The essentials of Object Oriented PHP

Learn, practice, and apply

Joseph Benharosh
2014 - 2016 Joseph Benharosh

To my parents, Rachel & Zion Benharosh.

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Why bother learning object oriented PHP? .
The purpose of this book . . . . . . . . . .
What does the book cover? . . . . . . . . .
Who is this book for? . . . . . . . . . . . .
Getting the most from this book . . . . . .

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1
1
2
3
4
4

How to create classes and objects? . . . .

How to create classes? . . . . . . . . . .
How to add properties to a class? . . . .
How to create objects from a class? . . .
Objects, what are they good for? . . . .
How to get an objects properties? . . .
How to set an object property? . . . . .
How to add methods to a class? . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned

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6
6
7
7
8
9
9
10
12
13

The $this keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The $this keyword . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned

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15
15
18
19

Chaining methods and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21
23
24

Access modifiers: public vs. private . . . .

The public access modifier . . . . . . .
The private access modifier . . . . . . .
How to access a private property? . . .
Why do we need access modifiers? . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned

26
26
27
27
28
30
31

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CONTENTS

Magic methods and constants unveiled . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The __construct() magic method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to write a constructor method without risking an error?
Magic constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned . . . . . . . . . . . .

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32
32
34
35
36
37

Inheritance in object oriented programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

How can a class inherit the code of another class? . . . . . . . . . . . .
How can a child class have its own methods and properties? . . . . . .
The protected access control modifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to override the parents properties and methods in the child class?
How to prevent the child class from overriding the parents methods? .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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38
38
40
41
44
45
46
47

Abstract classes and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

How to declare classes and methods as abstract? . . . . . .
Can we have non abstract methods inside an abstract class?
How to create child classes from an abstract class? . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned . . . . . . . . . . .

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50
50
51
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53
54

Interfaces - the next level of abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

How to declare and implement an interface? . . . . . . . . . . . .
Can we implement more than one interface in the same class? . .
What are the differences between abstract classes and interfaces?
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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56
56
57
59
59
60

Polymorphism in PHP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to implement the polymorphism principle?
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned . . . . .

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63
63
65
66

Type hinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to do array type hinting? . . . . . . . . . . .
How to do object type hinting? . . . . . . . . . . .
Does PHP support type hinting to basic data types?
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned . . . . . .

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68
68
69
70
72
72

Type hinting for interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Why type hinting for objects may not be sufficient? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73
73

CONTENTS

Type hinting for interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what weve just learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74
77
78

Static methods and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

How to define methods and properties as static? . . . . . . .
How to approach static methods and properties? . . . . . .
How to approach the static methods from within the class? .
When to use static properties and methods? . . . . . . . . .
Why static should be used with caution? . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned . . . . . . . . . . .

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79
79
79
80
81
83
83
84

Traits and code inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

How do traits work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Is it possible for a class to use more than one trait?
How is a trait different from inheritance? . . . . .
What are the advantages of using traits? . . . . . .
What are the disadvantages of using traits? . . . .
In which scenarios is it preferable to use traits? . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned . . . . . .

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85
85
86
87
89
89
89
90
90

Namespaces and code integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The directory structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to define a namespace? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to use a class that belongs to a namespace? . . . . . . .
How to alias a class from a namespace with a friendly name?
How to call a class from the global namespace? . . . . . . . .
Can more than one namespace be imported into the same file?
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets Practice what we have just learned . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix: Group use declarations in PHP7 . . . . . . . . . .

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. 92
. 92
. 94
. 94
. 95
. 97
. 99
. 101
. 101
. 102

Dependency injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The problem: tight coupling between classes . . . . . .
The solution: dependency injection . . . . . . . . . . .
Why is it a good idea to type hint the injected objects?
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned . . . . . . . .

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103
103
104
107
110
111

What are exceptions and how to handle them? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

How to throw an exception? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
How to catch an exception? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

CONTENTS

Are there any other methods that can help us handle exceptions?
What about writing the exceptions to a log file? . . . . . . . . . .
When to use exception handling? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what weve just learned: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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117
118
119
119
120

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122
122
123
127
129
131
133
133
133
134

How to use Packagist and Composer to integrate existing code libraries into your PHP
apps? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to install composer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Installing the package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to add packages? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to update the packages? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to remove a package from Composer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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135
135
136
140
141
141
142

How to autoload PHP classes the Composer way? . . . . . .

A short reminder about autoloading Packagist code libraries
How to directly autoload classes with Composer? . . . . . .
How to autoload the PSR-4 way? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to autoload if the directory structure is complex? . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PDO - PHP database extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

How to connect with the MySQL database through PDO?
How to use PDO to insert data into the database? . . . . .
How to use PDO to read from the database? . . . . . . . .
How to use PDO to update the database? . . . . . . . . .
How to delete records? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to close the database connection? . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lets practice what we have just learned . . . . . . . . . .
Supplement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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143
143
143
144
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148

MVC and code organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The broader context - MVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The data flow in the MVC pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The simplest MVC example - retrieving the data from the data source
The simplest MVC example (part 2) - getting data from the user . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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149
151
151
151
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155
156

Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
What have we learned? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Some additional resources to advance your knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

CONTENTS

Chapter 1 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Chapter 2 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Chapter 3 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Chapter 4 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Chapter 5 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Chapter 6 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Chapter 7 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Chapter 8 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Chapter 9 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Chapter 10 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Chapter 11 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Chapter 12 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Chapter 13 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Chapter 14 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Chapter 15 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Chapter 16 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Chapter 17 solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

Introduction
Why bother learning object oriented PHP?
Object oriented programming came late to PHP. It has been around in other languages, like C++,
Ruby, Python, and JavaScript for much longer, but its demand in PHP is becoming stronger. With that
demand for the programming style there is an increasing demand for developers who can program
in object oriented PHP. And those developers typically earn 60% more than programmers who know
only procedural PHP.
Why?
That is a valid question. After all, most PHP code is used in WordPress, and WordPress is not written
with object oriented code at its core. In addition, there are great examples of applications that are
written in a procedural style of PHP. But it does not tell the full story. Consider this:
Procedural programming is inefficient.
PHP frameworks, like Laravel, Symfony, and CodeIgniter rely exclusively on object oriented
PHP.
CMS systems, like Drupal 8 and October are object oriented at their core.
Every day, additional parts of WordPress are becoming object oriented.
Lets expand on the first point as it is the most important one - everything else flows from it, i.e.
object oriented programming is gaining popularity because it is more efficient. As already stated,
there are great applications written in a procedural style of PHP code. But even the best end up in
spaghetti code where functions and variables are mixed together. Add in HTML, CSS, and JavaScript
to the mix and the code becomes something that is, well, inefficient.
Object oriented code is more organized. Distinct units are created for a single purpose. This means
it is easier to find things in the code (ending those days of spending hours trawling through lines
of spaghetti code to find a single element). It is also easier to add, replace, or remove parts of code,
as it only has to be done once. With procedural programming, on the other hand, it is necessary to
change every instance.
Finally, object oriented programming gives the opportunity to developers to integrate code libraries
from other resources without worrying about name collisions, even though some of the functions
in the code might have the same name.

Introduction

So, back to the original question, why bother learning object oriented PHP? The answer is:
It is increasingly common.
Developers with this skill earn more.
The code they write is better.
Programming in object oriented PHP requires a different way of thinking. That is why it is important
to get an understanding of the fundamentals.

The purpose of this book

The purpose of this book is to unlock the secrets of object oriented PHP. With these secrets
programmers can improve their skills and reap the rewards and benefits of being able to program
this way.
At the heart of all of this is the principle of modularity. This principle is what makes object oriented
PHP possible. It essentially means separating the code of an application into much smaller and easier
to use parts. It makes the code more flexible, as well as easier to change, update, debug, and develop.
It also saves huge amounts of time. With modularity, programmers can change the code of an
application simply by working on the specific, relevant sections, instead of looking at the whole
thing. Adding, removing, or changing functions is therefore quicker.
Time is also saved because modularity allows the work of other programmers to be easily
incorporated into a project. This means developers can use tried and tested functions written
elsewhere, and they can put them into the code without heavy adaptation.
Finally, modularity saves time because it better facilitates multiple people working on a single
project. Without it, a small change to the code from one programmer can have repercussions across
many workstations, but modularity solves this.
Take a blog as an example. This is a simple application but it might still have several classes. This
can include a user class, a database class, a posts class, and a mail class. With modularity and object
oriented PHP, each of these classes has its own section in the code. This section can be handled
independently of the others. This means it is possible to add, remove, or replace parts of the code
without affecting everything else. In the blog example, it is possible to change the mail class by
replacing it with another library. With modularity, this can be done even though the user class
depends on the mail class for sending emails to users of the blog. Each of the classes is treated
separately.
This is why almost all big websites on the Internet use object oriented programming - it saves time
and many headaches.
The benefit of the ability to more efficiently work with multiple programmers on a single project
should not be understated either. This again saves time, as well as headaches, errors, and arguments

Introduction

among programmers. In particular, there is no risk of name collisions. This is where more than
one function or variable in the program has the same name. Modularity means that each of these
functions or variables resides in an independent module, so name collisions are not an issue.
So, the purpose of this book is to instill in programmers the principle of modularity. Everything
is based on this from classes to namespaces to methods to code libraries. Modularity is a way of
organizing code, and it gives object oriented PHP most of its power.

What does the book cover?

This book covers the fundamentals of programming in object oriented PHP. This starts with the
basics of writing in an object oriented style. That style applies to everything, including classes,
objects, methods, and properties. It also covers how code in a class can be approached from within
the class and, crucially, from outside it.
For example:

Creating classes
Adding properties to a class
Creating objects from a class
Setting an objects properties
Adding methods to a class

The book also shows developers how to write streaming code that is easier to digest and understand
because it more closely resembles human language.
In addition, the book covers a number of other skills, hints, tips, and tricks to make object oriented
programming more efficient. This includes:

Protecting code inside classes from the outside

Object inheritance and how it reduces repetition, therefore saving time
Abstracting classes and methods so that code is organized better
Other code organizing tips
Constructing applications using interfaces and polymorphism
Integrating code from other sources and libraries with the help of namespaces

And it covers the intimidating concept of dependency injection in a practical and easy-to-understand
way. Once finished with the dependency injection chapter, object oriented programming becomes
even faster.

Introduction

Who is this book for?

Developers who want to achieve the objectives stated earlier will benefit from this book, i.e. those
who want to develop a new skill that is in increasing demand in order to become more employable,
and to write better code.
But this book is not for everyone. For a start, it is not for experienced, object oriented PHP developers.
This book covers the fundamentals, and it is not intended as a development resource for those who
already code in this way.
Similarly, it is not for those with little or no knowledge of programming. It covers the basics of
object oriented programming, but it is not a beginners guide. There is an expectation that readers
will have a good foundation of programming knowledge before starting.
There are a couple of exceptions to this, though. This includes those whose programming foundation
is based in HTML and CSS. That is not enough programming knowledge to properly benefit from
this book.
So, who is it for then?
Obviously, it is for procedural PHP developers who want to improve their skills and take their
programming development to a new level. It is also for programmers who have a very basic
understanding of object oriented PHP, but who want to learn it properly and get more practice.
Others who will benefit are those programmers who have a background in other objected oriented
languages like C++ and Java.
So, in summary, the book is for existing programmers who want to learn object oriented PHP as a
new skill.

Getting the most from this book

As already established, this book is designed for existing programmers who want to expand their
skill set with object oriented PHP. As a result, it is written in a learn-then-practice form.
Every principle, idea, or process is described in a simple and concise way. It is easy to read, as there is
no superfluous text. The flow is also structured so that the reader develops hooks to hang additional
knowledge on as their understanding grows and develops.
After the concise description of concepts, code examples are given to bring those concepts to life.
This is where proper understanding develops as practical applications are demonstrated.
Throughout the text, practical example questions are asked of the reader. And that brings us to the
first tip for reading this book - read it actively, not passively.
It is not a passive learning tool. This book is designed to give developers knowledge and skills in
object oriented PHP quickly. That is achieved through active learning where programmers think for
themselves while reading the explanations and examples.

Introduction

This principle of active learning is carried through to the next stage, which is practice. Readers are
given the opportunity to practice the ideas, concepts, and processes that have just been explained. It
is important to the learning process that time is given to these practice elements, so this is the next
tip - serious learning cannot be done without practice.
Finally, solutions are given for the practice exercises so that the reader can see their success and gain
confidence.
Each principle of object oriented PHP is taught using this process:

Concise explanations and learning

Simple but practical examples
Questions to encourage independent thinking and active learning
Practice exercises
Solutions to those practice exercises

The punchy text is easy to digest so that readers can go through sections quickly if they want.
However, there is also enough detailed information and examples if the reader needs to spend more
time getting an understanding of a particular concept.
So, to get the most from this book, approach it with an open mind and be ready to get involved. By
doing so, you will get a good understanding of object oriented PHP with sufficient knowledge and
confidence to apply it practically in your work.

How to create classes and objects?

Object-oriented programming is a programming style in which it is customary to group all of
the variables and functions of a particular topic into a single class. Object-oriented programming
is considered to be more advanced and efficient than the procedural style of programming. This
efficiency stems from the fact that it supports better code organization, provides modularity, and
reduces the need to repeat ourselves. That being said, we may still prefer the procedural style in
small and simple projects. However, as our projects grow in complexity, we are better off using the
object oriented style.
With this chapter, we are going to take our first steps into the world of object oriented PHP by
learning the most basic terms in the field:

class
object
method
property

How to create classes?

In order to create a class, we group the code that handles a certain topic into one place. For example,
we can group all of the code that handles the users of a blog into one class, all of the code that is
involved with the publication of the posts in the blog into a second class, and all the code that is
devoted to comments into a third class.
To name the class, it is customary to use a singular noun that starts with a capital letter. For example,
we can group a code that handles users into a User class, the code that handles posts into a Post
class, and the code that is devoted to comments into a Comment class.
For the example given below, we are going to create a Car class into which we will group all of the
code which has something to do with cars.
class Car {
// The code
}

We declare the class with the class keyword.

We write the name of the class and capitalize the first letter.
If the class name contains more than one word, we capitalize each word. This is known as
upper camel case. For example, JapaneseCars, AmericanIdol, EuropeTour, etc.
We circle the class body within curly braces. We put our code within the curly braces.
6

How to create classes and objects?

How to add properties to a class?

We call properties to the variables inside a class. Properties can accept values like strings, integers,
and booleans (true/false values), like any other variable. Lets add some properties to the Car class.
class Car {
public $comp;
public $color = "beige";
public $hasSunRoof = true;
}

We put the public keyword in front of a class property.

The naming convention is to start the property name with a lower case letter.
If the name contains more than one word, all of the words, except for the first word, start with
an upper case letter. For example, $color or $hasSunRoof.
A property can have a default value. For example, $color = 'beige'.
We can also create a property without a default value. See the property $comp in the above
example.

How to create objects from a class?

We can create several objects from the same class, with each object having its own set
of properties.
In order to work with a class, we need to create an object from it. In order to create an object, we
use the new keyword. For example:
$bmw = new Car ();

We created the object $bmw from the class Car with the new key word.
The process of creating an object is also known as instantiation.
We can create more than one object from the same class.
$bmw = new Car ();
$mercedes = new Car ();

In fact, we can create as many objects as we like from the same class, and then give each object its
own set of properties.

How to create classes and objects?

Objects, what are they good for?

While in the procedural style of programming, all of the functions and variables sit together in the
global scope in a way that allows their use just by calling their name, the use of classes makes
anything inside the classes hidden from the global scope. Thats because the code inside the classes
is encapsulated within the class scope, outside the reach of the global scope. So, we need a way to
allow the code from the global scope to use the code within the class, and we do this by creating
objects from a class.
I say objects, and not object, because we can create as many objects as we would like from the same
class and they all will share the classs methods and properties. See the image below:

Classes and objects

From the same Car class, we created three individual objects with the name of: Mercedes, Bmw, and
Audi.
Although all of the objects were created from the same class and thus have the classs methods
and properties, they are still different. This is not only, because they have different names, but
also because they may have different values assigned to their properties. For example, in the image
above, they differ by the color property - the Mercedes is green while the Bmw is blue and the Audi
is orange.

How to create classes and objects?

The message to take home is:

A class holds the methods and properties that are shared by all of the objects that are created from
it.
Although the objects share the same code, they can behave differently because they can have
different values assigned to them.

How to get an objects properties?

Once we create an object, we can get its properties. For example:
echo $bmw -> color;
echo $mercedes -> color;

In order to get a property, we write the class name, and then dash greater than (->), and then
the property name.
Note that the property name does not start with the $ sign; only the object name starts with
a $.
Result:
beige
beige

How to set an object property?

In order to set an object property, we use a similar approach.
For example, in order to set the color to blue in the bmw object:
$bmw -> color = 'blue';

and in order to set the value of the $comp property for both objects:
$bmw -> comp = "BMW";
$mercedes -> comp = "Mercedes Benz";

Once we set the value of a property, we can get its value.

In order to get the color of the $bmw, we use the following line of code:

How to create classes and objects?

10

echo $bmw -> color;

Result:
blue
We can also get the company name and the color of the second car object.
echo $mercedes -> color;
echo $mercedes -> comp;

Result:
beige
Mercedes Benz

How to add methods to a class?

The classes most often contain functions. A function inside a class is called a method. Here we add
the method hello() to the class with the prefix public.
class Car {
public $comp;
public $color = "beige";
public $hasSunRoof = true;
public function hello()
{
return "beep";
}
}

We put the public keyword in front of a method.

The naming convention is to start the function name with a lower case letter.
If the name contains more than one word, all of the words, except for the first word, start with
an upper case letter. For example, helloUser() or flyPanAm().
We can approach the methods similar to the way that we approach the properties, but we first need
to create at least one object from the class.

How to create classes and objects?

$car1 = new Car ();

$car2 = new Car ();
echo $car1 -> hello();
echo $car2 -> hello();

Result:
beep
beep
Here is the full code that we have written during this chapter:
<?php
// Declare the class
class Car {
// Properties
public $comp;
public $color = "beige";
public $hasSunRoof = true;
// Method that says hello
public function hello()
{
return "beep";
}
}
// Create an instance
$bmw = new Car ();
$mercedes = new Car ();
// Get the values
echo $bmw -> color; // beige
echo "<br />";
echo $mercedes -> color; // beige
echo "<hr />";
// Set the values
$bmw -> color = "blue";
$bmw -> comp = "BMW";
$mercedes -> comp = "Mercedes Benz";

11

How to create classes and objects?

12

// Get the values again

echo $bmw -> color; // blue
echo "<br />";
echo $mercedes -> color; // beige
echo "<br />";
echo $bmw -> comp; // BMW
echo "<br />";
echo $mercedes -> comp; // Mercedes Benz
echo "<hr />";
// Use the methods to get a beep
echo $bmw -> hello(); // beep
echo "<br />";
echo $mercedes -> hello(); // beep

Conclusion
In this chapter we have done our first steps into the world of object oriented PHP by learning about
classes and about the objects that can be created out of them. In the next chapter we will learn
about the $this keyword that enables us to approach properties and methods from within the class.

How to create classes and objects?

13

Lets practice what we have just learned

1.1 Which of these definitions best explains the term class?
A: A collection of variables and functions working with these variables.
B: Sets and gets the classs own properties and methods.
C: Is the embodiment of a real life object.

1.2 Which of these definitions best explains the term object?

A: An object gives us the ability to work with the class, and to have several instances of
the same class.
B: A variable within a class.
C: A function within a class.

1.3 Which of these definitions best explains the term property?

A: Groups the code that is related to one topic.
B: A variable within a class.
C: A function within a class.

1.4 Which of these definitions best explains the term method?

A: A function within a class.
B: A variable within a class.
C: The embodiment of a real action.

Coding exercise
Almost every application or blog handles users. Whether its the registration process, the login and
logout, sending reminders to users who lost their passwords, or changing the passwords on demand,
all of the code that handles users can be grouped into a single class. In our example, we call the class
that handles users, User, in agreement with the prevailing naming convention.
Lets write a user class with the tools we have just acquired. This class will contain the first and last
name of each user and will be able to say hello to anyone who uses our application.

How to create classes and objects?

1.5 Write what you think should be the class name, the names of the properties for the first
and last name, and the name of the method that returns hello.
class name: _______
class properties: (1) _____ , (2) _____
class method: _______

1.6 Write the class User, and add the properties. Thats how we start to write the class:

class User {
// Your code here
}

1.7 Add the method that says hello to the class.

1.8 Create the first instance, and call it $user1. Use the new keyword to create an object
from the class.

1.9 Set the values for the first and last name to $user1.
$firstName = John
$lastName = Doe

1.10 Get the user first and last name, and print it to the screen with echo.

1.11 Use the hello method with the first and last name variables in order to say hello to
the user.

1.12 Add another object, call it $user2, give it a first name of Jane and last name of Doe,
then say hello to the user.

Suggested solutions

14

The $this keyword

In the first chapter of this book, we learned how to group the code related to a certain topic into one
single class. As an example, we wrote a Car class that groups all the code that handles cars.
class Car {
public $comp;
public $numWheels = 4;
public $hasSunRoof = true;
public function hello()
{
return "beep";
}
}

We also created two objects out of the class in order to be able to use its code:
$bmw = new Car ();
$mercedes = new Car ();

The $this keyword

The $this keyword indicates that we use the classs own methods and properties, and
allows us to have access to them within the classs scope.
The $this keyword allows us to approach the class properties and methods from within the class
using the following syntax:
$this -> propertyName;
$this -> methodName();

Only the this keyword starts with the $ sign, while the names of the properties and methods
do not start with it.
The $this keyword indicates that we use the classs own methods and properties, and allows us to
have access to them within the classs scope.
Lets illustrate what we have just said on the Car class. We will enable the hello() method to
approach the classs own properties by using the $this keyword.
15

The $this keyword

We use:
$this -> comp

in order to approach the class $comp property. We also use:

$this -> color

in order to approach the class $color property.

