it certainly seems worth
continuing with the research. As the same techniques are
developed further it should one day prove possible to use thb
digital bit streams to carry HDTV signals, or, eventually, to
carry tens of extra channels within the same spectrum. Research engineers are already looking forward even further,
towards a time when it may be possible to clear the terrestrial
spectrum of the existing old-fashioned PAL transmissions,

DTI AUGUST 1992

RESULT OUTPUT

Fig. 12 Typical configuration for perfornnng continuous

transforms, (Courtesy GEC Plessey Semiconductorsl
Digita! TV transmission

2{

U{ng the PCB

the courtesy light only glowed dimly, and when she tried
to start the engine, the solenoid made a loud clatter, which
was whatalertedthemto theproblem. What was happening
was that the battery, though at only about 9V, had enough
power to pull in the solenoid, but as soon as the solenoid
made contact the starter-motor pulled the battery voltage

ow that Summer is here, it is a good time to

consider the problem of flat batteries in motor
cars - before it catches you out next winter. This
battery chargerproject was inspiredby aproblem
my neighbour had. The battery on her car was so flat that

down almost to zero, causing the solenoid to drop out

again. Apparently a fault in the car's security alarm had
quietly (for a wonder) flatrened the battery ovemight.
An attempt to charge the battery using an ordinary
battery charger resulted in a blown fuse as the car battery
attempted to draw an excessive current. I solved the
problem at the time using the gross technological overkill
of a l2Y 15A short-circuit proof power supply which I
built to run my amateur radio equipment. It occurred to me

(J
F-I

II
E

-ll-II
26

DTI AUGUSI T992

that a thyristor-controlled car battery charger might be a

more appropriate solution.

Control method
There are two obvious approaches to controlling
charging curent by means of a thyristor: one is to phase
control the rectified unsmoothed oulput from the transformer; the other is to use a burst-fire technique to regulate
the average current. The burst-fire technique can result in
higher peak crurents, and, unless it is very cleverly controlled, can produce a net DC in the secondary winding of
the transformer. It does however typically generate less
radiated interference. Despite the question of interference,
the decision was made to use phase control which seemed
likely to work better in every other respect.
Since the charger was to be electronically controlled
anyway, it should limit voltage as well as current, so that
itcouldbe safely left connectedto abattery withoutthe risk
of overcharging it. This might be valuable if the family car
is to be left in the garage unused for several weeks, but

Construction
This unit is intended to be constructed on the free PCB
supplied with this magazine. Assembly of the PCB should
present no problems, and none of the components are
especially static-sensitive. Depending on how the PCB is
to be mounted, any or none of the thyristor and the two
indicator LEDs may be mounted on the board. On the
prototype unit, the thyristor was board-mounted, while the
LEDs were connected with wires and mounted on the front
panel, as shown in the case plan, Figure 2. Wherever the

E
,J-t

rt
^
(L
tl-^-a

a
-

RECTIFIER (BOLTED
TO EACK PANEL}
TO22O TYRISTOR

swtTcH
TIAINS TRAl{SFORUER
LEDS (OilE OVER
THE OTHER)

TEBMINALS

Fig.2 Plan of case

board is mounted, the thyristor must be on a heatsink or a

suitable piece of metal which will act as a heatsink. The

needs to be started without trouble at the end of that time.

It also seemed sensible to use LEDs to indicate the charging status rather than to use an ammeter (which seems to
get broken very easily in a garage environment).
The block diagram shown in Figure. 1 illustrates the

prototype unit was built into a clamshell-qpe plastic case,

with aluminium front and rear panels, so the rear panel
forms a suitable heatsink in this unit. The PCB is mounted
onto therearpanel, using small steel right-angledbrackets,
and M3 bolts. The triac is also mounted on the rear panel
using an insulating kit, so that the panel is not connected to
any part of the electrical circuit. The right angled brackets
should be bolted onto the back panel before the triac is

bolted on, in order to minimise stress on the soldered

joints.
It is also necessary to mount the bridge rectifier on a
heatsink, because when 4A is

it will dissipate approximately 6W. It is recomflowing

Fig.l Block diagram

mended that heatsink compound

is used to assist heat transfer

general principles by which current and voltage measurements are used to control the charging current. Current is
sensed across a low value resistor, while the terminal
voltage of the charger is also measured. The average
charging crurent is not allowed to exceed a pre-set level
(normally this would be set to 4,A.) no matter how low the

battery voltage, but the charging current

will

decline

towards zero as the battery approaches the preset chargirig

voltage, which would normally be set to 14V.
Power to run the phase control and firing circuit is
drawn from the battery. One effect of this is that, if the
battery is connected the wrong way round, the thyristor
will not be fired and no current will flow.

DII

AUGUST 1992

from the body of the bridge rectifier to the metal.

The mains transformer was
bolted to the plastic base of the
case, using M4 bolts.Ithadto be
positioned very carefully, to maintain a safe spacing from
the switch terminals while allowing room for the bridge
rectifier behind it. The switch was mounted at such a level
that its terminals were below the level of the transformer
terminals. Mains wiring enters at a retaining grommet on
the rear panel and goes straight to the switch. The switch
is then connected to the transformer with short wires.

In line with what is currently believed to be

safe

practice, the metal panels at front and rear of the case were
connected to mains earth: the front one via the metal switch

bezel, and the rear one via one of the mounting bolts,
retaining the PCB. To prevent sffain on the earth-wiring, it
was star-connected to a tag secured to one ofthe unused

27

't6

upper mounting holes of the transformer.

Because the current is limited in this design of charger,
and because it is protected against reverse battery connection, an easily replaceable output fuse is unnecessary.
Nevertheless, it is probably advisable to fit an output fuse
intemal to the unit to protect against catastrophic failures;
for example, the thyristor failing short-circuit. A 6,4, 1.25inch fuse was used in the prototype, though this had not
been fitted at the time it was photographed. (The prototype
was made in accordance with the most advanced modem
manufacturing control theory: Just In Time.)

14
12
10

tv

Testing And Adjustment

When the unit has been built and inspected for obvious errors, connect it to a car battery via a 100R resistor to
check that nothing is seriously wrong; if something is
drawing too much current in the unit, the resistor will get
hot or even bum out. This is a fail-safe. If it bums out, look
for solder-blobs on the back of the PCB causing short
circuits, and check that the IC is inserted the correct way
round.
When all is well, set both the preset potentiometers
fully anticlockwise, then connect up the unit with an
ammeter instead of the resistor and plug it into the mains
and switch on. Gradually increase the voltage pot RV2
until the charging current stops increasing. Ifthe current is
noticeably less than 44, increase the voltage setting further and adjust the current set potentiometer RVI until4A,
is flowing. Then connect a voltmeter to the battery, and
adjust RV2 so that the current is approximately 0.5A when

Fig.3 Gharging characteristics

BELow 4v

the battery voltage is 13.8V. Itmay be necessary to wait a

while until the battery charges to this voltage in order to
complete the adjustment of the unit.

The LED indicators show the status of the baftery

charging process. LED 2 illuminates when the current
limit is coming into effect. The current limit is progressive
ratherthan abrupt, giving rise to the curved current/voltage
characteristic shown in Figure 3. When this LED glows
brightly, it is a reasonable deduction that the battery is
deeply discharged.
LED 1 brightens in proportion to the phase angle for
which the triac is triggered. When the currentlimit, LED2,
is on, LEDI will be at its brightest. As the battery charges
up past the point at which cturent limiting occurs, LEDI

will

decrease in brightness. When the charging current has

99ilHF."'ET'""IrtJ.I"1o#""t&["or..

1t{4148

47On.

47OB

+VE OUT
TO BATTERY

c3

47y
100 B

R14

LED2

I
13

10

4?k

tok

Lf3900N

c1
lOon

R22

220A
o

Fig.tf Circuit diagram of Smart Charger

2A

ETI AUGUST 1992

E
'o-

reduced to a very low level indicating that the battery is

properly charged, LEDI will be quite dim. It will remains
bright enough to see, however, because a significant phase

-l

angle of triggering is required before any current at all

flows. If triggering occurs after the point on the output sine
wave at which the transformer voltage falls below the
battery voltage, no current can flow.
The current limit of this charger can be connected to
even the flattest battery with no risk of damage, while the
voltage limit makes it similarly safe to leave connected for
weeks if necessary. The only drawback, if such it is, is that
if the battery voltage is below about 4V, the circuit may not
work, in which case no charging current will flow. On the
other hand, car batteries will very very rarely become this
flat, andabatterywhichis this flatmay wellbe past salvage

\,
-

L
I

l-^-l

O
-

in any case.

PARTS LIST
RESISTORS

Rl,9,l
R2,1

0,1 8,r

9.47k

1 ...............1 M

R3 ............,....... 1 k
R4,7,8,21 ....,,... 470R
R5,20 .....,......... 2k2
R6 ...,................ I 50k

Rr2 .................. l0k

Rl 3 ...........,...... 22R
R1 4,1

5 .............4k7

Rl6 ..................0R22 6W (Welwyn W22 or similar)

Rl7 .................. r0M
R22 .................. 220R
RV1,2.........,..... l00R
CAPACITORS

cr,2,5 ..........,... 1 00n

C3,4 .......,,.........47/10V radial electro 0.1" pin spacing

SEMIC0ttlDUCT0RS

CHARGING CURRENT

0r,2,4.............. I N4r48
D3 ..................., 5Vl

Fig.5 Waveform diagrams

01 .................... Bcl 82
02,3 ................. BC2l 2

tcr

...............,... LM3900N

Tl

...,................Thyrist0r 100V'l0A or better eg C126D

1ED1,2............. red LEDs

HOW IT WORKS
The rectified by unsmoothed outputfrom the mains transformer is fed to
the input of lCl c, which is a Norton op-amp. A Norton op-amp is current
rather than voltage operated. The output voltage of the opamp is equal

to the gain multiplied by the difference in cunents between the two

inputs. As long as positive input cunent is flowing, the inputs remain at
one diode-drop above the negative supply voltage. lCl c therefore forms
a comparator, arranged so that when the input voltage to Rl is high

enough to make approximately l2A flow in Rl, the output of lClc

switches from high to low. This occurs when the input voltage to R1 is
approximately l.2V (remembering the one diode-drop voltage on the opamp input). This is illustrated in the waveform diagram, Figure 5.
lCld forms a ramp generator which is reset by the pulses from
lCl c. This part ofthe circuit generates

linear ramp by using the op-am p

to maintain a constant charging current to

C2. The op-amp output

voltage rises at suc h a rate that the input current to pin I I is the same as
the constant cunent fed into pin 12. The reset pulse is of such a high
current that the output voltage fa lls very rapidly, but the ca pacitor does
not

c ha

rge up in the reverse

irection, beca use it is clamped bythe diode

characteristic of the op-amp.

The battery voltage is potted down by R21, R22 and RV2, and
c0mpared with a reference voltage on a zener diode. lCla forms an
enor-amplifier with a DC gain set by the ratio of R'17 to Rl8. The

ETI AUGUST 1992

frequency response is limited by C5 in order to keep noise out of the

system. The resulting error voltage is compared with the ramp in lCl b to
generate pulses which rigger the thyristor via Oil and 01. Because the
batteryvoltage as measured atthe terminals of the chargerwillfluctuate
substantially as a result of the charging current, the battery voltage
measurement is averaged bY C4.
The trigger pulses have a peak superimposed on what would be a
squarewave, because the battery voltage (which supplies the electronics) rises d uring the c harging pulse, Note that the pea k on the top of the
triggerwaveform ceases before the end 0fthe high part ofthe waveform
- becausethe charging cunent ceasestoflowwhenthe mains sinewave
is close to its zero crossing.

The average cunent is measured by the circuit including 02.

Again, the measurement is averaged by an RC time constant, because
the charging current is pulsating, and it is the average current which
mustbe controlled. Asthe cunent limit cuts in, current is fed via LED2 into
the battery voltage comparison chain, reducing the error voltage proportiona llyto the amount of overcurrent. This reduces the firing a ng le, so
regulating the current. The gain of the current limiting control loop has
been limited to avoid the possibility of oscillation. The resistance ofthe
voltage measurement chain was deliberately chosen to be low enough
that LED2 would light visibly when current limit was in operation.

29

A Hi-fi noise reducing system by Jeff Macaulay

Ithough recently, signal sources have become progressively less noisy it's still an unfortunate fact of

life that the problem still raises it,s head. In

particular radio suffers from noise, exacerbated
when listening in stereo. Records also suffer from low level
noise, and despite Dolby systems so do tapes. As a hi_fi nut of
the flrst order I find this particularly exasperating and I long
feltthe needfor a simple inJine noise eliminatorthatcould be
used when required and bypassed when not.
Most of the noise reduction systems rely on encoding the
material f,rrst and producing noise reduction on decoding. The
two major noise limiters work on this principle. Dolby using
treble boost and cut whilstthe DBX system uses acompander.

Of the two systems the DBX is more complex but is able to do

more in the way of noise reduction.
To explain the compander principle one has to consider
the dynamic range of an audio signal. The dynamic range is
essentially the difference between the loudest and softest
notes in a performance. Live music is capable of a dynamic
range exceeding 10,000: l, or 80dB. It follows that in order to
completely cope with a musical performance any recording
medium has to capable of a similar range.
The best records can just manage 1000:

range whilst a

good studio quality reel to reel recorder can manage a little

better. The only widely available medium that can pack the

e)
E'
f-i.
tBO

range is the CD with better than 90dB signafnoise ratio. It,s

noise that ultimately limits the available range.
If the softest passages are likely to be lost in the noise
level some method must be found to prevent this. The result
is that most recorded music is

peaks are

dynamically limited, usually the

compressed.

:.

As there are no standards laid down for limiting it,s a

pretty futile excercise trying torestore the originalrange of the
program electronically. Heres where a compander comes in.

The word is an amalgam of compresssor expander.

compression is carried out in

If

the

certain manner and the expan_

Fig.l The noiseless, noisy and peak detected signal

sion in exact reverse the dynamic range of the signal can be
halved. We now only require 40dB dynamic range to encode
the signal,

feat that can be accomplished by

cheap cassette

recorder! On playback the noise level is expanded downward

to become inaudible whilst rhe full range of the signal is
presented intact.
In the early eighties I had the opportunity to use such a

system. It gave CD quality from specially recorded records

with a background of complete silence. However back here in
the real world no ammount of

fidlling with signals dynamics

DfI AUGUSI

1992

Fig.2 Basic Push Pull peak detectol

will help matters with an already noisy signal. However there

are ways to alleviate noise problems and these should be
investigated before using noise reduction.
Noise comes from two major sources. One is the electri-

cal environment of the equipment and the second due to

components within the equipment itself. A major source of
noise in an FM system is due to low signal levels. This can
usually be traced to an insuficient aerial or one incorrectly
positioned. However an aerial can only be pointed in one
direction at a time and is usually fixed.
With vinyl records there is usually noise produced from
tracing the groove as well as the natural noise level generated
by the resistive partof the cartridge impedance. Unfortunately
no two records seem to be recorded at the sarne level and so
some are noisy from the first playing.
The noise problems oftape recorders, especially cassette
players are to well known to require further elucidation. This

On loud passages when the filter bandwidth is widened

the signal effectively masks the noise. However most have
subjective problems due to the audible opening and closing of
the filter' s bandwidth.
The other alternative is to use a noise gate. Here the
signal is muted until it exceeds a certain amplitude. The gate
allows high level signals through whilst supressing low levels. Asyou can imagine suchon-off actionis notvery hi-fr and
so it's rarely encountered in practise.
Figure I shows the difference between a clean and noisy
signal. As you will notice the noise 'rides' on the back of the
wanted signal and is usually of much lower amplitude. If you
were to draw a line through the centre of the trace you would
have a good approximation to a noiseless signal. My first
attempts to produce such a circuit were fruitless and it took
many months before a solution was forthcoming. Figure lb

'U
-l
t't-

A
\,
(-

Il-^-a

shows it.

What I've shown here is a peak detector circuit. Whilst

the signal is positive going the sucessive positive peaks are
held by the circuit which traces the average waveform. On
negative going excursions a negative peak detector provides
a complementary output. Sticking both together provides a
good copy of the original. In fact the noise can be considered
as a form of uncertainty which the circuit reduces. Having
worked out how it might be done another few months went by
before I could shout Eureka! This occured when I realised that
a complementary pair of transistors and a capacitor could
provide the results I was looking for.
Figure 2 shows the circuit in it's simplest form. On
positive going signals Ql charges up Cl to the positive peak
level. The transistor acts as an emitter follower. When the
signal goes negative Q2 conducts charging Cl to the negative

Fig.3 Block diagram

brings us back to the original problem, designing a device to
reduce the noise to acceptable levels without destroying the
quality of the recording. At this stage I ought to issue a
disclaimer. As far as I am awate there has yet to be a noise
reduction system that doesn't affect the quality of the input
signal. To remove noise also implies that some signal will also
be adversely affected.
Nevertheless a very worthwhile subjective improvement
can be had by fairly simple means. There are two main ways
of reducing pre-existing noise. The hrst is to use filtering of
the high frequency content ofthe signal. This works because
subjectively mid to high frequency noise is the most noticiable.
The filtering is most effrcient, if you like your music sounding
as if it were recorded through a thick pillowcasel A better
refinement of the system is to make the frltering signal
dependent. Here high frequencies are detected and used tij
alter the filter's tumover frequency.
A well designed system of this kind works well enough.
Luckily softly played instruments generate few hamonics so
the full advantage of filtering can be obtained where noise
problems are most prominent.

peak value. By adjusting the bias voltage between Ql and

Q2's bases the operating level can be adjustedbetween letting
1007o ofthe signal through tojust the peaks.
With a pot to adjust the bias the amount of signal can be
adjusted to allow the noise to be partially or completely
eliminated. Push pull act ion of the output stage also means
even harmonic distortion is eliminated. Some distortion remains however due to the switching action of the circuit' This
can be ameliorated by proper selection of Cl to produce a
ramping action between samPles.
Although the circuit worked well as described it soon
became obvious that dynamic control would be better. Essentially I needed a circuit that would automatically adjust the
bias with signal level.

The Circuit
The circuit is best explained by reference to the block
diagram. Here the input signal is first buffered and applied to
the noisegate. Simultaneously the input signal is precisely full
wave rectifled by a pair of op-amps used in a appropiate
circuit. At the input of the buffer the input signal applied to the

)t

ETI AUGUST 1992

3t

rectifier can be attenuated by RVl. This allows the amount of

'active' noise reduction to be easily controlled.
The buffer always receives the full input signal since it,s
input is derived from the hot side of RVl.
The input buffer drives the two transistor noise gate. The
amount of static noisereduction setbyRV2. In operationRVl

is tumed so that it's slider is at earth potential and the static

noise reduction set by RV2. Then RV2 is advanced until the
best sound is achieved. An instant comparison with the input
is available via SWl.

Finally the signal is buffered out to the rest of your

equipment. Having discussed the generalities lets look more
closely at the actual circuit. The buffer and rectifying devices
are good old TLO72's. These are ideal for the purpose having
the virtues of high input impedance,low noise and high slew
rate. Ql and Q2 don't have to be anything fancy either. I used
BC327 and BC337's here.
Input signals are fed into ICla's non inverting input via
the DC blocking capacitor Cl. RV1 provides input bias for
ICla via it's connection to the voltage divider comprising Rl
and R2. Because these two resistors have the same value the
voltage at theirjunction is halfthe supply voltage. C2 has a
large enough value to bypass any audio at the junction to
ground whilst the required DC level remains unaffected by

it's presence.
The output of ICla is directly coupled to the base of el.
Ql in conjunctionwith Q2 formthenoise gateproper. Biasing
is set by R3/4/5 and RVl. The latter component sets the static
noise threshold. Bias currenr is provided by Q3 and R8 biased
by the potential divider comprising R9 and R10.

C3 provides the sample and hold facility whilst the

output from the noise gate is fed directly into the non inverting

R3 and R4 have the same value so, because ofthe current

sunk by Q3 an identical voltage appears across each. Normal
op-amp action is to maintain both inputs at the same potential.
The result is that the output rises until the junction of R3 and
R4 'sits' at the same potential as the non inverting input. In

operation the full wave rectifler modulates the curent flow

through the bias circuit. As a result the voltage drop across R3
will also vary.
Suppose current flow through Q3 increases. The collector
voltage will drop and this will be sensed by the inverting input.

In

response the op-amp's output

will go positive. In

process the audio signal at the junction of R3 and R4

maintained the same

the

will be

input. Similarly the DC signals on

across C3. This allows
the circuit to operate in real time without needing tum on or
tum off time constants. Another advantage of using e3 is that
the rest of the circuit 'sees' a high impedance looking into the
collector. The result is thatthe AC signals at the base of el and
Q2 will remain identical.
The full wave rectihercircuit also needs some discussion.
Although there is nothing particularly new about it it is not
often seen in audio circuiry. The non inverting inputs ofboth
parts ofIC2 are held at halfsupply volts by thejunction ofRl/
2. Both amplifiers are used as inverters. The particular conthe bases of

Ql

as the

and Q2

will cancel out

figuration used is the virtual earth amp. The reason is that the
aforementioned habit of an op-amp to keep both it,s inputs at
the same level. Because the non inverting input is sitting at 0V
the inverting try to do likewise. The high openloop gain of the

gain outputbuffer. The unprocessed signal can also be selected

device drives the output up and down in such a way as to

ensure that this happens regardless of the input signal. Hence
the name virtual earth there is very little, ideally no measur-

for comparison pulposes by SWl.

able signal at the inverting input.

input of IC1b. This op-amp is configured as a simple unity

R1

100k

c8
1Ou

D3

R16

27ok
R15

12k

82

Returning to ICla the feedback connection is rather

unusual and makes use of the high open loop gain and slew
rate of the TLO72.

Fig.4 Circuit diagram of Dynamic Noise Limiter

FE
'--I

(L

a
E
l-^J

This configuration is ideal for mixer stages. Several

inputs can be mixed by feeding them to the inverting input via
input resistors. There is no interaction between them at the
input end. The output is the sum ofthe inputs.
With this in mind the action of the full wave rectifier is
more readily understood. Input signals are simultaneously
applied to the inputs ofIC2a and IC2b via the input resistors
Rl l and Rl5. IC2a is a precision half wave rectifier circuit.

Dl

is in series

with the feedback resistor R12. When the input

signal is positive going the op-amp ouQut will swing negative. The high open loop gain will compensate for the forward
voltage drop across D I and the output will consist of negative
going half cycles.
When the input signal is positive going Dl becomes
reverse biased by the op-amp and effectively disconnects any

output from across R12. D2 prevents the op-amp's output

from going any more than about 0.6V positive. The high slew
rate of the opamp ensures rapid and precise rectification
across R12.

A4 adds the negative going output across R12 to the

input signal fed through Rl 5. The sum outputproduced by the
voltage across the feedback resistor R16.
If the parallel combination of R13 and R14 has half the
resistance ofRl 5 then the whole circuit acts as a precision full
wave rectifier with a positive going output signal. The output

of the rectifier is half the supply voltage under quiescent

conditions and this is used to complete the biasing loop via
R10 and R9.
Finally the power supply. This is very conventional. The
mains voltage is stepped down by Tl, rectified by D4-7. The
raw DC is then smoothed by C6 before being fed to the
regulatorchip, IC3. This provides a stable 12V supply forthe

circuit.

Construction
Most of the circuit is mounted upon the PCB, see layout
diagram. Very little comment is required about this- Just
ensure that the overlay is followed and that all the polarised
components are correctly orientated. The input output pads

need to be fitted with Veropins to ensure easy connection

between the various sections of the circuit.
Having soldered up the board check your work thoughly
to ensure that there are no dry joints or unwanted solder blobs.
When you are satisfied that all is well put the board on one

ETI AUGUST 1992

side. Attention can now be tumed to the mechanical construc-

tion of the project.

