UNIT

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The World
of Living
E x p e r i m e n t 18

AIM
To prepare a stained, temporary mount of onion peel and to study
its cells.

THEORY
All living organisms are composed of cells. New cells arise by the division
of pre-existing cells. Cell is the structural and functional unit of life. In
plants, cells have an outermost rigid cell wall beneath which is a cell
membrane. The cell membrane encloses cytoplasm, cell organelles, and
a nucleus.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
An onion bulb, slides, cover slips, two watch glasses, needle, brush, forceps,
razor blade, compound microscope, blotting paper, methylene blue (or
safranin) solution, glycerine, and water.

PROCEDURE
1. Take one fleshy scale leaf of an onion. Break it into two and using a
forcep pull out a thin membranous peel adhering to the inner surface
of the leaf. This is the epidermal peel.
2. Place the peel in a watch glass containing water and cut it into small
rectangular pieces.

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Fig. 18.1 : (a)

Method of
removing an
epider mal peel
from onion leaf

3. Mix 1 or 2 drops of methylene blue or safrarin in a small quantity of

water taken in another watch glass and transfer the peels into it.
Leave the peels for about 3 minutes. Dip the peel in water to remove
excess stain.
4. Take a clean slide with a drop of glycerine in the middle and using a
brush transfer the washed and stained peel on to it.
5. Place a cover slip over it by slowly lowering it with a needle. Avoid
entry of air bubbles.
6. Remove excess glycerine from the edges of cover slip with the help
of a piece of blotting paper.
7. Observe the slide under the microscope, first in low power and then
in high power.
8. Draw a labelled diagram of the cells as seen under microscope.
9. Note the features listed in the observation table.

Cell wall
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Fig. 18.1 : (b)

Staining and
mounting the
onion peel

Fig. 18.2 : Epider mal cells of an onion peel

OBSERVATION TABLE
Sl.No.

Feature

Observation

1.

Shape of cells

spherical/oval/rectangular/square

2.

Arrangement of cells

compact/loose

3.

Inter -cellular spaces

present/absent

4.

Nucleus

present/absent

5.

Cell wall

present/absent

6.

Stained portions of cell

cell wall/cytoplasm/nucleus

7.

Unstained portions of cell

cell wall/cytoplasm/vacuole

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The cells that form the peel are rectangular in shape, compactly arranged
and without any intercellular spaces. Each cell has a distinct cell wall, a
prominent nucleus and a vacuole. The cells form the outer layer of the leaf
known as epidermis.

PRECAUTIONS

Staining of the peel must be appropriate. Excess stain can be removed

by rinsing the peel with water taken in a watch glass.
Use a brush to transfer the peel on to the slide.
While placing the cover slip care should be taken to avoid air bubbles.

QUESTIONS

What is the size of nucleus in relation to size of cell?

Name the stained parts of the cell.
Pick the odd one out. (a) plastids, (b) large vacuoles, (c) cell wall,
(d) centrioles.
Which of the following is a correctly labeled cell of an onion peel?
Nucleus

Cell
membrance

Cell
membrane
Vacuole

Nucleus
Cell wall
Vacuole

(a)

(b)

Nucleus

Cell wall
Cell
membrane
Vacuole

Cell wall
Cell
membrane
Vacuole

Cell wall

(c)

(d)

Nucleus

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E x p e r i m e n t 19

AIM
To prepare a temporary mount of human cheek epithelial cells, and to
study its characteristics.

THEORY
Like plants, the body of all animals including humans is composed of cells.
Unlike plant cells, animal cells do not have cell wall. The outermost covering
of an animal cell is a cell membrane. The cytoplasm, nucleus and other
cell organelles are enclosed in it. Epithelial tissue is the outermost covering
of most organs and cavities of an animal body.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Methylene blue stain, glycerine, a compound microscope, slide, cover slip,
a clean spatula or a toothpick, a brush, a needle, and a piece of blotting
paper.

PROCEDURE
1. Rinse your mouth with fresh water.
2. With the help of a clean spatula or a toothpick, gently scrap the inner
side of your cheek.
3. Transfer the scrapped material into a drop of water taken on a clean
slide.

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Cell membrane

4. With the help of a needle spread the material uniformly.

5. Add a drop of methylene blue stain. After about 3
minutes put a drop of glycerine over it.
6. Place a clean cover slip over the glycerine. Remove the
excess glycerine from the edges of cover slip with the
help of a piece of blotting paper.
7. Examine the slide under microscope, first under low
power and then under high power.

Nucleus

8. Draw diagrams of cells as seen under the microscope.

Observe and record the features.

Fig. 19.1 : A few Cheek

cells

OBSERVATIONS
Sl.No.

Cytoplasm

Feature

Observation

1.

Shape of cells

2.

Arrangement

3.

Inter cellular space

4.

Cell wall

present/absent

5.

Cell membrane

present/absent

6.

Cell contents

7.

Vacuoles

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Epithelial cells are small, polygonal in shape and compactly arranged
to form a continuous layer. The cells are without cell wall. Cell
membrane encloses a distinct nucleus and a vacuole. Epithelial tissue
forms the outermost covering of almost all the organs and various
cavities of animals and human.

PRECAUTIONS

Cheeks should be scrapped gently to prevent injury.

Spread the material on the slide so that it forms a thin uniform

layer.

Avoid over staining (or understaining) of the material.

While mounting the cover slip, avoid entry of air bubbles.

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NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

In such temporary preparations, cytoplasmic organelles are not
visible because they are too small and are not stained by
methylene blue.

QUESTIONS

Arrange the following steps in correct sequence

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(a)

Putting a drop of glycerine on the cheek cells on a slide,

Scrapping the inner side of cheek,
Adding methylene blue stain, and
Placing the cover slip over the material.
i, ii, iii, iv; (b) ii, i, iv, iii; (c) iv, ii, iii, i; (d) ii, iii, i, iv.