Thats what the code looks like:
class Car {
// The properties
public $comp;
public $color = "beige";
public $hasSunRoof = true;
// The method can now approach the class properties
//
with the $this keyword
public function hello()
{
return "Beep I am a <i>" . $this -> comp . "</i>, and I am <i>" .
$this -> color;
}
}

Let us create two objects from the class:

$bmw = new Car();
$mercedes = new Car ();

and set the values for the class properties:

16

The $this keyword

$bmw -> comp = "BMW";

$bmw -> color = "blue";

$mercedes -> comp = "Mercedes Benz";

$mercedes -> color = "green";

We can now call the hello method for the first car object:
echo $bmw -> hello();

Result
Beep I am a BMW, and I am blue.
And for the second car object:
echo $mercedes -> hello();

Result
Beep I am a Mercedes Benz, and I am green.

17

The $this keyword

18

This is the full code that we have written in this chapter:

class Car {
// The properties
public $comp;
public $color = "beige";
public $hasSunRoof = true;
// The method that says hello
public function hello()
{
return "Beep I am a <i>" . $this -> comp .
"</i>, and I am <i>" . $this -> color ;
}
}

// We can now create an object from the class

$bmw = new Car();
$mercedes = new Car();
// Set the values of the class properties
$bmw -> color = "blue";
$bmw -> comp = "BMW";
$mercedes -> comp = "Mercedes Benz";
// Call the hello method for the the $bmw object
echo $bmw -> hello();

Conclusion
In this chapter, we have learned how to use the $this keyword in order to get the classs own
properties and methods from within the class. In the next chapter, we will learn how to chain
methods and properties.

The $this keyword

19

Lets practice what we have just learned

2.1 Which keyword would you use in order to approach the class properties and methods
from within the class?
A: The new keyword.
B: The class keyword.
C: The $this keyword.

Coding exercise
In the previous chapter, we wrote the hello() method inside the User class. In the following exercise,
we will add to the hello() method the ability to approach the class properties with the $this
keyword.
First, lets remind ourselves what the User class looks like:
class User
// The
public
public

{
class properties
$firstName;
$lastName;

// A method that says hello to the user

public function hello()
{
return "hello";
}
}

Wouldnt it be nicer if we could allow the hello() method the ability to get the classs properties,
so that it would be able to say hello to the user name (for example, hello, John Doe)?
2.2 Add to the hello() method the ability to approach the $firstName property, so the
hello() method would be able to return the string hello, $firstName.

2.3 Create a new object with the first name of Jonnie and last name of Roe.

The $this keyword

2.4 Echo the hello() method for the $user1 object, and see the result.

Suggested solutions

20

Chaining methods and properties

In the previous chapter, we learned to use the $this keyword to approach properties and methods
within the scope of the class. In this chapter we will learn that, when a classs methods return the
$this keyword, they can be chained together to create much more streaming code.
For instance, in our Car class, lets say that we want to measure how much fuel we have in our cars
tank. The amount of fuel in the tank is dependent upon the number of miles we have driven in our
car, as well as the amount of fuel that we put in the tank.
In order to achieve our goal, we are going to put a public property $tank to our class that represents
the number of gallons of fuel that we have in the cars tank.
class Car {
public $tank;
}

We must also add two methods to our Car class:

1. The fill() method adds gallons of fuel to our cars tank.
2. The ride() method calculates how much fuel we consume when we ride a certain distance,
and then subtracts it from the tank. In our example, we assume that the car consumes 1 gallon
of fuel every 50 miles.

class Car {
public $tank;
// Add gallons of fuel to the tank when we fill it
public function fill($float)
{
$this-> tank += $float;
}
// Subtract gallons of fuel from the tank as we ride the car
public function ride($float)
{
$miles = $float;

21

Chaining methods and properties

22

$gallons = $miles/50;
$this-> tank -= $gallons;
}
}

As we would like our code to look elegant, we will chain the methods and properties. Note the
arrows in the code.
$tank = $car -> fill(10) -> ride(40) -> tank;

In words: How much fuel do we have left in our tank after putting in 10 gallons, and driving 40
miles?
In order to perform the chaining, the methods should return the $this keyword.
In order for us to be able to perform the chaining, the methods should return the object and, since
we are inside the class, the methods should return the $this keyword.
In the code below, we can see how each method returns the $this keyword in order to allow the
chaining.
class Car {
public $tank;
// Add gallons of fuel to the tank when we fill it
public function fill($float)
{
$this-> tank += $float;
return $this;
}
// Subtract gallons of fuel from the tank as we ride the car
public function ride($float)
{
$miles = $float;
$gallons = $miles/50;
$this-> tank -= $gallons;
return $this;
}
}

Chaining methods and properties

23

Now, we can create an object from the Car class with the name of $bmw and find out the number of
gallons of fuel left in our cars tank after we have filled the tank with 10 gallons of fuel and driven
40 miles.
// Create an object from the Car class
$bmw = new Car();
// Add 10 gallons of fuel, then ride 40 miles
//
and get the number of gallons in the tank
$tank = $bmw -> fill(10) -> ride(40) -> tank;
// Print the results to the screen
echo "The number of gallons left in the tank: " . $tank . " gal.";

Result:
The number of gallons left in the tank: 9.2 gal.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we learned that we can chain properties and methods to provide for a fluent code
and improve its readability. In the next chapter, we will learn how to restrict access to the properties
and methods inside our classes.

Chaining methods and properties

24

Lets practice what we have just learned

Lets now add some methods to represent register and mail functionality to the User class that we
had written in the previous chapters. These methods would echo a string as placeholder for their
actual purpose.
This is the User class that we have generated in the previous chapter:
class User
// The
public
public

{
class properties
$firstName;
$lastName;

// A method that says hello to the user $firstName.

// The user $firstName property can be approached
//
with the $this keyword.
public function hello()
{
return "hello, " . $this -> firstName;
}
}

3.1 Add a register() method to the class that echoes the name of the user plus the verb
registered.
Use the $this keyword to approach the classs own properties.

3.2 Add a mail() method to the class that echoes the string emailed.

3.3 Add return $this to the register() method so that it can be chained to any other
method in the class.

3.4 Create a new $user1 object with the first name of Jane and the last name of Roe. For
this object, chain the mail() method to the register() method and see the result.

Chaining methods and properties

25

Notice that each method we want to chain to should return the $this keyword. So, if we would like
to write the next line of code that chains together 3 methods:
$user1 -> register() -> mail() -> hello();

We would have to return the $this keyword from both the register() and mail() methods, but we
wont have to return the $this keyword from the hello() method because it concludes the chain.
Suggested solutions

Access modifiers: public vs. private

In the previous chapters, we used the public access modifier in front of the methods and properties
in our classes without any explanations. The public access modifier is only one of several modifiers
that we use. In this chapter, we will learn about another modifier called the private access modifier.
While the public access modifier allows a code from outside or inside the class to access the classs
methods and properties, the private modifier prevents access to a classs methods or properties from
any code that is outside the class.

The public access modifier

The following example should already be familiar to you. In the example, the classs property and
method are defined as public, so the code outside the class can directly interact with them.
class Car {
// Public methods and properties
public $model;
public function getModel()
{
return "The car model is " . $this -> model;
}
}
$mercedes = new Car();
// Here we access a property from outside the class
$mercedes -> model = "Mercedes";
// Here again we access another method from outside the class
echo $mercedes -> getModel();

Result:
The car model is Mercedes

26

Access modifiers: public vs. private

27

The private access modifier

We can prevent access to the properties and methods inside our classes if we define them with the
private access modifier instead of the public access modifier.
In the following example, we define the property $model as private, and when we try to set its value
from outside the class, we encounter a fatal error.
class Car {
// Private
private $model;
public function getModel()
{
return "The car model is " . $this -> model;
}
}
$mercedes = new Car();
// We try to access a private property from outside the class.
$mercedes -> model = "Mercedes";
echo $mercedes -> getModel();

Result:
Fatal error: Cannot access private property Car::$model

How to access a private property?

We saw that we have no access to private properties from outside the class, but we still have to
somehow set and get the properties values. In order to interact with private properties, we use
public methods because they can interact with both the code outside of the classs scope as well as
the code inside the class. The public methods that can interact in this manner are commonly divided
into two kinds of methods:
Setters that set the values of the private properties.
Getters that get the values of the private properties.

28

Access modifiers: public vs. private

In the following example, we will see that we can get and set the value of a private property,
$carModel, through the use of setter and getter methods. We will use the setModel() method in
order to set the value of the car model, and the getModel() method to get the value of the property.
class Car {
// The private access modifier denies access to the method
//
from outside the classs scope
private $model;
// The public access modifier allows the access to the method
//
from outside the class
public function setModel($model)
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
public function getModel()
{
return "The car model is
}

" . $this -> model;

}
$mercedes = new Car();
// Set the cars model
$mercedes -> setModel("Mercedes");
// Get the cars model
echo $mercedes -> getModel();

Result:
The car model is Mercedes

Why do we need access modifiers?

We need access modifiers in order to limit the modifications that code from outside the classes can
do to the classes methods and properties. Once we define a property or method as private, only
methods that are within the class are allowed to approach it. So, in order to interact with private
methods and properties, we need to provide public methods. Inside these methods, we can put logic
that can validate and restrict data that comes from outside the class.

29

Access modifiers: public vs. private

In our example, we can validate that only certain car models can make their way, and be assigned to
the $model property, by defining the allowed alternatives for models in the getModel() method. For
this purpose, we define inside the getModel() method an array of allowed car models, and check
that only these models are assigned to the $model property.
class Car {
// The private access modifier denies access to the
//
method from outside the classs scope
private $model;
// The public access modifier allows the access to
//
the method from outside the class
public function setModel($model)
{
// Validate that only certain car models are assigned
//
to the $carModel property
if(in_array($model,$allowedModels))
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
}
public function getModel()
{
return "The car model is
}

" . $this -> model;

}
$mercedes = new Car();
// Set the cars model
$mercedes -> setModel("Mercedes");
// Get the cars model
echo $mercedes -> getModel();

Access modifiers: public vs. private

30

Conclusion
So far, we have learned about two access modifiers: public, which allows outside functions to modify
the code inside a class, and private, that prevents any code from outside the class to change the
properties and methods which it protects. We saw that, in order to modify private methods and
properties, we can use public methods that have the privilege to interact with the code outside the
scope of the class.
In the next chapter, we will learn about magic methods and constants. These are kinds of candies
that PHP provides, but they should be used with much caution.

Access modifiers: public vs. private

31

Lets practice what we have just learned

4.1 We use the private access modifier in order to:
A : Limit the access to a class.
B : Limit the access to properties.
C : Limit the access to methods.
D : B+C

Coding exercise
Lets return to the User class that we developed in the previous chapters, but lets now define the
$firstName of the user as a private property.
This is the User class:
class User {
// Your code goes here
}

4.2 Create a new class property with the name of $firstName, and prevent any code from
outside the class from changing the property value by using the appropriate access modifier
(private or protected).

4.3 Create a method to set the $firstName property value. Remember to use the right access
modifier (public/private).

4.4 Now, create a method to return the $firstName value.

4.5 Create a new user object with the name of $user1, set its name to Joe and make it
return its name.

Suggested solutions

Magic methods and constants

unveiled
Object Oriented PHP offers several magic methods and constants that enable a lot of programming
with very little code, but which suffer from a few disadvantages like a slight reduction in the
performance time as well as in the level of code clarity.
There is much dispute about the use of magic methods, so in this chapter we explain the parts of the
field which are widely agreed, but ignore the parts in dispute.

The __construct() magic method

The names of magic methods always start with two underscores, and the __construct() magic
method is no exception. We use __construct() in order to do something as soon as we create an
object out of a class. A method of this kind is called a constructor. Usually we use the constructor
to set a value to a property.
In our simple example, we should set the value of the $model property as soon as we create the
object, so we add a constructor inside the class that sets the value of the $model property.
class Car {
private $model;
// A constructor method
public function __construct($model)
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
}

In order to use the constructor, we have to pass an argument to the class with the name of the model
as soon as we create the object, but if we try to create a new object without assigning the value that
the constructor needs, we will encounter an error.
$car1 = new Car();

32

Magic methods and constants unveiled

33

Result:
Warning: Missing argument 1 for Car::__construct()

In order to avoid such an error, we have to assign a value to the constructor. Thus, for the sake of
example, we assign the value "Mercedes" to the constructor by writing it within the brackets of the
newly created object.
$car1 = new Car("Mercedes");

Now, lets add the method getCarModel() in order to echo the car model from the object that we
have just created.
class Car {
private $model;
// The constructor
public function __construct ($model)
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
public function getCarModel()
{
return ' The car model is: ' . $this -> model;
}
}
// We pass the value of the variable
//
once we create the object
$car1 = new Car("Mercedes");
echo $car1 -> getCarModel();

Result:
The car model is: Mercedes.

Magic methods and constants unveiled

34

How to write a constructor method without risking an

error?
When we try to create an object that has a constructor method, we run the risk of our code breaking
if we dont pass a value to the constructor. In order to avoid this risk, we can define a default value
for the properties that we would like to set through the constructor. The default value may be the
most reasonable choice for the property, zero, an empty string, or even a null.
If we use a null as the default value, we can use a condition to assess if a value was passed and then,
only in that case, assign the value to the property.
In the example below, we give a default value of null to the $model property and, only if a value is
passed to the constructor, we assign this value to the property. In any other case, the $model property
has a default value of "N/A" string.
class Car {
// The $model property has a default value of "N/A"
private $model = "";
// We don't have to assign a value to the $model property
//
since it already has a default value
public function __construct($model = null)
{
if($model)
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
}
public function getCarModel()
{
return ' The car model is: ' . $this -> model;
}
}
// We create the new Car object
//
without passing a value to the model
$car1 = new Car();
echo $car1 -> getCarModel();

Even though we created the object without passing a value to the model property, we didnt cause
an error because the model property in the constructor has a default value of null.

Magic methods and constants unveiled

35

Result:
The car model is: N/A
On the other hand, lets see what happens when we define the model once we create the object. In
the example below, we assign the value Mercedes to the $model property as soon as we create the
object.
class Car {
private $model = '';
// The constructor
public function __construct($model = null)
{
if($model)
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
}
public function getCarModel()
{
return ' The car model is: ' . $this -> model;
}
}
// We create the new Car object
//
with the value of the model
$car1 = new Car('Mercedes');
echo $car1 -> getCarModel();

Result:
The car model is: Mercedes

Magic constants
In addition to magic methods, the PHP language offers several magic constants.
For example, we may use the magic constant __CLASS__ (magic constants are written in uppercase
letters and prefixed and suffixed with two underlines) in order to get the name of the class in which
it resides.
Lets take a look at the following example in which we use the __CLASS__ magic constant in the
getter method:

Magic methods and constants unveiled

36

class Car {
private $model = '';
// The constructor
public function __construct($model = null)
{
if($model)
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
}
public function getCarModel()
{
// We use the __class__ magic constant
//
in order to get the class name
return " The <b>" . __class__ . "</b> model is: " . $this -> model;
}
}
$car1 = new Car('Mercedes');
echo $car1 -> getCarModel();

Result:
The Car model is: Mercedes
Other magic constants that may be of help are:
__LINE__ to get the line number in which the constant is used.
__FILE__ to get the full path or the filename in which the constant is used.
__METHOD__ to get the name of the method in which the constant is used.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we have learned about magic methods and constants, and how to use a constructor
to set the values of properties as soon as we create objects out of classes. In the next chapter, we will
learn about inheritance, a principle of object oriented programming that can save us from repeating
ourselves.

Magic methods and constants unveiled

37

Lets practice what we have just learned

Lets return to the User class that we developed in the previous chapters. However, instead of using
setter methods, we will set the values for the first and last name through the constructor.
This is the user class with the private properties of $firstName and $lastName:
class User {
private $firstName;
private $lastName;
}

5.1 Add to the class a constructor method to set a value to the $firstName property as soon
as the object is created.

So far in the chapter, we have used the constructor method to set the value of a single property, but
we can use a constructor in order to set the values of more than one property. In our exercise, we
will use the constructor method to set the value of the $firstName as well as the $lastName.
5.2 Add to the constructor the ability to set the value of the $lastName property (remember
that you can pass to a method more than parameter).

5.3 Add to the class a getFullName() public method that returns the full name.

5.4 Create a new object, $user1, and pass to the constructor the values of the first and last
name. The first name is John and the last name is Doe (you may choose your preferred
combination of first and last name).

5.5 Get the full name, and echo it to the screen.

Suggested solutions

Inheritance in object oriented

programming
One of the main advantages of object-oriented programming is the ability to reduce code duplication
with inheritance. Code duplication occurs when a programmer writes the same code more than
once, a problem that inheritance strives to solve. In inheritance, we have a parent class with its
own methods and properties, and a child class (or classes) that can use the code from the parent. By
using inheritance, we can create a reusable piece of code that we write only once in the parent class,
and use again as much as we need in the child classes.

How can a class inherit the code of another class?

Inheritance allows us to write the code only once in the parent, and then use the code
in both the parent and the child classes.
In order to declare that one class inherits the code from another class, we use the extends keyword.
Lets see the general case:
class Parent {
// The parents class code
}
class Child extends Parent {
// The child can use the parent's class code
}

The child class can make use of all the non-private methods and properties that it inherits from the
parent class. This allows us to write the code only once in the parent, and then use it in both the
parent and the child classes.
In the example given below, the SportsCar class inherits the Car class, so it has access to all of
the Cars methods and properties that are not private. This allows us to write the setModel() and
hello() public methods only once in the parent, and then use these methods in both the parent and
the child classes.

38

Inheritance in object oriented programming

// The parent class

class Car {
// Private property inside the class
private $model;
// Public setter method
public function setModel($model)
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
public function hello()
{
return "beep! I am a <i>" . $this -> model . "</i><br />";
}
}

// The child class inherits the code

//
from the parent class
class SportsCar extends Car {
// No code in the child class
}
// Create an instance from the child class
$sportsCar1 = new SportsCar();
// Set the value of the class property.
// For this aim, we use a method that we created in the parent
$sportsCar1 -> setModel('Mercedes Benz');
// Use another method that the child class inherited
//
from the parent class
echo $sportsCar1 -> hello();

Result:
beep! I am a Mercedes Benz

39

Inheritance in object oriented programming

40

How can a child class have its own methods and

properties?
Just as a child class can use the properties and methods of its parent class, it can have properties
and methods of its own as well. However, while a child class can use the code it inherited from the
parent, the parent class is not allowed to use the child classs code.
In the example given below, we will add to the child class some code of its own by adding the $style
property as well as the driveItWithStyle() method:
// The parent class has its properties and methods
class Car {
// A private property or method can be used only by the parent
private $model;
// Public methods and properties can be used
//
by both the parent and the child classes
public function setModel($model)
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
public function getModel()
{
return $this -> model;
}
}

// The child class can use the code it inherited from the parent class,
//
and it can also have its own code
class SportsCar extends Car {
private $style = 'fast and furious';
public function driveItWithStyle()
{
return 'Drive a ' . $this -> getModel() . ' <i>' .
$this -> style . '</i>';
}
}

Inheritance in object oriented programming

41

// Create an instance from the child class

$sportsCar1 = new SportsCar();
// Use a method that the child class inherited from the parent class
$sportsCar1 -> setModel('Ferrari');
// Use a method that was added to the child class
echo $sportsCar1 -> driveItWithStyle();

Result:
Drive a Ferrari fast and furious.

The protected access control modifier

When we declare a property or a method as protected, we can approach it from both
the parent and the child classes.
In a previous chapter, we learned that we can use the public access modifier to allow access to a
classs methods and properties from both inside and outside the class. We also learned that those
methods and properties that are private can only be used from inside the class. In this chapter, we
will learn about a third modifier - the protected modifier, which allows code usage from both inside
the class and from its child classes.
The first example demonstrates what might happen when we declare the $model property in the
parent as private, but still try to access it from its child class.
What do you think might happen when we try to call a private method or property from outside the
class?
Here is the code:
// The parent class
class Car {
// The $model property is private, thus it can be accessed
//
only from inside the class
private $model;
// Public setter method
public function setModel($model)
{
$this -> model = $model;

Inheritance in object oriented programming

42

}
}

// The child class

class SportsCar extends Car{
// Tries to get a private property
//
that belongs to the parent
public function hello()
{
return "beep! I am a <i>" . $this -> model . "</i><br />";
}
}

//Create an instance from the child class

$sportsCar1 = new SportsCar();
// Set the class model name
$sportsCar1 -> setModel('Mercedes Benz');
// Get the class model name
echo $sportsCar1 -> hello();

Result:
Notice: Undefined property: SportsCar::$model

We get an error because the hello() method in the child class is trying to approach a private
property, $model, that belongs to the parent class.
We can fix the problem by declaring the $model property in the parent as protected, instead of
private, because when we declare a property or a method as protected, we can approach it from
both the parent and the child classes.

Inheritance in object oriented programming

43

// The parent class

class Car {
// The $model property is now protected, so it can be accessed
//
from within the class and its child classes
protected $model;
// Public setter method
public function setModel($model)
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
}
// The child class
class SportsCar extends Car {
// Has no problem to get a protected property
//
that belongs to the parent
public function hello()
{
return "beep! I am a <i>" . $this -> model . "</i><br />";
}
}

// Create an instance from the child class

$sportsCar1 = new SportsCar();
// Set the class model name
$sportsCar1 -> setModel('Mercedes Benz');
// Get the class model name
echo $sportsCar1 -> hello();

Result:
beep! I am a Mercedes Benz
Now it works, because we can access a protected code that belongs to a parent from a child class.

