Ch 10 Inductance

PC1432
Peter Ho
Department of Physics, NUS

10.1 Mutual inductance

X X
X X

circuit 1

circuit 2

A current flowing in circuit 1 makes a magnetic field in

space. Part of this magnetic field passes through circuit
2.
The ratio of the magnetic flux in circuit 2 to the current
in circuit 1 can be computed from the BiotSavart law.
The result depends on shape of the circuits, their relative
orientation, the distance between them, and the material
medium. The result however is the same as the ratio of
magnetic flux in circuit 1 to the current in circuit 2.

Therefore we define this ratio to be the mutual inductance M.

magnetic flux through circuit 1
number of turns flux per turn

N 2 B ,2 N1 B ,1
M=
=
i1
i2

(mutual inductance)

Its SI unit is the henry (H). By definition, 1 H = 1 Wb A1 =1 V s A1. Typical M values are well
below 1 H, unless they are solenoids designed for maximum flux coupling (1 H 1 mH).

X X
X X

circuit 1

circuit 2

Qn: If di/dt is positive here (i.e., increasing

current), what is the sense of the induced
emf in circuit 2?

Rearrange and then take the time derivative of both

sides,
M i1 = N 2 B ,2
d
di
M 1 = N 2 B ,2
dt
dt

Thus if the current through circuit 1 changes, the flux

through circuit 2 also changes accordingly. Faradays
law tells us that an induced emf appears in circuit 2.

emf ,2 = N 2

d B ,2
di
= M 1
dt
dt
(induced emf in second circuit)

This suggests another way of thinking about mutual inductance: M is the ratio of the emf induced
in circuit 2 to the rate of change of current in circuit 1. Therefore you can see immediately that 1 H
= 1 V (A s1)1.
The sense of the induced emf in circuit 2 is easily deduced from the Lenz's law: The induced
emf is in such a sense as to make a magnetic field to oppose the change in magnetic field
caused by the other circuit. As a result, the power supply for circuit 1 has to do extra work.
3

Example. Mutual inductance in concentric solenoids

A long air-core solenoid with cross-sectional area A1 and n1 turns per unit length is surrounded
by a short solenoid with N2 turns in total. Derive an expression for their mutual inductance.

Let us choose the long solenoid to be circuit 1, since the magnetic field B1 in the long solenoid is
uniform, and so the magnetic flux B through one turn of the short solenoid is simply the product
B1A1.
This gives M =

N 2 B N 2 B1 A1
=
i1
i1

The magnetic field through the long solenoid is given by B1 = o n1 i1

Therefore M = o N 2 n1 A1
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10.2 Self inductance and inductors

The ratio of magnetic flux bounded by the circuit to its own current is the self inductance
L. This is also given by the ratio of the induced emf in the circuit to the time derivative
of its own current.
magnetic flux through circuit
number of turns flux per turn

L=

emf

N B
i

(self inductance)

d B
di
= N
= L
dt
dt

(self-induced emf)

Its SI unit is the same as for mutual inductance, the henry (H).
Every circuit has some self-inductance, just as it has some capacitance.
For an air-core solenoid, B = o n i . Hence L = o N n A .

Device components that are used primarily because of their self-inductance properties are called
inductors (or choke, if they are used for power supply conditioning).
Symbol of the inductor
This symbol denotes an ideal inductor with inductance, but no resistance or capacitance. Real
inductors have a significant resistance, so they are modeled as an ideal inductor in series with an
ideal resistor.
Properties

For current flowing from a to b:

(a) If di/dt > 0: Eemf < 0, which means the induced voltage drops from a to b: the inductor removes
electrical potential energy from the charge carriers and stores it as magnetic energy. This slows
down the rapid buildup of the current.
(b) If di/dt < 0: Eemf > 0, which means the induced voltage increases from a to b: the inductor acts
as a "magnetic battery" that pumps the current from a to b by converting magnetic field energy
back to electrical potential energy to try keep the current flowing.

[Recall: In the same way, a "chemical battery pumps the current from low to high voltage by converting chemical
energy to electrical potential energy.]

(c) If di/dt = 0: Eemf = 0, the inductor does nothing.

In summary: The inductor opposes changse in current, which is useful for filtering, power line
regulation, and as "ballasts" for fluorescent lights.

Compare with a resistor

a

For current flowing from a to b: Regardless of whether di/dt > 0, di/dt < 0, or di/dt = 0, the
voltage across ab (i.e. Vb Va) is given by V = Ri. In other words, there is a voltage drop
given by Ri.
Compare with a capacitor
a

For current flowing from a to b:

(a) If i > 0, voltage at a gets more and more positive relative to b (as positive charges pile up onto
plate a, and negative charges pile up onto plate b), so dV/dt < 0.
(b) If i < 0, dV/dt > 0, the converse happens.
(c) If i = 0, dV/dt = 0, the potential across the capacitor remains constant.

10.3 Energy stored in a magnetic field

We can calculate the energy stored in an inductor by calculating the work W required to create
the magnetic field. The power supply needs to do work on the inductor to overcome its "back
emf". The power delivered to the inductor is given by P = V i = L di i
dt
The work dW required to drive this current given by dW = P dt = L i di
Thus the total energy supplied to inductor to reach the final steady-state current I is given by
I

W = L i di = 12 L I 2
0

and so

U B = 12 L I 2

(magnetic field energy stored in inductor at current I)

[Recall: electric energy stored in capacitor, U E = 1 C V 2 .]
2

This stored energy can be released in a short instant to give very high power to fire e.g. the
spark plug in car combustion engine.