Which one of the following is absent in animal cells

(a) Cell membrane, (b) Nucleolus, (c) Cell wall, (d) Cytoplasm

Cheek epithelial cells are an example of

(a) squamous epithelial cells, (b) cuboidal epithelial cells,
(b) columnar epithelial cells, (d) all of these.

Why are cheek epithelial cells always moist?

Name two structures which you would see in cheek cells if you
were using a very high magnifying power of microscope?

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E x p e r i m e n t 20

AIM
To study the phenomenon of osmosis.

THEORY
Every living cell has an extremely thin, elastic cell membrane, also called
plasma membrane, which separates cell contents from the external
environment. It is the outermost covering of animal cells. In plant cells,
the membrane is present below the cell wall. It is selectively permeable as
it allows solvent molecules and only selected solute molecules to pass
through it. It differs from a permeable membrane which allows all types of
molecules to pass through it. Movement of molecules of water or solvent
from a region of its higher concentration to the region of its lower
concentration across a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis.
It is of two types endosmosis and exosmosis. Endosmosis is the entry of
water into the cell while exosmosis is the movement of water out of the cell
into the external solution. Endosmosis takes place, when the cell is placed
in a hypotonic solution. Exosmosis takes place when the cell is placed in a
hypertonic solution.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Two raw eggs, dil. hydrochloric acid, a salt (or sugar) solution of about
25% concentration in water (dissolve about 25 g salt in 100 mL water),
beakers and petri dishes.

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PROCEDURE
1. Dissolve the shells of two eggs by placing them in two separate
beakers containing dil. HCl. Hydrochloric acid dissolves the
calcium chloride of the egg shells. The eggs will become de-shelled.
2. Carefully drain off the acid from the beakers and wash the eggs
thoroughly with water while they are still in the beakers. Repeat
this process several times till all traces of acid are completely
r emoved.
3. Observe the de-shelled eggs.
4. Fill one beaker containing one de-shelled egg with water and the
other beaker with another de-shelled egg with the concentrated
salt (or sugar) solution.
5. Leave the set up for about four hours and observe the two deshelled eggs.

OBSERVATIONS
Observe the de-shelled eggs before and after placing them in water and
concentrated salt (or sugar) solution respectively. And answer the
following
(i) What has happened to the de-shelled egg placed in water?
(ii) What has happened to the de-shelled egg placed in salt (or sugar)
solution?

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The de-shelled egg when placed in water swells because the concentration
of water molecules outside the egg is much higher than the concentration
of water molecules inside the egg, as a result of which endosmosis takes
place and water from the beaker enters into the egg. Exosmosis takes
place when the de-shelled egg is placed in a sugar (or salt) solution. The
water comes out from the de-shelled egg into the (or salt) sugar solution.
The loss of water results in the shrinkage of the egg.

PRECAUTIONS

While washing the de-shelled eggs, care should be taken to prevent

the damage of egg membrane.

Use dil. hydrochloric acid only lest the egg membrane gets damaged.

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QUESTIONS

What is the difference between endosmosis and exosmosis?

What will happen if a de-shelled egg is placed in a solution with

the same osmotic concentration as in the egg?

Why did the egg swell when placed in water?

Movement of water during osmosis takes place across

(a) cell wall, (b) cell membrane, (c) cytoplasm, (d) protoplasm.

The plasma membrane which selectively allows solvent molecules

and solute molecules to pass through it is
(a) a permeable membrane, (b) a selectively permeable membrane,
(c) an impermeable membrane, (d) a semi-permeable membrane.

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E x p e r i m e n t 21

AIM
To study plasmolysis in leaf epidermal peels of Rhoeo or Tradescantia.

THEORY
Living cells generally contain plenty of water due to which they are
turgid. Turgidity is an important attribute of cells as it gives shape to
cells. When turgid cell is placed in salt (or sugar) solution, water moves
out of the cell across its membrane into the external solution. As a
result, the volume of protoplast decreases and the cell membrane
withdraws from the cell wall creating an apparent colourless space
within the cell. This shrinkage of protoplast inside a cell is termed
plasmolysis.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Compound microscope, fresh leaves of Rhoeo or T radescantia, a sugar (or
salt) solution of about 10 per cent concentration in water
(dissolve about 10 g sugar in 100 mL water), a new razor blade, slide, cover
slip, needle, forceps, brush, and a piece of blotting paper.

PROCEDURE
1. Using a new razor blade, take out three or four small peels from
the lower epidermis of leaf of Rhoeo or T radescantia.

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2. Mount one peel in a drop of water taken on a slide. Place a cover

slip and observe under the low power of microscope. Notice the
compact arrangement of polygonal cells. Each cell contains pink
coloured protoplast. Draw a neat diagram of few cells in your notebook
and shade the regions covered by the protoplast.
3. Count about 25 cells and note down how many of them are turgid
and how many are plasmolysed.
4. Remove the cover slip. Add about five drops of sugar (or salt) solution
on the peel.
5. After five minutes place a cover slip on the peel, blot out the excess
solution from the sides of the cover slip. Focus the cells under the
low power of microscope and observe.
6. Note down your observations. Draw some cells and shade the extent
of pink coloured region in them.
7. Again count about 25 cells and note down how many of them are
turgid and how many are plasmolysed.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 21.1 : (a) A nor mal cell and (b) a plasmolysed cell

OBSERVATIONS
No. of cells counted

Number of
turgid cells

Number of
plasmolysed cells

Peel in water
Peel kept in salt
(or sugar) solution

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the observations, analyse and reason out the causes
for plasmolysis.

PRECAUTIONS

Perform the experiment using coloured leaf samples like those of Rhoeo,
T radescantia, Coleus, etc.

Use concentrated sugar (or salt) solution.

Ensure complete immersion of peels in the solution.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

In the experimental peel, water from the cells moves out into the
external solution by a process called exosmosis. This happens
due to the fact that the cell sap is a weaker solution as compared
to the external (salt or sugar) solution. Consequently, it has more
water molecules than that in external solution. Due to this
difference in the concentration of water inside the cell and the
external solution, a concentration gradient is established. Due
to this gradient, water moves out of the cell into the external
solution. This results in a reduction in volume of protoplasm
inside the cell hence the pink region appears shrunk in these
cells. The phenomenon of losing water from cells leading to
shrinkage of protoplast is called plasmolysis.