The drilling detail is shown in the Figure. Drill out the
holes for the pots ,switches etc. At this stage the case can be
finished as required. The prototype was sprayed matt black.
Legends were then applied with rub down lettering. These
were then fixed with a clear spray varnish.
Mount the panel components and the power transformer.
The board can now also be mounted on short spacers. Once all
the parts are in place the final stanza can commence. Start with
thepowersupply. Threadthe mains leadthrough the appopriate

hole. Remember to fit a grommet into the hole fnst!

Work your way through the wiring systematically. Remembering to use screened leads where indicated. Once you
have finished the time has come to test it out.
Connect up a suitable noisy source, a distant FM station
is ideal and of course your amp to the output. WindRVl fully
counterclockwise. Similarly windRV2 clockwise. The signal
will sound the same as before. Now adjust RVl in a clockwise
direction. If you have constructed the circuit properly you will
find that you are able to remove the noise but at the exPense
of some signal loss. Set RV2 so that the noise is just removed.

Now adjustRVl.
You should soon find a point where the music seems to
restore itself as if by magic. By adjusting these two controls
you can set your own compromises between signal loss and
noise reduction.

LIST

c3

BESISTORS

C7

pARTS

22n poly

C5,6

100n ceramic
1000p/l6V

r00k
sEMtcoNDUcToBs
12k
1C1,2 TL0t2
R5,6,7 r00R
1C3,4 TL072
R8 2k7
0r BC337
R9 18k
02 BC327
Rto 56k
01,2,3,4,5,6,7 1N4001
Rl
5 12k
tcs LM3r 7T
Rr2,r3,r4,r6 270k MISCEU.ANE0US
RVI l00k dual log
Case
RV2 2k2duallog l2VAClAsectransformer
CAPACIT0BS 2 Dual phono socket
C1,4,8 10p/25V Knobs
C2 100p/25V 2 DPDT switch
Rl,2

R3,4

1,1

88

tr-

by Douglos Clorkson
Historical Perspective
It is a common observation that any observation of Science is
placed within a framework of contemporary thinking. As
additional mechanisms become understood, then new theories
can be formulated. This is exactly what has taken place with
the understanding ofthe mechanism whereby the sun radiates
its vast amount of energy.
Early ideas suggested the sun achieved its energy by
means of gravitationql contraction. Where a mass m, falls into
the sun from 'infrnity' to its external diameter d, an amount
of energy E is given up equal to:

$1o152025303s

GmrM

BILLIONS OF YEAFS

Fig.1 The figure illustrates the percentage reduction

in the total mass of the sun as a tunction of time
(millions ot years).

d
where G is the gravitational constant 6.7 x 10tl Nm2kgr. In the
example of a 1 kg mass falling into the sun this would release

nthe structures ofthe ancientworld, ofEgypt, Babylon

and the Mayas, the sun was central to human outlook
both material and spiritual. Just as information is being
discovered about the remotest corners of the known
universe and the life and times of distant stars is being
unravelled in the time ofits youth, so also new insight is being
gained into the processes at work in our local star. These new
insights have an obvious relevance forthe continued existence

an energy of nearly 101r Joules or the energy ouq)ut of a 1000

Megawatt power station for nearly 2 minutes.
If the sun had formed from the attraction of a cloud of
particles, debris and dust, then the initial release of kinetic
energy would have been able to heat up the component atoms

to temperahrres of millions of degrees.

If the sun was contracting, it would release large
amounts of energy. Noted 19th century scientists such as Lord

of life as we know it on earth and also for

understan4inghow processes throughout the universe
take place.

At d time when Nature is increasingly being

watched for even the most minute of changes, it is
important to understand the mechanisms which lead
towards the apparent constancy of the sun. The
current aw.ueness of the Greenhouse effect, for
example, needs to be clearly distinguished from any
effects which derive primarily from variations of the
energy output ofthe sun.
There is considerable yet 'unfashionable,
evidence which suggests that as well as the sun
having an I 1 year sunspot cycle, it also has a 76 year
cycle in which it changes its size very slightly. This
results in ar associated detectable output change in

a
-

^\,
r-,

-FCA

84

RELATIVE
DISTRIB.

Fig.2 Typical distribution of energies of protons about a

solar radiation. It is naturally important to fully
mean temperature value. Only protons on the very extreme
understand this latter phenomenon if it exists and
right can take part in fusion reactions.
account for it in global warming theory. The
historically developed theories of the sun's evolution and
Kelvinusing the laws ofphysics then known estimated thatthe

function have largely been derivedfrom terrestrial observation.

New observing satellites, however, have been able to identify
startling new mechanisms at work within the sun's structures.
Also, some of the great puzzles in Cosmo.logy such as .Dark
Matter' are thought to involve in some way the function of the
sun. This consideration arises out ofthe fact that scientists now
thinkthatonly some l07o ofthe physical matter ofthe universe
can actually be detected. In what form the missing mass of the
universe exists is still unknown though it may modify the
functioning of the sun at its core.

age of the sun was between 20

million and 200 million years

old. Moreover if the sun continued to cool gracefully then in

this simple model the sun could contract at a rate of 50 metres
per year. This posed a point ofgreat diffrculty to Evolutionists
who from geological evidence were advocating ages of the
earth in severalhundreds

ofmillions ofyears. As the orthodoxy

became established, the lack of

of long term evolution

understanding of the sun's vast energy output became one of

the irritating problems of science which refused to go away.
In trying to assess the colossal power output of the sun

ETI AUGUST 1992

it is perhaps relevant to consider that each square centimetre

of the sun radiates approximately 6kW and that the sun has
a diameter of 1,392,000km (864,950 miles).
It was not until the scientific horizons were lifted to discover
radioactivity, that other possible mechanisms to explain the
solar power source emerged. Theories were advanced that
even a relatively small amount of Radium in the sun could

release large amounts of radiative energy. Also, it was

realised that the earth will be releasing heat from radioactive
decay of elements within its structure and this too allowed the
age of the earth to be extended considerably' Longer time
scales for the evolution of life within the solar system became
more respectable.
It also becomes apparent that in the life cycles of stars and the

evolution oflife on planets such as the earth, the timescale of

solar 'constancy' needs to be sufficiently long to give time for
life to evolve and develop from very humble beginnings. On
the face of it therefore, the processes of stars such as our sun
appear to be in the main extremely predictable and constant.
The revolutionary theories of Einstein were the
building blocks on which all modern theories of the
mechanisms of the sun were founded. Whilst the equivalence
of mass and energy was frmly accepted by the scientific
community, it was not until Arthur Eddington published his
acclaimed 'The Internal Constitution of the Stars' in 1926
that the subject of Astrophysics was born and a new set of

radiated from the star will tend to push the material of the star
outwards. There is a point at which the radiation pressure can
be suffrciently great to literally blow the star aPart. The lower
limit of the mass of the star and the higher limit of the mass

of the star according to Eddington defined the limits within

which stars couldfunction. The lowervalue of n was identified
as32 and the higher 35. Our own sun fits nicely into the
picture with its value of n of 33.
Thus larger stars should be hotter since they have
released more gravitational energy

initially from the material

which gravitated inwards to form them. Smaller stars should

be cooler and release less energy.
The concept of radiation pressure is not one which is
frequently referenced. It arises by the change in momentum
of photons of light as they, for example, are absorbed by a
surface. Ifradiation ofintensity I (Joules/m2) is incident uPon
area A, the force experienced by an absorbing surface is given

U)
-'--A
l,
A
-

by:

F= ?
where c is the speed of light.

At the surface of the

sun where

theories were applied to the mystery of how the sun can

sustain such vast levels of energy loss.
In simple terms, Einstein has shown that there was an
equivalence between mass and energy and that mass could be
transformed into energy via the equation:

E=mc2
The total energy output of the sun is estimated to be
W and this correspdnds to the rate of loss of mass
4 million tonnes (ltonne = l000kg) per second. Figure 1
shows the future estimated percentage change in the mass of
the sun with time assuming this will be constant over time in
the future.
The ability of the sun to sustain its energy output in
shows that in the next 5 billion years ifthe sun
calculation
this
continues to radiate at the same rate then its mass will only
have decreased by about 0.O3Vo.It the next 15 billion years
which is considered the present age of the universe since the
'Big Bang', it will only apparently decrease by about 0.1 %'
3.86x1026

The mechanisms of energy production rely upon

streams of 'cycling' elements within the sun's core. These
mechanisms have a more finite life so the relative change of
the mass of the sun compared to its total mass does not give
an accurate assessment of the lifetime of the sun.

In the formulation of a theory of a star, Eddington

explainedhow starswerebasically influencedby two opposing
forces gravitational attraction and radiation pressure. Stars
can be considered in Eddington's analysis to exist have
masses expressed in the form l0 grammes where n = 1'2 3
and upwards. The release of energy following the gravitational
collapse of material into the star results in an increase in.its
temperature. The larger the star the higher will be the
temperah.ue of its core. Stars however, have to be sufficiently

large to raise their temperature to levels at which nuclear

process can be triggered. This defrnes the lower value of n.
Where photons 'bounce off hot star particles, they
exert a radiation pressure on the particles, so the energy

DTI AUGUST 1992

Fig.3 Diagram of internal structure of the sun. Most

the sun's mass is located in the core. Radiation
eventually escapes from the radiation zone and
passes upwards through the convection zone.

of

the intensity is 6.35kWcm2, the force on a lm2 area absorbing

Newtons. This is approximately equivalent

surface is some

0. 2

to the force on

mass of 20 grammes in the earth'

gravitational

field.
It was during the late 30's that progress was made in
putting forward mechanisms for the production of the sun's
vast energy output. While initially it was the CNO cycle
(Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen) which was 'discovered', this
mechanism is more important in hotter stars than in our sun.
The important mechanism for us is the Hydrogen to Helium
chain one which on earth has been demonstrated in all too
graphically in the form of the Hydrogen bomb.
It is said the sun's core has a 'temperature' of around
15 million degrees Celcius. This is in fact a description of the
most likely kinetic energy of a hydrogen nucleus. In fact the
distribution of energies looks like the curve in Figure 2,
where there is a 'majority' temperature but also a so called
'high speed tail' where a small number of nuclei are travelling

at much higher temperatures.

The 'temperature' of such

proton can be expressed

35

in terms of a value of kinetic energy using the formula

3kT
2

Millions

keV

degrees value
6.5

1000.0
Table

(electron volts

103.5
1

10.0

16.4

122.9
129.4

1000).

It is only the very few atoms in the .tail, of the curve

12.9

150.0 19.4
200.0 25.9
250.0 32.3
300.0 38.8
350.0 45.3
400.0 51.8
450.0 58.2
500.0 64.7
550.0 71.2
600.0 77.6
650.0 84.1
700.0 90.6
750.0 97.0
800.0
850.0
900.0
950.0

of the proton.

Table 1 describes the values of energy in so called keV

50.0
100.0

where kis Boltzman's constant andT is the absolute temperature

which will have sufficient energy to take part in proton-proton

reactions.
Table 1: Values 0f proton kinetic energy (keV) as a function ol proton

through phases of higher and higher core temperatures,

additional 'burning' mechanisms become possible. Carbon
and Helium can fuse together to form Oxygen. Carbon can
interact with carbon to create a range of products including
neon, magnesium and sodium. At higher temperatures still
'oxygen burning' takes place creating elements such as
silicon and sulphur. The final end point element in this cycle
is the creation of Iron 56. Our sun is not likely to enter into
this dynamic phase of element production, it simply is not

The fust confrrmation of the processes of transmutation

of elements was achieved in 1932 atthe Cavendish Laboratory
at Cambridge under the direction of Cockcroft and Walton.

Lithium atoms were bombarded by high energy protons and

the resulting pair of alpha particles (Helium nuclei) which
were released could be easily detected. The composition of
the sun was assumed to be unsuitable for sustaining fusion
reactions involving hydrogen.
ln the proton-proton interaction, the process ofenergy
release is thought to take place in three distinct phases.

Initially two hydrogen nuclei fuse to form a Deuterium

travelling fast enough to initiate this reaction.

While the proton-proton cycle is largely responsible
for generating the energy of the sun, the transition of 4
discrete hydrogen nuclei into a single Helium nucleus has
consequences for the size of the sun. The super energetic
nuclei in the-sun's core behave very much like particles of a
perfect gas. As more and more individual particles are
removed, the size of the sun will decrease slowly. As the core
shrinks in size, gravitational energy released will increase its
temperature and the proton-proton fusion process will have

more high energy protons available. The increased level of

radiation will tend, however, to expand the sun,s outer Iayer
as additional energy is radiated outwards from the core.
It is thought the warming of the sun,s core over the
past 4.5 billion years has increased its brightness by about
4O%. T}ris amounts to a percentage change on
average of 0.0000000 7 Vo per y eN wbich probably
cannot be detected. In a further 6 billion years,
the mass of hydrogen in the core could well be
depleted and the fuel essentially will have run

lt

out.

r-t
-'
-

the star to contract and

a)

stars cycle

massive enough.

Figure 3 shows the intemal structure of the sun as

estimated from current models and theories. The core is
considered to extend to 25Vo of its total diameter and while
occupying some2Vo of the srun's total volume (proportional to
the cube of its radius), well over half of the sun,s mass is
concentrated

in its core.

Energetic garnma ray photons released by nuclear

fusion reactions pass outwards into the radiation zone where
countless interactions take place with energetic nuclei. The
level of interaction is so high that it is estimated that it takes
on average 10 million years for a photon to make its way
through the extensive layers of the radiation zone. This is all
to do with concepts of mean free path between collisions and
the associated 'random walk' ofphotons.

By the time photons reach the upper edge of the

radiation zone, they have sufficiently lowered their energy to
interact with the material in the convection zone to be able to
pass on their energy in the form ofkinetic energy and transfer
heat to the outer structures. The sun's energy is now streaming

outwards, partly escaping through the convection zone and

out into space and partly into establishing convection currents
where waves ofheated gas rise up to the surface, cool and fall
back.

15 MILLION K

12 MILLION K
RADIATION

ZONE

PHOTOSPHERE

When the process of hydrogen burning

slackens, the radiation pressure will fall allowing

in so doing release

gravitational energy. Hydrogen will then be able

to 'burn' in the outer layers of the sun and it will
as a consequence expand out these layers of
hydrogen rich material.

3 MILLION K

During this phase, the core of the sun

will

increase in temperature and a point

will

be

reached at which Helium 'burning, can take

place. Sufficient energy will be released to blow

offmost ofthe outer layers ofthe expanded sun.

36

suns of the size of our own?

One byproduct of the phase ofHelium burning when
it does take place is Carbon 12 akey element in all forms of

life on planet Earth. When much more massive

At the estimated mean temperature of the core of the

sun of 15 million degrees only one proton in 100 million is

galaxy which were created at approximately the same time as

our own have long ago undergone their various phases of
youth, maturity and old age. Can this indicate that life as we
know it is more favoured in planetary systems supported by

'temperature'. 0nly protons in the very high energy tail ol the distribution
have

nucleus then interacts with another high energy proton to

cteate a He3 nucleus. When two of these He3 nuclei fuse
together, high energy protons are released.

l-,

It is estimated that large stars experience more rapid

transitions from one phase to another. Many stars in our

the necessary energy to take part in fusion reactions.

nucleus consisting of a proton and a neutron. The Deuterium

When it settles down, the sun will become a hot Helium

burning star.

DTSTANCE rnOrrr SUNS

CO-ne+

Fig.4 Diagram of temperatureprofile within the various regions

of the sun.

ETT AUGUST 1992

Figure 4 shows the variation of temperature within the

sun ranging from the core where the process of hydrogen
buming takes place to the visible surface of the photosphere.
The bright disc of the sun is called the photosphere.
Careful (and safe) photography of its surface reveals it to be
a patchwork of granules which change patterns as new
volumes ofheated material rise up from below and spread out
over its surface. Sunspots are in fact areas which are slightly
cooler than the areas around them.

The Neutrino Safari

The models of the solar nuclear processes predict the release
of large numbers of particles called neutrinos meaning in the
singular 'little neutral one'. After having first been postulated
by Wolfgang Pauli in 1931, Enrico Fermi 'adopted' the
concept into the official world ofnuclear physics in 1932. The
neutrino has an extremely low cross section ofinteraction it

very rarely interacts with matter and so for many years

remained undetectable. The scenario of physics has on
numerous occasions been the process of detecting the
undetectable. In 1956, Reines and Cowan detected neutrinos
a nuclear reactor where the flux ofparticles was
estimated to be some 30 times higher than that received at the
earth from the sun. It was not until 1964, however, than an
attempt was made to determine the levels of solar neutrinos.

generated by

Figure

5 shows the

giant tank of perchloroethylene constructed

in the Homestake gold mine in South Dakota.

A neutrino which interacts with the isotope of Chlorine
Cl 37, causes aneutron to change to aproton, forming an atom
of Ar 37. This in turn decays with a half life of 34 days
releasing in the process a characteristic gamma ray which can
readily be detected. Typically as the entire contents of the
tank are processed each month to release the key Ar 37 atoms,
only 12 counts are detected.
This poses a problem for the theorists who predict
that levels should be at least three times higher. Where have
all the solar neutrinos gone? Can this one experiment indicate
that the detailed solar models are wrong? Some recent

developments
problem.

in Cosmology may throw new light on

the

One of the more startling thoughts to strike cosmologists in

recent years is that

if

of

declining in its activity.

Significant interest is now being

shown

in making

accurate

measurements of the SIZE of the

sun following indications that the
sun experiences phases where its

apparent size increases and

decreases.

Following

contradictory observations by
separate groups, Ron Gilliland
took data from a broad range of
sources and concluded that the
sun could be shrinking at an

overall rate of 0.2 of an arc per

century. Superimposed on this
long term reduction was a 76
year cycle with the sun passing

through a minimum point in

1911. Between then and 1987
the sun was expanding and
therefore cooling slightly so
opposing the greenhouse effect. As the sun begins to shrink in
size it will tend to increase in temperature and add to the
greenhouse

effect contributing an estimated 0.3Vo of energy

output and increasing the average temperature over the globe

by 0.25' Celcius. There is not sufficient data, however, to

determine if the overall reduction in diameter since 1700 is

Fig.5

lllustratlon of
the neutrino

detector in the
Holmstakegold
mine of South
Dakota.

sun.

the

galaxies is observed, then at least 90Vo of the mass which

makesup the matterin galaxies whichtakes partin gravitational
attraction is 'missing'. Thus even accounting for stars, black
holes, planets, dust clouds, comets and gas clouds in a typical
galaxy there is considerably more matter which cannot be
detected this is the so called dark matter.
Astrophysicists have consideled how such dark matter
could relate to the function of the sun. One theory is that the
sun has through time attracted a considerable amount of dark
matter to its core and this acts to cool the core slightly and
hence reduce the rate of production of neutrinos. This is still
an open chapter as preliminary experiments are only now
being set up to try and detect dark matter particle interactions
with the 'visible' particles of our physical world.
One of the current 'in' terms is WIMP meaning
Weakly Interacting Massive Particle. This term can be applied
to particles which may make up such dark matter.
As ever, theorists are never slow to come up with

RTT AUGUST 1992

Solar Cycles
Much attention is given to the 11 year sun spot activity of the
sun. The number of sunspots visible has been observed to
increase and decrease in a predictable way. The sun reached a
peak of such activity early in 1990 and is therefore at present

part of a cycle with a much longer period.

This is why groups of solar scientists have started to
undertake some basic research into measuring the size of the

The Search for Dark Matter

the gravitational behaviour

of solar neutrinos
observed. One theory considers that it could be possible for
neutrinos to 'flip' from one type to another in the time of their
flight to the earth. It is likely that more sophisticated neutrino
detectors which are planned or in the process ofbeing completed
during the 1990's will resolve the solar neutrino mystery.
possible solutions to the low number

Solar Resonances
More detailed observations of small sections of the sun's
surface reveal that they oscillate vertically in timescales of 5
minutes with displacements of about50km. Fromobservations
of Doppler shifts in theradiation emitted from specifrc locations,
it has been determined that such disturbances involve the

entire sun's surface. Present theories indicate that the sun is

behaving like a spherical 'gong' in as much as its surface is
vibrating as a result of complex modes of surface acoustic
resonance.
Just as the surface of a drum can resonate in specific
resonant patterns, so the solar surface can resonate with a
multiplicity of resonances which involve the entire solar
surface.

Figure 6 shows what is considered to take place with

a shock wave of vibrational energy which passes from the
surface ofthe suntowards its core. The direction ofpropagation
of the waves are bent into circular paths due to the changing

87

[-

processed to work out the various modes ofresonance which

are active upon the sun's surface.

One of the interesting concepts which such work

throws up is about the nature and extent of the radiating
surface of the sun.

If

the sun's surface can be imagined to be

'smooth' in a nonresonating system or in a state ofresonant

agitation , it could give rise to variations in its effective
radiating surface area an important aspect for its radiative
cooling mechanisms.
Understanding ofthe sun,s cycles of.size' variation
could involve appreciating how its surface resonant energy is
distributed within the sun's structure. There must, for example,
be a signihcant amount of energy .locked up' in this mode of

Fig.5 Section through sun showing contours of

resonant modes of vibration within the sun which
result in Datterns ol surface

resonance.

densities of material in the sun. Modes of vibration which are

encouraged are those which 'complete the circuit, of a
vibrationalpath through the sun's structure. The frequencies
of these waves is quite slow about 0.03H2.
While the Qlar Heloiosphere Observatory is planned
to be launched in 1995 and will include an experiment to
record movements ofthe solar surface, an earth based research
group GONG Global Oscillation Network Group is already

Conclusion
While it is good to be aware of details of the remotest comers
of the known universe, some surprises have recently come to
light 'in our own backyard' as aspects of the sun become
better understood. During 1990's much additional scientific
information will become available from new research
progrnmmes and enhance significantly our appreciation of
the sun's inner workings.

collecting sets of data.

While a specific satellite can maintain a constant
contact with the area it is obsewing, the ground based GONG

Further Reading:

prograrnme requires at least six sites to preserve continuity

measurement on a rotating earth.

The Particle Explosion, Frank Close, Michael Marten and

Christine Sutton, Oxford University hess, 19g7.

of

In many ways the real complexity of such a project

lies largely in the extensive data processing required. Vast
amounts of data require to be captured, catalogued and

Blinded by the Light: John Gribben, Black Swan publications

1991.

Sun and Earth, Herbert Friedman, Scientific AmericanAil.H.

Freeman, new York, 1986.

PCB & SCHEMATIC CAD

SMITH CHART CAD

ANALYSER

III T195

z-MArcH

1r

t195

r-...@

allcrlgn Slnslc rld.d. Doublc

rldcd and flultlleyci borrdr.

a Onc .ottrry.rc D.ckaqc

Schomrtlcr

PCE'r.

laotl N tul! tcaturcd Dtglrat

Clrcuh Slmulator tor le3.
lhan el(XXll
a
you to to.l youl
ivhhout rhc

oNElll/ powertul ANALYSER ill

har ftill graphlcal output.

ilr.

EASY-pC lr
12.(xx,
70 Countrlcr

Run. on PC lnl I AT 1286/396

wlth Herc, CGA, EGA" VGA.

oopllone! llbrarlcr S.M. Componont. otc. From e38.0O

[:i],'li"''

Phonc'

owntoa

weekl
Olncludes 4fiD Serleg CMOS

and 74LS lJbrarlcr.

. E_u!. on PCI)f,JI I AT 1286/38G/
wtth EGA or VGA.
't86
Hard dlck rccommended.
.74HC / HCT Llbrarler
optlonal at e48.OO oach.

