MBA

INFORMATION SYSTEMS
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Assignment
Enrolment number: MBISMCT13727119

Self Declaration
I declare that the assignment submitted by me is not a verbatim/photo static
copy from the website/books/journals/manuscripts.

Signature of the student

Signature of the faculty concerned

Q.1 Mention the pros and cons of relational model. Bring out the
reasons, why relational model became more popular.
Answer:

MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

The relational model for database management is a database model

based on first-order predicate logic, first formulated and proposed in 1969 by
Edgar F. Codd. In the relational model of a database, all data is represented
in terms of tuples, grouped into relations.
The purpose of the relational model is to provide a declarative method
for specifying data and queries. Users directly state what information the
database contains and what information they want from it, and let the
database management system software take care of describing data
structures for storing the data and retrieval procedures for answering
queries.

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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

Sample Relational Model

A relational database is a collection of data items organized as a set of
formally described tables from which data can be accessed easily. A
relational database is created using the relational model. The software used
in a relational database is called a relational database management system
(RDBMS). A relational database is the predominant choice in storing data,
over other models like the hierarchical database model or the network
model.

Sample Relational database structure

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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

Characteristics of Relational Database:

Data in the relational database must be represented in tables, with
values in columns within rows.
Data within a column must be accessible by specifying the table name,
the column name, and the value of the primary key of the row.
The DBMS must support missing and inapplicable information in a
systematic way, distinct from regular values and independent of data
type.
The DBMS must support an active on-line catalogue.
The DBMS must support at least one language that can be used
independently and from within programs, and supports data definition
operations,

data

manipulation,

constraints,

and

transaction

management.
Views must be updatable by the system.
The DBMS must support insert, update, and delete operations on sets.
The DBMS must support logical data independence.
The DBMS must support physical data independence.
Integrity constraints must be stored within the catalogue, separate
from the application.

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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

The DBMS must support distribution independence.

The existing

application should run when the existing data is redistributed or when

the DBMS is redistributed.
If the DBMS provides a low level interface (row at a time), that
interface cannot bypass the integrity constraints.

Characteristics of relational model:

The one-to-many (1:M) relationship is not easily implemented in the
relational model by putting the foreign key of the "1" side in the table
of the "many" side as a primary key
We can think of a table as a persistent representation of a logical
relation.
DBMS use indexes for many different purposes.
Numeric data are data on which we can perform meaningful arithmetic
procedures.
RDBMSs enforce integrity rules automatically
A null is created when we press the Enter key or the Tab key to move
to the next entry without making a prior entry of any kind.
The DIFFERENCE operator subtracts one table from the other
Tables within a database share common attributes that enable the
tables to be linked together
Character data cant contain any character or symbol intended for
mathematical manipulation
In a relational model, if A determines B, C, and D, we cant write A = B,
C, D.
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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

The idea of determination is not unique to the database environment.

A foreign key need not exist in both tables that have a relationship.
Because the relational model uses attribute values to establish
relationships among tables, many database users wrongly assume that
the term relation refers to such relationships.
The DIVIDE operation uses one single-column table (e.g., column "a")
as the divisor and one two-column table (e.g., columns "a" and "b") as
the dividend.
As rare as 1:1 relationships should be, certain conditions absolutely
require their use.
A left outer join on tables CUSTOMER and AGENT yields all of the rows
in the CUSTOMER table, including those that do not have a matching
value in the AGENT table.
Current relational database software generally provides only a system
catalog (and not a data dictionary).
Depending on the sophistication of the application development
software, nulls can create problems when functions such as COUNT,
AVERAGE, and SUM are used.
The order of the rows and columns is not important to the DBMS.
In a natural join, the column on which the join was made doesnt occur
twice in the new table.
If the attribute (B) is functionally dependent on a composite key (A) but
not on any subset of that composite key, the attribute (B) is fully
functionally dependent on (A).
A data dictionary is sometimes described as "the database designer's
database" because it records the design decisions about tables and
their structures.
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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

Referential and entity integrity are not the two names for the same
thing.
The practical significance of taking the logical view of a database is
that it serves as a reminder of the simple file concept of data storage.
Tables must have the same attribute characteristics (the columns and
domains must be compatible) to be used in a UNION.
Only a single attribute can define functional dependence.
There is a good reason to use null values in a database.
The SELECT operator wont yield a vertical subset of a table.
A data dictionary contains metadatadata about data.
Each table in a relational database must have a primary key.