QUESTIONS

What moves out from the cells in this experiment? Why?

Why are living cells always turgid?

Between the cell sap and solution (salt or sugar) in the experiment,
which is the hypertonic solution?

Will plasmolysis occur when cells are placed in isotonic solution?

Why pigments and other cell contents do not move out of the
cells?
What will happen if the cells are kept for a very long time in the
salt (or sugar) solution? Explain.

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E x p e r i m e n t 22

AIM
To test the presence of starch in a given food sample and metanil yellow in
pigeon pea.

THEORY
The presence of starch in a given food sample (say in potato) can be
determined using iodine solution. Starch is a carbohydrate that produces
blue colour when brought in contact with the iodine solution.
Food products are often adulterated for economic gains. For example,
metanil yellow is used to adulterate pigeon pea (arhar dal). Metanil yellow
turns into pink colour when it reacts with the concentrated hydrochloric
acid. Whereas the pieces of unadultrated sample does not exhibit such a
change.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Potato, pieces of pigeon pea (arhar dal), iodine solution, concentrated
hydrochloric acid, petridish, test tube, knife, and a dropper.

PROCEDURE
A. To test the presence of starch in potato
1. Wash a potato alongwith its skin.
2. Take a thin slice of potato in a petridish.

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3. Add a few drops of iodine solution on the surface of the thin potato
slice.
4. Observe the change in colour in the area of slice where iodine soluton
was added.
B. To
1.
2.
3.
4.

test the presence of metanil yellow in pigeon pea

Take a few dry pieces of pigeon pea sample in a dry test tube.
Add a few drops of conc. HCl to these dry pieces.
Does the colour of the reaction mixture change?
Conclude whether the sample under test is adulterated or not?

OBSERVATIONS
(a) The colour of potato slice changes into _________ on addition of iodine
solution.
(b) The colour of reaction mixture of pigeon pea sample when reacted
with conc. HCl changes into _________ .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

On the basis of observations comment on (a) presence of starch in potato
and (b) whether the pigeon pea sample is adulterated with metanil yellow
or not.

NOTE FOR THE T EACHER

The starch test may also be performed on samples of rice, wheat

flour etc.
The presence of metanil yellow can also be detected in other food
samples such as turmeric powder.

QUESTIONS

In what form the food is stored in plants?

Which is the common adulterant of arhar dal?
What are the efects of adulteration of food items.
Why do the old stock of potato taste sweet?
What are the different adulterants commonly used in foods?

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E x p e r i m e n t 23

AIM
To study parenchyma and sclerenchyma tissues in plants by preparing
temporary slides.

THEORY
Flowering plants are structurally complex as they are made up of different
parts like roots, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc. Each part is in turn
an assembly of different types of tissues. Each tissue type has specific
structure and performs a particular function. Plant tissues are broadly
classified into meristematic and permanent tissues. Permanent tissues
may be simple, permanent tissues like parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma. Complex permanent tissues are xylem and phloem. The
structural features of tissues like wall characteristics, cell size, lumen
size, and cytoplasmic contents are different in different tissues.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
T ender stem of a herb (balsam/T ridax/Petunia/any cultivated
ornamental herb or wild plant), safranin stain solution, dilute glycerine,
chart of transverse section of stem, compound microscope, razor blade,
slide, cover slip, brush, petri dish, and a piece of blotting paper.

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PROCEDURE
A. Making a temporary slide
1. Cut a tender stem of any of the above-mentioned plants
into bits of about 3 cm length and place them in water.
2. Hold a piece between the thumb and forefinger in your
left hand as shown in Fig. 23.1 (a).
(a)
3. Pass a wet blade across the stem in quick motion so
as to get a thin, unbroken, circular cross section of
the material [Fig. 23.1 (b) and (c)].
(b)
4. Repeat the process to get about fifteen transverse
sections of the material.
5. Transfer the sections to a petri dish containing water.
Select a thin, transparent section and with a brush
transfer it to a drop of water taken on a slide. Add
three drops of dilute safranin stain solution to the
section and leave it for about five minutes.
(c)
6. Blot the excess stain. Add three drops of dilute
glycerine on the stained section. Place a cover slip on
Fig. 23.1 : (a) Correct way
it. Focus it under the low power of microscope and
of holding the
observe the section.
material;
(b) Correct way
of holding the
razor blade;
and
(c) cutting the
section

7. Now focus the section under high power and observe

again. Note and record your observations.
8. Starting from the outermost layer, locate the epidermis,
cortex and vascular tissues [Fig. 23.2(a) and (b)].
compare the layers with the diagram in the chart.

9. In the layers of cells beginning from epidermis, observe the following

features
a. Cell wall
b. Arrangement
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

thin/thick;
compact/loose;

Shape of cell
Intercellular spaces
Lumen (cell cavity)
Nucleus
Staining of cell wall

circular/oval/rectangular/polygonal;
present/absent;
small/large;
present/absent;
deeply stained/mildly stained/no
stain; and
h. Cytoplasm:
present/absent
10. Record your observations in the given tabular column.

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Cell wall

Cell wall

Nucleus
Inter cellular
spaces

Lumen

Cytoplasm

(a)

(b)

Fig. 23.2 : (a) Parenchyma; and (b) sclerenchyma

OBSERVATIONS
Features
a.

Cell wall

b.

Arrangement

c.

Shape of cell

d.

Intercellular spaces

e.

Lumen

f.

Nucleus

g.

Staining of wall

h.

Cytoplasm

Parenchyma

Sclerenchyma

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Parenchyma tissue is the most abundant type of tissue in plants. It forms
the major bulk of stem, roots, leaves, fruits and seeds. The tissue is
composed of living cells, with various shapes, sizes and functions. The
cells provide mechanical support to the plant body. The parenchyma also
acts as a storage tissue for food, air and water. Cells of sclerenchyma tissue
are higly lignified with very thick cell walls and obliterated lumen. Cells
are usually elongated and polygonal in shape in cross-section. The tissue
provides the mechanical support and is found below the epidermis and
around the vascular bundles.