Inheritance in object oriented programming

44

How to override the parents properties and methods

in the child class?
In the same way that the child class can have its own properties and methods, it can override the
properties and methods of the parent class. When we override the classs properties and methods, we
rewrite a method or property that exists in the parent again in the child, but assign to it a different
value or code.
In the example given below, we create a hello() method in the parent class that returns the string
"beep" and override it in the child class with a method by the same name that returns a different
string, "Hallo".
Here is the code:
// The parent class has hello method that returns "beep"
class Car {
public function hello()
{
return "beep";
}
}
// The child class has hello method that returns "Hallo"
class SportsCar extends Car {
public function hello()
{
return "Hallo";
}
}

// Create a new object

$sportsCar1 = new SportsCar();
// Get the result of the hello method
echo $sportsCar1 -> hello();

Result:
Hallo
The result reflects the fact that the hello() method from the parent class was overridden by the
child method with the same name.

Inheritance in object oriented programming

45

How to prevent the child class from overriding the

parents methods?
In order to prevent the method in the child class from overriding the parents methods, we can prefix
the method in the parent with the final keyword.
In the example given below, we declare the hello() method in the parent as final, but still try to
override it in the child class. What do you think might happen if we try to override a method that
was declared as final?
// The parent class has hello method that returns "beep"
class Car {
final public function hello()
{
return "beep";
}
}
// The child class has hello method that tries
//
to override the hello method in the parent
class SportsCar extends Car {
public function hello()
{
return "Hallo";
}
}

// Create a new object

$sportsCar1 = new SportsCar();
// Get the result of the hello method
echo $sportsCar1 -> hello();

Result:
Fatal error: Cannot override final method Car::hello()

Inheritance in object oriented programming

46

Since we declared the hello method as final in the parent, we cannot override the method in the
child class.
We use inheritance in order to reduce code duplication by using code from the parent
class in the child classes.

Conclusion
In this chapter we have learned one of the principles of object oriented programming, the concept of
inheritance. We use inheritance in order to reduce code duplication by using code from the parent
class in the child classes.
In the next chapter, we will learn about abstract classes and methods, which are classes that cannot
be instantiated and methods that have no bodies.

Inheritance in object oriented programming

Lets practice what we have just learned

6.1 Which keyword do we use in order to declare that one class inherits from another class?
A : extends in the parent
B : extends in the child
C : extends in both the child and the parent

6.2 Which keyword do we use in order to declare that a method or property can only be
used within the parent class and its child classes?
A : private
B : protected
C : public

47

48

Inheritance in object oriented programming

6.3 We learned about three access control modifiers (public, private, and protected)
that we use to allow/restrict access to the code.
In the following table, we will use V to mark that the code can be accessed from a
certain level, and X if it cannot be accessed.
Fill in the table with the right values.
For example, public code can be accessed from within the class, from the code within
the child classes, and from the global scope, while private code cannot be accessed
from the global scope (*).

Comparison between access control modifiers

(*) The global scope is outside the classes.

Inheritance in object oriented programming

Coding exercise
In the following example, we will create an Admin class, which is a child class of the User class.
6.4 Create a user class.

6.5 Add to the class a private property with the name of $username.

6.6 Create a setter method that can set the value of the $username.

6.7 Create a class Admin that inherits the User class.

6.8 Now, lets add to the Admin class some code. First, add a public method by the name of
expressYourRole, and make it return the string: "Admin".

6.9 Add to the Admin class another public method, sayHello, that returns the string Hello
admin, XXX with the username instead of XXX.

6.10 Create an object $admin1 out of the class Admin, set its name to "Balthazar", and say
hello to the user. Do you see any problem?

6.11 What do you think is the cause of the problem?

6.12 How will you fix this problem?

Suggested solutions

49

Abstract classes and methods

We use abstract classes when we want to commit the programmer (either oneself or someone else)
to write a certain class method, but we are only sure about the name of the method, and not the
details of how it should be written. To take an example, circles, rectangles, octagons, etc. may all look
different, but are all 2D shapes nonetheless, and thus all possess the traits of area and circumference.
So, it makes perfect sense to group the code that they have in common into one parent class. In this
parent class, we would have the two properties of area and circumference, and we may very well
have a method that calculates the area (which might be problematic since different shapes require
different calculations). In these kinds of cases, when we need to commit the child classes to certain
methods that they inherit from the parent class but we cannot commit about the code that should
be used in the methods, we use abstract classes.
We use abstract classes and methods when we need to commit the child classes to certain
methods that they inherit from the parent class but we cannot commit about the code
that should be written inside the methods.
An abstract class is a class that has at least one abstract method. Abstract methods can only have
names and arguments, and no other code. Thus, we cannot create objects out of abstract classes.
Instead, we need to create child classes that add the code into the bodies of the methods, and use
these child classes to create objects.

How to declare classes and methods as abstract?

In order to declare a class as abstract, we need to prefix the name of the class with the abstract
keyword.
See the following example:
abstract class Car { }

We put the abstract methods that are also declared with the abstract keyword within the abstract
class. Abstract methods inside an abstract class dont have a body, only a name and parameters
inside parentheses.
In the example given below, we create a public abstract method, calcNumMilesOnFullTank(), that
is the skeleton for methods that we will create in the child classes. Once created, these methods will
return the number of miles a car can be driven on a full tank of gas.
50

Abstract classes and methods

51

// Abstract classes are declared with the abstract keyword,

//
and contain abstract methods
abstract class Car {
abstract public function calcNumMilesOnFullTank();
}

It is important to know that once we have an abstract method in a class, the class must also be
abstract.

Can we have non abstract methods inside an abstract

class?
An abstract class can have non abstract methods. In fact, it can even have properties, and properties
couldnt be abstract.
Lets add to our example the protected property, $tankVolume, and public method with the name of
setTankVolume().
abstract class Car {
// Abstract classes can have properties
protected $tankVolume;
// Abstract classes can have non abstract methods
public function setTankVolume($volume)
{
$this -> tankVolume = $volume;
}
// Abstract method
abstract public function calcNumMilesOnFullTank();
}

How to create child classes from an abstract class?

Since we cannot create objects from abstract classes, we need to create child classes that inherit
the abstract class code. Child classes of abstract classes are formed with the help of the extends
keyword, like any other child class. They are different in that they have to add the bodies to the
abstract methods.
The child classes that inherit from abstract classes must add bodies to the abstract
methods.

Abstract classes and methods

52

Lets create a child class with the name of Honda, and define in it the abstract method that it inherited
from the parent, calcNumMilesOnFullTank().
class Honda extends Car {
// Since we inherited abstract method,
//
we need to define it in the child class,
//
by adding code to the method's body.
public function calcNumMilesOnFullTank()
{
$miles = $this -> tankVolume*30;
return $miles;
}
}

We can create another child class from the Car abstract class and call it Toyota, and here again
define the abstract method calcNumMilesOnFullTank() with a slight change in the calculation. We
will also add to the child class its own method with the name of getColor() that returns the string
"beige".
class Toyota extends Car {
// Since we inherited abstract method,
//
we need to define it in the child class,
//
by adding code to the method's body.
public function calcNumMilesOnFullTank()
{
return $miles = $this -> tankVolume*33;
}
public function getColor()
{
return "beige";
}
}

Lets create a new object, $toyota1, with a full tank volume of 10 Gallons, and make it return the
number of miles on full tank as well as the cars color.

Abstract classes and methods

53

$toyota1 = new Toyota();

$toyota1 -> setTankVolume(10);
echo $toyota1 -> calcNumMilesOnFullTank();
echo $toyota1 -> getColor();

Result:
330
beige

Conclusion
In this chapter, we had our first encounter with the concept of abstraction, which enables us to
commit the child classes to methods names, and not to methods bodies. In the next chapter, we are
going to revisit the concept of abstraction, but this time through the use of interface.

Abstract classes and methods

Lets practice what we have just learned

7.1 Which keyword is used to declare a class or method as abstract?
A : abstract
B : inherit
C : abstract
D : extends

7.2 Which keyword is used to declare a child class that inherits from an abstract class?
A : abstract
B : inherit
C : abstract
D : extends

7.3 What are the main reasons for using an abstract class in the code?
A : To enable code inheritance in PHP.
B : To commit the child classes to certain methods.
C : To make a good impression on your boss and colleagues.
D : To encapsulate the code of the parent from any code outside the parent class.

7.4 Can we create objects from abstract classes?

54

Abstract classes and methods

55

Coding exercise
In the following example, we will create an abstract User class and two child classes (Admin and
Viewer classes) that inherit from the abstract class.

7.5 Create an abstract class with the name of User, which has an abstract method with the
name of stateYourRole.

7.6 Add to the class a protected variable with the name of $username, and public setter and
getter methods to set and get the $username.

7.7 Create an Admin class that inherits the abstract User class.

7.8 Which method should be defined in the class?

7.9 Define the method stateYourRole() in the child class and make it return the string
admin;

7.10 Create another class, Viewer that inherits the User abstract class. Define the method
that should be defined in each child class of the User class.

7.11 Create an object from the Admin class, set the username to Balthazar, and make it
return the string admin.

Suggested solutions

Interfaces - the next level of

abstraction
Interfaces resemble abstract classes in that they include abstract methods that the programmer
must define in the classes that inherit from the interface. In this way, interfaces contribute to code
organization because they commit the child classes to the methods that they should implement. The
use of interfaces become very helpful when we work in a team of programmers and want to ensure
that all the programmers write the methods that they should work on, or even in the case of a single
programmer that wants to commit himself to write certain methods in the child classes.
An interface commits its child classes to abstract methods that they should implement.

How to declare and implement an interface?

We declare an interface with the interface keyword and, the class that inherits from an interface
with the implements keyword. Lets see the general case:
interface interfaceName {
// Abstract methods
}

class Child implements interfaceName {

// Defines the interface methods,
//
and may have its own methods.
}

In the simple example given below, we will create an interface for the classes that handle cars, which
commits all its child classes to setModel() and getModel() methods.
interface Car {
public function setModel($name);
public function getModel();
}

56

Interfaces - the next level of abstraction

57

Interfaces, like abstract classes, include abstract methods and constants. However, unlike abstract
classes, interfaces can have only public methods, and cannot have variables.
The classes that implement the interfaces must define all the methods that they inherit from the
interfaces, including all the parameters. So, in our concrete class with the name of miniCar, we add
the code to all the abstract methods.
class miniCar implements Car {
private $model;
public function setModel($name)
{
$this -> model = $name;
}
public function getModel()
{
return $this -> model;
}
}

Can we implement more than one interface in the

same class?
We can implement a number of interfaces in the same class.
We can implement a number of interfaces in the same class, and so circumvent the law that prohibits
the inheritance from more than one parent class. In order to demonstrate multiple inheritance from
different interfaces, we create another interface, Vehicle, that commits the classes that implement
it to a boolean $hasWheels property.
interface Vehicle {
public function setHasWheels($bool);
public function getHasWheels();
}

Interfaces - the next level of abstraction

Now, our child class can implement the two interfaces.

// The class implements two interfaces
class miniCar implements Car, Vehicle {
private $model;
private $hasWheels;
public function setModel($name)
{
$this -> model = $name;
}
public function getModel()
{
return $this -> model;
}
public function setHasWheels($bool)
{
$this -> hasWheels = $bool;
}
public function getHasWheels()
{
return ($this -> hasWheels)? "has wheels" : "no wheels";
}
}

58

59

Interfaces - the next level of abstraction

What are the differences between abstract classes

and interfaces?
We saw that abstract classes and interfaces are similar in that they provide abstract methods that
can be implemented only in the child classes. However, they still have the following differences:
Interfaces can include abstract methods and constants, but cannot contain concrete methods
and variables.
All the methods in the interface must be in the public visibility scope.
A class can implement more than one interface, while it can inherit from only one abstract
class.
Lets summarize these differences in the following table:
interfaces

Abstract classes

the code

-abstract methods
-constants

-abstract methods
-constants
-concrete methods
-concrete variables

access modifiers

-public

-public
-protected
-private
etc.

number of parents

The same class can

implement
more than 1 interface

The child class can inherit

only
from 1 abstract class

Conclusion
In this chapter, we saw how to create and use interfaces, and learned about the differences between
abstract classes and interfaces. In the next chapter, we are going to use our knowledge of abstract
classes to improve the consistency of our code.

Interfaces - the next level of abstraction

60

Lets practice what we have just learned

8.1 Which keyword should we use in order to implement an interface?
A : extends
B : public
C : private
D : implements

8.2 Which of the following code types are allowed in an interface?

A : methods
B : properties
C : constants
D : A+C

8.3 Which of the following access modifiers is allowed for abstract methods in interfaces?
A : public
B : protected
C : private
D:A+B+C

8.4 Which of the following is valid inheritance?

A : A class can inherit from an abstract class and two interfaces.
B : A class can inherit from a parent class and one interface.
C : A class can inherit from a parent class and more than one interface.
D : A class can inherit from 2 abstract classes.
E:A+B+C

Coding exercise
In this chapter, we saw that a class can implement more than one interface. In the concluding
example, we will go one step further by letting the same child class inherit from both a parent
class and from two interfaces.

Interfaces - the next level of abstraction

8.5 Create a User class with a protected $username property and methods that can set and
get the $username.

8.6 Create an Author interface with the following abstract methods that can give the user
an array of authorship privileges. The first method is setAuthorPrivileges(), and it gets
a parameter of $array, and the second method is getAuthorPrivileges().

8.7 Create an Editor interface with methods to set and get the editors privileges.

8.8 Now, create an AuthorEditor class that extends the User class, and implements both
the Author and the Editor interfaces.

8.9 Create in the AuthorEditor class the methods that it should implement, and the
properties that these methods force us to add to the class.
For example, in order to implement the public method setAuthorPrivileges(), we must
add to our class a property that holds the array of authorship privileges, and name it
$authorPrivilegesArray accordingly.

8.10 Create an object with the name of $user1 from the class AuthorEditor, and set its
username to Balthazar.

8.11 Set in the $user1 object an array of authorship privileges, with the following privileges:
write text, add punctuation.

8.12 Set in the $user1 object an array with the following editorial privileges: edit text,
edit punctuation.

8.13 Use the following code to get the $user1 name and privileges:

61

Interfaces - the next level of abstraction

$userName = $user1 -> getUsername();

$userPrivileges = array_merge($user1 -> getAuthorPrivileges(),
$user1 -> getEditorPrivileges());
echo $userName . " has the following privileges: ";
foreach($userPrivileges as $privilege)
{
echo " {$privilege},";
}
echo ".";

Suggested solutions

62

Polymorphism in PHP
In this chapter, we are going to learn a naming convention that can help us write code which is
much more coherent and easy to use. According to the Polymorphism (Greek for many forms)
principle, methods in different classes that do similar things should have the same name.
According to the Polymorphism principle, methods in different classes that do similar
things should have the same name.
A prime example is of classes that represent geometric shapes (such as rectangles, circles and
octagons) that are different from each other in the number of ribs and in the formula that calculates
their area, but they all have in common an area that needs to be calculated. In such case, the
polymorphism principle says that all the methods that calculate the area (and it doesnt matter
for which shape or class) should have the same name. For example, we can write in each class that
represents a shape a calcArea() method that calculates the area with a different formula. Now,
whenever the end users would like to calculate the area for the different shapes, the only thing that
they need to know is that a method with the name of calcArea() is used to calculate the area. So,
they dont have to pay any attention to the technicalities of how actually each method works. The
only thing that they need to know is the name of the method and what it is meant to do.

How to implement the polymorphism principle?

In order to implement the polymorphism principle, we can choose between abstract
classes and interfaces.
In order to ensure that the classes do implement the polymorphism principle, we can choose between
one of the two options of either abstract classes or interfaces.
In the example given below, an interface with the name of Shape commits all the classes that
implement it to define an abstract method with the name of calcArea().
interface Shape {
public function calcArea();
}

In accordance, the Circle class implements the interface by putting into the calcArea() method
the formula that calculates the area of circles.
63

Polymorphism in PHP

64

class Circle implements Shape {

private $radius;
public function __construct($radius)
{
$this -> radius = $radius;
}
// The method calcArea calculates the area of circles
public function calcArea()
{
return $this -> radius * $this -> radius * pi();
}
}

The rectangle class also implements the Shape interface but defines the function calcArea() with a
calculation formula that is suitable for rectangles.
class Rectangle implements Shape {
private $width;
private $height;
public function __construct($width, $height)
{
$this -> width = $width;
$this -> height = $height;
}
// calcArea calculates the area of rectangles
public function calcArea()
{
return $this -> width * $this -> height;
}
}

Now, we can create objects from the concrete classes:

$circ = new Circle(3);
$rect = new Rectangle(3,4);

We can be sure that all of the objects calculate the area with the method that has the name of
calcArea(), whether it is a rectangle object or a circle object (or any other shape), as long as they
implement the Shape interface.
Now, we can use the calcArea() methods to calculate the area of the shapes:

Polymorphism in PHP

65

echo $circ -> calcArea();

echo $rect -> calcArea();

Result:
28.274333882308
12

Conclusion
In this chapter, we have learned how to implement the polymorphism principle in PHP. In the
next chapter, we will learn about type hinting that specifies the expected data type (arrays, objects,
interface, etc.) for an argument in a function declaration.

Polymorphism in PHP

66

Lets practice what we have just learned

9.1 Which of these sentences best defines the polymorphism principle in PHP?
A : Methods that serve the same functionality in different classes should have the same
name.
B : The same function can have many names.
C : Is the Greek term for inheritance.
D : Can be implemented in most of the modern programming languages.

Coding example
In our coding example lets return to the User class that we used in the previous chapters.
In order to implement the polymorphism principle, we are going to create an abstract User class
that commits the classes that inherit from it to calculate the number of scores that a user has
depending on the number of articles that he has authored or edited. On the basis of the User class,
we are going to create the Author and Editor classes, and both will calculate the number of scores
with the method calcScores(), although the calculated value will differ between the two classes.
This is the skeleton for the abstract User class:
abstract class User {
protected $scores
= 0;
protected $numberOfArticles = 0;
// The abstract and concrete methods
}

9.2 Add to the class concrete methods to set and get the number of articles:
1. setNumberOfArticles($int)
2. getNumberOfArticles()
$int stands for an integer.

9.3 Add to the class the abstract method: calcScores(), that performs the scores calculations separately for each class.

Polymorphism in PHP

9.4 Create an Author class that inherits from the User class. In the Author create a concrete
calcScores() method that returns the number of scores from the following calculation:
numberOfArticles * 10 + 20

9.5 Also create an Editor class that inherits from the User class. In the Editor create
a concrete calcScores() method that returns the number of scores from the following
calculation:
numberOfArticles * 6 + 15

9.6 Create an object, $author1, from the Author class, set the number of articles to 8, and
echo the scores that the author gained.

9.7 Create another object, $editor1, from the Editor class, set the number of articles to
15, and echo the scores that the editor gained.

Suggested solutions

67

Type hinting
With Type hinting we can specify the expected data type (arrays, objects, interface, etc.) for an
argument in a function declaration. This practice can be most advantageous because it results in
better code organization and improved error messages.
This chapter explains the subject of type hinting for arrays and objects in PHP5. It also explains
the subject of type hinting for basic data types (integers, floats, strings, and booleans) which is only
supported in PHP7.

How to do array type hinting?

When we would like to force a function to get only arguments of the type array, we can put the
keyword array in front of the argument name, with the following syntax:
function functionName (array $argumentName)
{
// The code block
}

In the following example, the calcNumMilesOnFullTank() function calculates the number of miles
a car can be driven on a full tank of gas by using the tank volume as well as the number of miles
per gallon (mpg). This function accepts only array as an argument, as we can see from the fact that
the argument name is preceded by the array keyword.
// The function can only get array as an argument.
function calcNumMilesOnFullTank(array $models)
{
foreach($models as $item)
{
echo $carModel = $item[0];
echo " : ";
echo $numberOfMiles = $item[1] * $item[2];
echo "<br />";
}
}

68

69

Type hinting

First, lets try to pass to the function an argument which is not an array to see what might happen
in such a case:
calcNumMilesOnFullTank("Toyota");

Result:
Catchable fatal error: Argument 1 passed to calcNumMilesOnFullTank() must be of the
type array, string given

This error is a precise description of what went wrong with our code. From it, we can understand
that the function expected an array variable, and not a string.
Lets rewrite the code and pass to the function an array with the expected items, including the model
names, the tank volumes, and the mpg (miles per gallon).
$models = array(
array('Toyota', 12, 44),
array('BMW', 13, 41)
);
calcNumMilesOnFullTank($models);

Result:
Toyota : 528
BMW : 533
Now its working because we passed to the function the array that it expected to get.

How to do object type hinting?

Type hinting can also be used to force a function to get an argument of type Object. For this purpose,
we put the name of the class in front of the argument name in the function.
In the following example, the classs constructor can only get objects that were created from the
Driver class. We ensure this by putting the word Driver in front of the argument name in the
constructor.

Type hinting

70

class Car {
protected $driver;
// The constructor can only get Driver objects as arguments.
public function __construct(Driver $driver)
{
$this -> driver = $driver;
}
}

class Driver {}

$driver1 = new Driver();

$car1
= new Car($driver1);

Does PHP support type hinting to basic data types?