Faxor

.Z-MATCH l! taker thc

drulgcry out ot

RF matchlng

probl-emi and lncluder mani

nalvc tsat

.
.

rid

rol

oN

morc taalutca lhan thc

etandard Smlth Chart.

oPIot. lnput and OutDut

lmpedadcer, Galn, Pliaee and

Group Dclay.

o Covcrr O.(xx Hz

to

ORuns on
P

c Nt I AT

ehenrlve
!udlng

> I OGHz

l2a6/386/486 whh

EGA or VGA diaplaye.

aVery ta3t compulatlon.

+[:E*[ro#",if"r.r""ffi,1;,t.

lcr. -

o Eqn_! _oI P I Nt I Af I *6 I 406,

CGA,EGA,VGA.
a ldeal tor both cducatlon .nd

B;.j#[ii;i,;I{

REF: ET!' HARDING wAY' SoMERSHAM ROAD, sT.tvEs, HUNTINGDON, cAMBs, pEl7
4wR, ENGIAND.
Tclephonc: o48o 61778 fl llncr) Far: o48o 494042 tntcrnattona!: +44-4io-61778 F.x: +44-480-494042

8B

B"TT

AUGUST 1992

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ADC-1 6

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r 2.5V input range
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O

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z
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t{

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E
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can

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tu''

*r*

rhe availability of inexpensive MIDI syntheit seemedfoolish to .reinvent the wheel,,

sizer modules,

design. So attention was tumed to creating some

electronics that would generate the MIDI codes to
drive such a module.
ETI's 'How to MIDI aPiano' article provided
a suitable circuit, butthe double-sidedpCB, microprocessor, and the need to program an EpROM

KEYBOARD
N.C. COI{TACTS

Lowe3t

rl

E)

E'
E

t,
-

tr
-

KEYBOARD
N.O. COI{TACTS

Fig.la Main circuit diagram of MtDl control

were daunting. The E5 I 0 IC, recently introduced by Maplin

Electronics, came to the rescue. All the functions required

to scan a keyboard of virtually any size, including full

polyphony and velocity sensing (whereby the volume of
each note depends upon how hard the key was played)
have been integrated onto this IC.
Costing about f25, it is possibly one of the most
expensive 16-pin ICs many people will have come across,
but the fact that only a few extra ICs for address decoding
and a handful of passive components are required to fom
a conplete keyboard scanner and MIDI code generator
+I2V

makes this small component very attractive.

Here, a circuit including the 8510, a six--octave keyboard, and a Yamaha EMTI0 sound expander module are
brought together within a specially made wooden box to
create an instrument which, to answer my original question, sounds very much like a real piano.

Building The Circuit

Construction is made simple by the use of a single sided
fibreglass PCB. Referring to the component overlay in
Figure 2, insert and solder the components, starting with

UNREGULATED
I

HOW IT WORKS
The E510, lC1 in this circuit, performs all the active operations
necessary to read the keyboard.,lt is a high-speed, high-performance lC. fabricated in HCM0S, and this,is must be borne in
mind when designing its supportcircuitry, aswill be seen later.The
system clock is derived from a 4MHz crystal,the internal oscillator
of lCl also dividing this frequency to produce the 31 .25 kHz ( kba ud)

MlDl data rate.

Essentially, the E510 cycles through a seven-bit address range
(A0-A6), each location conesponding to an individual key on a
keyboard. Seven-bits allow 27 or 128, keys to be scanned - ten
octaves! Obviously this is unfeasible practically, and more importantly many MlDl instruments are physically unable to respond
to pitch codes outside a certain range. So in this design a more
sensible six-octave ra nge has been c hosen, located approximetely
in the middle olthe potential ten. Thatway, only extremely low and
extremely high notes are lost.

Each key contact consists of an SPDT switch, with a normally

closed and a normally open contact. Each of these is pulled-up to
+5V with a resistor. The 'colon'terminal of the switch is connected
to 0V, and will therefore pull one of the contacts low depending
upon whether the key is depressed or not. By measuring the time
between the normally closed contact opening and the normally

open contact closing, which is what happens when a key is

pressed, the E5l0 is able to deduce how hard the key was played
and hence provide velocity information.
It would be mechanically complex to provide each key with a
separate switch, so a multiplexed arrangement is used. The keys
are organised in a 9 x 8 matrix, whereby each group of eight
consecutive keys shares a normally closed and normally open
contact, or busba r. ( Please referto the circ uit diagra m ( Figure I for
clarification.) Each key has a separate 'common' pin. With a little
thought it can be seen that when we are reading from one set of
busbars we are uninterested in what is ha ppening on a ll the others
and so everyfirst'common'in each group can be connected to all
the others, as can every second, every third, etc. leaving only eight

common lines. Hence the 9 x 8 matrix; nine sets of busbars, and

eight'common' lines.
The process of scanning therefore involves selecting one set of
busbars and connecting them to the NC and N0 inputs ofthe E51 0.
Each common line is then taken low in, turn, and the state 0f the
busba rs read. When a ll eight keys have been read, the next busbar
is selected, and so on. This can be done by decoding the lower
three address lines to give the'common'signals, and the upper
four to control two lFway selectors with only 9 inputs used on
ea ch.

The circuit realisation uses a 74145 4-to-10 line decoderto take

the 'common' lines low. The open-collector outputs ensure

no

interaction between groups of keys. A standard TTL device was

chosen because each output has to pull nine busbars low simultaneously - and quickly. HCM0S has the speed but not the drive
capability, while the 74LSl45 has an output saturation voltage of
2.3V; dangerously close to the HCM0S upper logic threshold.
Two pairs of 74HC4051 eight-wayanalogue switchesformthe 16
way selectors, with lCTa allowing the mostsignificant address line
to choose between the two lC's by manipulating the lNHlBlT
inputs. The 4067 sixteen-way switch, would have been ideal here,
but is unavailable in HCM0S, the only CM0S family fast enough to
keep up with the E510.

It is also interesting to note here that during prototyping the

function of lCTa was performed by a simple transistor inverter,
whose inability to perform fast enough manifested itself when
several keys on the keyboard triggered more than one note each
from the synthesizer. Traps forthe unwary, as mentioned before!
The outputs of the selectors go straight to the appropriate E51 0

input. R3 and R4 simulate an unpressed key when an unused

selector input is addressed, to avoid spurious responses.
The MlDl output comes direct from lCl, Rl and R2 limiting the
maximum output current.
The 5V supply for the circuit is derived from the l2V supply to the
synthesizer module by

standard 7805 regulator, and liberal use is

made of small decoupling capacitors.

E
'd

\,
-

(L

Il-^-J

O
-

the l7 wire links and continuing with resistors, capacitors,

IC sockets and the crystal. Uniting the pCB plugs and

sockets makes correct orientation easier - pin I is marked
on the socket housing. Getting this right will simplify

connections later on. A small piece of aluminium bracket,

about one inch long, is ampleheatsinking forthe 7305, and
this should be bolted on before soldering the regulator to
the PCB. Heatsink compound is not necessary.
Do not insert the ICs at this stage. Thoroughly check
for shorts, solder bridges and dry joints, then apply 8-l5V
DC. to PL4 (see wiring diagram forconnectiondetails) and
check with a DVM that 5V appears at pin 16 of each IC
socket (pin 14 of IC7). With this test completed, the ICs
may be inserted, checking the polarity of each since some
are 'upside down'.

fl

The Keyboard
Tobe compatible withthe scanning electronics, akeyboard
must consist of approximately 72 keys with a common pair

of busbars for every set of eight consecutive keys and

every first, second, etc. key in each group commoned, as
detailed above.
How much work will be necessary to achieve this
depends upon the available mechanism. For instance, J &
N Bull Electrical supply surplus three--octave mechanisms
complete with SPST contacts and keys already configured
in a matrix a.rrangement. The prototype used two of these
mechanisms; unfortunately the need to modify the contacts to SPDT and the difficulty in linking the two halves
make this approach far from ideal. Therefore I will assume
a bare mechanism, bereft of contacts, and start from
scratch.

Figure 4 shows the suggested approach. A long strip

of Veroboard (or similar) is mounted securely along the
bottom of the keyboard. (In practice, several lengths of
board will be necessary to span the entire length.) Foreach
key a length ofgold--clad phosphor-bronze contact wire is
solderedto theboard, bentoverparallel withthe board, and
passed through the hole in the key plunger such that the
wire flexes in sympathy with the motion of the key.
A busbar assembly consists of two support blocks as
shown in the diagram and two lengths of 2.5mm diameter
brass rod. The bars should be sufficiently long to allow
contact with all eight contact wires but not so long as to
cause shorting between adjacent assemblies. push the rods

through the holes in the support blocks, with one block at

each end. The assembly is then glued to the board in
accordance with the following necessary rules:

(,

E'
E
-F-

tr

42

@
Fig.2 Component Overlay

The key wires must be in contact with the NC

busbar whenever their key is unpressed.

2 Each key wire must leave the NC busbar shortly
after the relevant key is depressed, and make contact with
the NO busbar slightly before the key reaches full travel.
This ensures adequate contact pressure at all times.
3 Contact between the wires and the NO busbar must
be maintained while the key remains depressed.
It therefore follows that since the busbar spacing is
3.5mm, the busbar assemblies should be attached at apoint
where the range of travel of the wires is greater than 4mm.
Itis essentialthat all nine busbar assemblies are consistent
in their geometry and positioning if the keyboard is to have
a constant velocity response along its length.

DII AUGUSI

T992

I
I

"U

-''/A
(-I

a
l-^-/

Epoxy resin is recommended for attaching the busbar

assemblies totheboard. While you are at it, make up alittle
extra resin and use it to secure the busbar rods in the
supportblocks. Whenthis is set, any'rogue'key wiresthat
do not obey the above rules can be tweaked into conformity.

Wiring up the Keyboard

Connection between every first key in each block, etc, can

GOLD PLATED WIBE

be made on the Veroboard, as can the arrangement of

pullup resistors between each busbar and the +5V supply.
5 volts is available at pin 1 of PL2 and PL3 for convenience. Figure. 4 c) shows the connections at keyboard
level, while Figure. 5 gives all the necessary interconnections between the keyboard and the scanner PCB plus
extemal inputs and outputs. With all this in place, you are
in a position to see if the whole system works! But first let
us consider how to house it.

+5V
rPL2 PIN 1 AND
'PL3 PIN 1)

2K7

X9lEs

TO N.c.

CONTACT

(PL2) ;T

-TO N.O.

Building the Box

Although the task may appear daunting, with just a little
perseverance and care it is possible to produce an attractive
wooden casing for a very modest price.
Figwe 6 shows the timber used in the prototype. All
dimensions are final and exact, so when cutting it is wise
to be initially generous. The'material is pine throughout'
with just the large base and top panels in plywood' With
luck, agoodmatchbetweenthe surface of theplywood and
the solid pine can be obtained, especially when both have
been stained.

OONTACT
(PL3)

Fig.3 Keyboard assemblY

Begin by cutting parts A, B and F (2 ott). Part A has

cuteuts for the metal rear panels, the design of which is
detailed in Figure 7. Also cut four pieces of scrap wood to
form thecorner supports, as perFigure 5. Thesepieces also
support the top and bottom panels, so gauge their height
accordingly. No's assemble these parts into a rectangular
framework, glueing and screwing the lengths to the support blocks. Bear in mind that this exercise determines the
KEYBOARD

il
CONNECT TO:
HTGHEST PITCHED

N.O. BUSBAR

to

PIN CONNECT TO:

PIN

-1(
--9
I

7 --SEVENTH

6--

5EI="t

u{
LOWEST PITCHEO N.O.
BUSEAR +5V TO
PULLUP RESISTORS

coNNEcrED

MIDI OUTPUT
AND POWEF
9
8
7
6

--

SECOI|D
FIBST KEY
ON EACH BUSBAR
PIN CONT{ECT TO:
-5+- PIN s OF MlDl OUTPUT Orn Pr-UO

1-

SUPPLY

4--PlN2

s--"4""

"

2 - -,UNREGULATED OV INPUT
I_.UNREGULATED +12V INPUT

4
3
2

LOWEST PITCHED N.C.

BUSBAF +5V TO

PULLUP RESISTORS

-2
---r

HIGHEST PITCHED
N.C. BUSBAR

rrcREAstNG

3- -THIRD

5
4
3

Dl

PtrcH oF
BUSBAn

LTNES 4--+ouatx

SIXTH

s--FrFrH

-1

Fig.4 External Connections to PCB and Keyboard

DTI AUGUST 1992

48

BEAF PANEL

40

18 THIGK PINE

before tightening the screws. With the base/keyboard

assembly in position, insert parts G on each side of the
keyboard and glue in place.This concludes the carpentry.
Stain and vamish is a matter of individual taste; beeswax
polish produces a nice finish after they have been applied.
The rear panels can now be screwed into place. Two
metalbrackets are required for the synthesizer module, and
they are screwed to part C, just below the cutout. Two of
the case screws fromthe

9 THICK

PLYWOOD

Final Wiring

ill
I "l

I'

kl1d-l

F-=o-]

465 rl tmCi,pne

bottomofthemodule areremoved

before sliding the module into position through the cutout.

laced, but passed through holes
tering the case, thus securing the

io

THTCK

-[1.I

ptNE

2 OFF

ALL DttrEitstoNs N mu.

Fig.5 Cutting list

of the entire instrument!

Wfritb ttris is setting, cut the other parts again,
making each slightly larger than necessary. Do not bevel
the top edge of part C yet as this is best done with it in
position. To do this, trim the length of part C so that it fits
snugly into the framework but without bending. hepare
support blocks as before (refer to Figure 8), and glue into
place. Now the top of part C can be planed level with the
squareness

Figure 9 shows the intemal wiring . The scanner pCB can

be mounted on the base of the box with sticky pads; there,s
plenty of room! When wiring between the body of the box
and the base, be sure to use a sufficient length to allow easy
removal of the base if necessary. The only screened cable
required is for the audio connections. When mounting the
l2V power adaptor, it was necessary to drill four small
holes in the plastic case for screws this seemed to have
no detrimental effect.
Now is the time to cross your fingers and try out the
whole system together. Connect the audio outputs, which
are at line level, to a suitable amplifier. The mains on _ off
switch applies power to the scanner electronics, but the

other edges.

With the framework complete, the top and base

sec_

tions can be trimmed accurately to fit in place. Each

requires six l-shaped brackets to add support along its
length, and these can be fabricated from offcuts of alu_
minium sheet. The top (part E) can be glued and screwed
onto the supporting blocks,
ust only

be screwed since all access

from its
removal.
Removing the base, fit keyboard support blocks to it
as in Figure 8. Their exact thickness, position and number
will be determined by the particularmechanism in use. The
keyboard must be rigidly mounted, and these blocks raise
the mechanism to allow clearance foJ the key plungers
when the keys are pressed.
When all necessary connections have been made to
the keyboard, attach it securely to the blocks. A certain
amount of trial and error will be necessary to get it in the
correct place once the box is assembled, so do a trial run

44

DTI AUGUST 1992

FE

EUBO HAI
PLUG

't-

A
\,
(UATERIAL: 1T[ THICK ALUUIT{IUT STEET
FlillSH: SPRAY PAINETD ilATT ELACX
LABELLED WIT}I WH]TE LETRASET
CLEAN LACOUER APPLIED

ALL DII'ENSIONS IN

IIf

l-^-a

O
-

o.2stil. moNo
JACK SOCKETS

Fig.6 Rear panel layout

ALUMNIUT ERACKET

conilER
BLOCK

'/)
KEYBOARD SUPPOBT
(GLUED TO EASE)

BlocKs
F

n
-.rl

Fig.7 Box construction

synthesizer has an additional power button which must be

on.
Play a key - you should hear the result. If not, double
check everything. If troubleshooting is necessary, the

following test points are suggested:

- follow the power feed in by checking mains input,

l2V unregulated supply

and the 5V regulator output.

monitor pin 9 of the E510 (MIDI output) with a

DTI AUGUST 1992

logic probe. Pressing a key should result h a burst of

activity, and releasing it a second burst' If this is present,
then it is most unlikely that the scanner PCB is at fault.
check for activity on the address lines, pins 1 - 7,
of the E510. Inactivity on all implies absence of clock
signal, or a faulty or damaged 8510. Inactivity on one or
two suggests a board short, or a faulty decoder IC.

With luck, all this will be unnecessarJ. The most

il|i

likely faults are merely the connection of busbars in the

creative input of Jo and Simon Brand, and the staff of

Riverside Organ Studios.

wrong order, resulting in notes out of sequence, or with the

NC and NO bars transposed, which will cause the particu-

lar block of eight keys to trigger a note quietly when

The EMT-10

released.

I chose the Yamaha EMT-I0 as the synthesizer element of

the prototype, rnainly because of its realistic performance
of a piano and reasonable second-hand price. It belongs to

Finally, remember if using an alternative synthesizer

module, that the E5 10 transmits only on MIDI channel 1 .
Most instruments, including the EMT-IO, default to this

a family of MtrDI equipment known as sound expanders,

intended by the manufacturer to enhance the versatility of

on power-up.

May I take this opportunity to wish you hours of

enjoyment from your instrument, and acknowledge the

larger synthesizers and electronic pianos but which can

just as well be used in their own right.
The

EMT-I0

offers S-note polyphony and full veloc_

ity sensing over l2 basic voices; two pianos, two electric

pianos, harpsichord, guitar, brass, strings, choir and three
basses. The voices are not synthesized, they are sampled,

and to CD quality. Nine variations on each voice are

available, plus several other versatile features such as bass
split, transpose, ei.c
All this comes in a small black box measuring about
220 x 220 x 40rnm, requiring just a l2y DC supply and a

MIDI input.
Having said all that, the keyboard scanner will drive
any piece of equipment accepting

MIDI standard codes.

If

another device appeals, try it!

BTIYLINES

MIDI

IN

HIDI THRU

(,

E'
E

^
FT
-

tr

4A

oN/oFF

SWTTCH

MANS

tN

INSIDE OF REAR PANEL

Fig.8 lnternal Wiring

ETT AUGUST IO92

PARTS LIST

way latch housing

l0 way latch housing
Terminals for above housings
1O-pin lC socket (6 off)
l4-pin lC socket
Heatsink bracket for BEGI
Wire, solder, etc
8

RESISI0RS: (all 0.25W, 5%)

200R (2 off)
Rl,2
1M0 (2 off)

R3,4

GAPAGITORS:

22p min. ceramic

I 00n monolithic ceramic

cl,2
c3-8

lliflf

*"**DAssEMBtYAt{D

Paxolin block
2.5mm diameter brass rod

Veroboard

Cold-plated phosphor-bronze contact wire

Epory resin

lnterconnecting wire
Small nuts, bolts, screws etc
Aluminium offcuts for brackets
Spray paint and lacquer

Box

Letraset transfers

RESISTORS

2k7

SEMIGONDUGTOBS:

lct
tcz

74145

lc3-6

74HC4051

tc7

i4HC00

MISCETI.AIIEOUS
5 pin 1800 DIN plug (2 off)
5 pin 1800 DIN socket

REGl

7005

0.25 inch jack socket (3 off)

WOODWORK
Wood glue

1510

MtscEt!.At{E0us

XTALI
PLI

(18 off)

0.25w,5%

PU,3
PL4

4MHz crystal
8 way PCB plug

way PCB pluS (2 off)

5 way PCB plug
10

Wood screws (assorted) Stain and varnish

l4mm

Double pole mains rocker swltch

Panel mounting mains inPut Plug
Panel mounting fuseholder + lA fuse

pine:

'l()mm

pine:

18mm

pine:

plywood:

1070x 143
(2 off)

465 x 143
1070x 90

(2 off)

140 x 40
1070 x 45
1070 x 433

Phono plugs (2 off)

9mm

0-octave keyboard mechanism

Aluminium sheet

1 0i0 x 255
0ffcuts for support blocks

PH

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47

Tel vision Antenna

A cheap way to produce a TV qerial by stephen waddington

couple who live in a densely populated area of

South London recenlly sought my opinion on
televisionreception. Livingin a secondfloorflat

That said the theory presented is minimal and is

provided solely as justi-

and unable to use a roofmounted antenna, they

had resorted to the use of a five element indoor device
which proved totally ineffective; reception was poor and

Literally hundreds of an-

ghosting continually occurred. This state ofaffairs prompted

(,

F--l

II
E
A
-F-

tr
48

investigation.
The art of antenna design is steeped in mystery; an
area avoided by all but the suitably adept academic. I offer
this design as a neat solution realised after hours spent
surrounded by textbooks, lengths of coaxial cable and
strips of aluminium foil. The design described is two
dimensional and requires mounting in a horizontal position facing the nearest television broadcast mast. Materials
are inexpensive and the design allows opportunity for
experimentation. The original prototype now sits on my
living room wall attached to the rear of a Lowry print.
Although results are not as superior as those for a high gain
Yagi antenna, the design discussedrfrovides adequate
results and picture quality comparable with that of an
outdoor antenna.
Before launching into the practical, a briefexcursion
must be made into the depths of theory, only then can any
basic explanation of how the antenna works be realised.

fication to the

design.

tenna blueprints exist - I

do not propose to add
these and have selected

an old design, employ-

itin anew and slightly

innovative fashion. For
ing

Fig. 1 a

Circular Antenna
Design

those interested in pursuing the subject further,

numerous books deal
with antenna theory and

practical design in
greater depth than is

Fig.lb Half wave foided

dipole design

possible here.

Wave Formation
Radio and television waves form a small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum and as such consist of two field
components, one magnetic and the other electric. In gen_
eral terms an electromagnetic wave is a form of radiation

that transmits energy through space. Further examples

ETI AIJGUST 1992

include light, heat, infra red and x-rays. The formation of

an electromagnetic wave must be traced to its source. Any
changing magnetic field has associated with it a changing
electric field; perpendicular to each other, the two flelds lie
at right angles to the motion of the wave.
Any conducting body exposed to an electromagnetic
wave will have an electremotive force (EMF induced
across it as a result of the varying magnetic field. Conversely, any conductor carrying alternating current will
radiate electromagnetic waves. Anything from a coathanger to metal bookshelf might be used - rather boringly
I decided to maintain convention. That said, a fellow
colleague is convinced that a bedstead fixed in his loft
maintains perfect radio reception.
The actual power received from a television or radio

every manufacturerneglects. The impedance of the typical

FE

portable television antenna, such as that in Figure 1a,

differs slightly from its companion in Figure 1b being
150Q. Even so, the inffoduction of a matching transformer, doubles the efficiency ofthe antenna. Considera-

,&

tion ofbasic physics and electrical properties results in the

modified design of a far superior nature, that of Figure lb.

tl-^-l

Mathematics
All electromagnetic

waves are propagated through space

at the velocity of light denoted by the symbol c. Though
quoted for a vacuum, the value 2.99x108 ms r, may be
considered the same for air. The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave travelling in free space is the distance
between two points in the direction of propagation, where
both the electric and magnetic fields

repeat their values

of

v
-,
(L

a
E

intensity.

Wavelength, conventionally denoted

by the greek symbol lambda, frequency fand the velocity oflight c are
related to each other by the formula:

c=fl,
Consider for example Radio 3

which occupies amongst other frequencies,

l25lG[z on the Medium

Wave. The wavelength of the electro-

magnetic wave is calculated as:

...Eqn

signal is very small. Equally; modern television receivers

are so sensitive that fractions of a millivolt will suffice.
Calculation dictates that we must induce a signal in the

order of a hundredth of a microwatt. Miracles are not

expected.