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PRECAUTIONS

For sectioning, select soft, tender herbaceous stem only. Avoid stems
that are hard and woody.

Take care not to injure your finger while sectioning.

Always keep the plant materials and sections in water.
Use dilute safranin stain solution.
The trachea and tracheids of xylem tissue appear to be very much
similar to sclerenchyma and may be erroneously identified as
sclerenchyma tissue. Xylem is always confined to the vascular bundle
and is generally not seen in the cortex or pith.

NOTE FOR THE T EACHER

Features of parenchyma and sclerenchyma are given below for
purpose of their identification
Parenchyma
Parenchyma constitutes the major type of tissue in plants.
Parenchyma cells have very thin walls, may be circular,
rectangular, oval or polygonal in shape, loosely arranged in most
cases with intercellular spaces between cells. In some plants
intercellular spaces are absent and the cells are compactly
arranged.
Parenchyma is composed of living cells with large internal space
(lumen). Under the high power of microscope nucleus may be
visible.
Epider mis, cortex and pith are essentially composed of
parenchyma tissue.
Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma cells are generally found below the epidermis or
just above the vascular bundles.
The cells have very thick walls and they stain deep red when
stained with safranin.
Lumen is reduced and there is no nucleus [Fig. 25.3(b)].
Cells are generally elongated in vertical section and polygonal in
cross section; compactly arranged without any intercellular spaces.

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QUESTIONS

In the transverse section of stem which tissue occupies larger

space-parenchyma or sclerenchyma?

Draw an outline of the section of stem and indicate the regions

where parenchyma and sclerenchyma are situated.

Which tissue, when matured, has dead cells?

Mention the main function of sclerenchyma tissue?
You can bite fruits like guava, grapes, banana etc. but not a piece
of wood. Why?

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E x p e r i m e n t 24

AIM
To identify and study striated muscle fibre and nerve fibre in animals.

THEORY
Animal body is made up of groups of similar cells which perform
specific function. Such groups of identical cells are called tissues. There
are four basic types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscular, and neural.
These tissues vary from each other not only in their structure but also in
their functions.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Permanent slides of striated muscle fibre and nerve fibre, charts of
animal tissues with straited muscle fibre and nerve cell (neuron), and
compound microscope.

PROCEDURE
1. Place a permanent slide of straited muscle fibre under a compound
microscope.
2. Observe it first under low power and then under high power. Do you
see an alternate arrangement of dark and light bands? Do you also
find some nuclei along the fibre?

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3. Identify the tissues with the help of charts. Draw diagrams of the
tissues as seen under the microscope.
4. Replace the permanent slide of straited muscle fibre by the permanent
slide of a nerve fibre. Identify different parts of a cell with the help of
charts. Draw diagrams.

OBSERVATIONS

Dark and
light bands

Striated Muscle Fibre Under high magnification, the Nucleus

elongated fibre shows the presence of alternate arrangement
of dark and light bands (Fig. 24.1). The dark bands represent
thick filaments and the light bands represent thin filaments.
Many nuclei are also observed along the fibre resulting from
the fusion of many muscle cells. Such a condition is called
syncytium. Cells of the tissue are long, cylindrical, nontapering and unbranched.
Nerve Fibres Under high magnification, the nerve fibre
shows nerve cells which have three parts: a cell body,
dendrites, and axon, The axon may or may not be
surrounded by myelin sheath (Fig. 24.2).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Tissues are organised in a specific proportion and pattern
to form different organs. Muscular tissue plays an important
role in all the movements of body parts and also in
locomotion. It consists of different types of muscle fibres,
such as (i) striated, (ii) smooth, and (iii) cardiac muscle
fibres. The striated muscle fibres work according to our
will (voluntary) and get tired (fatigued) when overworked.
The functioning of smooth and cardiac muscle fibres are
not under our control (involuntary).
Neural tissue controls the bodys responsiveness to
changing conditions within and outside the body. The
function of neural tissue is to allow communication between
different parts of the body. It is composed of neurons, which
transmit impulses. The neural tissues of an organism form
its nervous system. The nervous system includes the brain,
spinal cord, and nerves. Neural tissue is made of nerve
cells which are distinctly characterised by the axon of the
cell that sends nerve impulse to the next cell.

Fig 24.1 : A striated muscle

fibre

Dendrites

Axon
Synaptic
terminal
Nucleus
Cell body

(b)
(a)
Dendrites

Myelin
sheath

Synaptic
terminal

Axon
Cell
body

Nucleus

(b)
Fig. 24.2 : (a) Non-myelinated
nerve fibre; and
(b) Myelinated
nerve fibre

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QUESTIONS

What are the features of striated muscle fibre? Where do we find

these in our body?

Mention the function of skeletal muscles in our body.

What are the features observed in a neuron?

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E x p e r i m e n t 25

AIM
To study the characteristics of Spirogyra, Agaricus, moss, fern, Pinus and
an angiosperm plant.

THEORY
We know that plants of different groups exhibit different characteristics.
Thallophytes, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms
are the five major groups of plants. This classification is essentially based
on the structure of their bodies and methods of reproduction. Thallophytes
have the simplest structure. The plant body becomes more complex from
bryophytes onwards, and reaches its highest complexity in angiosperms.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Permanent slides of Spirogyra, specimen of Agaricus, moss, fern, Pinus,
and an angiosperm such as Petunia, balsam, Amaranthus, Chenopodium,
Tridax or other locally available plants, compound microscope.

PROCEDURE
1. Observe the permanent slide of Spirogyra under low power of
microscope and record your observations. Draw the diagram of
Spirogyra and label the parts.
2. Likewise, observe and record the characters of Agaricus, moss, fern,
Pinus and an angiosperm plant. Draw their diagrams.