It depends. Whereas PHP5 doesnt allow type hinting for basic data types (integers, floats, strings
and booleans), PHP7 does support scalar type hinting.
PHP5 does not support type hinting to basic data types like integers, booleans or strings. So, when
we need to validate that an argument belongs to a basic data type, we can use one of PHPs is_
family functions. For example:

is_bool - to find out whether a variable is a boolean (true or false).

is_int - to find out whether a variable is an integer.
is_float - to find out whether a variable is a float (3.14, 1.2e3 or 3E-10).
is_null - to find out whether a variable is null.
is_string - to find out whether a variable is a string.

On the other hand, PHP7 does support scalar type hinting. The supported types are: integers, floats,
strings, and booleans.
The following code example can only work in PHP7.

Type hinting

class car
{
protected $model;
protected $hasSunRoof;
protected $numberOfDoors;
protected $price;
// string type hinting
public function setModel(string $model)
{
$this->model = $model;
}
// boolean type hinting
public function setHasSunRoof(bool $value)
{
$this->hasSunRoof = $value;
}
// integer type hinting
public function setNumberOfDoors(int $value)
{
$this->numberOfDoors = $value;
}
// float type hinting
public function setPrice(float $value)
{
$this->price = $value;
}
}

71

72

Type hinting

Conclusion
In this chapter, we explained type hinting for the array and object data types as well as for the scalar
data types (integers, floats, strings, and booleans), but did not explain how to do it for interfaces.
However, the use of type hinting for interfaces can yield many benefits, as you can learn in the next
chapter.

Lets practice what we have just learned

10.1 Type hinting can validate that the types of values that are passed to functions belong
to the following data types:
A : booleans, integers, floats, and strings.
B : arrays, objects, and interfaces.
C : Type hinting for complex types (arrays and objects) is supported in both PHP 5 and 7,
while scalar type hinting (for integers, floats, strings, and booleans) is only supported in
PHP7.

Suggested solutions

Type hinting for interfaces

In the previous chapter we learned that type hinting contributes to code organization and improves
error messages. In this chapter, we will learn how to implement type hinting for interfaces.
In the first part of the chapter we will see that the use of type hinting for objects is not always
sufficient, and in the second part we will learn how to fix the problem by the use of type hinting for
interfaces.

Why type hinting for objects may not be sufficient?

We will base this chapter on the following imaginary scenario: A manager in a car rental company
that rents only BMWs hired a programmer to write a program that calculates the price for a full
tank of gas for each and every car that the company owns. In accordance with these demands, the
programmer writes a class to which he decides to call Bmw that holds the code for the task. This
class has the data about the BMWs including the license plate number, the car model and, most
importantly, it has a method that calculates the volume of the fuel tank.
The function that calculates the volume is called calcTankVolume. This method calculates the tank
volume by multiplying the base area (the square of the base ribs length) by the height. The height,
as well as the length of the base ribs and the license plate number, is introduced to the class through
the constructor.
class Bmw {
protected $model;
protected $rib;
protected $height;
// The properties are introduced to the class through the constructor
public function __construct($model, $rib, $height)
{
$this -> model = $model;
$this -> rib = $rib;
$this -> height = $height;
}
// Calculate the tank volume for rectangular tanks
public function calcTankVolume()

73

Type hinting for interfaces

74

{
return $this -> rib * $this -> rib * $this -> height;
}
}

Outside of the class, the programmer writes a function to calculate the price for a full tank of gas by
multiplying the tank volume by the price per gallon. However, since he doesnt want the function
to get any argument other than those that belong to the Bmw class, he uses type hinting:
// Type hinting ensures that the function gets only Bmw objects as arguments
function calcTankPrice(Bmw $bmw, $pricePerGalon)
{
return $bmw -> calcTankVolume() * 0.0043290 * $pricePerGalon . "$";
}

Now, he can easily calculate how much a full tank of gas costs for BMWs. for a car with the license
plate number of 62182791, a rib length of 14 and height of 21, and using gas priced at 3 dollars
per gallon.
$bmw1 = new Bmw('62182791', 14, 21);
calcTankPrice($bmw1, 3);

Result:
53.454492$

Type hinting for interfaces

After a short time, the manager decides to introduce to his fleet of cars a brand new Mercedes, but
the problem is that the calcTankPrice() function can only perform calculations for BMWs. It turns
out that, while BMWs have a rectangular shaped gas tank, Mercedes have a cylindrical shaped gas
tank. So, our programmer is summoned once again to write another class that can handle this new
task at hand. To this end, our programmer now writes the following class with the name of Mercedes
that can calculate the tank volume for cylindrical shaped tanks.

Type hinting for interfaces

75

class Mercedes {
protected $model;
protected $radius;
protected $height;
public function __construct($model, $radius, $height)
{
$this -> model = $model;
$this -> radius = $radius;
$this -> height = $height;
}
// Calculate the volume of cylinders
public function calcTankVolume()
{
return $this -> radius * $this -> radius * pi() * $this -> height;
}
}

When our programmer completed the task of writing the Mercedes class, he tried to calculate the
price of a full tank of gas for a Mercedes.
$mercedes1 = new Mercedes('12189796', 7, 28);
echo calcTankPrice($mercedes1, 3);

But the result wasnt quite what he had expected:

Result:
Catchable fatal error: Argument 1 passed to calcTankPrice() must be an instance of Bmw,
instance of Mercedes given

This error message is the result of not passing the right object to the function, since he tried to pass a
Mercedes object to the calcTankVolume() function, while the function can only accept objects that
belong to the Bmw class.
First, our programmer attempted to solve the problem by not using any type hinting, but then
he understood that a better solution would be the use of type hinting for interfaces. Here I use
interface in its wider meaning that includes both abstract classes and real interfaces.
So, first he created an abstract class with the name of Car that both the Bmw and the Mercedes (and,
in fact, any other car model) can inherit from.

Type hinting for interfaces

abstract class Car {

protected $model;
protected $height;
abstract public function calcTankVolume();
}

Then he re-factored the Bmw and Mercedes classes so they inherit from the Car class:
class Bmw extends Car {
protected $rib;
public function __construct($model, $rib, $height)
{
$this -> model = $model;
$this -> rib
= $rib;
$this -> height = $height;
}
// Calculate a rectangular tank volume
public function calcTankVolume()
{
return $this -> rib * $this -> rib * $this -> height;
}
}

class Mercedes extends Car {

protected $radius;
public function __construct($model, $radius, $height)
{
$this ->model = $model;
$this -> radius = $radius;
$this -> height = $height;
}
// Calculates the volume of cylinder
public function calcTankVolume()
{

76

Type hinting for interfaces

77

return $this -> radius * $this -> radius * pi() * $this -> height;
}
}

Since both the classes inherit from the same interface, he chose wisely to type hint the function
calcTankPrice() with the Car interface, so that the function can get any object that belong to this
interface.
// Type hinting ensures that the function gets only objects
//
that belong to the Car interface
function calcTankPrice(Car $car, $pricePerGalon)
{
echo $car -> calcTankVolume() * 0.0043290 * $pricePerGalon . "$";
}

Now, lets see the result when we try to use the function calcTankPrice() on both a Bmw and a
Mercedes objects:
$bmw1 = new Bmw('62182791', 14, 21);
echo calcTankPrice($bmw1, 3);
$mercedes1 = new Mercedes('12189796', 7, 28);
echo calcTankPrice($mercedes1, 3);

Result:
53.454492$
55.977413122858$
Whenever we need to do type hinting to more than one related classes, we should be
using interface type hinting.
The message to take home from this chapter is that whenever we need to do type hinting to more
than one related classes, we should be using interface type hinting.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we have learned how to implement type hinting for interfaces. In the next chapter
we will learn about static methods and properties that are used without the need of creating an
object.

Type hinting for interfaces

78

Lets practice what weve just learned

In this chapter we used an example for type hinting with interface in the form of abstract class. Now,
we are going to practice what we have learned with type hinting to interface per se.
11.1 Create a User interface with set and get methods for both a $username property, as
well as for a $gender property.

11.2 Now, create a Commentator class to implement the User interface.

11.3 Create function to add Mr. or Mrs. to the username. When writing the function
make sure to type hint it correctly, so it can only get the types it is expected to.

11.4 Run the code against a user with the name of Jane and against another user with the
name of Bob.

Suggested solutions

Static methods and properties

In certain cases, we might want to approach methods and properties of a class without the need to
first create an object out of the class. This can be achieved by defining the methods and properties
of a class as static. Even though the use of static methods and properties is not considered a good
practice, there are cases in which their use is quite handy and justified.
We can access static methods and properties without the need to first create an object,
but their use should be limited.
We have already learned about the three access modifiers called public, protected and private. This
chapter is devoted to the fourth modifier, static, that allows access to classes properties and methods
without the need to create objects out of the classes.

How to define methods and properties as static?

In order to define methods and properties as static, we use the reserved keyword static. In the
following example, the class Utilis has a static public property with the name of $numCars, and so
the propertys name is preceded by both the static as well as the public keywords.
class Utilis {
// Static methods and properties
//
are defined with the static keyword
static public $numCars = 0;
}

How to approach static methods and properties?

In order to approach static methods and properties we use the scope resolution operator (::). In the
example given below, in order to work with the static property of $numCars, we use the following
code:

79

Static methods and properties

80

// Set the number of cars

Utilis::$numCars = 3;
// Get the number of cars
echo Utilis::$numCars;

Result:
3
Pay attention to the use of the $ sign right after the scope resolution operator.

How to approach the static methods from within the

class?
In the same manner that we used the $this keyword to approach the classs own properties and
methods from within the class, we use the reserved keyword self to approach static methods and
properties.
In the example given below, the method addToNumCars() gets and sets the number of cars from the
static $numCars property within the same class by using the self keyword.
class Utilis {
static public $numCars = 0;
static public function addToNumCars($int)
{
$int = (int)$int;
self::$numCars += $int;
}
}

Now, we can use the code we have written so far to set and get the number of cars.
echo Utilis::$numCars;
Utilis::addToNumCars(3);
echo Utilis::$numCars;
Utilis::addToNumCars(-1);
echo Utilis::$numCars;

Static methods and properties

81

Result:
0
3
2

When to use static properties and methods?

The main cases in which we consider the use of static methods and properties are for
utilities.
The use of static properties and methods is not a good practice. However, in some cases, the ability
to use a property or a method without the need to first create an object out of a class can be
advantageous. The main cases in which we consider the use of static methods and properties are
when we need them as counters and for utility classes.

Use case 1: as counters

We use static properties as counters since they are able to save the last value that has been assigned
to them. For example, the method add1ToCars() adds 1 to the $numberOfCars property each time
the method is called.
class Utilis {
// Hold the number of cars
static public $numberOfCars = 0;
// Add 1 to the number of cars each time the method is called
static public function add1ToCars()
{
self::$numberOfCars++;
}
}

echo Utilis::$numberOfCars;
Utilis::add1ToCars();
echo Utilis::$numberOfCars;
Utilis::add1ToCars();
echo Utilis::$numberOfCars;

Static methods and properties

82

Utilis::add1ToCars();
echo Utilis::$numberOfCars;

Result:
0
1
2
3

Use case 2: for utility classes

It is very common to use static methods for utility classes. The sole purpose of utility classes is
to provide services to the main classes. Utility methods can perform all kinds of tasks, such as:
conversion between measurement systems (kilograms to pounds), data encryption, sanitation, and
any other task that is not more than a service for the main classes in our application.
The example given below is of a static method with the name of redirect that redirects the user to
the URL that we pass to it as an argument.
class Utilis {
// The method uses PHP's header function
//
to redirect the user
static public function redirect($url)
{
header("Location: $url");
exit;
}
}

In order to use the redirect() method, all we need to do is call it from the scope of the Utilis class
without having the need to create an object. Its as simple as this:
Utilis::redirect("http://www.phpenthusiast.com");

Static methods and properties

83

Why static should be used with caution?

Whenever you use static, be sure to use it for utilities and not for convenience reasons.
If you are considering the use of static methods and properties because they are convenient and can
be approached without the need to first create an object, please be cautious, because static methods
suffer from the following two major disadvantages:
Static methods and properties present globals to the code that can be approached from
anywhere, and globals are something that we should avoid as much as possible.
You will have a hard time performing automated testing on classes that use static methods.
So, whenever you use static, be sure to use it for utilities and not for convenience reasons.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we have learned how and when to use static methods and properties, but most
important when not to use it. In the next chapter, we are going to learn how to include code the
object oriented way with traits.

Static methods and properties

Lets practice what we have just learned

12.1 The use of static methods and appropriate is appropriate in the following case:
A : Whenever we want to use a classs method without instantiation.
B : For utilities such as conversion between units of measurements, sanitation, encryption,
etc.
C : When we would like to unit test our code.
D : When our code is static.

Suggested solutions

84

Traits and code inclusion

PHP allows a class to inherit from only a single parent class, but sometimes we cannot escape the
necessity to use code from more than one resource. In these cases, it is common to chain more and
more parents. However, this can easily get quite complicated and it is considered a good practice not
to exceed beyond an inheritance tree of three generations. Another common practice is to include
the code that we would like to share between the classes by using the include or require PHP
built-in functions. This practice, though valid, is hackish by nature.
This is why we need to consider the use of a trait, a new feature that was introduced into PHP
version 5.4, as it allows a class to get its code from more than one trait. In fact, it allows a class to
use as many traits as it needs.

How do traits work?

Traits resemble classes in that they group together code elements under a common name, and with
the following syntax:
trait TraitName {
// The trait's code
}

In the example given below, a trait with the name of Price has a method changePriceByDollars()
that calculates the new price from the old price and the price change in dollars.
trait Price {
public function changePriceByDollars($price, $change)
{
return $price + $change;
}
}

Once we create a trait, we can use it in other classes with the use keyword. In the example given
below, both the classes Bmw and Mercedes use the Price trait.

85

Traits and code inclusion

86

class Bmw {
use Price;
}
class Mercedes {
use Price;
}

In order to see our code in action, lets create objects from the classes and then, lets make use of the
changePriceByDollars() method that they got from the trait.
$bmw1 = new Bmw();
// Add 3000$
echo $bmw1 -> changePriceByDollars(45000, +3000);

$mercedes1 = new Mercedes();

// Subtract 2100$
echo $mercedes1 -> changePriceByDollars(42000, -2100);

Result:
48000
39900
This example can teach us that we can use the code from the traits inside the classes in pretty much
the same way that we can include a block of code into each of the classes.

Is it possible for a class to use more than one trait?

A class can use more than one trait, after all, this is what traits were invented for.
Lets present to our code another trait with the name of SpecialSell that has a method with the
name of annonunceSpecialSell, and make the Mercedes class use both traits.

Traits and code inclusion

87

// The first trait

trait Price {
public function changePriceByDollars($price, $change)
{
return $price + $change;
}
}
// The second trait
trait SpecialSell {
public function annonunceSpecialSell ()
{
return __CLASS__ . " on special sell";
}
}
// The Mercedes class uses both traits
class Mercedes {
use Price;
use SpecialSell;
}

$mercedes1 = new Mercedes();

// Subtract 2100$
echo $mercedes1 -> changePriceByDollars(42000, -2100);
echo $mercedes1 -> annonunceSpecialSell();

Result:
39900
Mercedes on special sell

How is a trait different from inheritance?

Traits use a special form of inheritance that enables them to include the code from the traits in the
classes.
Traits use a form of inheritance that is known as horizontal inheritance in which the code
from the trait is included in the classes in which it is used. It is pretty much like using require
or include in the classes to include code from the outside, albeit not hackish.

Traits and code inclusion

88

In a trait it is possible to put concrete (real) methods, abstract methods, properties and even
constants.
While the same class can use more than one trait, it can only inherit from one class.
Traits do not respect the visibility scope, thus allowing a traits methods to access private
properties and methods in the class that uses them.
In the example given below, the traits method changePriceByDollars() is allowed to interact with
the private $price property.
trait Price {
// The method needs the $price property.
public function changePriceByDollars($change)
{
return $this -> price += $change;
}
}

class Mercedes {
use Price;
// The $price is private
private $price;
public function __construct($price)
{
$this -> price = $price;
}
public function getPrice()
{
return $this -> price;
}
}

$mercedes1 = new Mercedes(42000);

echo $mercedes1 -> getPrice();
$mercedes1 -> changePriceByDollars(-2100);
echo $mercedes1 -> getPrice();

Traits and code inclusion

89

Result:
42000
39900
We can see that the traits methods has access to private methods within the classes that use them.

What are the advantages of using traits?

Traits allow us to use code from more than one resource in a class and, by doing so, we are able to
circumvent the limitation of single class inheritance.

What are the disadvantages of using traits?

When using a trait, we should be on the lookout for code duplication and for naming conflicts that
are the result of calling the methods in different traits with the same name.
Traits may be easily misused, resulting in a code that looks like a patchwork, instead of consisting
of well-designed and well-thought of class hierarchies through the use of inheritance.

In which scenarios is it preferable to use traits?

In some cases, the use of traits can save the day and prove to be preferable to using inheritance.
Think of a scenario in which number of classes implement the same interface and so share its code,
but only a few of the classes (and not all of them) need a certain piece of that code. It is reasonable
to use inheritance for those methods that are shared by all of the classes, while leaving it better of
to traits to hold the methods that are needed in only some of the classes. For example, if we have
three classes that inherit the Car interface (Mercedes, Bmw, and Audi) and we need the method that
handles special sell to work in only two of these classes (Mercedes and Bmw), we will use a trait so
that the code will be shared only by the classes that need it.
The message to take home is that traits are a tool that allows code inclusion from
different resources and so could be quite handy when used appropriately.

Traits and code inclusion

90

Conclusion
In this chapter, we learned that traits can be used to share code between different classes, but that
they are best reserved for only those cases in which the use of inheritance is limited. Such cases
include the need for inheritance from several classes, and a piece of code which is shared between
several (but not all) of the classes that implement an interface.
In the next chapter, we will learn how to group together related code under a namespace and how
we can approach code within a namespace.

Lets practice what we have just learned

13.1 Which of the following keywords is used to define a trait?
A : defines
B : traits
B : trait

13.2 Which of the following types can be found within a trait?

A : abstract methods
B : concrete methods and properties
C : constants
D : all of the above

13.3 Is it appropriate to use traits in a scenario in which all of the child classes of an interface
need the same methods?

Traits and code inclusion

91

Coding exercise
In the following exercise, we are going to write a simple program that uses an interface. In it, we are
going to have three classes that inherit from the interface User: Author, Commentator, and Viewer.
Only the first two classes have the need to use a Writing trait.
13.4 Write an interface with the name of User.

13.5 Write three classes to implement the User interface: Author, Commentator and Viewer.

13.6 Add a trait with the name of Writing that contains an abstract method with the name
of writeContent().

13.7 Use the trait Writing in the Author class, and implement its abstract method by making
it return the string Author, please start typing an article.

13.8 Use the trait Writing in the Commentator class, and implement its abstract method by
making it return the string Commentator, please start typing your comment.

13.9 Run the code you have just written and see the result.

Suggested solutions

Namespaces and code integration

As our projects grow in complexity, we have no choice but to integrate code from different resources.
It can be code that is written by other programmers in our team or is already present in code libraries
that were developed elsewhere, and can do exactly what we need in a fraction of the time that it
would take for developing our own library.
In spite of its many benefits, we might encounter some problems when we integrate code from
different resources. A huge problem, for example, is that of name collision, which occurs when
different classes have the same name or have the same name for their methods. The problem is
solved, as of PHP 5.3, by using namespaces.
In this chapter, we are going to learn how to define a class as belonging to a namespace and, then
how to use the namespaced class in our code.

The directory structure

Well start by creating an index.php file in the root directory of our site.
Next, we will create a class with the name of CarIntro and place it in the src/Car folder, as follows:
/src/Car/CarIntro.php
The following diagram can help us understand the folder structure:

92

93

Namespaces and code integration

The folder structure

Namespaces and code integration

94

Now, we can write the CarIntro class within the CarIntro.php file:
class CarIntro {
public function sayHello()
{
return "beep!";
}
}

Pay attention to the fact that we call our classes with the same name as our files. This naming
convention would pay off later when wed like to autoload our classes.

How to define a namespace?

We define the namespace at the very top of the page with the namespace keyword.
For example, we will give the class the Acme\Car namespace:
<?php

namespace Acme\Car;

class CarIntro {
public function sayHello()
{
return "beep!";
}
}

It is customary to give to the src directory the Acme namespace.

You can replace the Acme namespace with your brand name.
It is a good practice to imitate the directory structure with the namespace. So, every class
within the directory: src/Car will get the Acme\Car namespace.
So far, we have learned how to namespace our classes, and in the next part well see how to use the
namespaced classes.

How to use a class that belongs to a namespace?

After we have namespaced the CarIntro class, we need to some how use it. For instance, we may
want to use the class in the index.php file. So, in index.php, we need to do two things: First, we
need to include the library and then import the namespace with the use keyword.

Namespaces and code integration

95

<?php
// 1. Require the namespaced file
require "src/Car/CarIntro.php";
// 2. Import the namespace
use Acme\Car\CarIntro;

Pay attention that in order to use a class we add the name of the class to the namespace. So, in order
to import the CarIntro class from the Acme\Car namespace, we use Acme\Car\CarIntro.
Now, that we have imported the class, we can create an object out of it:
<?php
// 1. Require the namespaced file
require "src/Car/CarIntro.php";
// 2. Import the namespace
use Acme\Car\CarIntro();
// 3. Use the class from the context of the namespace
$carIntro = new Acme\Car\CarIntro();
echo $carIntro -> sayHello();

Result:
beep!

How to alias a class from a namespace with a friendly

name?
Since calling a class from a namespace might be a drag, we can use only the last part of the namespace
in order to call the class.
In the example given below, after including the file and importing the namespace, we call the class
from the context of the namespace, but this time by using only the name of the class.