PROS of RDBMS:
Flexible and well-established.
Sound theoretical foundation and use over many years has resulted in
stable, standardized products available.
Standard data access language through SQL.
Costs and risks associated with large development efforts and with
large databases are well understood.
The fundamental structure, i.e., a table, is easily understood and the
design and normalization process is well defined.
Data entry, updates and deletions will be efficient.
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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

Data retrieval, summarization and reporting will also be efficient.

Since the database follows a well-formulated model, it behaves
predictably.
Since much of the information is stored in the database rather than in
the application, the database is somewhat self-documenting.
Changes to the database schema are easy to make.

CONS of RDBMS:
Performance problems associated with re-assembling simple data
structures into their more complicated real-world representations.
Lack of support for complex base types, e.g., drawings.
SQL is limited when accessing complex data.
Knowledge of the database structure is required to create ad hoc
queries.
Locking mechanisms defined by RDBMSs do not allow design
transactions to be supported, e.g., the "check in" and "check out" type
of feature that would allow an engineer to modify a drawing over the
course of several working days.
Why relational model became more popular?

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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

The reasons why relational database model became more popular than other
database models can be summarised as below.
Portability: Relational model uses SQL which is well standardized and is
largely the same across different database vendors
Ease of data access in Relational model: SQL allows to build very
sophisticated queries understood by any DB professional who knows
SQL
Relational model was based on strong mathematical background.
Basic structure of the relation is simple, easy to understand and
implement.
Relational model is the easiest to store and retrieve data, primarily
because SQL has been designed around it.

It's standard, the products are matured, debugged, full-featured,

there's a choice of vendors, there's support, there's a trained
workforce.
Q.4"Redundancy of data is many times beneficial" Justify the
statement. Also describe the situation when redundancy will mess
up the current data base status and at that instance of time what
actions you will prefer to take.
Answer:
Data redundancy is a term used about databases and means simply that
some data fields appear more than once in the database. Data redundancy is
wasteful and inefficient for several reasons and database designers attempt

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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

to eliminate it as far as possible by using a technique called data

normalization.
Data can appear multiple times in a database for a variety of reasons,
depending on the type of organization of business that the database is
designed to serve.

For example, an online business may have the same

customers name appearing several times if that customer has bought

several different products at different times.
This redundancy gives rise to problems for the IT department responsible for
maintaining the database because they must update that customers details
in numerous different locations. It also means that much storage capacity is
wasted, storing the same data multiple times. Worst of all, if one or more
instances of the customers name are not updated then the database will
contain inconsistent data and no one will know which set of data is the
correct one.
The solution to this problem was first developed in 1970 by Edgar Codd, the
inventor of the relational database. Put simply, a relational database in one
in which important data, such as customers names in stored only once in a
single file, but each customers field is defined by its relationship to other
files - such as individual product sales.
The process of designing a database so that it is not subject to duplication or
redundancy of data with its attendant problems of data corruption and
inconsistency is referred to as normalization.
Normalization requires that the database designer stick to rules established
by the database community to ensure that data is organized efficiently.
These rules are called normal form rules. There are a number of normal

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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

forms each more rigorous than the previous and each containing the rules of
the previous form. Currently there are five levels of normal form.
Redundancy of data is many times beneficial:
The redundancy of data in a database is primarily referred to in a negative
sense, as it pertains to the unnecessary duplication of data in a database.
However, there are certain times when redundant data is required, or
desirable - based upon specific and unique conditions.
Reasons and types of certain necessary duplicate data:
Ensure "static" data for required situations (government-compliant
accounting, banking, and financial record-keeping systems, Capella
assignment attachments, etc.)
Information that is "locked" into historical records of quotations, orders,
invoices, and receipts after initial lookups via character keys.
Client memory constraints
Improve the ease and speed of access to data, with the risk that changes
may cause conflicting values
Example:
We have a table, which displays item, item no, item cost etc. which is denormalized. To avoid redundancy, we normalize it and add some more fields
like
sub-item,
sub
item
no,
sub
item
cost
etc.
Now, if we write a query to retrieve data from this normalized table (which
dont have redundant data), it will take a long time for the query to get
executed as the number of fields increased. Hence, redundancy of data is
beneficial, that is query processing time will be minimal.
Situation when redundancy will mess up the current database
status:
Any good MS Access Database Developer or Consultant would know that
database redundancy is a big problem for any database, large or small.