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OBSERVATIONS
Observe and record the features of Spirogyra and Agaricus in Table 1. For
other materials (that is Moss, fern, Pinus, and angiosperm) record you
observations in Table 2.
Table 1: Observations of the general features of Spirogyra and
Agarius (edible mushroom)
Sl.No.

Feature

1.

Size of the plant body:

2.

microscopic/macr oscopic
Nature of the plant body:

Spirogyra

Agaricus

thallus/dif ferentiated into

root, stem and leaves
Thallus:

3.

filamentous; branched/
4.

unbranched
Stem: present/absent

5.

Roots: pr esent/absent

6.
7.

Leaf: present/absent
Rhizoids: pr esent/absent

8.

Fruiting body with spores:

present/absent

Table 2: Observations of the general features of moss, fern ,

Pinus, and angiosperm
Sl.No.

Feature

Moss

1.

Size of the plant body:

2.

micr oscopic/macroscopic
Nature of the plant body:

3.

thallus/differentiated
Stem: (i) pr esent/absent

Fern

Pinus Angiosper m

(ii) branched/unbranched
4.
5.

Rhizoids/roots: present/absent
Leaf:
(i)

simple/compound/needle-like

(ii) midrib: present/absent

(iii) Sori/Sporangia: pr esent/absent

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6.

Cones: present/absent

7.
8.

Flower: present/absent
Fruits: pr esent/absent

9.

Seeds: pr esent/absent

NOTE FOR THE T EACHER

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General characteristics of all the specimens are given below for the
purpose of identification.
Spirogyra (Fig. 25.1)

The plant body is filamentous, unbranched and made up of

cylindrical cells placed one above the other.

Cells are longer with one or two spiral ribbon shaped chloroplasts.

Each cell has a single large nucleus and a vacuole.

Agaricus (Fig. 25.2)

Vacuole
Nucleus
Pileus

Chloroplast

Stalk
Annulus

Fig. 25.1 : Spirogyra

Fig. 25.2 : Agaricus

We generally see a fruiting body of Agaricus.

It is macroscopic and fleshy.
A mature fruiting body is divided into a stalk and an umbrella
like cap called pileus.
A ring like membranous structure (annulus) is attached at the
base of the stalk.
The cap on its lower side has gills which bear spores.

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Moss (Fig. 25.3)

The thallus is about three to five cm long, differentiated into

central axis, leaves, and root-like structures (called rhizoids).

The central axis is erect, branched or unbranched.

T iny flat green leaves are arranged spirally on the stem.

Rhizoids are long and multiseptate and are present at the base of
the central axis.

Capsule

Rachis
Leaflets
(Pinnules)

Leaf like
structures

Central axis

Stem
(Rhizome)

Rhizoids
Fig. 25.3 : Moss

Adventitious
Roots
Fig. 25.4 : Fer n

Fern (Fig. 25.4)

The plant body is well differentiated into root, stem and leaves.

Stem is short, stout and underground.

From the adventitous buds on the stem arise large, compound

leaves. Leaflets are small and arranged on either side of
the rachis.

Clusters of adventitous roots arise from the underside of the stem

near each node.

Pinus (Fig. 25.5)

Pinus is a tree with stem, leaves and roots.

Stem is hard, woody and has branches bearing scaly and needlelike leaves and cones.

Male and female cones are the reproductive organs.

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Male cones are small and tender; female cones are large and
woody when mature.

Angiospermic Plant (Fig. 25.6)

The plant body is divided into roots, stem, and leaves.

Stem bears distinct nodes and internodes.
Leaves arise from nodes.
Plants bear flowers and fruits.
Roots may be of fibrous (monocot plants) or tap-roots (dicot
plants).

Male
cone

Needles

(a)

(b)

Fig. 25.5 : (a) Male cone of Pinus; (b) Female

cone of Pinus (not to the scale)

Fig. 25.6 : An Angiosperm

QUESTIONS

Why is a Spirogyra plant green in colour?

Name two functions that are common to roots and rhizoids?
What do the cones in pine represent?

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E x p e r i m e n t 26

AIM
To prepare herbarium sheet of a flowering plant.

THEORY
Herbarium sheets are generally prepared by botanists and stored
systematically in a laboratory for an immediate reference. It consists of a
thick white sheet of a specific dimension on which a dried plant specimen
is mounted. The mounted specimen must have leaves, flowers and fruits
(optional). Only one plant specimen is mounted on a herbarium sheet.
Herbarium sheets have to be carefully preserved to prevent insect
infestation. The term Herbarium refers to the place (such as a laboratory)
where herbarium sheets are preserved systematiclly and are made available
for reference.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Plant specimen or a twig of a plant (20 25 cm long) with leaves and
flowers, a thick white sheet (card sheet) of dimension 40 28 cm,
old news papers or blotting sheets, adhesive, field press with a long
rope or a heavy mass (such as a brick or a book), sewing needle,
and thread.

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Fig. 26.1 : A sample herbarium sheet

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PROCEDURE
1. Collect a plant or a twig with leaves and flowers.
2. Place it inside the folds of a newspaper (or a blotting sheet) and spread
the leaves and flowers gently without damaging them.
3. Turn one of the leaves so that its ventral surface faces upwards.
4. Cover the plant with the other half of the newspaper; place a few
more sheets containing plants and a few newspaper sheets one above
the other and keep a heavy mass (such as a brick or a book) on the
pile. If a field press is available, the sheets of newspaper containing
plant specimen may be stacked one above the other and the field
press should be tied tightly using a long rope.
5. Next day, transfer the plant to a fresh set of dry newspapers and repeat
step 4.
6. Repeat this process for four to five days till the plant becomes dry.
7. Smear a small quantity of adhesive at a few places on the stem or
branches and leaves. Mount the plant on the card sheet as shown in
Fig. 26.1.
8. Stich the twig or stem at a few places using a sewing needle and thread.
9. Keep this sheet in a dry newspaper (or a blotting sheet). Keep the heavy
mass on the newspaper for two to three hours to allow the dried plant
to stick to the card sheet.
10. At the bottom right corner, write your name, name of plant, place and
date of collection. Now the herbarium sheet is ready (Fig. 26.1).