Namespaces and code integration

96

<?php
// 1. Require the file
require "src/Car/CarIntro.php";
// 2. Import the namespace
use Acme\Car\CarIntro;
// 3. Call the class from the context of the namespace,
//
this time by using only the class name
$carIntro = new CarIntro();
echo $carIntro -> sayHello();

Result:
beep!
We can also give the class a friendly name (also known as aliasing) by using the as keyword with
the following syntax:
use OriginalClassName as AliasName

In our example, lets replace the original class name of CarIntro with the friendly name of Intro,
and then use this friendly name when working with the class methods.
<?php
// 1. Require the file
require "src/Car/CarIntro.php";
// 2. Import the namespace and give it a friendly name
use Acme\Car\CarIntro as Intro;
// 3. Call the class from the namespace with the friendly name
$carIntro = new Intro();
echo $carIntro -> sayHello();

Result:
beep!

Namespaces and code integration

97

How to call a class from the global namespace?

Prior to PHP 5.3, there was no such thing as a namespace in PHP, so we may very well encounter
some libraries that are written without the use of namespaces and with their code in the global
namespace.
For example, lets now add to our code, a file with the name of CarPrice.php which is found in the
global scope since we havent given it a namespace. The file holds the code for the CarPrice class
and is found in the following path:
src/Car/CarPrice.php
<?php
class CarPrice {
public function getQuote()
{
return 19500;
}
}

This is a diagram that depicts the folder structure after we have added the new class to the Car
directory:

98

Namespaces and code integration

The folder structure

Namespaces and code integration

99

In order for classes from the global scope to be used securely within a namespace, we need to precede
the name of such a class with a backslash.
For example, in the index.php file we need to put a backslash in front of the CarPrice class because
we want to use it from the global namespace:
require "src/Car/CarIntro.php";
require "src/Car/CarPrice.php";
use Acme\Car\CarIntro as Intro;
$carIntro = new Intro();
echo $carIntro -> sayHello();
// We use the backslash in front of the class name in order to call a class
//
from the global namespace
$carPrice = new \CarPrice();
echo $carPrice -> getQuote();

Result:
beep!
19500
Some other common instances in which there is a need to use the backslash before the class
name are for the built in PHP extensions PDO and DateTime, and for PHPs generic empty
class, stdClass.

Can more than one namespace be imported into the

same file?
Each class that we import needs to have its own namespace.
Each class that we need to import needs to have its own namespace. In our example, lets add to the
class CarPrice the namespace Acme\Car.
src/Car/CarPrice.php:

Namespaces and code integration

100

<?php
namespace Acme\Car;
class CarPrice {
public function getQuote()
{
return 19500;
}
}

All the classes within the same directory need to have the same namespace.
Since we follow the good practice of giving the classes a namespace which follows the directory
structure all the classes within the same directory need to have the same namespace. In our example,
all the classes in the src/Car directory have the Acme\Car namespace.
We can now use the CarPrice class in index.php, alongside the CarIntro class:
// 1. Require both classes
require "src/Car/CarIntro.php";
require "src/Car/CarPrice.php";
// 2. Import the namespaces and give them a friendly name
use Acme\Car\CarIntro as Intro;
use Acme\Car\CarPrice as Price;
// 3. Use the methods in the context of their namespace
$carIntro = new Intro();
echo $carIntro -> sayHello();
$carPrice = new Price();
echo $carPrice -> getQuote();

Result:
beep!
19500

Namespaces and code integration

101

Conclusion
In this chapter, we learned how to give classes a namespace, and how to use the the namespaced
classes in our scripts.
In the next chapter, we will learn how to loosen the coupling between classes by using dependency
injection.

Lets Practice what we have just learned

14.1 What are the main reasons for using namespaces?
A : In order to confuse novices.
B : To avoid name collision.
C : To group related classes, interfaces, functions and constants.
D : B+C

14.2 Which keyword is used to define a namespace?

A : use
B : namespace
C : namespaces
D : none of the above

14.3 Which keyword is used to import a namespace?

A : use
B : namespace
C : namespaces
D : none of the above

Suggested solutions

Namespaces and code integration

102

Appendix: Group use declarations in PHP7

In PHP7, we can group use declarations. When we group use declarations, we utilize the keyword
use only once in order to import all of the classes, instead of using it repeatedly for each class that
we want to import.
In PHP7, we can still import the classes in the traditional way:
use Acme\Car\CarIntro as Intro;
use Acme\Car\CarPrice as Price;

However, we can also import the classes with only one use:
use Acme\{
Car\CarIntro as Intro ,
Car\CarPrice as Price
};

And if we would like to also import a user class, we can still do so with the traditional syntax:
use Acme\Car\CarIntro as Intro;
use Acme\Car\CarPrice as Price;
use Acme\User;

But also the PHP7 way:

use Acme\{
Car\CarIntro as Intro ,
Car\CarPrice as Price
User
};

Group use declarations is an alternative syntax that was introduced with PHP7, and it will not
damage or break your code in any way.

Dependency injection
One of the less understood subjects for fresh PHP programmers is that of dependency injection.
But dont worry! This chapter will explain the subject to you in the simplest way possible by first
explaining the problem and then showing you how to solve it.

The problem: tight coupling between classes

When class A cannot do its job without class B, we say that class A is dependent on class B. In order
to perform this dependency, many programmers create the object from class B in the constructor of
class A.
For example, if we have the classes of Car and HumanDriver, the Car class is dependent on the
HumanDriver class, so we might be tempted to create the object from the HumanDriver class in the
constructor of the Car class.
class HumanDriver {
// Method to return the driver name.
public function sayYourName($name)
{
return $name;
}
}

// Car is dependent on HumanDriver

class Car {
protected $driver;
// We create the driver object in the constructor,
//
and use this object to populate the $driver variable.
public function __construct()
{
$this->driver = new HumanDriver();
}
// A getter method that returns the driver object
//
from within the car object

103

Dependency injection

104

public function getDriver()

{
return $this -> driver;
}
}

Although creating the human driver object inside the Car class might look like the right thing to do,
we are going to face a real problem the first time that we need to switch dependencies. For example,
if the technological advancements dictate us a car that is driven by a robot, we will find our self in
a problem since the Car class only knows how to handle human drivers.
The problem that stems from directly creating the driver object inside the Car class is also known
as tight coupling between classes, something that should be avoided as much as possible. In fact,
tight coupling is considered to be a bad practice for the following reasons:
The programmers need to be concerned with more than one class when they introduce new
classes to their code. In our example, if we would like to change the class on which the Car
class is dependent from HumanDriver to RobotDriver, except for introducing the new class to
our code, we also need to change the Car class so it can handle the new type of driver.
We will have difficulties in performing unit testing since it is meant to check one class at a
time.
In fact, when we do tight coupling between classes, we violate a fundamental principle of well
designed code called the single responsibility principle (SRP), according to which a class should
have only one responsibility. In order to respect this principle, the only code that the Car class needs
to handle is that of cars, without messing with any other code.

The solution: dependency injection

Now that we understand why creating an object from one class inside the constructor of another
class is unfavorable, lets see how to fix the problem by using dependency injection.
First, lets rewrite the Car class so it can set its own $driver property that is passed as a parameter
to the constructor.

Dependency injection

105

// The Car class gets the driver object injected

//
to its constructor
class Car {
protected $driver;
// The constructor sets the value of the $driver
public function __construct($driver)
{
$this -> driver = $driver;
}
// A getter method that returns the driver object
//
from within the car object
public function getDriver()
{
return $this -> driver;
}
}

We can now perform the dependency injection by first creating the Driver object and then injecting
this object into the newly created Car object through the constructor.
$humanDriver = new HumanDriver();
$car = new Car($humanDriver);

And Voila! We just performed dependency injection.

Lets test the code:
$humanDriver = new HumanDriver();
$car = new Car($humanDriver);
echo $car -> getDriver() -> sayYourName("Bob");

Result:
Bob
Now that we have seen how dependency injection works, lets see how easy it is to switch the
dependency from HumanDriver to RobotDriver, saving us from changing the code in the Car class.
First, lets write the RobotDriver class with the sayYourName method.

Dependency injection

106

class RobotDriver {
public function sayYourName($name)
{
return $name;
}
}

We can leave the Car class without any changes since it depends on a driver but does not require any
commitment to the type of the driver. The driver can be a robot, human, alien, etc. It really doesnt
matter as long as we supply a driver object.
class Car {
protected $driver;
// The constructor sets the value of the $driver
public function __construct($driver)
{
$this -> driver = $driver;
}
// A getter method that returns the driver object
//
from within the car object
public function getDriver()
{
return $this -> driver;
}
}

Now, we can create the driver object from the RobotDriver and inject it to the Car class without too
much of a hassle.
$robotDriver = new RobotDriver();
$car
= new Car($robotDriver);
echo $car -> getDriver() -> sayYourName("R2-D2");

Result:
R2-D2
It is easy to switch dependencies if only we adopt the good practice of injecting the
objects from the outside.

Dependency injection

107

The message to take home from this example would be that it is easy to switch dependencies if
only we avoid the bad practice of creating the objects on which the main class depends inside the
constructor, and adopt the good practice of injecting the objects on which the class depends from
the outside.

Why is it a good idea to type hint the injected objects?

Though type hinting is not necessary for dependency injection, it is favorable to use it in order to
make it clear on which type of objects does the main class depend. In our example, we expect any
driver that uses the Car object to also have a sayYourName method. For this purpose, lets create a
Driver interface, and make both the humanDriver as well as the robotDriver classes implement the
interface.
// The Driver interface
interface Driver {
public function sayYourName($name);
}
// The HumanDriver implements the interface
class HumanDriver implements Driver {
public function sayYourName($name)
{
return $name;
}
}
// The RobotDriver implements the interface
class RobotDriver implements Driver {
public function sayYourName($name)
{
return $name;
}
}

Now, we need to type hint the $driver parameter that we want to inject to the Cars constructor
since we want the injected object to implement the Driver interface.

Dependency injection

108

// The Car class gets the driver object injected

//
to its constructor
class Car {
protected $driver;
// The constructor sets the value of the $driver
public function __construct(Driver $driver)
{
$this -> driver = $driver;
}
public function getDriver()
{
return $this -> driver;
}
}

Lets test everything by making the Cars drivers say their names for both a human driver as well
as a robot driver.
$humanDriver = new HumanDriver();
$car = new Car($humanDriver);
echo $car -> getDriver() -> sayYourName("Bob");
$robotDriver = new RobotDriver();
$car = new Car($robotDriver);
echo $car -> getDriver() -> sayYourName("R2-D2");

And the result is:

Bob
R2-D2
It is favorable to type hint the injected objects in order to make it clear on which type
of objects the main class is dependent.
The take-home message is that it is favorable to type hint the injected objects in order to make it
clear on which type of objects the main class is dependent.

Dependency injection

109

How to make a dependency injection through a setter method?

We may also choose to inject the objects on which the class is dependent through a setter method.
Lets start again by writing the HumanDriver class with exactly the same code as in the previous
example.
interface Driver {
public function sayYourName($name);
}
class HumanDriver implements Driver {
public function sayYourName($name)
{
return $name;
}
}

We will equip the Car class with a setDriver() method that is responsible for setting the $driver
value.
class Car {
protected $driver;
// The setDriver method sets
//
the value for the driver property
public function setDriver(Driver $driver)
{
$this -> driver = $driver;
}
public function getDriver()
{
return $this -> driver;
}
}

Now, we can create the driver object outside the car, inject it to the car with the setDriver() method,
and echo the drivers name.

Dependency injection

110

$driver = new HumanDriver();

$car
= new Car();
// Inject the driver to the car object
$car -> setDriver($driver);
echo $car -> getDriver() -> sayYourName("Bob");

Result:
Bob

Conclusion
When we use dependency injection we pass the objects on which our class depends
to the class from the outside.
When we use dependency injection we pass the objects on which our class depends to the class
from the outside, instead of creating these objects within the class. By doing so, we make our code
more maintainable and flexible. It is also advisable to type hint the injected objects in order to make
it clear on which type of objects does the main class depend.

Dependency injection

111

Lets practice what we have just learned

In this exercise, we are going to write an Article class that is dependent upon an Author class, and
introduce the author object through dependency injection into the constructor.
The Article class has the following properties: $title, for the title of the article, and $Author, to
hold the author object.
class Article {
protected $title;
protected $author;
}

15.1 Add to the Article class, a constructor method that gets the parameters of: $title
and $author and sets the classs properties accordingly.

15.2 Write to the class, a getter method that returns the articles title.

15.3 Add to the class, a getter method that returns the authors object.

15.4 Write another class with the name of Author, that has a protected property $name and
setter and getter methods that handle the property.

15.5 Now, first create the Author object, call it $author1, and then set its name to Joe.

15.6 Create the article object, call it $article1, and pass to it the title To PHP and Beyond
and the $author1 object that you have just created.

15.7 Write the code that returns the string: To PHP and Beyond by Joe.

Dependency injection

15.8 Improve your code by type hinting the $author object that you pass as a parameter
to the articles constructor. Clue: You need to first create an Authors interface, make the
Author class implement the interface, and then type hint the $author object that you inject
to the articles constructor.

Suggested solutions

112

What are exceptions and how to

handle them?
Exception handling is an elegant way to handle errors which are beyond the programs scope. For
example, if our application fails to contact the database, we use exception handling to contact another
data source or to provide instructions to the users that they need to contact technical support.
Exception handling is an elegant way to handle errors which are beyond the programs
scope.
In this chapter, we are going to learn how and when to use exception handling and, even more
important, when not to use it.
In order to explain the need for exception handling, we will try to see what happens when a program
is fed with faulty data. In our example, we will develop the class FuelEconomy that calculates with
the method calculate() the fuel efficiency of cars by dividing the distance traveled by the gas
consumption.
class FuelEconomy {
// Calculate the fuel efficiency
public function calculate($distance, $gas)
{
return $distance/$gas;
}
}

We will feed the class with the nested array $dataFromCars, in which each nested array has two
values: the first value is for the distance traveled and the second value is for the gas consumption.
While the first and last nested arrays contain legitimate data, the second nested array provides zero
gas consumption and the third nested array has negative gas consumption.

113

What are exceptions and how to handle them?

114

$dataFromCars = array(
array(50,10),
array(50,0),
array(50,-3),
array(30,5)
);

Here is what happens when we feed the array to the class:

1
2
3
4
5

foreach($dataFromCars as $data => $value)

{
$fuelEconomy = new FuelEconomy();
echo $fuelEconomy -> calculate($value[0],$value[1]) . "<br />";
}

Result:
5
Warning: Division by zero

-16.666666666667
6
From the result, we can see what might happen when we feed the class with faulty data. On the
second line, we got a nasty warning for trying to divide by zero while, on the third line, we got a
negative value (which is not what we would expect for gas efficiency). These are the kinds of errors
that we would like to suppress by using exception handling.

How to throw an exception?

When handling exceptions, we make use of the Exception class, which is a built-in PHP class. We
throw the exception with the command throw new Exception() that creates the exception object.
Between the brackets of the throw new Exception() command, we write our own custom message
that we would like to appear in the case of the exception.
In the example given below, whenever the user tries to feed the class with a gas consumption value
that is less than or equal to zero, a custom message is thrown instead of an error.

What are exceptions and how to handle them?

115

class FuelEconomy {
// Calculate the fuel efficiency
public function calculate($distance, $gas)
{
if($gas <= 0 )
{
// Throw custom error message, instead of an error
throw new Exception("The gas consumption cannot be less than
or equal to zero. You better drink coffee or take a break.");
}
return $distance/$gas;
}
}

If we run the code as it is written now, well get an even nastier error because, in order to handle
exceptions, we need to not just throw the exception but also to catch it.

How to catch an exception?

In order catch an exception, we need two blocks:
1. A try block.
2. A catch block.
While the try block runs the normal data, the faulty data is handled by the catch block. Inside the
catch block, we use methods that the PHP Exception class provides.
In the example given below, the custom error message that we throw from the try block is being
caught by the catch block that, in turn outputs the error message with the getMessage() method
(which is a method that the Exception class provides).
class FuelEconomy {
// Calculate the fuel efficiency
public function calculate($distance, $gas)
{
if($gas <= 0 )
{
// Throw custom error message, instead of an error
throw new Exception("The gas consumption cannot be less than
or equal to zero. You better drink coffee or take a break.");

What are exceptions and how to handle them?

116

}
return $distance/$gas;
}
}
// The data to feed the class with
$dataFromCars = array(
array(50,10),
array(50,0),
array(50,-3),
array(30,5)
);
// Create the object from the class and feed it
//
with the array values
foreach($dataFromCars as $data => $value)
{
// Try block handles the normal data
try
{
$fuelEconomy = new FuelEconomy();
echo $fuelEconomy -> calculate($value[0],$value[1]) . "<br />";
}
// Catch block handles the exceptions
catch (Exception $e)
{
// Echo the custom error message
echo "Message: " . $e -> getMessage() . "<br />";
}
}

Result:
5
Message: The gas consumption cannot be less than or equal to zero. You better drink coffee or take
a break.
Message: The gas consumption cannot be less than or equal to zero. You better drink coffee or take
a break.
6
Thanks to exception handling, we now get an elegant error message instead of the nasty one that
we got when not using exception handling.

What are exceptions and how to handle them?

117

Are there any other methods that can help us handle

exceptions?
The Exception class is a PHP built-in class that offers several helpful methods. We have already used
the getMessage() method to get a custom error message, yet there are other beneficial methods that
the Exception class provides. Of those, the most beneficial are:
getFile() that returns the path to the file in which the error occurred.
getLine() that returns the line in which the exception occurred.
We can now use the getFile() and getLine() methods to add the path and line in which the
exception has occurred to the custom message from the above example.
foreach($dataFromCars as $data => $value)
{
try
{
$fuelEconomy = new FuelEconomy();
echo $fuelEconomy -> calculate($value[0],$value[1]) . "<br />";
}
catch (Exception $e)
{
echo "Message: " . $e -> getMessage() . "<br />";
// Output the path to the file
echo "File: " . $e -> getFile() . "<br />";
// Output the line in the code
echo "Line: " . $e -> getLine() . "<br />";
echo "<hr />";
}
}

Result:
5
Message: The gas consumption cannot be less than or equal to zero. You better drink coffee or take
a break.
File: C:\wamp\www\index.php
Line: 9

What are exceptions and how to handle them?

118

Message: The gas consumption cannot be less than or equal to zero. You better drink coffee or take
a break.
File: C:\wamp\www\index.php
Line: 9
6
The result above demonstrates that exception handling can provide more than custom messages. It
can provide beneficial data for tracing the exceptions.

What about writing the exceptions to a log file?

In the same way that we can echo the exception messages to the user, we can also write them into
a log file with the error_log() command. For example:
error_log($e -> getFile());

In our example, lets now add the ability to write errors into the log file whenever an exception is
thrown:
foreach($dataFromCars as $data => $value)
{
try
{
$fuelEconomy = new FuelEconomy();
echo $fuelEconomy -> calculate($value[0],$value[1]) . "<br />";
}
catch (Exception $e)
{
// Echo the error message to the user
echo "Message: " . $e -> getMessage() . "<br />";
echo "<hr />";
// Write the
error_log($e
error_log($e
error_log($e
}
}

error into a log file

-> getMessage());
-> getFile());
-> getLine());

What are exceptions and how to handle them?

119

When to use exception handling?

The sole purpose of exception handling is to handle external problems, such as math
errors, logical errors, or technical difficulties.
Exception handling is a great tool that handles specific errors that are outside the scope of a program.
These errors might be math errors, logical errors or technical difficulties, examples of which are as
follows:
Math errors, e.g., trying to divide by zero.
Logical errors happen when trying to do something that doesnt make sense in the context of
the program (like assigning a negative value to gas consumption).
Technical problems are most often caused by hardware failure (like the computer running out
of memory) but they can also be the fault of external services (like communication failures or
problems with an external API).
It is important to stress that, although exception handling is a great tool for handling errors which are
outside the scope of the program in an elegant way, it is not a way to hide bugs or badly written code.
It is also not a fancy way to replace if-then and switch statements. The sole purpose of exception
handling is to handle external problems, such as math errors, logical errors, or technical difficulties.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we have learned that exceptions are problems that a program might encounter but
is not meant to solve, and that exceptions are best handled by try - catch blocks that catch, throw,
and handle the exceptions with the Exception class.

What are exceptions and how to handle them?

120

Lets practice what weve just learned:

16.1 In which of the following cases would you use exception handling?
A : To suppress errors and bugs in a badly written code.
B : When trying to handle an external error which the program cannot or is not meant to
handle, like losing the database connection.
C : Instead of if..then when you try to impress your boss and colleagues with your object
oriented programming skills.

Coding example
So far, in this chapter, we have seen how to handle a single exception. Now, in the following exercise,
well handle more than one exception.
This is the User class with the methods that set and get the user name and age.
class User {
private $name;
private $age;
public function setName($name)
{
// Trim the white spaces
$name = trim($name);
$this -> name = $name;
}
public function setAge($age)
{
// Cast into an integer type
$age = (int)$age;
$this -> age = $age;
}
public function getName()
{
return $this -> name;
}

What are exceptions and how to handle them?

public function getAge()

{
return $this -> age;
}
}

16.2 Add to the setName() method a code that throws exception whenever the users name
is shorter than 3 letters. What is a suitable message that can be thrown?