The Basic Design

Initial investigation centred around existing television
antennas. A design often used on portable television sets is

that illustrated in Figure 1a. Predominantly circular in

form, it is an obscure version of the half wave folded
dipole. The more usual forrn is that illustrated in Figure lb.
Here, two conductors each of half a wave length are joined,

with the lower conductor split at the centre to allow

connection to a radio or television system. A resonant
device, the antenna is designed so that the two main
conductors match the frequency of the signal to be received. Although the design is spot tuned to a single
channel, a tolerance of + lOVo allows for reception of
neighbouring frequencies. Rather unusually for a television antenna, its impedance is 300Q, a huge mismatch
from the 75O impedance of a television antenna input. :'
Following experimentation I realised thatthe circular
device could be improved to provide far superior results.
Immediately the losses caused by the impedance mismatches could be eradicated, simply by introducing a
matching ffansformer - a simple device which almost

=239m

A direct relationship results and

by mathematical observation we soon

ALL DIMENSIOI{S IN MILLIMETBES

Fig.2 Half wave folded dipole design

c 2.99 x 108
I l= i-ffrcr

realise that the higher the frequency

the shorter the wavelength. Thus frequencies in the television broadcast band around 650MHz
have shorterwave lengths than those of the MediumWave
radio band around 1000kHz (lMHz).
Domestic UHF television broadcasts are allocated a
space within the electromagnetic spectrum referred to as
BandVIandV. Carrierfrequenciesrange between450 and
850MHz dependanton physicallocation within theUnited
Kingdom. In this respect it would be necessary to quote
several pages of data for every UHF Television broadcast
station. Fortunately such information is easily obtained
from either television broadcasters or any one of the
numerous radio authorities or that exist within the United
Kingdom. Relevant addresses are provided at the end of
the article. Perhaps more convenient is the Maplin Catalogue which details broadcast frequencies throughout the
country within the antenna section.
In general a domestic television antenna is required to
receive eight different wavelengths to provide sound and
vision for four channels. For example the transmitter for
the original design is situated in Croydon and uses the

following:

Station
(MHz)
BBCI
BBC2
tTV
Channel 4

Vision
(MHz)

Frequency

511.25
567.25
487.25
543.25

Sound Frequency
517.25
573.25
493.25
549.25

TABLE 1: Domestic Television

Frequency

allocation.(Crystal Palace Transmitter)

ETI AUGUST T992

49

Examination of Table

provides the precise limits of

reception. In this instance the antenna is required to operate between 487.25 and 573.25lvIlIz. The average frequency is selected and so the design is tailored to 530.25
MHz. Employing equation (1), the associated wavelength
and therefore half wavelength is determined.
2.99xlOB
^ Tc=s]6Fto

^=
For a Half

=)o4m

The use of aluminiumfoilis not as ridiculous as might

of first appeared. For UIIF purposes, conduction will take

place solely within a few micrometers of the surface.

Whilst aluminium sheet would form a more permanent
device,

foil is fine for experimental and prototype pur-

poses.

Construction
Construction is simple but as with all projects of this
nature, the Blue Peter Code ofPractise should be adhered

to; 'cut with care!' The antenna is mounted on a board _

thick card, hardboard or plywood will suffice. The ideal

Wave L =O.ZBIr
2

The length of the antenna is thus realised. Readers must of

course use data relevant to their area. Although not that
different to the figures presented here, the final result may
prove far from acceptable.

75rICO.AXIAL

LEAD

Fig.3 Schematic diagram of antenna system

The width ofthe conductors is not so critical, though

a sense of proportion must be maintained and the width
shouldbe small compared with ahalf wave length. Equally
a large cross sectional conduction area is important and a
compromise mustbe attained. Figure 2 shows aplan of the
antenna with actual measurements quoted in millimetres.

method of construction is then to trace the antenna design

onto a piece of foil and then cut and secure to the board. A
light adhesive such as PrittStick will provide adequate
cohesion. Attempts to cut and paste each element separately should be avoided. Complication would arise when
attempting to join the pieces together - the glue would act
as an insulator preventing electrical contact, rendering the
antenna useless.

Connection to the matching transformer is made by

the use of two 6mm mushroom-head trolts hxed through
the edges of the antenna in the positions illustrated in
Figure 2. Provision for the bolts is made by drilling two
holes through the antenna and supporting board. Spade
terminals on the 300R end of the transfonner slot neatly
underneath each ofthe bolts, which once secured between
two washers, provide good electrical connection as illustrated in Figure 5. Should you opt to use a transformer
which does not have a fixed cable link, a suitable length of
twin 300R cable should be employed. Crimped spade
connectors secured to each end would ensure a good
electrical connection though the constructer may equally
opt to secure the bare wires around each terminal.

Although the half wavelength 7, is specific to each

antenna,other measurements are not subject to regional
variation and should be adhered too.

wlBE

CARRYING

RADIO

FREOUENCY

CURPENT

WNE CAFRYING
LOW FREOUENSy
OR DTRECT CUBHENT

Impedance Matching
As explained earlier, a matching transformer is employed
to overcome the impedance mismatch. A schematic diagram is shown in Figure 3. The antenna is connected by a
twin 300Q cable, to the 300Q side of the matching transformer. The output from the transformer is then connected
by a 75O coaxial cable to the antenna input of a television
recelver.

Skin Effect

(J

E'
E

A
\,

tr
-

50

Domestic television antennas are often constructed from

metal tubing as opposed to solid rods or aluminium foil as
proposed in this instance. Such design seems inappropriate, since basic physics tells that solid conductors are the
most efficient. The reasoning is easily explained; it is only
direct current that flows uniformly through the entire cross
section ofa conductor. At high frequencies, current flow is
restricted to a narrow skin around the edge of a conductor.
The higherthe frequency ofthe current;the thinner the skin
becomes and so rather appropriately the phenomenon is
referred to as the 'skin effect'. Figure 4 provides illustration. The current loss introduced by the use of tubing as
opposed to solid conductors is minimal; additionally cost
and physical weight are reduced.

ABEA OF
CUFRENT FLOW

Fig.4 Skin effect

A co-axial lead is required to link the ffansformer to

a television set. Two rnetres ofcoaxial

the antenna input of

cable should be sufficient

- coaxial plugs should then be

secured to eacl.r end allowing for connection between the
matching ffansformer and a television set. Once completed
the antenna may be plugged into a television set. The
device is vertically polarized and is directional; to obtain
the best results it should be mounted vertically and pointed
in the direction of the broadcasting transmitter. Using the
two channels at the extremities of the original calculations,
orientate the antenna to give the best sound and picture
quality. No formal proceedure can be provided for set up;
a trial and error method is suggested.

Further Work
The half wave folded dipole design is easily adapted

ETI AUGUST T992

for VHF reception and provides excellent results for stereo

FM. The sole change required is to the antenna's length this must be changed to suit the frequencies concerned.
Feel free to experiment; the beauty of this type of construction is that it is cheap and lends itself to trial and modifica-

I
1

'o-

Piece 350 x 250 mm hardboard or plywood

1 Roll of aluminum

foil

^(-I

2m 75R coaxial cable

2 co-axial plug connectors

1

tlon.

FE

PARTS LIST

75R/300R lmpedance matching transformer

2 6mm

Mushroom bolts

l-^-l

6 6mm washers I 200 mm length of 300R twin cable (see text)

4 Spade connectors (see text)

CRIiIP CONNECTOR

BTIYLINES

BOLT HEAD

All material and components should be eaily obtained; the matching

transformer is available from either Maplin Electronics or Tandy.
Approximate Costf3.50

Addresses
lnformation on frequency and channel allocation in specific areas may
6mm MUSHROOM-HEAD BOLT

be obtained from:
BBC Engineering lnformation
White City,20l Wood Lane, London. Wl2 7TS

The Radio Authority

Engineering lnformation, Waterloo Bridge House, London.
lndependent Television Commission
Engineering lnformation, Crawley Court, Winchester, Hants.

Fig.5 Connection

The Radiocommunication Agency

Waterloo Bridge House, London. SEI 8UA

to Aluminium foil

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5l

tllike Meechan looks at Jour

wgys of sq
PerJormcnce

referred to the outline strategy listed in part 4. To very, very

I said that to publish further overlays or

constructional details at this
briefly recap,

would be tantamount to some i

- in my
timeshare salesman - trying to sell you a used car on the
basis of a visual inspection by you of a shiny wheel from
the notional and unseen vehicle! It is much better policy to
wait until more information about the console is in your
possession before tempting you with the sweetmeats of
overlays and PCB layouts. In this way, all of the features
and shortcomings of the mixer can be laid bare and open to
scrutiny over this period and, we hope, all prospective
customers will then be satisfied before contemplating
spending any largish sums of the old green stuff. We at ETI
have no wish for three or four completed modules to be

It would be akin to me

et another month has passed and we are again

ready, poised to boldly go, split some more

infinitives and make further inroads into the
workings of the largest mixing console yet offered for publication within the electronics periodicals. In
the past few months, we have progressed as far as the
microphonefline input amplification stage, which, in the
global scheme of things and after so much text, seems
somewhat distant from the Master module. Readers in_
trigued by this apparently less than prodigious pace are

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R42
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on thls verllon

OPTIOIIAL

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TAPE NETURN

LlilK 9a
loa

LINK

Jor"

TO LK3b
TO LKIb

Fig'1 Mic/Line amP/Channel trim (low noise version c/w optional muttitrack,B
check, amp/relayl

OE

DTI AUGUST 1992

confined to an under-stairs cupboard because ofimproprieties on our part as regards costing analysis or incomplete
guide prices - in simple terms, the damn thing was too dear
to take to completion!
Enough of the hype! In this and following issues we
move into a very important area of the console, that of the
Level Architecture. I had hoped to delve into the mysteries
ofequalisation section -EQ - where creative or corrective
tonal spectrum changes can be made to the input signal.
Regrettably, text limits mean that this will be held over
until Part 6. On a positive note, this means that we can
explore more thoroughly and from first principles both
passive and active f,rlter sections, the relationship which
these have to high quality audio in general, and to mixing
consoles specifically, the various ways of implementing
theEQfunctions with active electronics, andthe AutoMate

way of doing the business.

Staying on the Right Side of the Law

Staying with the more immediate concem of this month's
text, we must first complete some unfinished business in
the shape of the Mic/Line input stage and gain control.
Referring to the modihed input stage schematic of
Figure 1 -that published last month was the general form
- and using already published information and circuit
diagrams, we should remember that differential ampliflters, unlike most others encountered, operate at high gain
when the value of gain setting resistor between the two
transistors is lowest. For a good control law, we therefore
require an anti-log pot, as linear, or worse still, log law,
would cramp all of the gain variation into a very small part
of the control movement. This type of gain control is used
on many mixer input stages and provides good operational and variable conffol of gain. However, I was
unable to track down (no pun intended) any readily
available supplies of antilog pots and so opted for a
precision switched gain control cascaded to an opamp stage with gain onthis second stage fully variable
between zero and plus 30dB. The switched gain
control uses a l}-w ay, adjustable-stop PCB-mount-

FE

,d

-l
A
l,
(-

Il-^-l

a
E

HOW IT WORKS
Low Noise Mic/Line/Channel Trim section

Microphone inputs (which ideally should be balanced) are inputted to

the console via XLRI, a }pin style socket. SWl a and b are part of the RV1

'channel trim' pot and are opened and closed by pushing or pulling the
pot shaft. This switch introduces 20dB of attenuation via resistors R1, R2
and R3. R5 and R6 balance the 48V phantom supply across the two legs.
The supply is switched on or off via the panel-mounted SW2 with C1 and

C2 (and optional electrolytic bypasses C16 and C17) providing the

necessary DC blocking of the input whilst ZD1 to 4 provide transient
over-voltage protection of the input amplifier should the mic be plugged
in with the phantom supply on. C25 compensatesthe input stage current
regulator while C7 and C8 provide compensation for the overall amplifier, these latter two chosen in relation to the value of Rbias needed.
Rbias, R9 programmes the input stage for a given impedance and so
optimises noise performance for the given input source resistance of
200R. This feature ofthe input amplifier meansthatthe 201 5 can provide
closrto-optimum performancefrom source impedances upto 4k, noise
being within 1dB of the theoretical limit between 500R and 2.5k. The bias
resistor value has been chosen to optimise performance with a balanced

transducer - noise worsens with unbalanced inputs because of the

uncorrelated nature of the noise currrents of the 2015 and the bias
resistor value may be altered to compensate for this.
There are two trim controls to be adjusted with respect to this lC.
The 'null' control is an offset trim used to null out control feedthrough.
Since the output offset at low gains is determined bythe matching ofthe
feedback resistors and at high gain by the matching of the input
transistors, a click or thump may be audible when gain settings are
rapidly changed. This is due to a shift in output offset and is eliminated
by adjustingthe null control forequal offsets at high and lowgainsettings.
The other is a CMRR trim and is ad.iusted for minimum outputwith a high
level common mode input. As the untrimmed performance of the 2015
in both of these aspects is excellent, these trims may be omitted if so
desired. Gain is adjusted with the rotary switch of SW4, this placing one
of the gain setting resistors, Rl7 to R26 into circuit. The attached table
showsthe dB gain errorforeach ofthe settings. Capacitor C17 blocks any
offset DC from the next stage so thatthere are no audible splatswhen the

DTI AUGUST 1992

Mic/Line switch position is changed. lts value is chosen to give a pole at

around 3.5H2, low enough in value that succesive RC networks ofsimilar
value do not cause excessive, cumulative phase shift and colouration of
in-band audio. lC3a and b are the'Channel Trim'shared gain stages

which allow a further 30dB of gain for Line signals and 20dB for
microphones. SW3d includes resistor R35 in part of the gain-determining network when'Mic'is selected. This reduces gain by about 10dB

since only 15 or 20dB of further gain will be required after initial

amplification by the mic pre-amp. Links 5 and 6 select this function.
'Line' gain can be altered by omitting or changing resistor values in this
area. This 'trim" stage is arranged to "lose" around 4dB of gain so that
the 0dBu operating level is maintained after the High Pass Filter section
(which gives around 4dB of gain). Headroom is not compromised by this
action. Resistor R33 which grounds the non-inverting input is another

'splat eliminating' component.

Line lnputs entervia XLR2, another3 pin socketorJKl, a switched
stereo 1/4" jack socket. The socket switching contacts can be arranged
via Lkl to 4to appear in parallelwith or normalled through the Line lnput
XLR. This is of most usefortape returns in a multitrack situation. lt is also
the reason behind the inclusion of PL1, the optional 'B Check' differential
amplifier and relay RLA1. I propose not to explain these components
further atthis point. From the input sockets, line inputstravel to lC2a and
b Superbal differential input amplifier. Another optional 20dB pad can be
fitted at the input to this amplifier if connection to high level, transient
sources is envisaged, The optional pald provides the necessary attenuation. Gain in the trim section should then be adjusted accordingly. The
Superbal operation was described in some detail last month and reference is made to this. The output ofthis section is DC decoupled and tied
to ground via high-value R32 before appearing on the other contact of
SW3c. Switching clicks arethus minimised. lt should be noted thatsignal
switching through SW3a and SW3b is disabled by fitting Links 5 to 10 in
position 'a'. This then frees the switch contacts - which were redundant
in this application anyway - to control 'Mic Live' and 'Remote Start'
functions in the 'Mic' and 'Line' positions respectively. ln all configura-

tions except the budget one, this function is available and all links are
fitted in position'a'.

5B

[ing rotary switch adjusted for ten stops. Coupled with

close-tolerance gain setting resistors, this facilitates precision adjustment of gain from 65 to 25dB in 5dB steps.
With the cascaded o5amp stage, this affords us more thm
80dB of microphone gain should we so require it.

this, there is anoptional20dB pad-attenuator- whichcan

be frtted to the input and switched in orout as required from
pot--operated push on-push off switch. Many modern_day
designs of mic-input stage place great emphasis, at least in
the advertising blurb, that they are "transformerless inputs,

using a padless approach and special circuitry to allow

Padding out the Mic Input

single operational control ofbetween 0 and 70dB ofgain".

Commendable and clever though this approach might be
and I was unable to deduce how this is done it doesn,t
explain how, on the occasions - rare as these might be

The IC employed in the flagship mic amp design of the

console -Precision Monolithic's SSM 2015 mic pre-amp
- in common with similar transistor differential amp/o5
amp microphone amplifier configurations, suffers from an
increase in distortion at low gain settings. To counteract

that a very-high level, peaking to +l0dBu source is to be

close mic'd, the input channel amplifiers remain able to
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PH

EI

ERg

e8
r-

FrsE
lot
a- L

Eg

Fig.3 Mic/line amp/channel trim (Budget discrete version)

HOW IT WORKS
Mid-Price and Budget Low Noise Mic Pre-amp
Super-matched transistors 01 and 02 in lC6 (or their discrete counterennd 02 in the budget low
and
nputstageto create
d to
collector current ofthe
give the amplifier a low noise figure as per the main text. Resistors H45
and R52 provide the necessary bias for the two transistors' The gain
determining elements of SW4 and Rl7 to R27 work as in the low-noise
mic amp, providing a resistive degeneration which gives the amplifier
stable gain over a wide range. R45 a nd R52 and 45 associated capa citors

nois
afullyflo
input

ETI AUGUST IO92

oP
ial
ue

C33 and C45 also provide HF

roll-off and protection from

RF'

ln operation, the input transistors convert a differential input

voltage to a differential output current at their collectors. This is fed to a
standard differential operational amplifier to obtain a single ended

outputvoltage. Using

differential ratherthan single-ended outputfrom

the transistor stage means that CMRR is improved by an order of

magnitude and good overall rejection can be achieved using just l%
t0lerance resistors.

Ga in is

set bythe ratio ofthe selected gain determinRS'l . The line input operates exactly as

ing resistor to the sum of R50 and

in the Low Noise version.

5rt

operate with normal headroom considerations. This is a

very practical example of the fype of conflicting perform_
ance compromises which we must suffer throughout the
console design. Sticking with
gains means increased

distorti

common mode rejection and using an altemative means of

frst-stage amplification ie the Superbal means that the
OSI --optimum source impedance cbndition isn , t met and
residual noise increases as a result. Under most high_level

not be too much of a

which were the cause
first place - will tend
naturally, ofgreatest nuisance with low level signals ie a
high signal noise ratio is maintained. personal pieference
is therefore for the first option but it is really up to the
individual constructor as to the method or metirods which
are employed. If not required, the pad can be switched
out
and is no detriment to normal, good, low_level and low_
noise performance. In any event, it is an option which can
be omitted from the design at the individual's discretion.
As an aside, it is interesting to note that some mixing
console designers use a straight opamp micamplification

:i

DJ

E
o

ot
!

*:
ri-

tN
tt !

4I

5
2

I
o

z{
o
.
!

I=-1

=t
1L

iI

ro

hl
ocl
tt!

,oo

rl,

"to

_l

|:{

(,

F'
E

!o

{D

3.r:

|-t

-FI
-

tr

d8 Ba
-z
+

#*
oo
!>i
Fig.4 Mic/line amp/channel trim (Budget versionl

Hts

r-

9i

,U
-EI
'-v ouT

V OUI
EOUAL
R'S

(RES|ST|VE LEGS
EOUAL AT
UNITY GAIN)

UI{ITY GAITI wlTH

CONTBOL IN
CEI{TBAL POSITIOII

SWINGII{G OUTPUT
(FIXED GAIN OB ATTENUATIOI{)

\,
-r
(-

a
l-^J

SWINGING INPUT (VAR]ABLE GAIN/

OV ATTENUATION ABOUT U}IITY)

O-2OdBAPPROX

O.2OdBAPPROX

ltAx
=\

V OUT

mAx*f,i

ulx=r+Eru

-11(2o.8dB)

urns,; ffi-r

= t+_l!-oo

=12(2r.6dB

Ull{ =

-+t

L]NEAR FEEDBACK TYPE AIPLFIEB

SHARED GAIN, 2

AfP

STAGE (0-4OdB APPFOX)

Fig.5 Swinging lnputs and outputs.

technique at all levels of mic input signal, thus seriously

compromising overall console noise performance.

Line Input Stage Design

The Mic/Line pushbutton switches the input to the Superbal

unbalancing and buffering stage - the mic amp stage is

bypassed when Line is selected and the line input is subject
to less amplifrcation. Gainfor aLine level inputis restricted.
About 0 to 30dB seemed an appropriate range if domestic
line levels are to be readily accomodated. These values are
easily altered and I shall discuss how later in this part ofthe
article. Again, its the case ofthe greatest good' Ifhigh level
transient line inputs are likely to be encountered - which
is slightly improbable since the connecting circuitry will
be powered from supply rails similar in magnitude to those

Budget MiciL

th
are similar to
n
5
1
li

ple, many components within the network

in

66Trim" should be adjusted accordingly.

The manner adopted to provide this supplementary'
second-stage gain is worthy of note in that it uses no

in series with the input signal path. Many

commercial designs use a variable 30 or 40dB pad attenuators

attenuator - coupled to a fixed gain amplifier. For 1 5 dB of

gain, for example, the input would be affenuated to -30 and
then amplif,red by 45dB, with all of the dire aural consequences which this brings. In the circuit offeredhere, input
headroom, signal-to-noise and distortion are optimised
for any given input signal magnitr.rde within the range of

the amplifier and there is no unnecessary attenuation of

signal.

Love, Peace and Swinging InPuts and

Outputs

HOW IT WORKS
Again, as

within the mixer and headroom should not be a problem an input attenuator can be fitted. The gain range of the

noise option and where this is so, I shall

and
aP
and SW3b
imParts 20
signal which is then passed directly to lC3, 4. This s
acts as the main amplifier for the mic and so condi
reversed - links in 'b' position -with the switch introd
of gain into the network when 'Mic' is selected, total g
mii within this stage being to 60d8. With this particu
budget amp,there is again the option of a gain pot-op
2015

the mic

Pad. The line input is as for the low-noise version.

n
n

d
e

d are
30dB
or the
of the

B Mic

Whenever gain is made up, it is important that any noise is

due, in the main, to the gain stage (which, hopefully, has
been optimised to reduce noise as much as possible). In this
way, all subsequentnoisecontributions, which, in any case
should be small, will thus be masked' At no place in the
gain swing should it be necessary to attenuate unwanted

gain. This is of particular importance where the gain

control is at its minimum setting, since any attenuation,
(and hence headroom lost) early in the signal paths effec-

tively lost from that point onwards in the console audio

pathway and can never be recreated. This is the concern of
so-+alled 'level architecture'. It is in just this respect that

the circuitry of the Channel Input Trim confrol scores

DTI AUGUST 1992

iDa

60
FIRST

AfP

STAGE GAIN

(NON-tNVERTtl{c

AfP)

SECOND

AfP

STAGE GAIX

(t]{vEnTtltc AUP)

cotBtltED GAtt{s

O9

Fig.6 Graphs of gain vs control rotation for each stage of the sharedaain
configuration

highly. It is of the type commonly known as .swinging

input', a quaint-sounding name for something which has
absolutely nothing to do withthe sixties orhippychicks etc
etc. For those familiar with the network layout of the
Baxandall-type tone control, some similarities should be
readily apparent. Technically, the Baxandall achieves
symmetrical boost and cut using a source impedance
versus feedback impedance ratiometric approach. A de_
velopment of this which achieves a similar effect is a
circuitknown as the 'swinging, output' control.It will help
in our explanation of the swinging input if we first discuss
the swinging output since the former is an enhanced_
performance derivative of the latter!

RefertoFigure

5.