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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

Arguably the worst part of data redundancy is the fact that the database are
unnecessarily larger this might not seem like such a problem these days with
our 2TB HDD, but it was a huge problem not too long ago when space was an
important commodity. But hand in hand with larger file sizes is slower speeds
and that is still a concern for people these days, particularly clients who
wouldnt be too happy knowing that a poor database developer or consultant
allowed a easily fixable problem that affects profits get past them.
Change requires reconciling data in multiple locations or fields in the
database
Wastes physical storage space
Can decrease performance, accuracy, reliability, and stability
Introduces maintenance issues
Increases difficulty of troubleshooting database problems
Data redundancy results in data inconsistency, or a lack of data integrity.
- Different and conflicting versions of the same data appear in different
places
Errors more likely to occur when complex entries are made in several
different files and/or recur frequently in one or more files
Data anomalies develop when required reconciliations in redundant data
are not made successfully
There is also the issue that the database has to be updated in more than one
place; just a simple mistake could have two different values for the same
record, which could cause catastrophic failures in the database, and
depending on the use of the database could cause thousands of dollars of
damage or even worse, could put lives at risk through something easily
avoided with through planning.

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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

Redundant data is great if it is a backup and directly linked to the source, but
the evil element of redundant data surfaces when an organization has
duplicate data in two or more unlinked files or applications.
The occurrence of data redundancy can lead to the following problems:
(a) Redundant storage: Some information is stored repeatedly.
(b) Update anomalies: If one copy of such repeated data is updated, an
inconsistency is created unless all copies are similarly updated.
(c) Insertion anomalies: It may not be possible to store some information
unless some other information is stored as well.
(d) Deletion anomalies: It may not be possible to delete some information
without losing some other information as well.
Example:
We

have

centralized

database

that

includes

basic

membership

information and each person acting as a liaison to a committee maintains a

Word roster for his or her committee. We now have redundant, duplicate
information.
When John Smith's e-mail addresses changes, it must be changed in at least
two places. Now let's say this committee communicates via a list server.
Unless that list server is hooked into the main database, that's three
changes and the liaison also has John in their Outlook contacts - four
changes. Oh yes, and John is a real up-and-comer in the organization and
he's on two other committees. That's 10 changes (1 in the main database
and 3 for each committee).
It is important to note that data redundancy is not a technological failure
but a management or process failure. The basic ingredients technologically
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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

are interconnectivity. I.e. computers must be able to interact across a

network of some sort, and the serving and receiving of data from a
centralized database. Except in isolated cases, interconnectivity is not much
of a problem for organizations. However, everyone has different needs for
the information, and it's difficult to envision pulling all this disparate data
together, so choosing from the many centralized database software options
becomes the challenge.
The key for associations, of course, is to keep one centralized database that
reduces the amount of redundant data as much as possible - ideally down
to none. The goal is to develop a centralized database that can do most of
the things for most of the people and functions, with the flexibility to
change and grow with your organization.
Preferred Actions to reduce redundancy:
A series of steps are taken to reduce data redundancy and the chances of
data becoming inconsistent are followed to obtain a database design that
allows for efficient access and storage of data in a relational database.
Identify all the places where the duplicate data is kept.
Select a project leader - perhaps someone from the department
keeping the most data. The leader analyzes all the known different
data repositories in the organization to see what is unique about the
ways that data is accessed. A systems analyst or process engineer is
usually a helpful mediator during this stage. Special attention should
be paid to information that will be used in the form of output. The
ease and flexibility of getting information out of your centralized
database is probably the most important feature of the software
solution that you decide on.
There is a budget allocated for the project
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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

Prioritize the critical project tasks based on "must have" and "nice-tohave" features
Develop master/ centralized database and allow the individual
department to extract that data for their special project or needs
Develop an automated interface where ever applicable with batch
control
Develop a web page along with an interface to update the database
either through batch control or real time.
The normalization theory of a relational database is said to be in normal form
if it satisfies certain constraints. Codd's original work defined three such
forms but there are now five generally accepted steps of normalization.
First Normal Form eliminates repeating groups by putting each value of
a multi-valued attribute into a new row.
Second Normal Form eliminates functional dependencies on a partial
key by putting the fields in a separate table from those that are
dependent on the whole key.
Third Normal Form eliminates functional dependencies on non-key
fields by putting them in a separate table. At this stage, all non-key
fields are dependent on the key, the whole key and nothing but the
key.
Fourth Normal Form separates independent multi-valued facts stored in
one table into separate tables.
Fifth Normal Form breaks out data redundancy that is not covered by
any of the previous normal forms.

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MBA
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS

Enrolment number:
MBISMCT13727119

Conclusion:
Thus it can be concluded that, redundancy of data is many times
beneficial", But many a times it will mess up the current database status
and hence action of data normalization is required in order to avoid any data
anomaly.

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