PRECAUTIONS

Do not prepare herbarium sheets of aquatic plants, succulents and

plants with thorns. (Why?)
Select plants with small leaves and flowers as they are easier to handle.
Spreading the differernt parts of plant on newspaper sheet has to be
done very carefully before pressing them using a heavy mass.
Mount the plant specimen after all the moisture and water has been
completely removed from the plant.
Apply a small quantity of the adhesive only at a few places on the
herbarium sheet. Use of cellophane adhesive tape to stick the plant on
the herbarium sheet must be avoided.

NOTE FOR THE T EACHER

Professional herbarium keepers treat plants with 1 per cent mercuric
chloride or 4 per cent formalin before mounting them on the

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herbarium sheet. This process is called poisoning the specimen.

As these chemicals are dangerous, and keeping in mind the age of
students, this step has not been mentioned in the procedure here.
Fumigants and naphthalene balls are placed in the cupboards where
herbarium sheets are stored to prevent insect attack.
Students may also be advised to find information about any five
important international and national herbaria. They may also be
encouraged to use internet or magazines or other information
sources for this purpose.

QUESTIONS

What are the advantages of a herbarium sheet?

Why are water plants not suitable for preparing herbarium sheets?
Why are plants treated with mercuric chloride or formalin before
mounting on the herbarium sheet?
What is the difference between a Herbarium and a herbarium
sheet?

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E x p e r i m e n t 27

AIM
To study the features and draw diagrams of earthworm, cockroach, bony
fish and bird.

THEORY
Animals are variously adapted to different kinds of habitat and environment.
Adaptation is an inherent quality of living organisms which enable them to
survive in specific habitats. Adaptation of organisms are due to certain
modifications that are observed in the organisms at the morphological,
anatomical as well as physiological levels. In this experiment, four
organisms are consider ed for the study. For each organism,
characteristics of the phylum to which it belongs to and a few adaptive
features are studied and correlated with the habitat (or environment)
in which they live.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Preserved specimens of earthworm, cockroach, bony fish, a stuffed bird,
charts showing detailed diagrams of animals under study, and a hand
lens.

PROCEDURE
1. Observe the given specimens and for each specimen, record one
specific feature of the group (phylum/class) to which it belongs.

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2. Write down one adaptive feature of each specimen with reference to

its habitat.
3. Draw diagrams of the specimens, using the chart(s). Identify the
various parts of organisms observed.

OBSERVATIONS
Table 1
Sl. No.

Organism

Phylum/Class

Featur es of
the phylum

Adaptive Features
observed

Habitat

observed
1.

Earthwor m

2.

Cockr oach

3.

Bony fish

4.

Bird

Based on your observations, record some more features of the specimens

(at least five for each specimen).
Table 2
Sl.No.

Earthworm

Cockr oach

Bony Fish

Bird

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

Some characteristic features of the phylum (or class) and adaptive
features of organisms are given for easy identification.
Earthworm (Phylum: Annelida)
Specific feature of the phylum Body surface is characterised by
distinct annular segments or metameres; body is not differentiated.
Adaptive features Moist and slimy skin, presence of clitellum
(merger of 14 - 17 metameric segments).

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Cockroach (Phylum: Arthropoda; Class: Insecta)

Specific feature of the class Segmented body; jointed appendages
with three pairs of legs.
Adaptive feature Nocturnal habit; body is covered by chitinous
cuticle which is impervious to water; spiracles are present on the
lateral sides of body for respiration.
Bony fish (Phylum: Chordata; Class: Pisces)
Specific feature of the phylum Presence of notochord.
Specific feature of the class Presence of four pairs of gills covered
by an operculum; and presence of fins.
Adaptive feature They possess a streamlined body for minimum
resistance to water while swimming. Presence of air bladder helps
in their buoyancy.
Bird (Phylum: Chordata; Class: Aves)
Specific feature of the phylum Presence of notochord.
Specific feature of the class Forelimbs are modified into wings.
Adaptive feature Boat shaped body; presence of feathers; bones
are hollow with air cavities (to reduce the mass).

Clitellum
Three pairs of legs

Metameres

(b)

(a)

Fins

Operculum

Wings

(c)

(d)

Fig. 27.1 : (a) An earthworm, (b) A cockroach; (c) A bony fish; and (d) A bird

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APPLICATIONS

Earthworms are known as Farmers Friend because of their role in

enhancing the fertility of soil. As they burrow into the soil, they ingest
soil along with the organic matter present in it. They excrete the same
soil and bring it on the top as casts. This way, it is able to loosen the
soil. Earthworms are also used to prepare vermicompost that is used
as manure to enhance the fertility of soil.

QUESTIONS

Name the phyla to which earthworm, cockroach, bony fish, and

bird belong.
What is an adaptation?
In which body segments of an earthworm is the clitellum found?
How does a cockroach adapt itself to a wide range of habitats?
Mention two adaptive characters of a bony fish besides the
possession of a streamlined body and air bladder.
Feathers are an adaptive feature of birds. How are they helpful to
them?

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E x p e r i m e n t 28

AIM
To compare the external features of monocot and dicot plants.

THEORY
Angiosperms or flowering plants are the most dominant plants on the earth.
They are divided into two major groups, namely monocots and dicots. Seeds
of monocots, as the name suggests, have one cotyledon and those of dicots
have two. Besides this major difference, there are many other distinct
differences in their morphological and anatomical features. Such features
enable us to differentiate between monocots and dicots even when their
seeds are not available to check the number of cotyledons. In this
experiment, we intend to make a comparison of external features of monocot
and dicot plants.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Plants of Hibiscus/rose/Petunia/pea and grass/maize/bamboo/lily/
Chlorophytum/any other ornamental herb with flowers and fruits, simple
or dissecting microscope, a hand lens, slide, cover slip, and a razor blade.