Thediagrams show typical swinging

input and output controls. In the fhst, the gain control is

enclosed.ivithin the feedback leg of a non-inverting amplifier, this configurationmeaning that abuffer amp orlow
impedance source - needed for an inverting configuration
- is obviated here. Unfortunately, the output impedance of

this network varies with the setting of the gain control,

necessitating a high subsequent load impedance or output

buffer amplifier. Serious drawbacks arise and manifest

themselves as problems with phase margin and conse_
quent instability, loss ofheadroom and departure from and
serious modification of a workable and useable gain con_

trol law.
Unity gain results when attenuation in the output leg
is equivalent to that in the feedback leg since the feedback
ratio exactly nulls the effect ofthe output attenuation. The
maximum gain condition results when
is
shortened with respect to ground and th
or
is lengthened. This means that loop gain of the amplifier is
at a maximum while an almost completely unattenuated

signal is available at the network output terminal. At

is shortened (reducing
is lengthened, reducing
istor connected between

the pot wiper and ground conffols the gain range. Using

"\-,o-fo

(J

'4-'\.,o_f'n

o-+

'aJ

FO+

tE'
-

tr
5B

Fig,7 Level architecture in mixing desks

ETT AUGUST 1992

complex impedances such as capacitors and inductors

achieves frequency--conscious boost and cut and we shall
explore this avenue of development in greater depth in the
EQ section.
We can improve on this simple and elegant circuit by

making it into a swinging input. With this configuration shown also in Figure 5, the output attenuation network is
transferred to the input white the feedback networkremains
as it was in the swinging output type. At the minimum gain
setting, the input signal is subjected to maximum attenuation while the amplifier -with its long feedback leg delivers only a small amount of gain. At maximum boost,
these conditions are, of course reversed, with minimum
input attenuation and a short feedback component providing

but ignored at any reasonable settings of the gain control.

Headroom is preserved because at no setting of the gain
control is any attenuation introduced and, as an added
bonus, the distribution of gain between the two stages
means that the gain control law is as ideal as we could wish
for. From the graphs of gain versus pot rotation shown in
Figure 6, we can see that around the centre ofthe control
-where most adjustments will probably be made - we have
a very happy state of affairs in that dB change in gain is
almost linear with respect to control rotation. This dB
change becomes rather more cramped at extreme settings
of the control, but it is amorethan acceptable compromise.

FE
'-

A
\lt
(-

Il-^J

high gain.
Further improvements are made in the way that the
circuit performs with respect to noise. At unity gain, when
input attenuation and amplification are exactly nulled, the
loop has around 20dB of gain. At first sight this may seem
to be somewhat noisier than the corresponding Baxandall
type. However, all of the network resistance values can be
made lower by an order of magnitude and so Johnson or
thermal noise is significantly reduced with respect to the
Baxandall layout. Moreover, any noise injected into the
system (at unity gain) appears in equal quantities at both
the inverting and non-inverting inputs ie common-mode
noise at a differential input. Ideally, common mode signals
should not appear at the output. One notable drawback is
that at unity gain, there is at first attenuation of the signal
Fig.8 Graph of noise level limits for mic amplifiers
NF=14dB
NF=1odB
NF=6dB
NF=3dB
NF=2dB
NF=1dB
N
j
I

,t 10

Rs

(rt)

Fig.9 Graph of effective noise voltage Vs noise figure

and source resistance

and then reamplification to the original level' This is

slightly detrimental to ultimate noise performance and it is

in this respect that this next circuit scores very highly.

A further evolution of the swinging input type which can achieve quite excellent performance at very
high gains - is shown at the bottom of Figure 5. With this

configuration, noise criteria are always met since the first

gain block always provides more than ample amplification, thus allowing its noise to swamP the second stage.
Most importantly, this feature holds true at the minimum
gain setting. This is immaterial in respect of noise-butnot
headroom

- since any front--end

noise added will be at the

same level as the console noise floor which has been

determined already. Resistor values around the amplifier
are the primary determinant of the noise performance of
the amplifier, so this performance should be able to be all

ETI AUGUST 1992

It is this type which features here.

Although the SSM 2015 does everything that we
could wish for, and at a very reasonable price, I thought
that for some applications, the cost of the IC, relatively
inexpensive though it is, might be off-putting to prospective constructors and so set about devising another from
first principles. From a designer's point of view, it is
sometimes quite satisfying - though only sometimes - to
forsake the all-singin', all-dancin' IC method of curing a
problem in a circuit and go back to basics to design from
scratch using only the manufacturers' data sheets and
application notes for inspiration and guidance. It also
avoids any accusations of plagiarism of established commercial designs although all commercial mic amps do, in
themain, seemtobe avariationon atheme. We've already
mentioned instrumentation amplifiers and the methods of
implementation. The mic amp can therefore be considered
as a special type of one of these. Even before we consider
source impedance and optimising of the input device for
low noise, the use of a multi op-amp style instrumentation
amplifiermeans very closely matchedresistances for good
CMRR, an attribute which is, of course, of great-importance

in any front end stage.

The high precision and ultimately costly resistors
required mean that we can therefore abandon this type.
What we can do is to make use of a transistor/op-amp
hybrid which, with accurately-matched transistors, can
offer CMRR's in the region of l00dB - dependent upon
transistor matching - with only l%o tolerance resistors and
a trim control. This type, however, is not without its
drawbacks, notably in the way that gain linearity and

59

NF=Sig*_*\.

t=lOOHz

--- -- l=1kHz
l=lokHz
- t/

.t'

l./

.tt
a"

.t
.ttt

Ba

.//

./
a/

COLLECTOR CURREilT lc

e'?

(amplifier) = e

Equation 3; Noise Fisure =

,"

(rA)

(+ H{)

Equation 4; e'?" = 4KTroo + 2qlcre2

= 4KTroo + 2(KT),ft

qlc

Equation 5; in

to noise is poor because

yz7;.1.

=l2qlc N /Hz

!h*ry

Equation 6; eN'2= e", + (in,r",) + 4KTrs

(total noise = Equation 1 + Equation 2)

EquationT;

ffiT-ffi*nrrr"

Equations;

:{#=r#.+

=oro,,,-"-=

f;, -l[

Fig.10 Graph of RMS input noise voltage(enl and noise

current Vs collector current for typical tow noise bipolar transistor - 8C560
accuracy are not as good as with the multiple op-amp type.
I used the SSM2220, a super-matched PNP transistor pair
manufactured by our friends at Precision Monolithics Inc.
and cheaper by about f5.00 than the similar NpN-rype
LlN{394. A further and even cheaper version uses discrete

low noise,transistors adequately suited to the purpose of

low level, low-noise amplification. We have already discussed in Part

and noise figure in dB = l0 log (NF of the power ratio)

In our application, we can consider an amplifier with
a noise figure of less than 3dB to be good and of less than
ldB NF to be excellent. Put simply, the noise figure is the
amount by which the EI* is higher than the thermal noise
of a200Rresistor(orother specified value). EI* is thenoise
measured at the amplifier output plus the amplifier gain
when the input is terminated with a resistor of the nominal

should not be lost of the fact that ultimately, it is the signalto-noise ratio which is important. Choosing a high source
resistance - where this is both possible and appticable
yields avery goodnoisefigure, sincee. swampse", butsignal

1 (inRs), VrlHz

loLoe,.

x\*

value of microphone impedance ie 200R. Although noise

figure is easy to calculate and to manipulate within calculations, it is not an all--encompassing panacea and sight

Equation 1; e'?nrsource) = 4kTRs VrlHz

Equation 2;

Sigo_

amplifier noise model and looked at the

contributing sources of noise in amplifier design. These
were en and i". These are just one of a number of interrelated factors whichmustbe consideredin any low-noise,
low-distortion, front-nd design. For a thorough understanding of the approach to be taken as we follow the
yellow-brick-road discrete avenue of design, some detailed explanation of the terms which will appear atregular
intervals throughout the text should first be given.
an

ofthe inherent high level ofnoise.

Quite simply, this means not fiddling with the value of the
source resistance in an effort to make the noise figure
better because it does so at the expense of making the
amplifier noisier!
It is also important when comparing performance
specification figures to compare like with like. This is not
as elementary as it might first appear. Many commercial
manufacturers of all types of consumer equipment not
-

just audio

are guilty

of what might be termed

'specmanship'. Power amplifiers quoted as having ..40

watts total peak music ouput power" (which equates to a
useable 7W per channel RMS) are more common in the
commercial marketplace than is healthy for good customer
relations. The same hype is apptied to the mic amp. If the

?,00,
u
(,

F
o
o

H lok
uJ
o

o
o

e,r
BANDWIDTH=150H2

Noise Figure

H
E)
F--l

E
-\
-

tr
GO

In any low level amplifier, noise is the single most important design parameter and performance-limiting factor,
and since resistors - both biasing and load - are an integral
part of amplifierdesign and application, these will contribute noise because of thermal activity. When the input
signal is amplified, so, unfortunately, is the noise and if the
ratio of signal power to noise power is the same at the
output of the amplifier as at the input, it is said to be
'noiseless'. This is, of course, apractical impossibility and
real amplifiers degrade this ratio by adding noise of their
own. The degree of this noise impairment is known as the
noise figure of the amplifier and is expressed as a ratio in
the form;

10

tOO

i0

lc, COLLECTOR CUFREilT (!A)

Fig.1 1 Graph of contours of constant narrow band
noise figure for BC560G

noise specif,rcation

of microphone amplifiers is to

be

meaningful, gain, terminating resistance, bandwidth, the

noise measuring instrument, reference level and weighting
networks - if any - must all be documented. The type of
measuring instrument used is very important because of
the way in which an RMS meter will yield a figure around
7 to 10dB better (quieter) when compiled to an identical
measurement taken using a peak measuring piece of appa_
ratus such as a PPM. Quoting lower source resistances,

DTI AUGUST 1992

higher reference levels or the use of weighting networks

are all techniques used to cloud the spec somewhat and
produce better figures. All measurements in this series are
taken with aPPMreferredto PPM4 (0dBu) and with 200R

input signal range of l05dB. Input sensitivity or gain

terminating resistance.

scene in eamest. Noise voltages and noise currents alter

Your Terminated, Sucker?

Some mention should be made of the choice of 2k input
impedance of the typical console mic. input. Normal
textbook convention for maximum power ffansfer is for
the source impedance to look into an equal value load
impedance. Why not then arange for the mic to look into
a corresponding 200R load impedance? It is because it is
the outputvoltage capability of the source whichis of most
interest to us here since an equal impedance termination
would dissipate most of the hard won power and 6dB of
signal level. From the point of view of noise, the source
impedance now seen by the amplifier is half that of the mic
alone (two equal Z's in parallel) so the Johnson noise is
3dB less. Although noise performance is not unduly impaired, it is better not to lose an immediate 6dB of signal
level.
Furthermore, from the point of view of frequency
response, the microphone, being predominantly inductive
in character, has an impedance which rises with increasing
frequency. Terminating with an equal value resistor would
therefore mean that the complex impedance so created
would constitute a first order low pass hlter, rolling off

lc=20uA, RsouRce =tot

tc=25uA, H gqgngg =5k
lc=s0OUA, B SOURCE

=lk

FREOUENCY (HZ)

Fig.12 Graph of noise figure Vs frequency at diffent lc

for BC560C

much of the useful HF response. Having a source impedance around five times that of the capsule allows the
microphone to behave as an unloaded voltage generator.

conffols therefore set the best combination for the room or

background noise and expected peak signal amplitudes.
This is where noise voltage and noise current enter the

in

magnitude and in ratio to one another, lower collector

current giving rise to lower noise current - not inconceivably, since the current noise is due to minor random
discontinuities in the device currents. The ratio between
the two - noise impedance - can therefore be altered.
Given identical measuring conditions, resistors of
different values will produce the same NOISE POWER, it
is only the noise current and noise voltage ratios which
change. This optimum value is the already documented
optimum source impedance, the resistance value at which
the device is optimally quiet for audio purposes. It is
fortuitous that this OSI is also the value which coincides
with that required for optimum device transfer characteristics ie there is good frequency versus phase linearity
response and so the device

willbe

stable

athighfrequency,

high feedback-low gain configurations.

We can bring the OSI down to that of conventional
dynamic microphones by reducing the ratio of the amplifier inherent voltage and current noise using transformers
- oh--oh - or by paralleling identical input devices. This
technique maintains the same noise voltage but alters the
noise current and so proportionally changes the noise
impedance. This is because the base spreading resistance
ofthe transistor- which, as far as noise is concerned, adds
itself to the source resistance of the mic - is reduced by a
factor dependent upon the number of devices placed in
parallel. Noise is reduced by the square root ofthis factor.
Shot noise (or Schottky noise) contribution can be reduced
by maintaining a high collector current (which reduces
dynamic emitter resistance). Voltage noise is inversely
proportional to the square root of stage current whereas
current noise increases proportionally to the square root of
stage current. Fortunately, high current noise is of less
importance when dealing with low impedance sources
such as microphones. Optimisation of impedances is not
necessary since the ouqputs of the front--end pair can be
assumed to be feedback-derived zero impedance. With
transistors as the front end amplifiers, care must be taken
that the base--emitterjunctions are not allowedto demodulate RF and inject it into succeeding stages. Judicious
filtering of the input is thus required.
With bipolar transistors, the theoretical value for
emitter-base voltage noise is a function only of absolute
temperafure and collector current thus:

Noise
Now that the concept of noise figure and

measuring
techniques are understood, we can look at E*. In addition

to low distortion, the E^ (which sets the lower limit on

useful input signal level and maximum input signal level
before overload) is probably the single most important
parameter within the sphere of noise and its reduction. E^,
or self-noise of -129.6dBu (with a 200R source) in a mic
input is equivalent to an SPL of 26dB on a typical micro.
phone. Room noise - typically around the 33dB mark - is
likely, in many applications, to limit small signal capability. Atypicalpre-amp maximum signalhandling capability
of-20dBubefore undesired increase in distortion andwith
an input sensitivityof 0.3mV forfull output provides atotal

DTI AUGUSI 1992

e=KT f

4@

This formula indicates that a reduction in voltage

noise, e , can be made low in value by increasing collector
crurent. This is indeed bourne out in practise as Ic is
increased until a level is reached where parasitic ffansistor

noise limits any further reduction. This noise floor is

usually created by and model led as an equivalent resistor
(.oo' ) - the so-called 'base-spreading resistance' - in
series withthebase of the transistor. This is, infact, thereal
part of h." . Low parasitic transistor noise is therefore an
important factor in ultra-low noise applications such as a
mic pre-amp where Ic is pushed to the limit. In theory, a

II
I

low noise design can therefore be done on paper with the

minimum of bench-testing. In practise, I found this not to
be the case!

A further transistor noise component is base current

noise and for finite source impedance, current noise must
be considered as a quadrature addition to voltage noise.
See Equation 2 in Fig 10. With a super-matched pair, base
current noise is a well-defined function of collector current and can be expressed as in Equation 5. To find the

collector current which yields the minimum overall

equivalent input noise with a given Rs, the total noise
formula can be differentiated with respect to Ic and set to
zero for finding a minimum. Equation I and 2 are added
together to give Equation 6. This is differentiated as in 7
and yields 8. For very low Rs - as in the case of a
microphone - the roo'of the transistor must be added to Rs
in the calculation.
Referring to the graph of
I" against
e, and i" Graph 1 and using the
l, we can
see en drops and i, rises with increasing collector current
means that we have a very simple method of optimising
transistor noise for a given operating source impedance.
Equation 2 shows that a noiseless source has an irreducible
source of Johnson noise from the value of its source
resistance. The amplifier adds its own noise as in Equation
3, consequently the amplifier's noise voltage is added to
the input signal while its noise current generates a noise
voltage across the source impedance. Since, as far as audio
frequencies are concerned, the noise is uncorrelated, the
square ofthevalues are added. It is the lownoise designer's
job to pick Ic from the graph ofen and in versus I. so that the
e, + (i,Rs) term is minimised for a given source resistance
in the area ofthe frequency ofinterest. From this graph, we
can see that the sum of voltage telns with a lk resistance
is minimised for a collector current around 0.lmA. In the
interests of lower noise figure, it might be provident to use
a slightly lower Ic since current noise is reducing at a
greater rate than voltage noise is increasing. However,

with
sli

is

tance
so

ant

amplification technique, so that the OSI condition isn't

met and the noise performance of the stage worsens by
around lOdB. The first type is similar in many respects to
the low noise version although the mic amp IC is omitted.
Gain in the second stage -after the Superbal is altered by
SW3d, the switch scuttling some of the gain when .Line'
is the source connected. This is the opposite to the

situation

in the low noise amp where gain was reduced when Mic
was selected (since most of the gain was being made up by
the SSM 2015). First stage mic amplification is provided
by the Superbal which is switched to ,Mic, via SW3a and
3b.

It

for

should also be noted that there is now no provision

front panel operated 'pad' in this second option ofthe
budget pre-amp but the dual gang pot which replaces the
pot/switch combination of the previous designs acts as a
continuously variable attenuator. The choice of which
14

12

10

o
!
E

u
o
6

tr

sL
z

o
COLLECTOR CURRENT (mA)

- low e,

run the
transistor at a higher collector current than at flrst seems
optimum. Again, it's acase ofcompromising andconflicting
operating conditions. Plugging the values into Equation 3
yields anoise figure of 0.8dB, which is pretty respectable.
Graphs 2 and 3 ofnarrowbandnoise figure versus collector
current and noise figure versus frequency bear out this
value.
Referring to the circuit diagram, we can assume that
both bases are grounded (by R45 and R52 ) so the emitters
will be at 0.6V. This leaves Vcc - 0.6V to be dropped
across the emitter resistors ie 16.4V. Since
lel., we
control Ic with this emitter resistor. Collector resistor
values are chosen such that the Vce max voltage isn't
exceeded and also that the fiansistor operates as near 0V as
possible so that full output swing is available. Although
sometimes forgotten about, high common-mode signals
are fully amplified by the transistors and then nulled by the
following stage so that the maximum Vce rating of the
transistor can be exceeded or operating headroom seriously eroded. The degenerating resistive element controls gain.
I have also shown, in Figure 4, the budget micline
amplifier. This uses the much ridiculed straight op-amp
t

GAIN

Rc

20dB

25dB

14k

,[GIE
45dB

R*.,..""..taet

l3Y] -a;
lk5

680A

30dB
35dB

379.2R

I
/
zozr==--66*

15!

lcalru ennon
+o14
,o 4a

=:1+o"L

3908

lljlj-_--:1 ro1 _j;Ji+ux

50dB
55dU

5. ton _/

60dB

20.07R

2oR

b5du

tt ztn

IIH

| JOtl

tne

-0 06

__--;=1+o.o3
1

10R

L7R

tuo6

::

.On

+v.t

11R

+04

XEY
SSM2O15

ssM2220/MPSA55
SSM201 5 figures by calculation, others by measurement

Fig.13 Typical performance characteristics of SSM2220

DTI AUGUST 1992

I
I

-t

EE

roo

o
2
u,l
o

u10

EI

.A

tr

J
F
o
F

9t
o
2

UJ

o.l
FBEOUENCY (Hz)

MIC Ampliler typ

intaorated mic amo

Discrete su@r-match
MrtA55 Ut$rOrg
I

Equivalnt input
Noise +s6 note

Nois

l29dB {rms)

-8dBA

-1r^daa
-tzu 5dEUlrms,
-12 L 5dg1

7dBa

a12OdB

fi,881

6w noi.. ir.nqistor

Straight
Oporational 6mplifi

15dBU(rms)
1 t1dB4
1

,ldB {

gain

Oisonion
(a1KHZ)Max gain
0,007%

0 015%
u.u4%
o nsq
0 04%
0 08%

CMRR
@100H2

CMRR

CMRF

@lKHz

@10KHz

'roquency
ps90ns

99d8@ max gain

73dB @ min oain
9lots Gl mex garn

97dB@ max gain

96dB @ mar

2oJaz-2okHz

SUOE CO maX gArn

/g06

g max garn

B3dB @ max gain

max
62dB A min
79dts @ max

72dB @ max gain

70dB @ min qain

72dB @ max oain

53dB @ mrn qsrn

71dB @ max
45dB @ min

/YOE

mdB

A min oain

L@

-o.3/40d8
aoHz-20KHz

ltodB

20Hz-20KHz

-0.3/40d9

Note I EIN m6asur6d with 20KHz bandwidth, 2000 termination, unreighted, max gain
Noise moasurements (peak| done using PPM to CclFyl58-2 (dBa) = tuBu (0 77svrms roferrd to PPM4)
Noia. masuromenb (rms) done using HEWLETT PACKAFD 3561A oynamic signal analyl6r
CMRR masured with +1odgu @mmon modo tun at th inpd

Fig. 1 4

Typical performance characteristics

option to frt is left entirely to the individual. The reader

the AutoMate with all levels being at

might be intrigued by Pl I , the section marked "Optional B

Check Amplifier" and relay RLAI. All of these are to do
with the multitrack and automation options and will be
discussed at a later stage in the series.
For ultimate performance, the first-described circuit
is the one to use. The subject of aftenuation of the input is

is for no better reason,

asensitive one. The dangerof overloadfromhighlevelmic

input transients is a very real one and not to be dismissed

lightly.
Line level transients are Iess probable and as such, the
line inputpad shouldprove unnecessaryinjust about every
situation. As with the mic input attenuator, if its inclusion
is deemed expedient, then so be it. Enoughinformationhas
thus far been presented for the constructor to make an
informed and correct choice.
Ithas been saidby more than one professional designer

of mixing desks that the gain structure of the unit is one of

the most important elements of the overall design because
of the way in which noise, headroom and crosstalk are all
related and in fact, inextricably linked to the relative signal
levels at various points throughout the audio pathway. It is
a reasoning with which I can heartily concur.