16.3 Add to the setAge() method a code that throws exception whenever the users age is
less than or equal to 0.

This is the nested array that you can feed the class with.
$dataForUsers = array(
array("Ben",4),
array("Eva",28),
array("li",29),
array("Catie","not yet born"),
array("Sue",1.5)
);

16.4 Write a foreach loop (like the one we have already used in this chapter) that feeds the
array to the class, and handles the exceptions by echoing the custom error messages as well
as the file path and line number in which the exception was thrown.

16.5 Run the code and see the result.

Suggested solutions

121

PDO - PHP database extension

PDO (PHP Data Objects) is a PHP extension through which we can access and work with databases.
Though PDO is similar in many aspects to mySQLi, it is better to work with for the following
reasons:
It is better protected against hackers.
It is consistent across databases, so it can work with MySQL as well as other types of databases
(SQLite, Oracle, PostgreSQL, etc.)
It is object oriented at its core.
In this chapter you will find recipes for 4 basic functions that we perform with the database: insertion,
selection, update, and deletion. The recipes are intended to work with MySQL, but we can easily
switch it with another database.

How to connect with the MySQL database through

PDO?
It is considered good practice to wrap the database connection within a try-catch block so that, if
anything goes wrong, an exception will be thrown. We can customize the error message but, in order
to keep things simple, well settle with the error message that PDO provides.
In order to connect to the database, well need the database name, username, and password.
// DB credentials.
define('DB_HOST','localhost');
define('DB_USER','your user name');
define('DB_PASS','your user password');
define('DB_NAME','your database name');
// Establish database connection.
try
{
$dbh = new PDO("mysql:host=".DB_HOST.";dbname=".DB_NAME,
DB_USER, DB_PASS,
array(PDO::MYSQL_ATTR_INIT_COMMAND => "SET NAMES 'utf8'"));
}

122

PDO - PHP database extension

123

catch (PDOException $e)

{
exit("Error: " . $e->getMessage());
}

* You can find the code for the sql table that is used in the examples in this chapters supplement
section.

How to use PDO to insert data into the database?

1) Write a regular SQL query but, instead of values, put named placeholders. For example:
$sql = "INSERT INTO `users`
(`name`, `phone`, `city`, `date_added`)
VALUES
(:name,:phone,:city,:date)";

The use of placeholders is known as prepared statements. We use prepared statements as templates
that we can fill later on with actual values.
2) Prepare the query:
$query = $dbh -> prepare($sql);

3) Bind the placeholders to the variables:

$query->bindParam(':name',$name);

You can add a third parameter which filters the data before it reaches the database:
$query->bindParam(':name',$name,PDO::PARAM_STR);
$query->bindParam(':phone',$phone,PDO::PARAM_INT);
$query->bindParam(':city',$city,PDO::PARAM_STR);
$query->bindParam(':date',$date,PDO::PARAM_STR);

PDO::PARAM_STR is used for strings.

PDO::PARAM_INT is used for integers.
PDO::PARAM_BOOL allows only boolean (true/false) values.
PDO::PARAM_NULL allows only NULL datatype.

4) Assign the values to the variables.

PDO - PHP database extension

$name
$phone
$city
$date

=
=
=
=

"Joe";
"1231234567";
"New York";
date('Y-m-d');

5) Execute the query:

$query -> execute();

6) Check that the insertion really worked:

$lastInsertId = $dbh->lastInsertId();
if($lastInsertId>0)
{
echo "OK";
}
else
{
echo "not OK";
}

If the last inserted id is greater than zero, the insertion worked.

All together now:
$sql = "INSERT INTO `users`
(`name`, `phone`, `city`, `date_added`)
VALUES
(:name,:phone,:city,:date)";
$query = $dbh -> prepare($sql);
$query->bindParam(':name',$name,PDO::PARAM_STR);
$query->bindParam(':phone',$phone,PDO::PARAM_INT);
$query->bindParam(':city',$city,PDO::PARAM_STR);
$query->bindParam(':date',$date);
// Insert the first row
$name = "Joe";
$phone = "1231234567";
$city = "New York";

124

PDO - PHP database extension

$date

= date('Y-m-d');

$query -> execute();

$lastInsertId = $dbh->lastInsertId();
if($lastInsertId>0) { echo "OK"; } else { echo "not OK"; }

// Insert the second row

$name = "Joseph";
$phone = "037234561";
$city = "Tel Aviv";
$date = date('Y-m-d');
$query -> execute();
$lastInsertId = $dbh->lastInsertId();
if($lastInsertId>0){echo "OK";} else {echo "not OK";}

The same task is better performed within a loop:

$sql = "INSERT INTO `users`
(`name`, `phone`, `city`, `date_added`)
VALUES
(:name,:phone,:city,:date)";
$query = $dbh -> prepare($sql);
$query->bindParam(':name',$name,PDO::PARAM_STR);
$query->bindParam(':phone',$phone,PDO::PARAM_INT);
$query->bindParam(':city',$city,PDO::PARAM_STR);
$query->bindParam(':date',$date,PDO::PARAM_STR);

// Provide the data to the loop within an array

$date = date('Y-m-d');
$userData = array(
array("Joe","1231234567","New York",$date),
array("Joseph","037234561","Tel Aviv",$date)
);

125

PDO - PHP database extension

// Perform the query within a loop

foreach($userData as $key => $value)
{
$name = $value[0];
$phone = $value[1];
$city = $value[2];
$date = $value[3];
$query -> execute();
$lastInsertId = $dbh->lastInsertId();
if($lastInsertId>0){echo "OK";} else {echo "not OK";}
}

126

PDO - PHP database extension

127

How to use PDO to read from the database?

Reading data from the database is not so different than inserting data, with steps 1 to 5 being almost
identical while the sixth step is different. Then there are two more steps (7 and 8).
1) Write the regular select statement and again, instead of values, put named placeholders. For
example:
$sql = "SELECT * FROM users WHERE city = :city";

2) Prepare the query:

$query = $dbh -> prepare($sql);

3) Bind the parameters:

$query -> bindParam(':city', $city, PDO::PARAM_STR);

4) Define the bound value:

$city = "New York";

5) Execute the query:

$query -> execute();

6) Assign the data which you pulled from the database (in the preceding step) to a variable.
$results = $query -> fetchAll(PDO::FETCH_OBJ);

Here I used the parameter PDO::FETCH_OBJ that returns the fetched data as an object. If youd like
to fetch the data in the form of an array, use: PDO::FETCH_ASSOC.
7) Make sure that you were able to retrieve the data from the database, by counting the number of
records.
if($query -> rowCount() > 0){}

8) In case that the query returned at least one record, we can echo the records within a foreach loop:

128

PDO - PHP database extension

if($query -> rowCount()

{
foreach($results as
{
echo $result ->
echo $result ->
echo $result ->
}
}

> 0)
$result)
name . ", ";
city . ", ";
date_added;

All together now:

$sql = "SELECT * FROM users WHERE city = :city";
$query = $dbh -> prepare($sql);
$query -> bindParam(':city', $city, PDO::PARAM_STR);
$city = "New York";
$query -> execute();
$results = $query -> fetchAll(PDO::FETCH_OBJ);
if($query -> rowCount()
{
foreach($results as
{
echo $result ->
echo $result ->
echo $result ->
}
}

> 0)
$result)
name . ", ";
city . ", ";
date_added;

PDO - PHP database extension

129

How to use PDO to update the database?

1) Write the regular update statement and again, instead of values, assign the named placeholders.
For example:
$sql = "UPDATE `users`
SET `city`= :city, `phone` = :tel
WHERE `id` = :id";

2) Prepare the query:

$query = $dbh->prepare($sql);

3) Bind the parameters:

$query -> bindParam(':city', $city, PDO::PARAM_STR);
$query -> bindParam(':tel' , $tel , PDO::PARAM_INT);
$query -> bindParam(':id' , $id , PDO::PARAM_INT);

4) Define the bound values:

$tel = '06901234567';
$city = 'Paris';
$id
= 1;

5) Execute the query:

$query -> execute();

6) Check that the query has been performed and that the database has been successfully updated.

PDO - PHP database extension

if($query -> rowCount() > 0)

{
$count = $query -> rowCount();
echo $count . " rows were affected.";
}
else
{
echo "No affected rows.";
}

All together now:

$sql = "UPDATE users
SET `city`= :city, `phone` = :tel
WHERE `id` = :id";
$query = $dbh->prepare($sql);
$query -> bindParam(':city', $city, PDO::PARAM_STR);
$query -> bindParam(':tel' , $tel , PDO::PARAM_INT);
$query -> bindParam(':id' , $id , PDO::PARAM_INT);
$tel = '02012345678';
$city = 'London';
$id = 1;
$query -> execute();
if($query -> rowCount() > 0)
{
$count = $query -> rowCount();
echo $count . " rows were affected.";
}
else
{
echo "No affected rows.";
}

130

PDO - PHP database extension

131

How to delete records?

1) Write the delete statement:
$sql = "DELETE FROM `users` WHERE `id`=:id";

2) Prepare the query:

$query = $dbh -> prepare($sql);

3) Bind the parameters:

$query -> bindParam(':id', $id, PDO::PARAM_INT);

4) Define the bound values:

$id = 1;

5) Execute the query:

$query -> execute();

6) Check that the query has been performed and that the records have been successfully deleted
from the database.
if($query -> rowCount() > 0)
{
$count = $query -> rowCount();
echo $count . " rows were affected.";
}
else
{
echo "No affected rows.";
}

All together now:

PDO - PHP database extension

$sql

= "DELETE FROM `users` WHERE `id`=:id";

$query = $dbh -> prepare($sql);

$query -> bindParam(':id', $id, PDO::PARAM_INT);
$id = 1;
$query -> execute();
if($query -> rowCount() > 0)
{
$count = $query -> rowCount();
echo $count . " rows were affected.";
}
else
{
echo "No affected rows.";
}

132

PDO - PHP database extension

133

How to close the database connection?

PHP automatically closes the database connection but, if the need arises, we can deliberately close
the connection with the following line of code:
$dbh = null;

Conclusion
Now that youve seen how easy it is to work with PDO, I hope that youll consider using it in your
projects instead of the outdated mysql and mysqli extensions.

Lets practice what we have just learned

Coding example
In our coding example well integrate the User class with a database class.
17.1 Write a class with the name of Db that can connect with the database.
The class will be able to create the connection with the database, and will have a method
that can get the connection for the use of other classes.

17.2 Write a User class that can get the database connection, and save it into a private
property with the name of $dbCon.

17.3 Write into the User class the following methods that can work with the database:
insert method to insert a new user to the users table.
getAll that returns all the users.
getUserById to return only a single user.
updateUser to update user by id.

and a delete method to delete a single user.

17.4 Test your code.

Suggested solutions

PDO - PHP database extension

Supplement
The SQL code for the users table:
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (
id int(10) UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
name varchar(60) DEFAULT NULL,
phone varchar(14) DEFAULT NULL,
city varchar(60) DEFAULT NULL,
date_added date DEFAULT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (id)
)

134

How to use Packagist and Composer

to integrate existing code libraries
into your PHP apps?
Are you tired of having to reinvent the code in any project in which you work? Would you like to
know where the PHP community stores all the code libraries that are written worldwide? Have you
ever wondered where you can get a code library to manage your website users or to handle your
shopping cart? Would you rather write less code and still achieve more?
While Packagist is a huge repository of PHP code libraries, Composer is a dependency
manager which allows us to download the code libraries from Packagist straight to our
project.
If you are a PHP programmer and answered yes to at least one of these questions, you should
familiarize yourself with Packagist and Composer that allow us to easily find PHP libraries,
download them to our website, and manage them as well. While Packagist is a huge repository of
PHP code libraries, Composer is a dependency manager which allows us to automatically download
the code libraries from Packagist straight to our project along with all of their dependencies (the
code packages on which they are dependent).

How to install composer?

Installing Composer on Linux and Mac is done via the command line and is pretty damn easy:
$ curl -s https://getcomposer.org/installer | php

.
As you can see in the following link: getcomposer.
Installing Composer on Windows machines is also not particularly difficult using a dedicated Wizard
(see the documentation).
https://getcomposer.org
https://getcomposer.org

135

How to use Packagist and Composer to integrate existing code libraries into your PHP apps?

136

We examine the installation by typing the following command into the command line:
$ composer

.
If Composer is properly installed, well see all the composer commands with a short description of
what they do.

Composer commands

At this stage, we expect to see a composer.phar file in the root directory of the website.

Installing the package

In order to install the packages (the code libraries that we want to download from Packagist to our
project), the packages need to be registered to a composer.json file within the root directory of the
website.

How to use Packagist and Composer to integrate existing code libraries into your PHP apps?

137

Well get back to the composr.json file later, but we first need to find a package to install in the
Packagist repository, which is found at packagist.org.
In the packagist.org website, type the name of the package that you want to download in the search
box. For the sake of this chapter, well search for the faker package which generates fake data for
our projects (something that can be most beneficial during the development stage of a website).
You will be shown a number of packages from which you need to choose the package that suits your
needs the best.

Find the package in the packagist.org website.

Click on a package to open the package page. Here you can find relevant information about the
package, including the latest version and dependencies. You need to copy the command to download
the latest stable version (see the picture below).
https://packagist.org
https://packagist.org

How to use Packagist and Composer to integrate existing code libraries into your PHP apps?

138

Faker package page on packagist

Back to the terminal, you need to navigate to the root directory of your app or website, and run the
command that you just copied from packagist.
$ composer require fzaninotto/faker

Run the command to install the package in the root directory

Once you press enter, Composer will start to auto-magically download the latest stable version of
the package that you require. It also downloads all the packages on which the package depends, and
generates an autoload file.

How to use Packagist and Composer to integrate existing code libraries into your PHP apps?

139

Composer installs the package, its dependencies, and generates an autoload file

At the end of the download process, when you navigate to the root directory, you will see a brand
new vendor directory that holds within it all the packages that Composer installed in your website.

The root directory after the package was installed

Also in the root directory, you need to create an index.php file.

In the composer.json file you will find the data that composer needs in order to work with and
manage the package that you have just installed. In our example:
1
2
3
4
5

{
"require": {
"fzaninotto/faker": "^1.5"
}
}

How to use Packagist and Composer to integrate existing code libraries into your PHP apps?

140

When you open the vendor folder, youll find the autoloader file (autoload.php) that comes free
of charge with the download. We require the autoloader in our scripts in order for the Composer
libraries to work.
<?php
require_once __DIR__ . '/vendor/autoload.php';

To activate the autoloader, you may need to type the following command into the command line:
$ composer dumpautoload -o

.
Lets write in the index.php file a code that tests if the package that we have just downloaded really
works:
<?php
require_once __DIR__ . '/vendor/autoload.php';
// Use the factory to create a Faker\Generator instance
$faker = Faker\Factory::create();
// Generate fake name
echo $faker->name;
// Generate fake address
echo $faker->address;
// Generate fake text
echo $faker->text;

How to add packages?

After we have installed our first package, we may very well want to add a second one. This task,
can also be done with much ease. All we need to do, is to require the package, according to its name
in packagist, and the package will automatically be downloaded to our website. For example, lets
require the monolog/monolog package.

How to use Packagist and Composer to integrate existing code libraries into your PHP apps?

141

$ composer require monolog/monolog

.
This will download the new package, with all its dependencies to the vendor directory, as well as
update the composer.json file. Like so:
1
2
3
4
5
6

{
"require": {
"fzaninotto/faker": "1.4.0",
"monolog/monolog": "~1.13"
}
}

How to update the packages?

It is possible that, over time, we will have to update the packages and, here again; Composer will
come to the rescue! All we need to do in order to update all the packages in our project is to write
the following command in the command line:
$ composer update

.
As a result of this command, Composer will automatically download all the updated versions of
the packages, including all the dependencies, straight to the project folder.

How to remove a package from Composer?

In order to remove one of the packages, we need to delete the line corresponding to the package
from the composer.json file and update composer:
$ composer update

.
This will remove the package with all of it dependencies from the vendor directory.

How to use Packagist and Composer to integrate existing code libraries into your PHP apps?

142

Conclusion
I am sure that the combination of Packagist as a repository of PHP libraries and Composer as a
dependency manager can help any PHP project, as it has so faithfully been doing for several years
now.
In the next chapter, our PHP skills will take a big leap forward as we learn how to Composer autoload
the classes, including those that we download from Packagist.

How to autoload PHP classes the

Composer way?
In the previous chapter, we demonstrated how to use Composer to integrate existing code libraries
into any PHP website. We also demonstrated the use of the built-in Composer autoloader for the
packages that we installed. In the present chapter, we will demonstrate how to autoload our own
classes as well as other non-packagist classes with the Composer autoloader.
Autoloading allows us to use PHP classes without the need to require or include them
and is considered a hallmark of modern-day programming.

A short reminder about autoloading Packagist code

libraries
In the previous chapter, we saw that all it takes to autoload Packagist libraries is to add at the top
of our scripts the following line that requires the Composer built-in autoloader:
require_once __DIR__ . '/vendor/autoload.php';

But when working with our own classes (or with non-packagist classes) we may need to be
somewhat more savvy
Composer autoloading can work in one of two main ways: through direct autoloading
of classes or through the use of the PSR standards.

How to directly autoload classes with Composer?

The simplest way is to autoload each class separately. For this purpose, all we need to do is define
the array of paths to the classes that we want to autoload in the composer.json file.
For example:

143

How to autoload PHP classes the Composer way?

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

144

{
"autoload": {
"classmap": [
"path/to/FirstClass.php",
"path/to/SecondClass.php"
]
}
}

Update the composer autoloader from the command line:

$ composer dump-autoload -o

.
Now, we have to include the autoloader at the top of our scripts (e.g., index.php):
<?php
require "vendor/autoload.php";

In the same way that we autoload classes, we can autoload directories that contain classes also by
using the classmap key of the autoload:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

{
"autoload": {
"classmap": [
"path/to/FirstClass.php",
"path/to/directory"
]
}
}

In order to autoload directories we need to use namespaces.

As we can see, classmap autoloading is not much different than the long list of requires that we used
to use in the older PHP scripts. Yet, the better way to autoload is by using the PSR-4 standard.

How to autoload the PSR-4 way?

PSR-4 is the newest standard of autoloading in PHP, and it compels us to use namespaces.
We need to take the following steps in order to autoload our classes with PSR-4:

How to autoload PHP classes the Composer way?

145

a. Put the classes that we want to autoload in a dedicated directory. For example, it is
customary to convene the classes that we write into a directory called src/, thus, creating
the following directory structure:

Directory structure

a. Give the classes a namespace. We must give all the classes in the src/ directory the same
namespace. For example, lets give the namespce Acme to the classes. This is what the Page
class is going to look like:

<?php
namespace Acme;
class Page
{
public function __construct()
{
echo "hello, i am a page.";
}
}

We give the same namespace Acme to all of the classes in the src/ directory.
c. Point the namespace to the src/ directory in the composer.json file. We point the directory
that holds the classes to the namespace in the composer.json file. For example, this is how we specify
in the composer.json file that we gave the namespace Acme to the classes in the src/ directory:

How to autoload PHP classes the Composer way?

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

146

{
"autoload": {
"psr-4": {
"Acme\\":"src/"
}
}
}

We use the psr-4 key.

The namespace has to end with \\. For example, Acme\\.
You can replace the generic Acme with the name of your brand or website.
a. Update the Composer autoloader:

$ composer dumpautoload -o

a. Import the namespace to your scripts. The scripts need to import the namespace as well as
the autoloader, e.g.,index.php:

<?php
require "vendor/autoload.php";
use Acme\Db;
use Acme\User;
use Acme\Page;
$page1 = new Page();

How to autoload if the directory structure is complex?

Up till now, we demonstrated autoloading of classes that are found directly underneath the src/
folder, but how can we autoload a class that is found in a subdirectory? For example, we may want
to move the Page class into the Pages directory and, thus, create the following directory structure:

How to autoload PHP classes the Composer way?

147

A more complex directory structure

These are the steps that we need to follow:

a. Redefine the namespace. We need to give the Page class a namespace in accordance with its
new location in the src/Pages directory.

<?php
namespace Acme\Pages;
public class Page
{
function __construct()
{
echo "hello, i am a page.";
}
}

a. Use the namespaces in the scripts:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

<?php
require "vendor/autoload.php";
use Acme\Db;
use Acme\User;
use Acme\Pages\Page;

$page1 = new Page();

How to autoload PHP classes the Composer way?

148

Conclusion
As we demonstrated in the last two chapters, Composer is a powerful tool that can help us to both
manage and autoload our own classes as well as others. Now, that we have such a powerful tool
under our belt were entitled to fully enjoy the best that modern-day PHP has to offer!