PROCEDURE
1. From the list given above, select a dicot and a monocot plant with
roots, leaves, flowers, and fruits.

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2. Observe the differences in the external features of stem, leaf, roots,

flowers, and seeds. To study the root system, wash the roots carefully
and spread them on a sheet of paper and study their nature.
3. Study the leaves for their shape and venation.
4. Carefully observe the flower and identify the different floral parts.
Count the number of sepals, petals and stamens in the flower. Take a
transverse section of ovary and count the number of carpels.
5. Remove the seed coat and count the number of cotyledons.
6. Note down your observations; draw diagrams of all the parts you have
studied.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 28.1 : (a) A monocot plant; and (b) a dicot plant

(a)

(b)

Fig. 28.2 : (a) A monocot leaf showing parallel venation; and

(b) A dicot leaf showing reticulate venation

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(a)

(b)

Fig. 28.3 : (a) A monocot flower and (b) A dicot flower

Ovules

(a)

(b)

Fig. 28.4 : Transverse section of ovary (a) bicarpellary and (b) tricarpellary

Cotyledon

(a)

(b)

Fig. 28.5 : (a) A seed with one cotyledon and (b) a seed with two cotyledons

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OBSERVATIONS
Some important features that distinguish a monocot and a dicot plant are
listed in the table given below. You may observe some more features of
difference between them. Record your observations.
Sl.No.

Feature

1.

Roots: fibrous/tap root

2.

Leaf shape: broad/narrow

3.

Leaf venation: parallel/reticulate

4.

Floral parts: multiple of 3 or 5

5.

Sepals: number and colour

6.

Petals: number and colour

7.

Stamen: number

8.

Pistil: number of carpels

9.

Cotyledon: one or two

Monocot

Dicot

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The study reveals many differences between dicot and monocot plants.
The distinctive features are consistently seen in most other plants
belonging to these groups.

QUESTIONS

How do we differentiate betwen fibrous root system and

tap-root system?
A plant has leaves with reticulate venation and floral parts
consisting of 5 sepals, 5 petals, 5 stamens, and 5 carpels. In
which group of angiosperms would you place this plant? Give
reasons.
In a plant, name two features which you would examine to
categorise it into a monocot or a dicot plant.
Do all flowers have all the floral parts? Explore.

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E x p e r i m e n t 29

AIM
To study the life cycle of a mosquito.

THEORY
Life cycle of a mosquito passes through several stages. Each stage
is morphologically distinct. Even their habitat differs with the adult
being aerial and the earlier stages being aquatic. Though there are
many species of mosquitoes, their life cycles, more or less, exhibit
common features.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Chart showing the life cycle of a mosquito and/or museum specimen of
stages in the life cycle, permanent slides, and compound microscope.

PROCEDURE
1. Observe the chart carefully and note the different stages in the
life cycle.
2. Recall/discuss the characteristics of each stage.
3. Draw diagrams of all the stages.
4. Observe the preserved speciemen and name the stages.

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Adult

Eggs
Larva

Pupa

Fig. 29.1 : Stages in the life cycle of a mosquito

DISCUSSION
The eggs of various species of mosquito are deposited on stagnant water
bodies like ponds, ditches, cess pools, lakes etc. Any container with
stagnant water is a potential breeding place for mosquitoes.
The larvae hatch out from the eggs within a few hours and begin
feeding on decaying plant matter. They float on the surface of water and
breath through a specialised siphon tube. The larval stage lasts for a
few days during which several layers of skin are shed. This stage lasts
for a few days to a few weeks. The larval stage is followed by the pupal
stage.
Pupae do not feed but gradually metamorphose or change into adults.
Pupal stage lasts for a few days. From the pupa an adult mosquito
emerges. Before the adult starts flying it rests for a few days during
which its outer cuticle hardens.
After about a week, adult female mosquito begins searching for a
host. It generally feeds on blood, which is a rich source of protein that
is helpful to make a fresh batch of eggs, Eggs are deposited on or near
water. The male mosquito does not seek a blood meal, but prefers a
sugar meal which it obtains by feeding on the nectar of flowers. The
female adults also feed on nectar in between blood meals. Adult
mosquitoes live for several weeks.

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NOTE FOR THE T EACHER

The mosquito goes through four distinct stages during its life cycle
(Fig. 29.1)
(i) egg: deposited in water; hatches in water;
(ii) larva (plural; larvae): lives on the surface of water; moults several
times;
(iii) pupa (plural; pupae): A stage just prior to the adult stage; pupae
do not feed; and
(iv) adult emerges from the pupae, body parts harden and starts
flying.
Permanent slides of different stages in the life cycle of a mosquito
may be focussed under a compound microscope and shown to the
students. This will enable students to have a better understanding
of life cycle of a mosquito.

QUESTIONS
Why is it important to study the life cycle of mosquito?
At which stage in the life cycle of a mosquito, moulting takes place?
Why does only the female mosquito require a blood meal?
What are the conditions that are helpful for breeding of mosquitoes?
Suggest three measures to check the breeding of mosquitoes.

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E x p e r i m e n t 30

AIM
To study the life cycle of malarial parasite.

THEORY
Plasmodium is commonly called the malarial parasite. The life cycle of
Plasmodium is complex and involves two hosts, human being and a
mosquito. Plasmodium completes its sexual cycle in mosquito and asexual
cycle in human being. When female Anopheles mosquito infected with the
parasite bites a healthy human, infective sporozoites are injected into the
human blood stream causing the dreaded disease malaria. The mosquito
which transmits the malarial parasite is called the vector.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A chart showing the life cycle of malarial parasite, permanent slides of
malarial parasite, and compound microscope.

PROCEDURE
1. Study the chart and carefully note down the different stages of the
life cycle of Plasmodium beginning with the mosquito bite.
2. Draw a flow chart of different stages of life cycle.