System Level Architecture

In order to maximise headroom, some

designers have
found it expedient to create what is known as 'non-unity
level architecture' within the console. This means simply
that all signal levels within the console are operated at a
level other than OdBu. Popular 'depressed' levels include
-4dBu, -6dBu and -l0dBv. The -10dBv is a bit of a nonstandard one - as the units might suggest - being the
operating level found in some consoles manufactured in
Japan. A unity level architecture is employed throughout

f,TI AUGUST T992

nominal OdBu. This

guess, than that coming from a

corporate broadcast engineering background, I was used to
all access and insert points'in the audio pathway in a studio

environment being both in-phase and at 0dBu. Being

familiar with this operating philosophy, I adopted it as the
norm. However, it is interesting to explore the reasons why
non-unity levels can be attractive and useful to the engineer. In doing so, perhaps some intrepid constructors out
there will then wish to alter the level architecture of the
console when they come to build it. This is not as difficult
or as ominous as it may at first appear, since it entails
merely changing some resistor values in and around several key gain blocks within the console.
Anyway, taking the -4dB u level as a first example. As
per Figure 5, everything operates at 4dB below 0.775Y
RMS, with 4dB of gain made up in the output stage using
transformer step-up techniques. Again, the introduction
of a transformer into a critical part of the audio pathway is
we have
somewhat deleterious to good performance
already discussed and documented at an earlier date the

many shortcomings of this component. The -6dBu is a

better choice because gain in the output stage can then be
made up using an electronically-balanced amplifier stage.
These facts still do not explain why a depressed operating
level should be desirable at all. Again, it all has to do with

the preservation of operating headroom. The erosion of

headroom is most problematic in the input channel strip
and specifically before the main gain-rontrolling element
ofthe strip, the channel fader. Transient input signals and
equalisation quickly gobble the margin between normal
operating and overload (clipped) conditions. Lowering the
operating level throughout the channel (channel-depressed
architecture) is anothered favoured configuration because

of the way in which headroom is extended where it is

needed most (in the uncontrolled part of the input strip).
Normal (OdBu) operating levels are then restored either in

Sound Recording Practice, edited by John Borwick,

(Mixing Consoles, Analogue - Richard Sweetenham),
Oxford University Press
Operational Amplifiers, Design, Applications and

the post-fader buffer or in the mix-amps. Again, this

outward improvement in headroom performance is not
without cost. Residual mix bus noise is brought closer to
the actual wanted signal by the same amount that the
channel is depressed, but the high levels of signal on the
bus

Troubleshooting, David A. Bell

which was the reason for the depressed architecture

in the first place -should swamp this. Another slight minus

point from im operating point of view is the fact that all

channel insert points now have a non-standard -lOdBu
operating level and other sends and retums, aux mixes,

Sinclair -(Preamps and Inputs, John Linsley Hood)

Professional Books

The New Audio

- (6/89 Rev A Audio Dual Matched PNP Transistor), (5/89 Rev B - Dual
Audio Matched NPN Transistors)

PARTS LIST-LOW
NOISE MIC/LINE

MscgLAr{Erus
cs,6,2s,26,2e,il,31,3els,
XtBl,2 PCB-mounrins3pin 4s
lmndiscceramic
JKl
c9,
sislors U4W l% tolerance
et Cl3-,l5, A
statedl
sw2
c17,18,24,37
lk (R1,3 optional, see
Cl9, 20
ptional,
text)
SW3
c7' 8

12

21,

Xl3
R2l

333[
2008

R22
R23
R24
R25
826
R28

TRANS
RESIST[)RS

(a

'

,,

l10R
unless otherwise stated)
62R
R1,3, S
lk (H1,3 optjonat, see
36R
text)
208
R2
208 (op6onal, see text)
llR
B4
l00R
gkl
Rt 6, l9
6k8
R,31,32,42 l00k
- 10, It 27, 35 lOk
(optionalpadresistors, Bl1, 12
R30
_
seetext)
R13, 14
20k
R3
lM
Rl7
5lk
H34
2k
Rl8
lsk
H37,39 ilk {optonal, see text} R20
3k
8S,40
lok {optional, see text) R2l
lk5
R41
A0T
R22
9l0R
R43
7k5 R23
4708
PRI
lt[k vertical muttitum R24
z40R
preset (cermet)
R25
ll0R
PR2
lk vertical multtum preset H26
47R
_
828
{cermet)
(optional, see text)
VRI
10k LIN pot c/w optional R30
push on siwitch
R3r,32,4e 51 l00k
CAPACIT()BS
833
lM
.l0,
Cl, 2, 3,
I 47u 63V electrolytic
R34
2k
C4
27p polystyrene
R36
lk
C5, 6, 25-32 l00n disc ceramic
R37, S
ilk (optional, see text)
C7
47p polystyrene
RS,40
lOk (optional, seetext)
C8
4p7 polystyrene
B4,I
AOT
C9, 12
100n polyester
R43
7k5
Cl3-15,21, 23
Bp polystyrene
R44, C8
8k2
Cl6, 16a, li,
470n polyester
845,46,4S,52 4k7
(C16, l6a optional)
18,24
R47
optional link
glk
C33
220p polystyrene
R50
'l0k
ssflcoilDuclons
PRI
vertical muttiturn
tcr
ssM ml5
preset lcermet)
c2
NE5532A
VBI
l0kllNpotc/woptional
c3

RS

push on suitch (SWl)

NESI?4A
5

1014

TL07l (lCS optonal,

CAPACITORS

see textl

Cl,2,3,l0,ll

6V2,4{nnw zeners

00

4Tu63Velectrolytic

ltB

push on switch {SWl)

CAPACIIOBS

CI,2,3,

,l0,

ll

47u

pCB.mounring

JK1
SW2

0t
3

pin

45

lmn disc ceramic

834

rk8

BS

MR

R37,39

30k (optional, see

M1

AOT

R43

7k5

VR1

l0k LIN pot c/w optjonal

push on swrtch

C1,2,3

4Tufi3Velectrolytrc

0l-8

12

100n

A
c16-18
C19,20
Cl3-15,21,

C1l,18,24,C1

470npolyester
6u8 polyester (optional,

C25-32

seetext)

SEMIC()T{DUCI(lRS

lmppolyslyrene

lcl

{optonal, seetext)
4T0ppolystyrene

lC4,

RESISIoRS

resisbrs 1/4W, 'l% tolerance unless ofierwise

stated)

lk (R1,3 optonal, see

6B

16,27,3510k

Rll, r2
813,14

ax

R17

5rk

Rr8

r5k

l00p polystyrene

tcz
5
XLR

NE5532A

MPSA55

rttscElt AilEol,s
l,

XLR

1,

PCB-mounting 3 pin

JKI
SW2
S\ /3

l/4'PCB.mounting
stereo switched socket

Veropins, PCB,

latching switch
4 pole PCB-mourrting

latching switch

l2way rotaryswitch
2-way Minicon plug

m1

lk5
9r0B

PARTS LIST

RA

47m

ST]PERMATCHED

R24

240R

lC

SWl,2
SW4
PLI

R20

Veropins, PCB,

1/4'PCB-mountng
stereo switched socket
PCB-mountDPOT

latching switch

S1^/3

PCB.mountOPDT

SlV4
PL'l

chassis socket

J(l

4pole PCB-mountng

PCB-mounting 3 pin
chassis socket

socketsto suit etc

(SSM 2220

R5

11ffi

TRANSTSTOR VERSTON)

BM

47R

BESIST(lBS

disc ceramic

text)

4p7 polystyrene

tcz

100n

NE5[32A

MtscElt AIrtE0US

01.2

(optronal, see text)

T1071 (lC5 oprionat, see

electrolytc

TL07l {lC5optonal,see
text)

textl

20R {optjonal, see text}

lmR

see text)

sEtilc0t{u,cIoRs

l0l,4,5

6u8 polyester (optlonal,

Cn

l0u63Vradial

U1,42

polyester

33p polystyrene

Sppolystyrene

ts4,S-{0

text)

CAPACIIORS

C13-15,21,n

CS,35,44

optional,

mk

PCB.moum DPDT

tC so

(R38, 40

1k

l4

R13,

stereo switched socket

Cn

10, 15,

R11,12,36

1mn polyester

PREAMP

l0k

seetext)

c9,12

PARTS LIST - BUDGET

DISCRETE MIC/LINE

R9

R8, r0, 15, 16,38, 40

c7,8

PCB-mounting

pll

M:
R5,6,lS

IMR
6k8

l/4'

SVV4

R2

M
H5,6

C9,

ClS,20

81,3,S

81,3,7,8, l7-13

chassis socket

M3

{all

BV electrolytic

l%tolerance unless

o$erwise stated)

10k

c5, 6, 25, 26, 29, 30,31, 32, 43,

1,2

Veropins, pCB,

(all resistors l/4W,

BA

NE5S32A

IrflscEu.At{Eous
XLH

Ril
{optional,seetext)
mr,3a42 lmk
R3
lM
m4t
RS
lk
R37,39 ilk(optional,seetext)
RS,40
lOk(optional,seetext)
Ml
AOT
R43
7k5
R44,48 gkl
R45,52 kl
R46,49 5{6
M7
optionallink
H50,5r 47k
VRI
LIN pot c/w optonal

textl
SSM2220

16,

c4,

etectrotyric

sE]t'rcot{DuctoRs
tct, l,
Tt07l {lC5 oprional, see

ICZ
tC6

Drift

Precision Monolithics Inc Data Sheets

Cyclopedia, edited by Glen M. Ballou, (Consoles and

Systems - Noise, Input Amplif,rer Design) - Steve Dove
Howard W. SAMS

SUPER

R.

- BSp

matched Bipolar Transistor Sets New Standards For

and Noise)

References
Handbook for Sound Engineers

as

National Semiconductor Linear Applications Handbook - (LBl -Instrumentation Amplifier), (The Monolithic Operational Amplifier - A Tutorial Study), (LB 52
-ALowNoise Precision O5Amp-RobertA. pease), (LB
21 - Instumentational Amplifiers), (AN 222 -Super-

Next month, we look at the opamp as it relates to our

application and then move on to discuss equalistion.

lks

(Op-amps

Audio Electronics Reference Book, edited by Ian

PFL and solo mix busses will also have to have subsequent
gain adjustments made. There is, I'm afraid, no complete
and ideal solution.

R18

instumentation amplifiers). Prentice Hall

Understanding IC Op-amps, Roger Melen and Harry
Garland, (Noise in Op-amp Circuits). Howard W. Sams
IC Op-Amp Cookbook, Walter G. Jung, (Noise in the
Operational Amplifier) - Howard W. Sams

latching swrtch

l2way rotaryswitch
2-way l\4inicon plug
lC

socketsto suit etc

AIIAZNG ADAPTEF
Built into a

ATSTRAD 464 COIIPUT.

BT'G

stedad l3A

adaptsr,

plugs into any 134 socket and

transmits to a nornEl FM radio. Di-

retly porered lrom lhe

mains tho
unit will transmit @nversations gtc

indefinitlyl

Prie is

retal

Full siz6 ofl whita

Customer returned unils

@trplte wilh a rcnitor and
circuit diagram. Thqe units

cmes ideal lor building

are generally not working and

front panel t24co rel

il

Q26.00 ref

PC CASES

ERS

no1

oM PC four drive
bays, attractiva plaslic
your

-o

E-U

returnable Pri@ is e35.00 rof M35P1

M26P1

ATISTRAD 6128 COMPUT.

WALKIE TALKIES
RAI{GE
Pair of sroll

Custorur returned units

pc*et

mas

buitt in

Etc.

3i di* drive.

These

units are generally not rcrking

They will operate (subjocl to buildings lc) up to

com- r.-

plele wnh a circuit diagram and

sized walkie

talkiss mnplete wilh

VIEWDATA SYTEUS

ERS

UILE

and

mile apart. 2 PP3

ae not returnable Price

Made by Tandata these contain every thing you n@d to start

dialling into databases and bullitin boards such as Preslel elc
just plugs into aslandard tv or

rcnitor

is f29 oo r6f M2gP1-

SPECTRUI, +2 COMFUTERS

9v batieries raquhed. C3O.00 rel

COf,DLESS MICROPHONE

M3OP1

Snrall

had

held ballery operated microphone

that trusmits to a standard FM radio, good

ange, Our price !15.0O rel M15P3

CAR STEPEO AND SPEAK.

ERS
Complete systsm @rnf,rising
ol slarso 6stte player, stero FM radio plus AM band,

Ref urbished popular computer

with built in cassetto deck and

128K ol

remry !32

rel M32P1 PSU

00 each

C150O ret

MI5P4
We also have some roquiring attention at

Trasmits video pictures f rom

a vrdeo recorder or cam

Pair oI gmd quality speakers

alllor jud e 19.00 rel M'19P1

AMBER IIOMTOES
'12' high res scrsen l2v 14 supply needed. Heroles\TTL input
ie s6p HOR and VER sync plus

able)

el

+3

SPECTRUM
PUTERS

@rder, no more lrailing wiresl

compulor with built in

disc drive and 128k ol

e20

(ex psu) rel

M'15P4

(inc psu) rel M20P1.

Relurbished

COM-

popular

memory e45.00 each rel

M45P1 PSU e15 00 ref M15P5. We also have have

BUILT BUG
Built and tested superior FM bug
100m range, fits in mtch box all

housad in an oll white platic

case. f22.00 ref M22P1.

Clean erased eproms at bargain

ldeal lor trickle charging car

ordinary FM radiol e14.00 ref

$icasl 27C64 pad< of

balteries otc Pansl is rode

M,14P

ret M7P 1, 27 C256 pac* of

Cg

lrom arcrphous silicon, is

watsrpr@l and @res with
fty leads. Size is 30cm x
3ocm x 4mm. e15.0O ref

ULTRASONIC ALAR[I SYSTEiI

Conplele alarmsystemthat @mprises a detmlor lhat simply plugs into a 134 socket in
lha aea you wish to protect and a reeiver
which plugs inlo a '13A socket where you

M'15P1. Other sizes stocked

C64 TAPE STREAMER

Originally made lor the Comm-

dore 64 Corputer bui my b

adaptable [or other mehines. Unit

re-

EPROIIS

you need is a 9v battery and an

1

sore

quiring attsntion at !25 00 (non returnable) rel M25P4

12V SOLAB PANEL

Nn

9 00 (non return-

@rder

Can als be used to transmit

from m @rder io video reC15.0O

e1

19P3

to any television in the housel.

vUeo requirod. Brand new and-

is supplied with its

Complete with modem,

inlrared rercte @nirolled keyboard and console. !20.00 ref

M20P2

'1

for

t7

for

rel M9P1,27C51 2pack ol 10

for 810 ref M10P1

WNDUP SOLAR POWERED

RADIO

wish ths alarm to sound. You could put one

in lhe garage and one indmrs or perhaps
protecl your neigbours house etc Fully ad-

Conpact unit with built in hand

charger and solar panel just a
lew turns of the handle porers
the radio for some timel Our

justable sensitivity. t25.00 for complete sys-

price is just f

'14

00 (el M14P2

tem rel M25P3

operating

BUCGING TAPE RECOROER

sysl6m, and two !aps. &prox 20

limss laterthan normal tape sys'

TALKING TELEPHONE COIN BOXES

teml

Phone bill too high? lit one of these and save. Fully program-

e25.00 rel M25P1

Extra tapes are available at 4.00 each ref M4P1 or 10 lor

e25.0O rel M25P2

mblo lor diflerent call

rates,

chargebands, time oI day etc. ac-

Contains voice actrvaled switch so only actual @nversations are recordedl takes a
standard audio ssette and uses AA
i6. C2O.OO rel M20P3

batter-

::t" '
llli

cepls l0p, 50p and e 1.00 mins.

Phone box actually speaks to you

PC POWER SUPPUES

voie

units mada by Aztec 6ith6r 1'lov or 240v input

with built in

giving 5v at 15A, 12v at 5A, -5v

available'1 with built in lock at

!29.00 rel M29P2 the other with
no lock but easily adaptable is

Brand

nil

al .3A and -12 at .5A.

synthersiser

Wall or desk mounting. Twolyp6s

Fully

cased wilh on/oll switch and

built in lan. el5.@ rel M l5P2
Al$ dailabb is a 200 watt
version al 122.@ rel M22P2.

just 823.00 rel M23P 1 . Unit takes

4 C cells and is used in conjunction with an ordinary phone
Supplied with full instruc.tions, BT approvad.
STEAM ENGINES

AVAILABLE

CONTAINING OVER 1,5M SIMUI.AR

PRODUCTS FREE ON REOUEST!

BROADBAND RADIO RECEIVER

il-176 mhz (GB, air FM,
TV, PB, WB etc elc) hand held unit with
Covere VHF

C1

5.@ rel

M l

5PS Superb value.

Erer wanted one? brand new units

mde by the lamous Mamod company mrnplete with ,uel, burner stc
e30.0O rol M30P1.

Other models stodred.

including traclion engine at
59.

ETIERGENCY LIGHTING SYSTEM

CotrpletE syslem givo sup to 3

!14.00 ref M14P3

squelch control and carrying strap

Both typss have standard PC fly

lo PAGE CATALOGUE

TALKING ALARM CLOCK

Wakes you up by telllng you the
time also spoaks th6 time at the
push of a buttonl Battery operated

12 BANO WORLD COMUUNICA.

Ttol,t-s RECEvEn
Mains or battery operatod covers 9
shortwave bands plus FM, LW and
AM bands.

hours light lrcm an intogral 1OAH

Exeplional value at 819

saahd l6ad acid battery.

ref M19P4

The

baltery is kept lully charged by

ih6 mins, as s@n as lhe mains
lails th6 tm poursrful larps aE
gwilched on and remin on until

Fwsr is r*loEd.

Maintsnanco

trge. S19-00 corplte with battery rel M19P2

SINCLAIR C5 MOTORS
12v 29A (full ld) @mplete with 4 to '1 reduction gearbox
giving 80O rpm output. Molor m4ures 8" x 4" with t@thed
pullay output. t40 rel M40P1 . We also stock 13" wheels with
tyres at 6 each ret M6P 1, 'l6" al C6 00 reJ M6P2 and
lronic speed @ntroller kit at 17 ref l\417P1

OUR PFODUCTS MAY NOT BE LICENSABLE FOF UK

a el*-

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You'Il be glad you did!

f,TI AUGUST I9S2

tog"t\

I;il;;;;;;;;;;,t
from ETI (complete in block capitals):

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ril;;*;;";;;;;;l
numbers of ETl.

Note: Backnumbers are held for

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...........

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Month

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I enclose a cheque/postal order made out to ASP
Ltd. to the value of f 1.50 per photocopy ordered.
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.l2

months only

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....... Date .........

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'a#;il;l'*

Surrey RH1 1QS

I
67

FREE POWER! Can be yours if you use our solar cells

sturdily made modules

MAINS ISOLATION TBANSFORMER stops you getting "to earth" shocks.

230V in and 230V out. 150 watt upright mounting, 87.50, Order Rel. 7.5P/s
and a 250W version is 810, Order Ref. 1 0P79
.45 - you ioin in series to get desired voltage - and on parallel
MlNl MONO AMP on PCB. Size 4: x 2" with front panet
more
for
amps.
LIUITED SUPPLY ITEMS
holding volume control and with spare hole for switch or tone
are
only
described
in
our
newsletter
Module A gives 100mA Price tl
Order Ref. BD63l
control. Output is 4 watt into 4 ohm speaker using 12Y or 1
Over50 appear in our currenl issue
Module B gives 400mA Price e2
Order Ref. 2P199
watt into 8 ohm using gV Brand new and perfect, only E1
ll you ordersomething this month you
Module D gives 700mA Pricet3 Order Ref.3P42
each. Order Ref 495.
will rscisve this and ths nextthree
-issues posted to you tres olcharge
sRPM MAINS DRIVEN This is a shaded pole motor, 85,
$id'r"Er"^rfl ',Iffi
Order Ref 5P54.
cost a fortune. However, these are packed in half dozens and the price to you is
POWER SUPPLY UNIT mains in, dc out, cased 4.5V 1oOmA, E1, Order ReI.
El per pack, Order Ret.7979
104, 6V 200mA tl, Order Ref. 103, 6V 700mA, t1, Order Ref. 103A, gV
BUILD YOUB OWN NIGHT LIGHT, banery charger or any other gadget that you
500mA, C2, Order Ref 2P134,24V 200mA, t2, Order Ftet 2P4, 12V 2A,86,
want to enclose in a plastic case and be able to plug into a 13A socket. We have
Order Ref. 6P23.
two cases, one 3rtr x 2tl. x 1 %'deep, El each Order Ref. 845. The other one is 2%
AMSTRAO POWER UN|TI3.5V at 1.9A encased and with teads and output
x 21L x 1'1" deep, 2for 81, Order Ref . 565.
plug, normal mains input E6, Order Bef. 6P23.
SAFETY LEADS curly coil so that they contract but don't hang down. Could
AMSTRAD 3.5 FLOPPY DRIVE brand new and cased, t35, Order Ref.
with new system bubble magnifers to concentrate the light and so eliminate the
just as well in bright
need tor actual sunshine -they work
workjust
bright light. Voltage output is

ll,-'-.o",1'1',13?';10.r3[o,7,XEl;';35i,".W

easily save a child from being scalded. 2 core, 5A, extends to 3m, 81, Order Ref .
846, 3 core, 1 3A extends to 1 m, el each, Order Rel. 847, 3 core, 1 3A, extends to
3m, E2 each, Order Ref. 2P290.
POWER SUPPLY WTH EXTRAS mains input is fused and filtered and the 12V
ed for high class equipment, this is mounted
board but easily removed, are 2 12V relays

35P4.

ATARI 65XE at 65K this is quite powerfut, so suitable for home or business,
unused and in perfect order but less PSU, only el9.50, Order Bef 19.SP/SB.
80W MAINS TRANSFORMER two availabte, good quality, both with normat
dc
primaries and upright mounting, one is 20V 4A, Order Rel 3p106 the other
on
409V 2A, Order Bef. 3P107, only t3 each
an
3P808.
12V SOLENOID has goodl/a'pull or could push if modified, size approx 1,/,,,
IqTWMAINSTRANSFORMER normal primary 20-0-20at2.5A, E4, Order Ref.
long x I " square, e1, Order Ref. 232.
4P24.4OV a12.5A, e4, Order Bef. 4P59. 50V ar 2A, t4, Order Ref. 4P60.
WATER VALVE 230V operated with hose connections, ideal for auto plant
PHILIPS 9'HIGH BESOLUTION MONITOR black & white in metat frame for
spray or would contol air or gas into tanks etc., el each, Order Ref. 070.
easy mounting, brand new still in maker's packaging, otfered at less than price
HANG-UP PHONE won't clutter up your desk or workbench, current model
of tube alone, only t15, Order Ref. 1sPl .
has push button dialling, last number recall, internal alarm etc. Ex B T. in
16 CH
sc
36mm, Alphanumericc
good condition and fully working ready to plug in, 85, Order Ref. 5p123.
LCDd
de by Epson, their Ref.
;m
ELECTRONIC BUMP & cO SPACESHTP sound and impact controiled
16027
responds to claps and shouts and reverses or diverts should it hit anything!
INSULATION TESTER WITH MULTI METER internally
Kit with really detailed instructions, will make ideal present
generates voltages which enables you to read insulation
Ior budding young electrician. Should be able to assemble
THIS MONTH'S SLIP
directly on megohms. The multimeter has four ranges, AC/DC
but you may have to help with the soldering ol the
A f60 unit tor less than t10
volts,3 ranges DC milliamps,3 ranges resistance and 5 amp
components on the PCB. Complete kit C8.95 Order Ref.
power supply with
switch
mode
range. These instruments are ex British Telecom but in very
9P9
outputs +12V at VA, +5V at 164
good condition, tested and guaranteed OK, probably cost at
-.
500V BRIDGE MEGGEB developed tor GPO technicians
-12V at'/,A. Enclosed
and
in
yours
least e50 each
for only E7.50, with leads, carry case t2
the Ohmeter 18B is the modern equivalent ol the bridge
plated steel case, brand new,
extra, Order Bef. 7.5P/4.
megger. 9V battery operated, it incorporates a S00V
at a special price of 9.
BRUSHLESS DC 12V FAN tiny, only 60mm square, good air
generator for insulation testing and a null balance bridge for
until July 31st, Order Ref . 9.5P1 .
mover but causes no interference, 88, Order ReI. 8P26.
very accurate resistance measurement. Ex B.T. in quite
MAINS 230V FAN best make "PAPST'4% square, metal
good condition with data & tested. Yours for a fraction of
blades, 88, Order Ref. 8P8.
original cost, e45, Order rel 45P2.
2MW LASEB Helium neon by Phillips, full spec. E30, Order Ref. 30P1. Power
EXPERIMENTING WITH VALVES don't spend a fortune on a mains
kit
e15,OrderRef. l5Pl6,orinlargercaseto
transformer, we can supply one with standard mains input and secs. of 250we
18P2. The larger unit, made up, tested and
0-250V at 75mA and 6 3V at 3A, e5, Order Ret. 5P1 67
om
be 869, OrderRef.69P1.
15W I OHM 8' SPEAKER & 3' TWEETEF made for a discontinued high
1i3 HP 12V MOTOR
THE FAMOUS SINCLAIR C5 brand new, C15, Order Ref.
quality music centre, gives real hi{i, and only t4 per pair, Order Ref. 4p57. 1 5P8.
CLEAR THAT SMOKE according to a 'Which' report, many ionisers available
SOLAR CHABGER holds 4AA nicads and recharges these in I hours, in very
from chemists and similar have such a poor output that they are next to
neat plastic case, t6, Order Ref. 6P3.
useless. Our ioniser kit, however, uses mains transormers and is so powerful
SOLAB CELLS with terminals forjoining in series for higher volts or parallel for
you can feel the ion output on the back oI your hand and it will clear smoke in
exlra current: 1 00m A. el , Order Ref. 361 , 400mA. e2, Order Ref 2P1 99, 700mA.
seconds Complete, cased kit, price 816, Order Ref 16P5.
G3, Order Ref.3P42, 1A, t3.50, order Ref.3.5P/4.
ULTRASONIC TBANSMITTER RECEIVEH with Piezo atarm, buitt into
AIR SPACED TRIMMER CAPS 2-20 pf ideal for precision tuning UHF circuits, 4
for El , Order ref. 81 88.

just
join
ood
ung

PRO
venti

approx 8" x 4" x 41h" metal sprayod grey, louvred ends for
se undrilled. Made for GPO so best quality, only E3 each,

Orde

ULTRA SONIC TBANSDUCERS 2 metal cased units, one transmits, one

Order Ret. 1.5P/4
some small piece of
You can use it either
g and well insulated.