MVC and code organization

PHP is a programming language which is easy to learn and implement. However, it is also a language
that can easily deteriorate into a spaghetti code in which different types of code are tangled
together in a messy way, with HTML, CSS, and Java Script all sitting together in the same place
with PHP.
It is bad to write a spaghetti code because it is much harder to maintain and messier to change, let
alone treat its bugs.
To prevent the deterioration of the code into a spaghetti code, we organize our code into files and
folders. I am sure that the separation of the Java Script and the CSS files from the rest of the code is
clear by now, but how can we separate the logical part, that PHP is responsible for, from the template
part in which HTML is the main component? The simplest way is to put the applications logic (in
which we handle the variables and determine their values) into one file or folder, while embedding
the variables into the HTML elsewhere in the application. The logical part of the application is
known as the Controller, while the template part is known as the View.
The logical part of the application is known as the Controller, while the template part
is known as the View.
In the example given below, the file controller.php is used as the controller in the application and
it receives data from the data source (database, external API, etc.), processes it, and provides the
variables that can later be used in the template file.
The data that was retrieved from the data source is grouped in a $cars array, that holds the cars
models and prices. We check to see if the price is expensive with the expensiveOrNot function, and
store the data into a new array with the name of $carsReviewed.
// Get the price and return whether it is expensive or not
function expensiveOrNot($price)
{
if($price > 30000) return "expensive";
return "not expensive";
}
// The data from the data source is stored in an array
$cars = array (
"Bmw" => array("model" => "2-Series", "price" => "32000"),

149

MVC and code organization

150

"Audi" => array("model"=> "A3", "price"=>"29900")

);
// Perform some logic on the data to find out whether the cars are expensive
// and store the returned values into this array
$carsReviewed = array(
"Bmw" => array(
"model" => "2-Series",
"price" => "32000",
"expensiveOrNot"=>expensiveOrNot(32000)
),
"Audi" => array(
"model"=> "A3",
"price"=>"29900",
"expensiveOrNot"=>expensiveOrNot(29900)
)
);

Now, in the template file index.php, we can embed the variables from the controller into the HTML,
but first we need to include the controller file:
<?php require "controller.php"; ?>
<!doctype html>
<html>
<head>
</head>
<body>
<p>
BMW <?=$carsReviewed["Bmw"]["model"]?> is
<?=$carsReviewed["Bmw"]["expensiveOrNot"]?>
while Audi<?=$carsReviewed["Audi"]["model"]?> is
<?=$carsReviewed["Audi"]["expensiveOrNot"]?>.
</p>
</body>
</html>

Result:
BMW 2-Series is expensive while Audi A3 is not expensive.
Separating logic from presentation can improve efficiency when working in a team because it allows
the programmers to work on the logical part of the application and the designers to work on the
template, without interfering with each other.

MVC and code organization

151

The model
The part that interacts with the data source is called the Model and it has all the code
that handles databases.
We have seen how separating the logical part of the application from the template part can be very
beneficial, but we have still not handled the part of the application that interacts with the data
source.
The part that interacts with the data source is called the Model and it has all the code that handles
databases (and other data sources). The role of the model is to retrieve the information from the
database and maintain, update, or delete that information while keeping everything safe.

The broader context - MVC

When we separate the code into Model, View and Controller, we use a design pattern
with the name of MVC
We have, so far, learned about the three layers of the application:
1. The Model, which handles the data source,
2. The View, which holds the template files, and
3. The Controller, which handles the logic and mediates between the View and the Model parts
of the application.
When we separate the code into Model, View and Controller, we use a design pattern with the name
of MVC (an acronym for Model, View, and Controller). A design pattern is a way to construct a
code in an acceptable and well tested manner that can solve many problems. We have a few dozen
design patterns, the most important for PHP programmers being the MVC pattern.

The data flow in the MVC pattern

In the MVC pattern, the Controller has a special role as a mediator between the Model and View
layers. The controller receives the data that the model retrieves from the database, processes it, and
then passes it to the View for presentation. It also works the other way around, when the information
that is received from the user (through the use of forms, cookies, and sessions) is passed to the
Controller for processing and then transferred to the Model layer.
The image below can help in understanding the control flow in MVC.

152

MVC and code organization

MVC explained

After the application gets the user data (for example, after the user feeds his data into a form and
submits it), the data is passed to the controller layer that processes the information and decides to
which of the models classes to transfer the data to, and the model itself filters the data and then
stores, updates, or deletes the records in the database.
The data can then make its way back from the model to the controller for further processing (e.g.
which page to redirect the user to or which message to present to the user) while the presentation
is handled and executed in the View.

The simplest MVC example - retrieving the data from

the data source
In the following example, we check if a cars price is expensive the MVC way.
The data is fed to the Model, processed in the Controller, and then passed to the View.
The Model class gets and sets the car data (in a real world application, it will retrieve the data from
the database).

MVC and code organization

153

class Model
{
// Store the data
private $carPrice;
// Set the data
public function setPrice($price)
{
$this -> carPrice = $price;
}
// Get the data
public function getPrice()
{
return $this -> carPrice;
}
}

The Controller class is the mediator. It gets the data about the Cars price from the Model and checks
if it is expensive.
class Controller {
private $model;
private $limit = 30000;
// Set the model so we can use its data
public function __construct(Model $model)
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
// Set the data in the module
public function setPrice($price)
{
$this->model->setPrice((int)$price);
}
// Some logic to check if the price is expensive
public function expensiveOrNot()
{
if($this->model->getPrice() > $this->limit) return "expensive";

MVC and code organization

154

return "not expensive";

}
}

The View class gets the data after it has been processed by the Controller, and outputs it to the user:
class View {
private $controller;
// Set the controller so we can use it
public function __construct(Controller $controller)
{
$this->controller = $controller;
}
// Output the data after processing it by the controller
public function output()
{
return $this->controller->expensiveOrNot();
}
}

Now we can implement the code. We feed the Model with the price, call the controller to perform
its logic, and output everything through the View:
// The data can come from the database
$priceToCheck = 31000;
// The data is retrieved by the model
$model1 = new Model();
$model1 -> setPrice($priceToCheck);
// We need the controller in order to process the data
$controller1 = new Controller($model1);
// We need the view in order to output the processed data
$view1 = new View($controller1);
echo $output = $view1 -> output();

Result:
expensive
The output can be embedded in the HTML.

MVC and code organization

155

The simplest MVC example (part 2) - getting data from

the user
The MVC example cannot be complete without a means to get the user data and transfer it to the
model. The user data can be fed into the application from a form with a post request. For example:
$priceToCheck = $_POST['price'] = 29900;

Now, we need the controller to be able to transfer the data to the model, so we add to the controller
a setPrice() method that can set the price within the model.
class Controller {
private $model;
private $limit = 30000;
// Set the model so we can use its data
public function __construct(Model $model)
{
$this -> model = $model;
}
// Set the data in the module
public function setPrice($price)
{
$this->model->setPrice((int)$price);
}
// Some logic to check if the price is expensive
public function expensiveOrNot()
{
if($this->model->getPrice() > $this->limit) return "expensive";
return "not expensive";
}
}

Now we can make the ends meet and output the data:

MVC and code organization

156

// The data can come from the user

//
e.g. through a post request
$priceToCheck = $_POST['price'] = 29900;
// We need the model to store the data
$model2 = new Model();
// We need the controller in order to get the user data
//
and process it before passing it to the Model
$controller2 = new Controller($model2);
$controller2 -> setPrice($_POST['price']);
// We need the view in order to output the processed data
$view2 = new View($controller2);
echo $output = $view2 -> output();

Result:
not expensive
The output can be embedded in the HTML.

Conclusion
The MVC pattern is very important to PHP programmers because it forces us to separate the logical
part from the presentation part in our applications, and so helps us in maintaining and further
developing the application.

Epilogue
What have we learned?
In this book, we have learned the essentials of Object Oriented PHP. We started by understanding
what classes and objects are, as well as how to use them to encapsulate code from the rest of the
application. Additionally, we learned about inheritance as a means of reducing code duplication.
We also learned how to construct our application with the help of interfaces and polymorphism. In
the final part, we began scratching the surface of real-world applications with namespaces that will
allow the code to work with different code libraries, PDO as the database interface, and MVC as a
pattern by which we can construct our applications in a well-tested way.
By this point, I hope that you have a strong grasp of the object-oriented style of programming, which
should include the ability to answer the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.

What are the benefits of encapsulating the code within classes?

Why use inheritance?
Why are interfaces and polymorphism such great ideas?
How can namespaces and the MVC pattern help you build robust applications?

Some additional resources to advance your knowledge

There are still many things to learn in the PHP world, but now that you have a firm foundation, you
will be able to grasp the material much more easily.
php.net is the basic manual for the PHP community that contains the most up-to-date and concise
knowledge in the field. It should definitely be on your reading list.
stackoverflow is a question and answer website for programmers. On the site, you can find answers
to practical and academic questions, ask your own questions, and answer the questions of other
users.
You should get used to autoloading the classes that you use in your code, as it allows you to define
search paths for classes so you dont require a long list of dependencies.
Packagist is the most important PHP repository in which you can find many libraries of code for
use in the applications that you develop. The integration of existing code libraries will shorten the
time it takes you to write your applications.
http://php.net
http://stackoverflow.com
https://packagist.org

157

Epilogue

158

Composer is the tool that lets you use the packages you want to download from the Packagist
repository. It provides you with autoloading, as well as dependency management, which means that
the packages you download to your application are automatically installed with the packages on
which they depend.
You need to know how to do automated testing of your code with PHPUnit framework being the
most common choice among PHP programmers.
You need to master at least one PHP framework with the most popular being Laravel, symfony,
CodeIgniter, Yii, and CakePHP. The Slim framework is also popular, and has the benefit of
being light weight and easy to learn. When you use a framework, you dont need to reinvent the
wheel every time that you start a new application; instead, you can use a well-tested code as the
foundation.
If you ever wondered how other programmers solve the same programmatic problems that you
toil endlessly upon? Or, better yet, if there exist already established solutions that may help you to
write your code in a better way, you probably need to learn design patterns, which are well tested
solutions to common programmatic problems that you may confront on a daily basis. There are
fewer than a couple dozen design patterns, some of the most beneficial patterns that you need to
learn are the Strategy, Factory, Singleton, Facade, and Decorator patterns.
Never stop learning. Learn new skills, gain new expertise, expand your abilities, and flourish in your
career.
Wishing you all the best!
https://getcomposer.org
https://phpunit.de
http://laravel.com
https://symfony.com
https://www.codeigniter.com
http://www.yiiframework.com
http://cakephp.org
http://slimframework.com
http://phpenthusiast.com/blog/strategy-pattern-the-power-of-interface
http://phpenthusiast.com/blog/the-factory-design-pattern-in-php
http://phpenthusiast.com/blog/the-singleton-design-pattern-in-php
http://phpenthusiast.com/blog/simplify-your-php-code-with-facade-class
http://phpenthusiast.com/blog/the-decorator-design-pattern-in-php-explained

Chapter 1 solutions
1.1 Which of these definitions best explains the term class?
A: A class is a collection of variables and functions working with these variables.
1.2 Which of these definitions best explains the term object?
A: An object gives us the ability to work with the class, and to have several instances of the same
class.
1.3 Which of these definitions best explains the term property?
B: A property is a variable within a class.
1.4 Which of these definitions best explains the term method?
A: A method is a function within a class.
1.5 Write what you think should be the class name, the names of the properties for the first and last
name, and the name of the method that returns hello.
class name: User
class properties: $firstName, $lastName
class method: hello()
1.6 Write the class User and add the properties:
class User {
public $firstName;
public $lastName;
}

1.7 Add the method that says hello:

159

Chapter 1 solutions

160

class User {
public $firstName;
public $lastName;
public function hello()
{
return "hello";
}
}

1.8 Create the first instance, and call it $user1. Use the new keyword to create an object from the
class.
class User {
public $firstName;
public $lastName;
public function hello()
{
return "hello";
}
}

$user1 = new User();

1.9 Set the values for the first and last name to $user1.
class User {
public $firstName;
public $lastName;
public function hello()
{
return "hello";
}
}

$user1 = new User();

$user1->firstName = 'John';
$user1->lastName = 'Doe';

161

Chapter 1 solutions

1.10 Get the user first and last name, and print it to the screen (with echo).
class User {
public $firstName;
public $lastName;
public function hello()
{
return "hello";
}
}

$user1 = new User();

$user1 -> firstName = 'John';
$user1 -> lastName = 'Doe';
echo $user1->firstName . " " . $user1->lastName;

Result: John Doe

1.11 Use the hello() method with the first and last name variables in order to say hello to the user:
class User {
public $firstName;
public $lastName;
public function hello()
{
return "hello";
}
}

$user1 = new User();

$user1->firstName = 'John';
$user1->lastName = 'Doe';
$hello = $user1->hello();
echo $hello . ",

" . $user1->firstName . " " . $user1->lastName;

Result: hello, John Doe

162

Chapter 1 solutions

1.12 Add another object, call it $user2, give it a first name of Jane and last name of Doe, then say
hello to the user.
class User {
public $firstName;
public $lastName;
public function hello()
{
return "hello";
}
}

$user1 = new User();

$user1->firstName = 'John';
$user1->lastName = 'Doe';
$hello = $user1->hello();

$user2 = new User();

$user2 ->firstName = 'Jane';
$user2 ->lastName = 'Doe';

echo $hello . ",

echo "<br />";
echo $hello . ",

Result:
hello, John Doe
hello, Jane Doe

" . $user1->firstName . " " . $user1->lastName;

" . $user2->firstName . " " . $user2->lastName;

Chapter 2 solutions
2.1 Which keyword would you use in order to approach the classs properties and methods from
within the class?
Answer : The $this keyword enables us to approach the classs own properties and methods from
within the class.
2.2 Add to the hello() method the ability to approach the $firstName property, so the hello()
method would be able to return the string hello, $firstName.
class User
// The
public
public

{
class properties
$firstName;
$lastName;

// A method that says hello to the user

public function hello()
{
return "hello, " . $this -> firstName;
}
}

2.3 Create a new object with the first name of Jonnie and last name of Roe.
class User
// The
public
public

{
class properties
$firstName;
$lastName;

// A method that says hello to the user

public function hello()
{
return "hello, " . $this -> firstName;
}
}

// Create a new object

163

Chapter 2 solutions

$user1 = new User();

// Set the user $firstName and $lastName properties
$user1 -> firstName = 'Jonnie';
$user1 -> lastName = 'Roe';

2.4 Echo the hello() method for the $user1 object, and see the result.
class User
// The
public
public

{
class properties
$firstName;
$lastName;

// A method that says hello to the user

public function hello()
{
return "hello, " . $this -> firstName;
}
}

// Create a new object

$user1 = new User();
// Set the user first and last names
$user1 -> firstName = 'Jonnie';
$user1 -> lastName = 'Roe';
// Echo the hello() method
echo $user1 -> hello();

Result: hello, Jonnie

164

Chapter 3 solutions
3.1 Add a register() method to the class that echoes the name of the user plus the verb registered.
class User {
// The class properties
public $firstName;
public $lastName;
// A method that says hello to the user $firstName
// The user $firstName property can be approached
//
with the $this keyword
public function hello()
{
return "hello, " . $this -> firstName;
}
// The register method
public function register()
{
echo $this -> firstName . " " . $this -> lastName . " registered.";
}
}

3.2 Add a mail() method to the class that echoes the string emailed.
class User
// The
public
public

{
class properties
$firstName;
$lastName;

// A method that says hello to the user $firstName.

// The user $firstName property can be approached
//
with the $this keyword.
public function hello()
{
return "hello, " . $this -> firstName;

165

Chapter 3 solutions

166

}
// The register method
public function register()
{
echo $this -> firstName . " " . $this -> lastName . " registered.";
}
// The mail method
public function mail()
{
echo " emailed.";
}
}

3.3 Add return $this to the register() method so that it can be chained to any other method in
the class.
class User
// The
public
public

{
class properties
$firstName;
$lastName;

// A method that says hello to the user $firstName

// The user $firstName property can be approached
//
with the $this keyword
public function hello()
{
return "hello, " . $this -> firstName;
}
// The register method
public function register()
{
echo $this -> firstName . " " . $this -> lastName . " registered.";
return $this;
}
// The mail method.
public function mail()
{
echo " emailed.";

Chapter 3 solutions

167

}
}

3.4 Create a new $user1 object with the first name of Jane and the last name of Roe. For this
object, chain the mail() method to the register() method and see the result.
class User
// The
public
public

{
class properties
$firstName;
$lastName;

// A method that says hello to the user $firstName.

// The user $firstName property can be approached
//
with the $this keyword
public function hello()
{
return "hello, " . $this -> firstName;
}
// The register method
public function register()
{
echo $this -> firstName . " " . $this -> lastName . " registered.";
return $this;
}
// The mail method
public function mail()
{
echo " emailed.";
}
}
$user1 = new User();
$user1 -> firstName = 'Jane';
$user1 -> lastName = 'Roe';
// Chain the methods mail() to register()
$user1 -> register() -> mail();

Result:
Jane Roe registered. emailed.

Chapter 4 solutions
4.1 We use the private access modifier in order to:
D: We use the private access modifier in order to prevent code from outside the class scope from
interacting with the class properties and methods. The private access modifier, like the public access
modifier, is only relevant to properties and methods, and has no power on classes.
4.2 Create a new class property with the name of $firstName, and prevent any code from outside
the class from changing the property value by using the appropriate access modifier (private or
protected).
class User {
// We use the private access modifier in order to
//
prevent code from outside
//
the class from modifying the property's value
private $firstName;
}

4.3 Create a method to set the $firstName property value. Remember to use the right access modifier
(public/private).
class User {
private $firstName;
// A public setter method allows us to set the
//
$firsName property.
public function setFirstName($str)
{
$this -> firstName = $str;
}
}

4.4 Now, create a method to return the $firstName value.

168

Chapter 4 solutions

class User {
private $firstName;
// A public setter method allows us to set the
//
$firsName property
public function setFirstName($str)
{
$this -> firstName = $str;
}
// A public getter method allows us to return the
//
$firsName property
public function getFirstName()
{
return $this -> firstName;
}
}

169

Chapter 5 solutions
5.1 Add to the class a constructor method to set a value to the $firstName property as soon as the
object is created.
class User {
private $firstName;
private $lastName;
// Constructor function to set a single value
public function __construct($firstName)
{
$this -> firstName = $firstName;
}
}

5.2 Add to the constructor the ability to set the value of the $lastName property (remember that you
can pass to a method more than parameter).
class User {
private $firstName;
private $lastName;
// Constructor function to set more than one value
public function __construct($firstName,$lastName)
{
$this -> firstName = $firstName;
$this -> lastName = $lastName;
}
}

5.3 Add to the class a getFullName() public method that returns the full name.

170

Chapter 5 solutions

171

class User {
private $firstName;
private $lastName;
// Constructor function to set more than one value
public function __construct($firstName,$lastName)
{
$this -> firstName = $firstName;
$this -> lastName = $lastName;
}
public function getFullName()
{
return $this -> firstName . ' ' . $this -> lastName;
}
}

5.4 Create a new object, $user1, and pass to the constructor the values of the first and last name.
The first name is John and the last name is Doe (you may choose your preferred combination of
first and last name).
class User {
private $firstName;
private $lastName;
// Constructor function to set more than one value
public function __construct($firstName,$lastName)
{
$this -> firstName = $firstName;
$this -> lastName = $lastName;
}
public function getFullName()
{
return $this -> firstName . ' ' . $this -> lastName;
}
}
$user1 = new User("John", "Doe");

5.5 Get the full name, and echo it to the screen.

Chapter 5 solutions

class User {
private $firstName;
private $lastName;
// Constructor function to set more than one value
public function __construct($firstName,$lastName)
{
$this -> firstName = $firstName;
$this -> lastName = $lastName;
}
public function getFullName()
{
return $this -> firstName . ' ' . $this -> lastName;
}
}
$user1 = new User("John", "Doe");
echo $user1 -> getFullName();

Result:
John Doe

172

Chapter 6 solutions
6.1 Which keyword do we use in order to declare that one class inherits from another class?
C: In order to declare that a certain class is the child of another class we use the extends keyword
in the child class.
6.2 Which keyword do we use in order to declare that a method or property can only be used within
the parent class and its child classes?
B: The protected keyword allows access to methods and properties only from within the parent
class and its child classes.
6.3 We learned about three access control modifiers (public, private, and protected) that we use to
allow/restrict access to the code. In the following table, we will use V to mark that the code can
be accessed from a certain level, and X if it cannot be accessed.

Comparison between access control modifiers

Public methods and properties can be accessed from anywhere in the code.
Protected methods and properties can only be accessed from within the class and its child classes.
Private methods and properties can only be accessed from within the class itself.
6.4 Create a user class.

173

Chapter 6 solutions

174

class User {}

6.5 Add to the class a private property with the name of $username.
class User {
private $username;
}

6.6 Create a setter method that can set the value of the $username.
class User {
private $username;
public function setUsername($name)
{
$this -> username = $name;
}
}

6.7 Create a class Admin that inherits the User class.

class Admin extends User{}

6.8 Now, lets add to the Admin class some code. First, add a public method by the name of
expressYourRole, and make it return the string: "Admin".
class Admin extends User{
public function expressYourRole()
{
return strtolower(__CLASS__);
}
}

6.9 Add to the Admin class another public method, sayHello, that returns the string Hello admin,
XXX with the username instead of XXX.