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Human

Sporozoite

Merozoites

Liver cell

A
Female
gametocyte

Red blood cell

Mosquito
Sporozoitc

Zygote

C
E

D Male
gametocyte

Oocyst

Gamctocytes
unit

F
Male
gametocyte

Fig. 30.1 : Life cycle of malarial parasite

DISCUSSION

There are about four hundred and thrity five known species of
Anopheles. About thirty to forty of them are vectors of malarial parasite.
The species of Plasmodium which are known to cause malaria are
Plasmodium vivax, P. falciparum, P. malariae and P. ovale. Of these, P.
falciparum is considered the most deadly species.
Symptoms of malarial infection include chills, fever, sweats, headaches,
nausea, vomiting, weakness and body aches. Symptoms specific to
Plasmodium falciparum are jaundice, swollen liver and very rapid
breathing. Complications that may accompany severity of disease are
irregular breathing, accumulation of fluid in lungs, anaemia,
behavioural abnormalities if infection reaches the brain, abnormalities
in blood coagulation and cardiac problems.
The infection can be confirmed by pathological tests that involve
microscopic examination of blood smears, RDT (Rapid Dignostic Test)
and other tests.
Drugs administered to treat patients with malaria invariably contain
quinine as the active ingredient.

NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

The life cycle of malarial parasite is completed through the following stages
When a mosquito infected with the malarial parasite bites a healthy
human, the slender malarial parasitic cells (sporozoites) are injected
into the human bloodstream (see A in Fig. 30.1).

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Within thirty minutes, the parasite invades the human liver through
the blood and lymphatic system. It infects the liver cells
(hepatocytes), where it multiplies producing thousands of parasitic
cells within a week (See B in Fig. 30.1).
The parasitic cells re-enter the blood stream and infect red blood
cells (see C in Fig. 30.1).
They grow in the red blood cells and undergo another phase of
multiplication, eventually causing rupture of red blood cells and
releasing more parasitic cells along with their toxins. This leads to
manifestation of symptoms of malaria like chills and fever (see D
in Fig. 30.1).
Some parasitic cells form gametocytes (sex cells). These are of two
types: (i) male gametocytes and (ii) female gametocytes (see E in
Fig. 30.1).
When another mosquito bites the infected human, it ingests the
sporozoites along with blood (see F in Fig. 30.1).
In the stomach of mosquito (midgut), the gametocytes mature and
fertilization occurs resulting in the formation of zygote. Zygote
develops an outer covering and becomes the oocyst. Within the
oocyst thousands of sporozoites are formed. The oocysts rupture
and release the sporozoites into the body cavity from where they
migrate to the salivary glands of mosquito (see G in Fig. 30.1).
When this mosquito bites another human, along with the saliva
the parasites are injected and the life cycle continues.
Permanent slide of blood smear of persons suffering from malaria
can be shown to the students.

QUESTIONS

What are the different species of malarial parasite that cause

malaria?
When do the symptoms of malaria such as fever and chills appear?
When a mosquito bites a person infected with Plasmodium, which
stage of the parasite will the mosquito ingest?
How does the malarial parasite reproduce in the red blood cells?
Why are people suffering from malaria anaemic?

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E x p e r i m e n t 31

AIM
To collect and study symptoms of diseases in locally available crop plants.

THEORY
Microbes like fungi, bacteria and virus are capable of causing serious
diseases in plants. Such parasitic microbes af fect many of our
commercial crops like cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits etc. Generally
a parasitic infection is specific, that is, it infects a specific plant. Some
microbes are capable of infecting plant species belonging to a particular
group. The infected plant is called the host and the infecting organism
is called the parasite. Parasitic microbes require a living host for
completing their life cycle. They absorb nutrients from the host plants
and may even kill the host. If the disease is not checked, it is capable of
spreading rapidly to other plants causing severe loss. Bacterial blights,
smuts, white rust, black rust, tobacco mosaic are a few common diseases
of crop plants in our country.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Two or three diseased crop plants or ornamental plants or weeds, compound
microscope, permanent slides of some diseased plants, a hand lens, slides,
cover slips, needle, and a brush,

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PROCEDURE
1. Collect two to three different kinds of diseased or infected plants.
2. Carefully observe each plant part for visible disease symptoms
such as decolouration, infection spots, coloured patches, soft and
decaying parts.
3. Observe if the entire plant is infected or only some parts like leaves,
flowers or stem are infected.
4. Observe the infected parts and the physical characteristics of infection
and record in the observations table.
5. Scrape the infected spot with a needle/blade and transfer it to a drop
of water on a slide. Place a cover slip and observe under the microscope.
6. Under the low power of microscope, observe the presence of spores/
hyphae and damage caused to plant tissues (or cells).
7. Draw a diagram of the infected part and show the disease symptoms.

OBSERVATIONS
Sl.No.
1.

Observation
Infected part is:

Plant 1

Plant 2

(Yes/No)

(Yes/No)

Stem
Root
Leaf
Flower
2.

Fruit
Extent of infection:
Localised
Enitre plant

3.

Infection spot
Soft patch
Dry patch

4.

Are spores visible?

5.

Are hyphae visible?

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Draw the diagrams of the infected parts and label the diseased parts. Also
draw diagrams of spore and hyphae.

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NOTE

FOR THE

TEACHER

This is a group activity. Students may be asked to work in a

team.
The task of collecting infected plants may be assigned to students
in advance.
It is advised to facilitate students in identifying diseased plants
by observing the external features like stunted or abnormal
growth, discolourd spots on plant parts, etc.
All weak plants are not necessarily diseased plants. Poor growth
may also be due to a deficiency of certain minerals.
Permanent slides of diseased plant parts may be focussed under
the compound microscope.
Careful observation of a slide may reveal the presence of spores
or hyphae or both. Hyphae are generally filamentous, colourless
and appear as branched and delicate strands.
Students may also be advised to find out five diseases of crop
plants which lead to extensive loss of revenue in our country. It
may also be suggested to use internet or magazines or other
information sources for this purpose.

QUESTIONS
What are parasites? How do they obtain food?
How do parasitic microbes spread from plant to plant?
How do farmers check the spread of diseases in their fields?

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