Price el, order Ref. 821 .

3V SOLAR PANEL price e3, Order Ref. 3P998
BT POWER SUPPLY UNIT ouput 9.5v AC at 600mA, in black
plastic case with 13A plugs to go straight into socket and

approximately 3 metres of twin output lead. Price 81.50,

Order Ref. 1.5P7

FERBITE AEBIAL ROD 8" long x 3/8 diameter, made by

Mullard. Completewilh 2coil formers. 2forfl, order Ref. 8328
3 GANG.(x)os MFDTUNING CONDENSER with slow motion
drive. Beautifully make by Jackson Brothers and current list

case is triggered by movement disturbing reflected signal,

burglar alarm, car alarm etc. has many exlras, time delay, auto
device, etc. A !40 instrument, yours for 810, Order Flef.

t 'off'
1

0P76.

STEREO HEADPHONES extra lightweight with plug, e2 each, Order Ref

2P261.
BT TELEPHONE LEAD 3m long and with B.T. tlat ptug ideat to make
extension for phone, lax elc. 2 for e1, Order Ref. 552.
WATER PUMP very powerlul with twin outlets, an ideal shower controller,
mains operated, e10, Order Bef. 10P74.

STUDIO 100 by Amstrad, the ultimate disco control panel, has four

separately controlled and metered channels, twin cassettes, AM/FM radio,

stereo audio amplifier, phono & CD inputs, etc., etc., regular price over f400,
we have a tew still in maker's packing, brand new and guaranteed, yours lor
only C99, Order Ref. 99P1.
0.1MA FULL VERSION PANEL METER 23lr" sQuare,
JUST ARRIVED
scaled 0-100 but scale easily removed for re-writing, t1
3 core 15A flex. Price is 1 0m for
each, Order Ret. 756.
82.50, Order Ref. 2.5P/3. You
VU METER illuminate this from behind becomes on/oft
can have this in multiples of 10m
indicator as well, 1 Vz" square 75p each, Order Ref. 366.
to 100m. Also available: 3
EDGE-WISE PANEL METER ideal when short of panel
20A flex, 10m for 83, Order Ref.
space only 40 x 14mm, also have built-in led,500pA l.sdd,
3P1 09 and 2 core 20A llex, 1 5m
scaled 0-5, t1 each, Order Bef. 1 31 .
for 83, Order Ref. 3P1 1 0.
PCB DRILLS 12 assorted sizes between .75 and 1.Smm,
fl the lot, Order Ref 128.

price is probably around !20. Yours for t5, Order Ref . 5P189
DIGITAL FREOUENCY METER.
This is a hand-held instrument with an LCD display

I digits of frequency to be.read, has

internal nicad batteries, and a power supply which
will recharge the batteries. ldeal for field and
service work as well as general and industrial
applications. Has high and low BNC inputs and a
allowing

Prices include V.A.T. Send cheque/postal order or ring

and quote credit card number. Add E3 post and packing.
Orders over 825 post free.

plug-in antenna which enables remote tests. lt

covers a very wide range of frequencies: switch

position 'A' covers 1oHz to 20MHz and switch
position 'B' covers 2OMHZ to 12OOMHZ.. Price tgg,
but it compares very favourably with instruments
selling at over f500 by our competitors. Order Ref.
99P2.

GA

DTI AUGUST 1992

a\?

$e

SCHEMATIC DRAWINE
F0R WlND0ti/S

lSlS ILLUSTRATOR combines the high functionality of our DOS based lSlS products with the
graphics capabilities of Windows 3. The result is the ability to create presentation quality schematics
like you see in the magazines. ILLUSTRATOR gives you full control of line widths, fill styles, fonts,
colours and much more. When the drawing is complete, transferring it your WP or DTP program is
simply a matter of cutting and pasting through the Windows Clipboard.

Features
r Runs under Windows 3.0 or 3.1.
r Full control of drawing appearance including line
r
r
I
r
r
r
r

widths, fillstyles, fonts, colours and more.

Curued or angular wire corners.
Automatic wire routing and dot placement.
Fully automatic annotator
Comes complete with component libraries; edit
your own parts directly on the drawing.
Full set of 2D drawing primitives + symbol
library for logos etc.
Output to Windows printer devices including
POSTSCRIPT and colour printers.
Loads lSlS SUPERSKETCH and DESIGNER
files directly.

lSlS - lntelligent Schematics

ARES - Advanced Routing

lSlS SUPERSKETCH (from C69)

Asuperb entry levelschematic drawing package offering
all the editing features of lSlS DESIGNER but without
the netlisting, bill of materials and electrical rules check
features.

PCB il (E6e)
Our Graphical User lnterface makes this PCB drafting
package exceptionally easyto learn and use. Advanced
features include Auto Track Necking, Gerber viewing,
curyed tracks, and DXF export.

Extended device library available for an additional f30.

ARES (t275)
This package offers multi-layer, netlist based PCB
design together with Power Plane Generation, EMS

tsrs DESIGNER (e27s)

Provides allyou need to create and edit schematics prior
to further processing with ARES or other EDA software.
Through the provision of user definable menu options
and a special script language, lSlS acts as a Tramework'

from which you can control allyour CAD software.

lSlS DESIGNER+ (8475)

memory support and back-annotation

to

lSlS

DESIGNER+.
ARES AUTOROUTE (847s)
Adds a multi-strategy auto-router to ARES to provide
the ultimate in design automation. Special strategy

management features allow all design rules

to

be

This top of the range schematics package

adds
hierarchical design, automatic annotatiory'packaging,

defined in lSlS so there is very little setting up to do.

ASCII data import and Design Global Annotation to

Also available as ARES 386 - a 32 bit version offering

up to 400% faster operation, virtually unlimited design
capacity and 1024x768 graphics support.

make it one of the most advanced schematics packages

available for DOS,

Ctll

tu

us todey on 0274

0274

4tl07t for r

54286t ot
demo prcl.

Comblnrllon, multl.copy ond oducrllonel

dlscounls oyrlkblo. Prlcor olo P&P rnd

ETI AUGUST 1992

VlT.

69

PCB
ICE

SE
ELECTRONICS
TODAY INTERNATIONAL

August

E92O8-l dynamic Noise Limiter

.....F
E92Oa-2 Touch Controlled Intercome (2 boards) .......H
89208-3 MIDI Keyboard
................K
E92O8-FC Battery charger
.............F
PCBs for the remaining projects are available from the companies lists in Buylines
Use the fom or a photocopy for your order. Please fill our all parts of the form Make sure you use the board relerence
numbers This not only identifies the board but also tells you when the project was published. The first tu,o numbers are
the year, the next trvo are the month
Terms are strictly payment with order. We cannot accept o{ficial orders but we can supply a proforma invoice if required.
Such orders will not be procesed until payment is received

E8806-6 Bicycle Dynamo Backup ...............................". D

88807-1

Bar Code Lock (2 bds) ........ . .. ......................N

Analogue Computer Power Board .......... ........L
Bell Boy
................................. F
Logic Probe ......
............................. C
Updated FIU Stereo Decoder
........... J
BreathRateDisplayBoard.. ............F
E8808-l Breath Rate Main Board .................................. H
E8808-2 Breath Rate Switch Board ............ .................. C
E8808-3 Telephone Recorder......................................... D
E8808-4 Analogue Computer Main Board (2 bds) ....... M
E8809-1 Spectrum EPROM Emulator ...........,..... ........ M
88809-2 Frequency Meter (2 bds) .................................. P
E8809-3 Travellers' aerial Amp
............E
R8810-l Gerrada Marweh Bikebell ................................ E
E'8810-2 Peak Programme Meter (2 bds) ....................... N
88810-4 TV to RGB Converter ...................................... E
E8810-5 Electron RGB Buffer
.............C

E8807-2
E8807-3
E8807-4
E8807-5
E8807-6

88811-1 Ni-CdCharger.
..................."..8
88811-2 Chronoscope (3 bds) ............................. ..........P
E88 I

1-3

E8812-l
88812-2
E,8812-3

E8812-4
E88l

2-5

E8812-6
E,8812-'7

Digital Transistor Tester........................ ......... G

Doppler Speed Cun (2 bds) ........... ................. K
Small Fry Mini Amp
.. .. ...........D
Thermostat
............................. E
Burglar busterFree PCB
.... ............D
B urglar B uster Power/relay Board ................... E
Burglar Buster Alarm Board...... . ................... C
Burglar Buster Bleeper Board ...................... .. C

E8901-1 EPROM Programmer mother board ........... ... M

E8901-2 Variat-Ion updated Main Board...... ................ H
E8901

-3

Variat-Ion Emitter Board ................................. E

E8901-4 In-car Power Supply ........................................ C

E8901-5 Granny's Hearing Booster ............................... E
E8902- 1 Compressor/Limiter/Gate ................................ L

88902-2 UltrasonicHorn...............
..........D
88902-3 Stepper Motor Driver Board ............................ L
F,B9O2-4 Quest-Ion (2 bds)

..............

E8903-1 Intelligent Plotter Solenoid Board

............... K
................... H

88903-2 MIDI Programmer ............. ............................. L

88903-3 Balanced Disc Input Stage ............................... F
E8903-4 Digitally Tuned Radio
........... G
E8904-1 Camera Trigger
......................E
E8904-3 Intelligent Plotter Main Board ......................... O

70

ETI AUGUST 1992

Superscope CRT Driver Board.............. ......... K

E9OO2-4 Superscope Timebase Board ........................ . K
89003-l Superscope Y1 input board ...................... .... .. J
89003-2 Superscope Y2 input board ...... .... .............,..... J
E9003-3 Superscope switch 9eneralor.......................... E
89003-4 Business power amp board ....................... . ... L
89003-5 Business power supply board ........ .............,....J

E9002-3

............................ G
E9003-7 Water hoie
..... .. ...D
E9003-8 Super Siren
..........................F
E9003-9 Val's badge..
E9004-1 Bass AmpliferDC Protection..................... . ...F
E9OO4-2 Bass Amplifrer Graphic Equaliser ................... L

89004-3
89004-4

B ass

E9005-l

BusinessDisplay.............................................O
Phone Lock and Logger ........... ..................... .F

89005-2

amplifrer Micro ....................................... N

..... .... O
Quad Power Supply...

E9006-3

. . .. ...,.,-N
E9008-2 Temperature Controller
L
E9008-3 FMcenerator..
...E
E9009-1 SlideProjectorController
. ... .. . .. D
E9009-2 Ultimate Diode Tester
89009-3 TheEntertainer

.... ....

E9010-l ComponentTester................,. ..

.......,.... .F
...8
E9010-2 ActiveContactPickup. -... ..........
....... .. C
E9010-3 R4X Longwave Receiver ......... .
E9011-1 The Autocue (2 boards, 1 double sided).... ...,.N
E90ll-2 Infra-lock transmitter (2 boards) .. ....... .........K
... . ...H
89011-3 Infra-lockreceiver.........
8901 l-4 Four-track cassette iecorder
(record/playback one charnel)
Four-track cassette recroder

.. ,.,. ..,. ........F

(Bias/eraseoscillatorboard.. .,.,,............K

E9Ol2-1 Infra Switch

...... .....F

E9101-1 Remote Control - Main Board. . . .................J

89101-2
89101-3
E9101-4
E9101-5
E9101-6

E9lO2-1
E9lO2-2
E9103-1
E9103-2
E9103-3

89103-4
89104-1
89104-2
E9lO4-3
E9lO4-4
E9104-5
E9105-1
E9105-2
E9105-3

89106-l
E9lO6-2

E9107-l
E9107

-2

E9lO7-3
89107

-4

89108-l
E9108-2
E9108-3
E9108-3
E9109-

E9lO9-2
89109-3
89109-4
E9109-5

89110-l
89170-2

EII

Remote Control - Dispta5'Board . ..................H

Remote Control Timesu'itch - Transmit bd.....E
SBC Micro Controller Board . .................... F
SBC Practice Interface Board . ............. .........F
..........E
5 in 1 Remote Sensi-ng Suitch
Remote Control Times*itch - receiver bd ......F
anti theftAlarm (2 bds) . ...........................H
Ariennes Lights..........,... . . . . .......................L
64K EPROM Emulator................ ................... N
. ......................G
SSB Radio Receiver
Active Loudspeaker board .............. ................ H
.................E
Testmeter Volts
Active Direct Injection Box ............................. F
....................F
EPROM Eraser .
Digital Tachometer....,.,....,..... .. ..................... F
Radio Calibrator........... ......... .........................F
Modulator Laser (2 boards) ............................. H
................................ F
Thyristor Tester
............K
Frequency plotter ....
...................... F
Laser Receiver.
Temperature Controller - Power Supply ......... G
Temperature Controller - Main Board ............ K
Temperature Controller Probe PCB ..............F
TheFootTapper VolumeControl(2 sided) ..J
The Consort Loadspaker..,............................... H
Pulsed Width
Model Speed
Model Speed
Model Speed

Train Controller.........................E
Controller - Main Board ............F

Controller - Power Supply......... F

Controller - Power Supply ......... F
.............................. E
Geiger Counter .
Hemisync Waveform Generator Board ........... G
Hemisync Pulse Generator Board ....................F
Hemisync Power Supply Board ....................... C
Ni ghfi ghter Main Processor Board .................. O
.......................E
Freeze Alarm..
Document Saver ...................................... ....... E

AUGUST 1992

E9

E9111-3

1-4
1-5
E91 1 1-6
E9lll-7
E9

11

Egl

E911l-8
E9112-l

E9ll2-3

89007-4 Transistor Tester ............................... .... . . ..C

....,.,.,........J
89007-5 DecisionMaker
89008-1 AC Millivoltmeter .............................. ... . . K

l-5

1 1- 1
lll-2

E9l

D
...... ... ........G
................. ... . .. .E

E9006-5 Bug Spotter

E9007-1 Guitar Practice Amp .......................... . .. ... G
............ I{
E9007-2 Digital Frequency Meter
,...... . E
E9007-3 FootstepAlarm...............

E901

E9110-7
E9110-8

E9ll2-2

Telephone Extension Bell .................... . ....

Telephone Extemal Bell

89006-4 FeckoBox........

10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6

. .G
C

E9006-1 Dark Room Timer........................................

89006-2

E91
891
E91
E91

12-4

Proto-type

Designer
..........................J
- Sound to Ltght (2 sided) ........... L

Nightfrghter
Nightfighter
Nightfighter

Ramp Geuerator Board ............. F

Cyclic Crossfade (2 sided) ......M
Nightfrghter- Strobe Board (2 sided) .......... ...J
Nightfighter - 8 Channel Triac Board .............N
Digital Code Lock ............................................ L
Switched Mode Power Supply ......................... E
Nightfighter Mode Selection (2 sided) .. .......... J
Nightfighter - Display Board (2 sided) .......... M
Nightfrghter - Bass Beat Trigger (2 sided) ...... L
Nightfrghter - Sequence Select (2 sided) ........ H
Nightfighter - Master Controller PSU ............ K
Nightfighter-Output Switch (2 sided) ..........M
Nightfighter Sensor Switch Master Control
(2 sided)
.................................L
Nighthghter Sensor Switch Channel Control
(2 sided)
.................................L

Nightfighter
Nighthghter
Nightfighter
Nightfighter

TELEPHOITE
ORDERS
may be made on

(o442
6655U
ACCESS or VISA

Sensor Switch Sound Trigger ..... H

Connector Board.......................... F
Sensor Switch PSU ..................... K
8-Channel Input Interface
E91 12-6
(2 sided)...........
.......................P
E9ll2-7 Power On and Overload Regulator .................. P
89201 -l Laboratory Power Supply ................................ F
E92Ol-2 Test Card Generator Board ............................. M
E92O1 -3 LED Star (2 sided) ................. ......................... L
89201-4 Enlarger Timer Main PCB (2 sided) ...............N
E9201-5 Enlarger Timer Selector Board (2 sided) ......... K
E92Ol-6 Enlarger Timer Switch PCB . .......................... E
E9203-l MIDI Switcher - Main Board .......................... L
89203-2 MIDI Switcher - Power Suply ......................... E
E92O3-3 Sine Wave Generator (surface mount) .............F
......................F
89204-l Auto Car Lights
...........................E
E9205-l Bat Detector
......................F
89205-2 Pond Controller
..................... G
89206-FC Stereo amplifier
89206-2 Xenon flash trigger Main Board ....................... J
E92O6-3 Xenon flash trigger Flash Board ...................... F
E9206-4 Scanner for audio 9enerator............................. D
...............D
89207-l Improved Rear Bike Lamp
89207-2 Mini Baby Bug Monitor ....... ..........................C
E92O'1-3 Ultrasonic Audio Senmder (2 bds) ..................H
89201-4 CameraAdd-onunit(4bds) ............O
89207-5 AutoMate 5Vi48V Mkaerpower supply ..........J
E92O7 -6 AutoMate Precision 17V power supply ............ J
89207 -F C Surround Sound Decoder ............................. ... F

E91
E9

t-

l2-5

Price
code

c
D
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
N
o
P
a
R
s
T
u
v
w
x

Price
(inc.

vAr)

1.80
f'2.50
f,3.25
4.0O

84.75

5-50
f,6.62

87.20
8.80
10.60
13.10
15.80
f,17.90

f2l.8o

f.23.90
25.90
E29.OO

f,32.20
35.80
f,37.90

f40.70

-;;r-pL-sEnv;;;;-;;;.r,#;,

-l

ARGUS HOUSE, BOUI{DARY WAY,

HEMEL HEAMPSTEAD HP2 7ST
Please supply:

Quantity

Ref. no.

Price

Code Price

Total Price

Post and packing

f,O.75

Total enclosed

Please send my PCBs to:

@LocKcAplrAr-spLEAsE)

I
I

Address

I
I

Postcode

I
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CHEQUES
vrrLYvLvJ

SHOULD BE MADE PAYABLE TO ASP Ltd.

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Test equipment, video monitors, amateur radio gear, printers,

power supplies, communications, disk drives, multimeters,
oscilloscopes, scientilic instruments, connectors, componemt
bridges, frequency counters, signal generators, computers.
f125
PA{ ffiASE IJEIE
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!175

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The kit is available in three lorms.

The basic kit which contains just the
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g5

The p/us kit as above but includes

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capacitors

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TEfiRONIX 5m 521A PAL V/SCOPES FIom !475 SIGNAL GEIIEHAT0HS AF I0

TEKIBONIXSIS4PROGOATACOMMSTESTER

These two units are intergrated

with a high quality bi-wired passive
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inductors and polypropylene

POA

Froml4sto$

Vlsll our bargaln corner in shoP.

Many valuable ilems al knock-down prices'
CONSTANT VOLTAGE TRANSPS

Richard McDonald utilises a Volt

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RHODE E SCflWANZ

6.11

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PHITIPS PM3217 SOMHZ 2

This superb transmission line kit by

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LIST AVAILABLE, BUT l(l(to'! OF UilLISTED BARGAIl{S FOR CALLERS

OUALIW EIECTROI{IC EOUIPTENT BOUGHT. ALL PRICE ETC. OF PIP A1{D VAT

Basic

Kit

Kit
Total Kit

Plus

E27O.0O

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8459.00

Wilmslow

FAudio*
DIY Speaker catalogue E2 00
post free (export 83.50)

Open Tuesday to Saturday,

Wellington Close,
Parkgate Trading Estate
Knulsford, Cheshire
WA16 8DX
Tel: (0565) 65060s
Fax: (0565) 650080

1I

@UT NI@WU

TESTI G

Summer'92
Electronic

T]UI SERIES MUTTITUIEIERS

5315
5365
5375

D-MM Good Value!

Constructors

The TM series of low cost meters,

wilh31/z digit LCDs, tull overload
protectlon, strong ABS case and
packed wlth features. Supplied with
test leads, battery and manual.

Catalogue

test
ranges
Frequency range (20MHz) and HFE test
AC & DC current (toA), HFE and continuity test
IM I 1l
TM 135 Capacitance and temp. ranges (inc. probe)
TM 175 Frequency (lsMHz), capacitance ranges with
HFE, diode, continuity and LED test
TM
TM
TM

TM8020

DC cunent (10A) continuity and djode

Capacitance and frequency (ZOokHz)

TM8030

digit display, frequency (4MHz), capacitance

(40pF), AC + DC current to Z0A
331 digit disptay, frEuency (4[,tHz), temperature

7705

Capacit?nce

S6.OSBts
56-05065
56-05975

f1 9.99

S6.0olgs

f36.50
f36.95
f32.50
r45.95

56-00175

r53,60

s6-08020

f5t.76

s6.18030
s6-07705

f59.96
r39,82

S6-OOi tS

33/4

(inc. probe), AC + DC current to Z0A

meter, 1pF to

ZO,OO0UF

BIAGI( SIAR

n**""16
0

ZMHZ function generator plus ZOMHZ

orion
1410
Meteor 100
Meteor 600
Meteor 1000
Apollol00
Nova 2400
Jupiter 500
Jupiter 2000

s6-t2010
s6.0r600
s6-0r410
s640100

freq counter
PAL TV pattern gdnerator

Video Monitor Tester

f233.00
t269,00
f527.00

100MHz counter
600MHz counter
1000MHz counter

s6.@600

f 158.63

lool\,lHzcounter/itimer

s6-r0t00

t209.15
t381.88

s6.0r000

s6.02000
s6-00s00
s6-02001

2.4CHz counter
500kHz tunction generator
ZMHZ function generator

tl28.0E

f35t.33
8129.25

'SGllPES
All Hameg scopes
are supplied with
two x 10 probes,
mains lead,
manual and

2 year
warranty.

Fuil detaits

Dualchannel.20MHz

56.S2037

r39r.1 5

Digitat storage, 20MHz sampling

Duat channet,60MHz
Triple channet, l00MHz

56.s2053
s6-56040

f71 6.75
f71 6.75
e930.00

""" !!r',"'ii!'.ri

56-01005

I
I
I

ft15.05

HAMEG

HM203-7
HM205-3
HM604
HMl005

I
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Top quality, UK made,

frequency counters and

Jupiter 201

Mang new
producfs including:

omprehensive

AII the above are currently ln stock and avallable for lmmedlate
dellvery. Standartt P&P G1.ZO, next day dellvery 64.60.

I
f

Audio Amplifier Modutes

Range of 14 high power audio modules, encapsulated

to an integral heatsink in Bi-polar, MOSFET and Class

A formats with power outputs from I 5 to l g0 watts.
Books

l8

new titles from the top electronics publishers.

Burglar Alarm

Volumetric alarm triggered by change in air pressure

eg an opening door, easy to install - no wiring
required.

Spectrum Analyser Adaptor

Converts a conventional scope into a low cost,
250MHz spectrum analyser.

Low Profile Mains Transformers

Encapsulated, top quality pCB mounting mains
transformers.