Chapter 6 solutions

175

class Admin extends User{

public function expressYourRole()
{
return strtolower(__CLASS__);
}
public function sayHello()
{
return "Hello admin, " . $this -> username;
}
}

6.10 Create an object $admin1 out of the class Admin, set its name to "Balthazar", and say hello to
the user. Do you see any problem?
class User {
private $username;
public function setUsername($name)
{
$this -> username = $name;
}
}

class Admin extends User {

public function expressYourRole()
{
return strtolower(__CLASS__);
}
public function sayHello()
{
return "Hello admin, " . $this -> username;
}
}

$admin1 = new Admin();

$admin1 -> setUsername("Balthazar");
$admin1 -> sayHello();

Result:

Chapter 6 solutions

176

Notice: Undefined property: Admin::$username

6.11 What do you think is the cause of the problem?

Answer: The cause of the problem is that we try to access a private method, $username, from outside
the class.
6.12 How will you fix this problem?
// We can declare the $usrname property as protected to allow the
//
access for properties and methods that belongs to the child classes
class User {
// Declare the $username as protected
protected $username;
public function setUsername($name)
{
$this -> username = $name;
}
}

class Admin extends User {

public function expressYourRole()
{
return strtolower(__CLASS__);
}
public function sayHello()
{
return "Hello admin, " . $this -> username;
}
}

$admin1 = new Admin();

$admin1 -> setUsername("Balthazar");
echo $admin1 -> sayHello();

Result:
Hello admin, Balthazar

Chapter 6 solutions

177

For a more elegant solution, we may use a getter method inside the parent that can be used from
the child class.
class User {
private $username;
public function setUsername($name)
{
$this -> username = $name;
}
public function getUsername()
{
return $this -> username;
}
}

class Admin extends User{

public function expressYourRole()
{
return strtolower(__CLASS__);
}
public function sayHello()
{
return "Hello admin, " . $this -> getUsername();
}
}

$admin1 = new Admin();

$admin1 -> setUsername("Balthazar");
echo $admin1 -> sayHello();

Chapter 7 solutions
7.1 Which keyword is used to declare a class or method as abstract?
C: abstract
7.2 Which keyword is used to declare a child class that inherits from an abstract class?
D: extends
7.3 What are the main reasons for using an abstract class in the code?
B: The main reason for using an abstract class is to commit the child classes to methods.
7.4 Can we create objects from abstract classes?
Answer: We cannot create objects from abstract classes.
7.5 Create an abstract class with the name of User, which has an abstract method with the name of
stateYourRole.
abstract class User {
abstract public function stateYourRole();
}

7.6 Add to the class a protected variable with the name of $username, and public setter and getter
methods to set and get the $username.
abstract class User {
abstract public function stateYourRole();
public function setUsername($name)
{
$this -> username = $name;
}
public function getUsername()
{
return $this -> username;
}
}

7.7 Create an Admin class that inherits the abstract User class.
178

Chapter 7 solutions

179

class Admin extends User {}

7.8 Which method should be defined in the class?

Answer: the Admin class should define the stateYourRole() method because it is an abstract
method.
7.9 Define the method stateYourRole() in the child class and let it return the string admin;
class Admin extends User {
public function stateYourRole()
{
return "admin";
}
}

7.10 Create another class, Viewer that inherits the User abstract class. Define the method that should
be defined in each child class of the User class.
class Viewer extends User {
public function stateYourRole()
{
return strtolower(__CLASS__);
}
}

7.11 Create an object from the Admin class, set the username to Balthazar, and make it return the
string admin.
$admin1 = new Admin();
$admin1 -> setUsername("Balthazar");
echo $admin1 -> stateYourRole();

Result:
admin

Chapter 8 solutions
8.1 Which keyword should we use in order to implement an interface?
D: We should use the implements keyword in order to implement an interface.
8.2 Which of the following code types are allowed in an interface?
D: Interfaces can have methods and constants, but they cannot have properties.
8.3 Which of the following access modifiers is allowed for abstract methods in interfaces?
A: Methods in interfaces can only be public, because the nature of interfaces is to expose their
methods to the outside world.
8.4 Which of the following is valid inheritance?
E: A class can inherit from only 1 parent/abstract class, while it can implement more than 1 interface.
8.5 Create a User class with a protected $username property and methods that can set and get the
$username.
class User {
protected $username;
public function setUsername($name)
{
$this -> username = $name;
}
public function getUsername()
{
return $this -> username;
}
}

8.6 Create an Author interface with the following abstract methods that can give the user an array
of authorship privileges. The first method is setAuthorPrivileges(), and it gets a parameter of
$array, and the second method is getAuthorPrivileges().

180

181

Chapter 8 solutions

interface Author {
public function setAuthorPrivileges($array);
public function getAuthorPrivileges();
}

8.7 Create an Editor interface with methods to set and get the editors privileges.
interface Editor {
public function setEditorPrivileges($array);
public function getEditorPrivileges();
}

8.8 Create an AuthorEditor class that extends the User class, and implements both the Author and
the Editor interfaces.
class AuthorEditor extends User implements Author,Editor

{}

8.9 Create in the AuthorEditor class the methods that it should implement, and the properties that
these methods force us to add to the class.
class AuthorEditor extends User implements Author,Editor
private $authorPrivilegesArray = array();
private $editorPrivilegesArray = array();
public function setAuthorPrivileges($array)
{
$this -> authorPrivilegesArray = $array;
}
public function getAuthorPrivileges()
{
return $this -> authorPrivilegesArray;
}
public function setEditorPrivileges($array)
{
$this -> editorPrivilegesArray = $array;
}

Chapter 8 solutions

182

public function getEditorPrivileges()

{
return $this -> editorPrivilegesArray;
}
}

8.10 Now, lets create an object with the name of $user1 from the class AuthorEditor, and set its
username to Balthazar.
$user1 = new AuthorEditor();
$user1 -> setUsername("Balthazar");

8.11 Set in the $user1 object an array of authorship privileges, with the following privileges: write
text, add punctuation.
$user1 = new AuthorEditor();
$user1 -> setUsername("Balthazar");
$user1 -> setAuthorPrivileges(array("write text","add punctuation"));

8.12 Set in the $user1 object an array with the following editorial privileges: edit text, edit
punctuation.
$user1
$user1
$user1
$user1

= new AuthorEditor();
-> setUsername("Balthazar");
-> setAuthorPrivileges(array("write text", "add punctuation"));
-> setEditorPrivileges(array("edit text", "edit punctuation"));

8.13 Use the following code to get the $user1 name and privileges:
$userName = $user1 -> getUsername();
$userPrivileges = array_merge($user1 -> getAuthorPrivileges(),
$user1 -> getEditorPrivileges());
echo $userName . " has the following privileges: ";
foreach($userPrivileges as $privilege)
{
echo " {$privilege},";
}
echo ".";

Result:
Balthazar has the following privileges: write text, add punctuation, edit text, edit punctuation,.

Chapter 9 solutions
9.1 Which of these sentences best describes the polymorphism principle in PHP?
A: According to the Polymorphism principle, methods that serve the same functionality in different
classes should have the same name.
9.2 Add to the class concrete methods to set and get the number of articles.
abstract class User {
protected $scores
= 0;
protected $numberOfArticles = 0;
public function setNumberOfArticles($int)
{
// Cast to integer type
$numberOfArticles = (int)$int;
$this -> numberOfArticles = $numberOfArticles;
}
public function getNumberOfArticles()
{
return $this -> numberOfArticles;
}
}

9.3 Add to the class the abstract method: calcScores(), that performs the scores calculations
separately for each class.
abstract class User {
protected $scores
= 0;
protected $numberOfArticles = 0;
public function setNumberOfArticles($int)
{
// Cast to integer type
$numberOfArticles = (int)$int;
$this -> numberOfArticles = $numberOfArticles;
}

183

Chapter 9 solutions

184

public function getNumberOfArticles()

{
return $this -> numberOfArticles;
}
// The abstract method.
abstract public function calcScores();
}

9.4 Create an Author class that inherits from the User class. In it create a concrete calcScores()
method that returns the number of scores from the following calculation:
class Author extends User {
public function calcScores()
{
return $this -> scores =
$this -> numberOfArticles * 10 + 20;
}
}

9.5 Also create an Editor class that inherits from the User class. In it create a concrete calcScores()
method that returns the number of scores from the following calculation:
class Editor extends User {
public function calcScores()
{
return $this -> scores =
$this -> numberOfArticles * 6 + 15;
}
}

9.6 Create an object, $author1, from the Author class, set the number of articles to 8, and echo the
scores that it gained.
$author1 = new Author();
$author1 -> setNumberOfArticles(8);
echo $author1 -> calcScores();

9.7 Create another object, $editor1, from the Editor class, set the number of articles to 15, and echo
the scores that it gained.

Chapter 9 solutions

$editor1 = new Editor();

$editor1 -> setNumberOfArticles(15);
echo $editor1 -> calcScores();

Result:
100
105

185

Chapter 10 solutions
10.1 Type hinting can check if the types of values that are passed to functions belong to the following
data types:
C : Complex types (arrays and objects) type hinting is supported in both PHP 5 and 7, while scalar
type hinting (int, float, string, bool) is only supported in PHP 7.

186

Chapter 11 solutions
11.1 Create a User interface with set and get methods for both a $username property, as well as for
a $gender property.
interface User {
public function setUsername($username);
public function getUsername();
public function setGender($gender);
public function getGender();
}

11.2 Now, create a Commentator class to implement the User interface.

class Commentator implements User {
private $username = '';
private $gender = 'none of your business!';
// Set and get the $username
public function setUsername($name)
{
$this -> username = (is_string($name))? $name : 'N/A';
}
public function getUsername()
{
return $this -> username;
}
// Set and get the gender
public function setGender($gender)
{
$gendersArray = array('female', 'male', 'other');
if(in_array($gender, $gendersArray))
{
$this -> gender = $gender;

187

Chapter 11 solutions

188

}
}
public function getGender()
{
return $this -> gender;
}
}

11.3 Create function to add Mr. or Mrs. to the username. When writing the function make sure
to type hint it correctly, so it can only get the types it is expected to.
function addMrOrMrsToUsername(User $user)
{
$userName
= $user -> getUsername();
$userGender = $user -> getGender();
if($userGender === 'female')
{
return "Mrs. " . $userName;
}
else if($userGender === 'male')
{
return "Mr. " . $userName;
}
return $userName;
}

11.4 Run the code against a user with the name of Jane and against another user with the name of
Bob.
$user1 = new Commentator();
$user1 -> setUsername("Jane");
$user1 -> setGender("female");
echo addMrOrMrsToUsername($user1);
$user2 = new Commentator();
$user2 -> setUsername("Bob");
$user2 -> setGender("male");
echo addMrOrMrsToUsername($user2);

Chapter 11 solutions

Result:
Mrs. Jane
Mr. Bob

189

Chapter 12 solutions
12.1 The use of static methods and variables is appropriate in the following cases
Answer: B : We might consider the use of static methods and variables when we need utility
methods, with some common uses being: counters, sanitation, encryption, unit conversion, and any
other methods that only give services to our programs main classes.

190

Chapter 13 solutions
13.1 Which of the following keywords is used to define a trait?
C : the keyword trait is used to define a trait.
13.2 Which of the following types can be found within a trait?
D : Within a trait, we can find all of the types such as abstract methods, concrete methods, properties,
and constants. Having all of these types inside a trait is very powerful. However, good traits are short
and concise, so be sure not to bloat your traits with a code which better resides in your classes.
*13.3** Is it appropriate to use traits in a scenario in which all of the child classes of an interface
need the same methods?
In the case that all of the child classes of an interface use the same methods, we put the methods
in an interface. We consider the use of traits in those cases in which only some of the child classes
(and not all of the child classes) need to use a certain method.
13.4 Write an interface with the name of User.
interface User {}

13.5 Write three classes to implement the User interface: Author, Commentator and Viewer.
interface User {}
class Author implements User {}
class Commentator implements User {}
class Viewer implements User {}

13.6 Add a trait with the name of Writing that contains an abstract method with the name of
writeContent().
trait Writing {
abstract public function writeContent();
}

13.7 Use the trait Writing in the Author class, and implement its abstract method by making it return
the string Author, please start typing an article.
191

Chapter 13 solutions

192

class Author implements User {

use Writing;
public function writeContent()
{
return "Author, please start typing an article...";
}
}

13.8 Use the trait Writing in the Commentator class, and implement its abstract method by making
it return the string Commentator, please start typing your comment.
class Commentator implements User {
use Writing;
public function writeContent()
{
return "Commentator, please start typing your comment...";
}
}

13.9 Run the code you have just written and see the result.
$author1 = new Author();
echo $author1 -> writeContent();
$commentator1 = new Commentator();
echo $commentator1 -> writeContent();

Result:
Author, please start typing an article
Commentator, please start typing your comment.

Chapter 14 solutions
14.1 What are the main reasons for using namespaces?
D : The main reasons for the use of namespaces is to group related code and avoid name collisions
between libraries.
14.2 Which keyword is used to define a namespace?
B: The keyword namespace is used to define a namespace.
14.3 Which keyword is used to import a namespace?
A : The keyword use is used to import a namespace.

193

Chapter 15 solutions
15.1 Add to the Article class, a constructor method that gets the parameters of: $title and $author
and sets the classs properties accordingly.
class Article {
protected $title;
protected $author;
public function __construct($title, $author)
{
$this -> title = $title;
// The object is injected to the class
$this -> author = $author;
}
}

15.2 Write to the class, a getter method that returns the articles title.
class Article {
protected $title;
protected $author;
public function __construct($title, $author)
{
$this -> title = $title;
// The object is injected to the class
$this -> author = $author;
}
public function getTitle()
{
return $this -> title;
}
}

194

Chapter 15 solutions

195

15.3 Add to the class, a getter method that returns the author object.
class Article {
protected $title;
protected $author;
public function __construct($title, $author)
{
$this -> title = $title;
// The object is injected to the class.
$this -> author = $author;
}
public function getTitle()
{
return $this -> title;
}
public function getAuthor()
{
return $this -> author;
}
}

15.4 Write another class with the name of Author, that has a protected property $name and setter
and getter methods that handle the property.
class Author {
protected $name;
public function setName($name)
{
$this -> name = $name;
}
public function getName()
{
return $this -> name;
}
}

15.5 Now, first create the Author object, call it $author1, and then set its name to Joe.

Chapter 15 solutions

196

$author1 = new Author;

$author1 -> setName("Joe");

15.6 Create the article object, call it $article1, and pass to it the title To PHP and Beyond and the
$author1 object that you have just created.
$title = "To PHP and Beyond";
$article1 = new Article($title,$author1);

15.7 Write a code that returns the string: To PHP and Beyond by Joe.
echo $article1 -> getTitle() . ' by ' .
$article1 -> getAuthor() -> getName();

Result:
To PHP and Beyond by Joe
In this code example, instead of creating the author object inside the Article class, we created it
outside the class, and then injected it into the class with the constructor. (The same result can be
achieved by using a setter method.)
15.8 It is also highly advisable to typehint the injected objects. For this purpose, we need to first
write an Authors interface and then make the Author class implement that interface.
interface Authors {
public function setName($name);
public function getName();
}
class Author implements Authors {
protected $name;
public function setName($name)
{
$this -> name = $name;
}
public function getName()
{
return $this -> name;
}
}

Chapter 15 solutions

Now, we need to type hint the $author parameter that is passed to the Article class.
class Article {
protected $title;
protected $author;
public function __construct($title, Author $author)
{
$this -> title = $title;
// The object is injected to the class.
$this -> author = $author;
}
public function getTitle()
{
return $this -> title;
}
public function getAuthor()
{
return $this -> author;
}
}

Lets test the code:

$author1 = new Author;
$author1 -> setName("Joe");
$title = "To PHP and Beyond";
$article1 = new Article($title,$author1);
echo $article1 -> getTitle() . ' by ' .
$article1 -> getAuthor() -> getName();

Result:
To PHP and Beyond by Joe

197

Chapter 16 solutions
16.1 In which of the following cases would you use exception handling?
B : We use exception handling to suppress errors outside the scope of the program in a tested code,
and not in order to hide our own bugs or to replace if-then blocks.
16.2 Add to the setName() method a code that throws exception whenever the users name is shorter
than 3 letters. What is a suitable message that can be thrown?
class User {
private $name;
private $age;
public function setName($name)
{
$name = trim($name);
if(strlen($name) < 3)
{
throw new Exception("The name should be at least 3 characters long."\
);
}
$this -> name = $name;
}
public function setAge($age)
{
$this -> age = $age;
}
public function getName()
{
return $this -> name;
}
public function getAge()
{
return $this -> age;

198

Chapter 16 solutions

199

}
}

16.3 Add to the setAge() method a code that throws exception whenever the users age is less than
or equal to 0.
class User {
private $name;
private $age;
public function setName($name)
{
$name = trim($name);
if(strlen($name) < 3)
{
throw new Exception("The name should be at least 3 characters long."\
);
}
$this -> name = $name;
}
public function setAge($age)
{
$age = (int)$age;
if($age < 1)
{
throw new Exception("The age cannot be zero or less.");
}
$this -> age = $age;
}
public function getName()
{
return $this -> name;
}
public function getAge()
{

Chapter 16 solutions

200

return $this -> age;

}
}

16.4 Write a foreach loop (like the one we have already used in this tutorial) that feeds the array to
the class, and handles the exceptions by echoing the custom error messages as well as the file path
and line number in which the exception was thrown.
$dataForUsers = array(
array("Ben",4),
array("Eva",28),
array("li",29),
array("Catie","not yet born"),
array("Sue",1.5)
);
foreach($dataForUsers as $data => $value)
{
try
{
$user = new User();
$user -> setName($value[0]);
$user -> setAge($value[1]);
echo $user -> getName() . " is " . $user -> getAge() . " years old. <br \
/>";
}
catch (Exception $e)
{
echo "Error: " . $e -> getMessage() . " in the file: " . $e -> getFile()
. " on line: " . $e -> getLine() . "<hr />";
}
}

16.5 Run the code and see the result.

Result:
Ben is 4 years old.
Eva is 28 years old.
Error: The name should be at least 3 characters long. in the file: C:\wamp\www\index.php on line:
13

Chapter 16 solutions

Error: The age cannot be zero or less. in the file: C:\wamp\www\index.php on line: 25
Sue is 1 years old.

201

Chapter 17 solutions
17.1 Write a class with the name of Db that can connect with the database.
// DB credentials.
define('DB_HOST','localhost');
define('DB_USER','root');//database username
define('DB_PASS','');// database passord
define('DB_NAME','testing'); //database name
class Db {
// The PDO object.
private $dbh;
// Establish database connection
// or display an error message.
function __construct()
{
try
{
$this->dbh = new \PDO("mysql:host=".DB_HOST.";dbname=".DB_NAME,
DB_USER, DB_PASS,
array(PDO::MYSQL_ATTR_INIT_COMMAND => "SET NAMES 'utf8'"));
}
catch (PDOException $e)
{
exit("Error: " . $e->getMessage());
}
}
// We need a method to get the database handler
// so it can be used outside of this class.
function get()
{
return $this->dbh;
}
// Set the PDO object to null to close the connection.
function close()

202

203

Chapter 17 solutions

{
$this->dbh = null;
}
}

17.2 Write a User class that can get the database connection, and save it into a private property with
the name of $dbCon.
class User {
private $tableName = 'users';
private $dbCon;
// First, save the connection in a private property.
function __construct($dbCon)
{
$this->dbCon = $dbCon;
}
}

17.3 Write into the User class the methods that can work with the database.
class User {
private $tableName = 'users';
private $dbCon;
// First, establish the connection with the database.
function __construct($dbCon)
{
$this->dbCon = $dbCon;
}
// Insert new user to the database.
function insert($name,$phone,$city)
{
// The insert query.
$sql = "INSERT INTO `{$this->tableName}`
(`name`,`phone`, `city`, `date_added`)
VALUES
(:name,:phone,:city,:created)";
// Bind and filter.
$query = $this->dbCon->prepare($sql);

204

Chapter 17 solutions

$query->bindParam(':name',$name,PDO::PARAM_STR);
$query->bindParam(':phone',$phone,PDO::PARAM_STR);
$query->bindParam(':city',$city,PDO::PARAM_STR);
$now = date('Y-m-d');
$query->bindParam(':created',$now,PDO::PARAM_STR);

$query -> execute();

// The id of the newly created row in the table.
$lastInsertId = $this->dbCon->lastInsertId();
if($lastInsertId>0)
return $lastInsertId;
else
return false;
}

function getUserById($id)
{
$sql = "SELECT * FROM `{$this->tableName}` WHERE `id` = :id LIMIT 1";
$query = $this->dbCon->prepare($sql);
$query -> bindParam(':id', $id, PDO::PARAM_INT);
$query -> execute();
$results = $query -> fetchAll(PDO::FETCH_OBJ);
if($query -> rowCount() < 1) return false;

return

$results[0];

// Get all the users.

function getAll()

205

Chapter 17 solutions

{
$sql = "SELECT * FROM `{$this->tableName}` WHERE 1";
$query = $this->dbCon->prepare($sql);
$query -> bindParam(':id', $id, PDO::PARAM_INT);
$query -> execute();
$results = $query -> fetchAll(PDO::FETCH_OBJ);
if($query -> rowCount() < 1) return false;

return $results;
}

function updateUser($id,$array)
{
$sql = "UPDATE `{$this->tableName}` SET ";
$columns = array();
foreach($array as $fieldName => $value)
{
$columns[] = "`{$fieldName}` = :{$fieldName}";
}
$sql .= implode(',',$columns);
$sql .= ' WHERE `id` = :id';

$query = $this->dbCon->prepare($sql);

foreach($array as $fieldName => $value)

{
// Use bindValue, not bindParam because
// bindParam only gets its value at the time of execution.
$query -> bindValue(":{$fieldName}",$value);
}

Chapter 17 solutions

$query -> bindParam(':id', $id, PDO::PARAM_INT);

$query -> execute();

if($query -> rowCount()) return false;

return $id;
}

function delete($id)
{
$sql = "DELETE FROM `{$this->tableName}` WHERE `id`=:id";
$query = $this->dbCon->prepare($sql);
$query -> bindParam(':id', $id, PDO::PARAM_INT);
$query -> execute();
if($query -> rowCount() < 1) return false;

return true;
}
}

17.4 Test your code.

// Create the pdo object.
$db
= new Db;
// Get the connection.
$dbCon
= $db->get();
// When creating the new User class
// pass the connection.
$userObj = new User($dbCon);
// Test insertion.

206

Chapter 17 solutions

var_dump($userObj->insert('James Tiberius Kirk','0544308209','Riverside, Iowa'));

// Test selection.
var_dump($userObj->getUserById(1));
var_dump($userObj->getAll());
// Test update.
$array=['name'=>'Captain Kirk','city'=>'Tarsus IV','date_added'=>'2233-03-22'];
var_dump($userObj->updateUser(1,$array));
var_dump($userObj->getUserById(1));
// Test deletion.
var_dump($userObj->delete(1));

Introduction How to create classes and objects

207