Airband Scannlng Receiver

100 programmable channels, covering civil and
military frequencies.

Stereo Valve Amptlfier

Top quality stereo hi-fi amp from Velleman - at a very

competitive price!

Extended Ranges
of connectors, equipment cases, filters, crystals, fuses,
fans, kits, ATUs, semiconductors, loudspeakers,
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With 24 product sections, l g2 pages,

SOOO+ lines and EfEs of discount vouchers,
be sure to get gour copg now!
Available from most newsogents or
directlg from Cirkit.

All prices include VAT (at t7.S%)

CIRKIT DISTRIBUTION LTD

Park Lane . Broxbourne . Hertfordshire . EN10 7Ne

Telephone (0992) 444111.Fax (0992) 46445i1

74

DTI AUGUST 1992

20 Mhz DX processor
2 megs RAII. Exp 10 meg
40 meg hard drive
1.2 meg 5-1 /4" floppy
32K cache erp. 64K

THrs ilONfH'SSPECIALI

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.
.

There has novrben adoal llke thls onel

Brsrd lprnklng nfl & bored
trcm NEC, mmarly solllng ataboute l/rc1

lnstalled VGA card

Enhanced 102 key Uboard
Complete with M$DOS 3.3
2 serial 1 parallel ports
8 free slots- 6 off 16 bit!

nr* by Mn- 'ru'x t^ r..r ' rrhfltur qEil B

ell maruals ard sofiEi du
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These are over-engineemd lor ultra

tellablllty. 9" gren screen composlte

lnpul wlth etched non-glars screen dus
switchaH HgMow lmpedance lnpul and
oulFJt lordalsy-chalning. 3 ,ront controlg and 6 al rear. Standald
Bl.lC soclpts, Beautiful ldgh contrast scrn and attrac.tlve cas
wlth canylng ledge. Perrec-t as a maln or bac,lcrp mor{tor and

dh

Tho
!rEmr MP386
rww@,r,
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1o1 or 5 lor E1 851e1
CALL FIOR I"SCOI,,IS ON HIGHEF OU,iTNNES'

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SYSTEM FOR ONLY T99!!

colouR ltoMToRs

HI.DEFIMTION COLOUR IIONITORS

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14' Pt{llp6 Modol CM8873 VGA mullisync all tho way up to

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swltche8 enaHe you io select CGA, EGA or VGA and dgllal/analog. Urusual lor a pmlosslonal mor{lor, sourd ls also
povlded, wlth a volumo control. Thep ls also a spedal Texl'
swltch lor word processlng, spradshets ard lh llke. Compatlue wlth vlrtJally all comgrl6rs lndudng IBM PC's, Arltg4

ilth q) day
............... Else(E)

Atad, BBC, Archlmsdes elc. Good used condtlon

:E::::::i::::::::::. .:E:::

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'#ixiiliiiiiiiiiliiii:ft

fifffi

3.5' PlrEoldc JU364 720K'

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s.ZrTc Ft!t592).720K hall helght.
pdcG.
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mlga' Acom Archlmedos & BBc' Masurs or{y

r.+ l'Eg. LqPtvrc

MF353GL, 1.41\ibg.
M
*s'Ultaru$l
+s
ftlEuutr
3.5' HttanblCrl MF353GD. 1.4 Meg. Non lap{op' E29J5(B)

5.25'T*

FII55(36). 360K hall

(>sdd.le I0ABOE 60 watts

o51B) 18.+15v@ 1&BFEandlu
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@ 1 5a,-5v @ 1e.i12v

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ryL, O(E) ffiW{AUUICN
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wlt
wlth blrllt ln power
Drd 0" drtye!

G
cE-q,(O

sd ln a s.nari

ex-qrrlpment tully tesied wlth

90 dai
guardntee. In an ittraclve two tone dbbei

..nilI[@ "'1,3t?T,5iE.": #'XI

*!ffi'?ffi'xlf"m1
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DEMSNSTRATABLE onry....
ilffi
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slarila --- -and

rnnirtcordtlon

cores @mFqrq uu mErua. urry........--------l2ee{B

OLrAUTy
---rii;;--

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t7g

lppUCAnOUt

BBC Modl B ty? compuir on a board. A malot Firchas

dlows us to olior you th PROFES$OI{AL yrtCon ot the BBG
comfruter at a parts only pdce.. Usod as a fronl end graptcs
syst6m on la,ge netm*ed systanrs the arct{tecturE or lhs BBC

tesro

20",22" and 2d'AV SPEC]ALIi

Suprbly made UK manufacture. PIL all solid stale 6lour

monltors, complete wllh composlle vldeo & sound lrputs. Attactlvo_te-akCyecase. Porfsct lor_Schools,Shops,Dlsco, Clubs.
ln EXCELLENT litt usod condilon with lull 90 day guaranbe.

expd

*ffi

powrEd unlt, contalr{ng all

ano

ddrcrtcs Eady to ilrg lnlo a hosa

ol vldeo monllors made by manulacturrs such as

12

itttc

tound
Darpt
type conrtooo - ffiS, n"y to d6 ls pmvtde

20"....8135

...8185

CaLLFOB

-..S.

+s ard

(D

StODaSt

loot 40u

DC. The APM condsts

lc's socketd. The lc's alEloo

MICROVITEC, ATARI, SANYO, SOI'IY. CO{alrcOOHE' 6502, BAM and an SAA50
PHILIPS, TATUIIG, AMSTFAO ard nEry mo.e TtE 6{rPodte EPROMS contaln lhe custom
have no data,
Prcvlds dlag

DIP swllches

::,Xf,'fiIffif#'ffiffiili",iil61ffG;il-"#all
HypERB
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end nw
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vrw wr+!l>

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15o

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p'|otrer HH
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dotter

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RGB T
mabg

slandald.

"r#ilfi::ffi

*:l':'JE'flTJffl*il3:l#J:#f#

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"'asas

ampllfr and
ampllferand
standad.

TLbox

flr$EF:

--'

E
E 950

ifr,?#ilHi:f;t#
deiis:

emovable sld oarels.-....I275.00 (Gl

3T::3:._Y.l-1Yl-....fl3S[31

G 875

with BGB
UHF

elL

Mt,( 056SAUAf ts 05 k\n and MUD Ubrollnel83.NLAl7xl7d

loSSAHBHlsl kv

ale lntgmal, MUD

lnterlupt are 5 ard
operallon manuds

If,RGE OUEHTTflES OF
aHaaaa

t-'
t-t
aaa

OSCII"LOSCOPES

f,]ID

TEST GEER oLWf,YS EV6!I.B1"E

. Cf,tl, I{OWI

il

aaa
aaa

FO

o16E iom GoElrrEnt,LjniEctb.,SclEd6 t L@l AJtE

maouiadrf,D.C{bgDc}EE(rg-e2.m (Ai)*3.75 (B){55O.(C)*85O-(D)-ell50.(q{14.0O(D=el8.m(G)[email protected]

)Ld {ti*t to or da.tdEd Co-rdtim; ot S;b and qbse othcrwlo ctabd gaerbcd-b! 90 &y.:.At glrelbe on a rEt m !o baF bsi6 Rigtts
e

GP.df6diw wilEut p.brrEtb.-OrdcE .ubl+lb dod( O@titionr wilhfly

giq

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Bft

rutphE.hEy6 Eqir

PCB Foils

PCB foils patterns presented here

are

intended as aguide only. They can be used

as a template when using tape and transfer
for the creation of a foil.

Glm

The Smart charger foil

Touch Intercom (Amplifier)

Touch lntercom (Control)

7G

DTI AUGUST 1992

MlDl Keyboard

ETI AUGfST T992

aa

l
F

0442 66551
Sen

ETI
Bou

ASP, Argus House,

pstead, -XpZ ZSf.

Llneage:

ELECTRONICS

D
Ri

TODAY INTERNATIONAL

per

insertion

Ail

Ad

ons

pri

xx

EM

Ex
mE
EE

FA],TCON ELECTPONTCS

(De

ulbarton,

'

l,l"P"

TEKTRONICX 465 100MHz

portable scope calibrated manuals

and probes. Very qood t295.

(0344) 27869

Nr

TRAN

ET
LTD.

9 FIVE ACRES, HARLOW, ESSEX CM]8 6UX. TELIFAX: 0279 419302

TOROIDAL & TAMINATED

TRANSFORMER

MATTUFACTURERS
Very competitive production run + moil order service
Phone: C. llesley for immediote quore Tel: O27g 4lg3}2

7A

MOSFET AMP KIT.

(MAPLIN CAT NO LP56L}
150 Wetts inro a ohm

El6.{5 (+ 75p pfip pg7 er6g71

PRINTECH

156

WrnlhoD Lrm. WonlhoD.

W.t!fllld,

W. Yo.t.htD WF2 OiF.

T.l 032{ 38605d, .i.r Gpm,

DTI AUGUST 1992

Start training now for the following

courses. Send for our brochure
without obligation or Telephone us on
0626 779398
Eli.ftsz

Telecomms

Name

Tech C&G 271

Radio Amateur
Licence C&G

Micro-

ffi*

Processor

tr1992

lntroduction to
Television

New MOSFET AmPlifiers

Radio & Telecommunications Correspondence School

12 Moor View Drive, Teignmouth, Devon TQl4 9UN

improved range of SMOS modules

30W 30+30W 50W 120W

watt Class A AmPlifier

Low profile PCB Transformers
20

ELECTRONIC PLANS, laser

a range of encapsulated transformers

4VA, 5VA, IOVA, 18VA, 24VA, 3OVA

Write or phone for data and prices...

which include details of standard range of
toroidal transformers and audio modules.

No price increase

TURN YOUR SURPLUS

THANSISTORS, ICS ETC INTO CASH

designs, solarand wind generators,

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devices, pyrotechnic
puter graphics tablet.
For catalogue. SAE to Plancentre

immediate settlement.
We also welcome the opportunity
to quote lor complete lactory'
clearance.
Contact:

Publications, Unit Z Old Wharf

lndustrial Estate, Dymock Road,

lor 1992

COLES-HABDING & CO.

103 South Brink
Wisbech, Cambs. PE14 0RJ

Ledbury, Herefordshire, HRB 2HS.

BUYEHS OF SURPLUS INVENTORY

ESTABLISHED OVEH 15 YEARS

Tel:0945 584188
Fax:0945 475216

STUDY ELECTRONICS on the

BBC Micro. An interactive

approach to learning. Three

piogram titles now available.
ilntioduction to Electronics
Principles'
ematics'an
Programs
examples,

NEW VHF MICROTRANSMTTTER

KIT tuneable 80-135MHz 500

metre range sensitive electret
microphone, high quality PCB
SPECIAL OFFEB complete kit

only t17.99 (inc P&P)

A must lor all students and hobbyists leaming
how common electac components work

THE VIDEO

Visa orders telephone 021-411

182'l . ChequesiPOs to: Ouantek

Electronics Ltd, Kits Dept (ETl). 3

oad, West

Heath

831 3HL. For details

other kits. ShoP now
open

callers welcome

ELECTRONICS FOR THE HOBBYIST

(An excellenl 90 minule video using compuleF
graphic simulations)

Snd cheques/Po payabl to:

inputs

t
and

29.95 each

ue or Postal
educational

69.00. Laser pens, 1mw (red)

8149.00. Laser diode modules
(red) 2mw 899.00,5mw E159.00.

A. McKeeve, 6 Grange Farm,

Kirkcaldy, Fite, KY2 5UH.

software. Pump House, Lockram

Lane, Witham, Essex CMB 2BJ.

Please state BBC B/Master

series and disc size.

ON.LINE VIDEO MARKETING (DEPT EV 3)

The Conage, Tredown Farm, Bradatone,
Milton Abbot, Tavistock, Devon PL19 0OT
oher ltles

avar able SAE lor lisl Allow 14 days

br delvery

Are you looking for true quality.

Micio. FM. Transmitter Kit. The suprb
new model Varic8p lunod, a,plilier slage,omni
Dirmiional Mic, BollerTined. Fibre Gla$ PCB,
true 1 mile

MENDASCOPE LTD
REPAIR & RECALIBRATE
OSCILLOSCOPES
ALL MAKES AND MODELS
NATIONWIDE COLLECTION
& DELIVERY
FREE ESTIMATES

Llangollen, Clwyd, N. Wales LL20 7PB

PHONE: ()69 172 597

f,TI AUGUST 1992

WATT lnfrared laser diodes,

driver circuit plan included

ONLY 5.95 assembled and readY

to use f9.95 post iree. Access;

ormulae,
diaor
calc"ul
+ 82.
Orde

Mini'Micro
11/2\ oc.

Tined PCB
despatch kom stmk.
PBECISIoN

TIIE,65, n6dand Ro.d,

Wamrrlwydd, Su.ntoe

SAS +ST.

all

FREE AUDIOAMP - Complete

+V/C leads - e1 P P.!! K.l A. 1
Regent Road, llkley. Stereoamps
sockets +
cased + controls

regulated powersupply
t1 0.

60W/

TOADVERTISE IN
ETI TELEPHONE
LUCTON 044266551
7g

21pce Combination Driver Set

PROGRESSIVE RADIO

AtL PARTS

87/93 Dale Street

Tel: 051 236 0982 051 236 0154
47 Whltechapet
Tel: 051 235 5489
Liverpool 2
,TH

TV & Video spares emporium

Phone for best price on sDares

Fe4ltdm Headr fron fl0,95, Prm;uic Heads

from 510.95
Video CoDl Kits 15.99. Anstnd Sateltte Sms
AII pur TV & Video needs here h LiwrdEI

PARTS, l0l Rocky lane, Tuebrook,

Liverpool 6 4BB. Tel:051-2604825

Att

E ELECT BONICS SP EC I ALI STS'

Open: Tues-Sat 9.30-5 30

Mon-Fri l0m-5.30pm,

Sat 9am-5.30pm

This 21 piece combination driver set consists ot S bialri

UtaOe

screwdrivers, 6 crosshead types and 10 hexagon sockets. An

TELEPHONE ORDERS 0442 665s1 (24 HRS)

SERUICE

TAilUALS
Available lor Morl Equlpmenl.
TV, Vldeo, Audlo, test elc.
Any Age, llake or todel,
Wrile or Phone tor Quolatlon.

Mf,TTRTTRON (ETr)
8 Cherry tree Road, Chlnnor,
Oxon, OX9 4QY.
Tel:- (0844) 351694.
Faxr (0844) 352554

"

TO
ADVERTISE
IN ETI
TETEPHONE
LUCT ON
0442 66/5/51

E.T.l. Reader Ofier, Argus House, Boundary Way, Hemel

Hempstead, Herts. Hp2 7ST.
Please
I

supply

enclose my cheque/P.O. for

..

ROET/2S @ t5.99

..

.. . . made payable to

ASP or please debit my Access/Visa

ELECTRONICS TODAY INTERNATIONAL

" CLASSIFIED ADVERTISEMENT DEPARTMENT

ARGUS HOUSE, BOUNDARY WAY HEMEL HEMPSTEAD HP2 7ST
Rates: Lineage 55p per word + VAT minimum 15 words.
Semi-display 814.00 per single column cm plus VAT. No reimbursement for cancellations.
All ads must be
pre-paid.

Name
Address.
Daytime Tel. No:
.....,....... Date

signature
PLEASE DEBIT MY ACCESS/BARCLAYCABD No.

tr FOR SALE tr

BO

COMPONENTS

Expiry Date

tr PLANS tr OTHERS

STATE

f,TI AUGUST r9O2

ing, Garage Door Opener, Seculity Devices, etc

BEC

t"
I

t,

iruit ctrannel

TX & RX....................................45.99

All Pricos lncludo VAT

telecm

exhd

modai, model 9632,

F!

:::l:::::::1r::1
sile

=e8it.Eil

V6

al
add 95p lowards P&P
VAT ircludd in all Nices

8751, 8752 NMOS, HMOS. CMOS. Same 6otu6re specification as MEGAPROM

PC!

OlI

prof6sional

lllllillli
Erel
heade
rc,XlAI

MCSm31
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hard for

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to printorPd

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on

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C &31, 24 pin Eprom

cilions. Si2eTcm x

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:: ::::::: T:

FOMS

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Modules

Editor

rom lK

-*:: ":::y: :::: T:::r Iii lllillll"

I'arue sEDDisplav,FSR+/-200mv

dress

lC and 18

mblel for

gs's

758) to 32K (27256)

l: y::::|3.'|.'

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Sire&mr55cm f12.$

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JUST LOOK AT WHAT'S AVAII-ABLE FROM BONEX

ETI AUGUST I9O2

uit boads quicllY and easilv on vour lB

::"::::::::::: illl:lllllYlllilllillllillli

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with

tilliYl:lililrllil::::::i::l:::T:Ti:::::::l::::::::&3I

D.V,il tduhBrandnewlullsE31,2DigitVoltmterMdule

Berkshlre SUI6EP

sKI

Simulales Micropr@ssoE ffi162 on IBM rc. Full control reginc and memory' bbel gne6ted di$s$mblY, prqram
............ S9.S
................
rae,gowithbreakmanymoretoaturss.Suppliedon5.25or35Die.

Ajl p.od6ts advGnised are nw and

unlEsd unhss olheMi$ slatgd.

12 Elder way
langley Business Park
Slough

add El 50 P&P per order

fl9'99

RX
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$t8r51

ne

Ple*

- Plea*

f24.99,
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HEYes

Pm3875t Prosram

wthrlm* Fpcm
ffiftuC An ad logattEr
.. .. . ..
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Simh Chanml TX & RX.................................f39.S lndividual

EE

Test l'oado

SPECIAL OFFER

SBL-I BALANCE MIXERS 03.75

Telephone : 075i1 549502

For:0753 543812

8I

ELECTBONICS
TODAY
INTERNATIONAI,
EDITORIAL
Editor Puul Freetnan

CREATIVE
Art EditorPeter Kirby
Designer lain Houston
Technical Illustration

P eter H olland
Photography Manny C efai

ADVERTISEMENT SALES
Advertisement Manager

Mark Linacre
Advertisement Sales
Michele Donovan
Advertisernent Copy Control

Marie Quilter

Key Accounts Manager

DonnaWells

MANAGEMENT

een as we are to keep hi-fi enthusiasts happy, we

a DC coupled valve/transistor 45wattpower
amplifier and as if this different design wasn,t enough, we
throw in the PCB on the front cover aswell.
If you're a pilot or work in or travel within noisy
environments, you might be interested in our intercom fbr
light aircraft.
How do you open or close the window at night without
getting out of bed? Answer - by building our remote control

f(
Il.present

window opener.
We also have another general purpose temperature
controller and a house or car alarm control unit.
There's more on Digital TV, a look into the atom an a
review on a multi-lingual interpreter.
All this and more in our next issue of ETI. Make sure
you buy it on August 7th.

,,,'.rii

btt

,yiprqvq{

nq,t,r::

Managing Director
Terry Pattisson
Circulation & Promotions Manager
Debra Stupple
Production Manager
Toity Dowdeswell
Group Editor

StuafiCooke
Group Advertisment Manager
Claire Jenkinson

ii:!.* @I,,flLru?iff

Qur

JulV issue featured:

Improved LED bike lamp
Surround sound decoder
Camera Add-on unit

Mini baby monitor

Ultra-sonic audio sender
New concepts in optical connectivity
Low noise systems
Back issues can be obtained from Argus Subscription Services.
Address in column to left.

asubscription rates-UK e19.20 Europe e24 90 Sterling Overseas !26.90 US Dollars

ADVERTISERS' INDEX

Overeeas $49 00

a2

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NUMBER ONE SYSTEliilS ....,.,,..,..... 38

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81

JOHN MORBISON ELECTBOI{ICS

Argus House, Boundary Way,

Hemel Hempstead Hp2 7ST
Telephone (0442) 6655'1 Fax (0442) 66998

tFc
81

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79

LTD, ...,.....,,,.,......,.,,.....,.,,,

81

ETT AUGUST 1992

TOTAL PROGRAMMING SOLUTIONS FROM CITADEL

PC82 UNIVERSAL

PROGRAMMER

M25 BULK FAST

f395.OO

ERASER

f199.OO

O Same advanced UV source as the M1 but 4 lamps.

O Very large capacity 64x32 pin chips or one double Eurocard.
O All other features as M1
O Low profile steel case finished in powder coat.

a
O Device testing-74XX,40XX, 45XX, DRAM, SBAM
O PAL vector test.
O Clear menu driven software
O Text mode only, suits any video card.
O 40 pin Zero insertion force socxe:O Device testin g - l4XX, 40XX. 15XX, DRAM, SRAIV
O Small half card to install ir PC .ray oe left in place.
O Secure round cable and loc< rg D:o-rectors,
O Proven reliability-ove. i0C.lO:.-:s sold.
O Programmer pod size -

Ml

-'F

{,

''la' 38'nr

2&

Size

365x240x65mm high.

FAST

ERASER

O Advanced UV source
O Typical erase time three minutes.
O LED display of set time and countdown.
O End of time indicated by beep and display.
tl Large capacity 13x28 pin devices.
(t Sturdy construction, plated steel & aluminium
O Smallfootprint only 65x225x100mm high.

PC86 HANDY POCKET DEVICE

ADAPTERS FOR THE

PC82

TESTER

f99.OO

O Tests and identifies virtually all TTL & CMOS.

O Test many DRAM and SRAM memory chips.
O LCD display of type number and results
O Battery operated (PP3) and com pletely self-contained.
(D Zero insertion force test socket.
(D Dimensions 90x 140x30mm.

From f85.00

ia:

:. =:-:::; a, devices.
Extend programming
O Allows alternative soc<.::.::-.:c =-CC
O Multi-gang adapters :c':.:--:-=:-.- -ling of EPROIVIS, GAL, PAL and
popular CPU types.
a

f99.OO

FEATURES ALL PROG RAMM ERS

:or the IBM PC, install ir. -:=-::= ::-d and programming socket, load
:he menu-driven sofNr:':3-: .:-'ai,e a complete design system at
,',lll run on any compatible IBM
Tour fingertips, The p';-:-.--:-s
:36 Whether it be an Amstrad or
rrachines such as Xl, A- j'-:'
Compaq the system ',! ,'.:-< - 'oaiures are software driven and
supplied on 5%" disks,:nes: -:. := ccpied onto your hard disk using the
DOS copy command ,1. ::-:-. o'i the programmer, programme
manufacture, type numbe; and
voltages etc are menu dr.,:- :, s=
=::,ng
selection of a suitable spees :
programme, auto progra.I.-a
FREE SOFTWARE UPDATES

l:-:^-

Blank check, read & modify, verify,

s:a--:\' blow etc.

:s -e'', levices become available.

PC84-1

tt
It

to -8 ROM PROGRAMMERS From f139.00

Low cost EPROM programmer-devices

upto 1Mb CMOS and NMOS.

One to eight gang versions.

O To program 2116to271OO0.
O 32 pin Zero insertion force sockets.

FILE CONVERSION FACILITIES

O HEX to BIN File conve'sic-s ':
lD

-:=1, Motorola
-nd Tektronics,
:6 32 bit data.

::e-':'
r:d 1 a^c'+'programme

2wayl4way Bin f ile sp

O DumpfiletoConsole,

ORDER INFORMATION
Please include

from Government bodies and local authorities.

Eor-'"rther information and your FREE PC82

Simulation and device disk.

PHONE SAMANTHA
NOW ON:

081 951 1848

081 951 1849

f7 for carriage by overnight courier (f20 for exports) and

VAT on all UK orders. ACCESS, VISA or CWO. Official orders welcome

KI
5i[r

CITADEL PRODUCTS LTD

DEPT ETI
50 HIGH STREET
MIDDLESEX HA8 7EP

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Over 700 product packed pages with

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