 This magnetic energy is stored in the magnetic field.

A solenoid provides uniform magnetic field inside the solenoid. We can use this to work out
the magnetic energy density.
n B A
(i) The inductance of a solenoid is given by L =
i

(ii) Magnetic energy stored in the solenoid is U B = 12 L I 2 = 12 n B A I

(iii) Volume of the magnetic field is V = A

UB n B A I n B I B 2
(iv) Magnetic energy density in vacuum is given by uB =
=
=
=
V
2A
2
2 0
[Recall: electric energy density in vacuum, u E = 1 o E 2 .]
2

10.4 The LR circuit

Energising the inductor: current growth

recall: positive
terminal here Vs

Let V be the voltage across the RL combination, Vs the supply voltage.

For t < 0: switch open

For t 0: switch closed

protection diode: this diode is reverse-biased and

so it is non-conducting when switch is closed

Let us first intuitively examine how the circuit behaves.

(a) For t 0, i = 0: Before the switch is closed, there is no current, and V = 0.
(a) At t = 0, Vs is suddenly applied across this series RL combination by closing the switch.
(c) What happens at steady state (after a long time has elapsed)? As t , the circuit reaches
steady state, di/dt = 0, so the induced emf in L must finally be zero, and the entire Vs drops
across R. So i Vs / R, flowing from left to right through L and R.
(d) What happens in between? For 0 t < , the induced "back emf" from L is initially large (and
equal to Vs, positive polarity on the left and negative on the right of L) due to conversion of
electrical potential energy to magnetic field energy. This back emf decays to zero with time,
and the current rises to the final steady-state value.
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Let us now write down the equation that describes the energisation.
Let us define the sense of current to be from left to right through L and
R (ignoring the protection diode which behaves as an open circuit for
now). By Kirchhoff's voltage loop rule, following the sense of the current,

Vs L

di
iR = 0
dt

You have two variables here, i and t. The standard

solution is to separate the variables,

di
R
= dt
Vs
L
i
R

Vs

after the switch is closed

[Put i on the left and t on the right of the equation.]

and perform the integration. To get the boundary conditions,

note that as time goes from 0 to t, current goes from 0 to i,
hence,

V
tR
i
di
i di
( i Rs )
dx
1
Vs
0 Vs = 0 L dt [Recall: ax + b = a ln(ax + b) so 0 i VRs = ln(i R t) 0 = ln ( VRs ) ]
t
i
adx
=
ax
[Recall:
so
]

R
0 RL dt = RL t 0 = RL t

This gives after some rearrangement, i =

Finally we write, i =

Vs
t
(1 exp( ))
R

Vs
t
(1 exp(
))
R
L/R

with LR time constant =

L
R

[Recall: time constant

in RC circuit is RC.]11

Graph of current rise in LR circuit.

1.0

Graph of the current rise function

switch is closed

0.8

0.6
0.4
0.2

t
y = 1 exp( )

0.0
-2

-1

t/

(a) Role of the time constant. After 1, the current is 63% (=1 1/e) on its way to the final value;
after 2, 86% (=1 (1/e)2); after 3, 95%; and after 5, 99.3%. For most applications, the circuit is
considered to have reached steady state after 5.
(b) Intuitive explanation for the dependence of the time constant on L and R. (i) A larger L makes a
bigger back emf to oppose the change in current from the initial state. This prolongs the time taken
for the current to reach final steady-state value. (ii) A larger R takes up a larger fraction of the
supply voltage. This decreases the di/dt and let the current in the circuit get to the final steady-state
more quickly.
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De-energising the inductor: current decay

Vs

switch

i
R

V is the voltage across the RL combination, Vs is the supply voltage.

t < 0: switch closed

t 0: switch open

Let us first intuitively examine how the circuit behaves.

(a) For t < 0, i = Vs / R: A steady state has been established in the circuit.
(b) At t = 0, the voltage Vs is suddenly removed from the circuit by opening the switch.
(c) What happens at steady state (after a long time has elapsed)? As t , the circuit reaches
steady state, di/dt = 0, so the induced emf in L must finally be zero. So i 0.
(d) What happens in between? For 0 t < , the induced emf from L is initially large (positive
polarity on the right and negative on the left of L) due to conversion of magnetic field energy back
to electrical potential energy (acting as a magnetic battery). This emf prevents the current from
suddenly dropping to zero. The protection diode which is now forward biased becomes conducting
and offers a low resistance discharge path. Nevertheless the inductor emf eventually decays to
zero, and the current also decays to zero.
[Without the protection diode, the inductor emf will force the current through the open contacts at the switch,
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causing sparks and arcing.]

Let us now write down the equation that describes the de-energisation.
Let us define the sense of current to be from left to right through L and R.
This current will now flow through the protection diode which behaves as a
short circuit. By Kirchhoff's voltage loop rule, following the sense of the current,

di
iR = 0
dt

You have two variables here, i and t. Again separate

the variables,

di
R
= dt
i
L

after the switch is open

[Put i on the left and t on the right of the equation.]

and perform the integration. To get the boundary conditions,

note that as time goes from 0 to t, current goes from Vs/R to i,
hence,
tR
di
=

Vs / R i 0 L dt
i

i
i
(i )
di
dx
ln(
)
ln
=
i
=
[Recall: = ln(x ) so Vs / R i
V
Vs / R
( Rs )
x
t
t
[Recall: adx = ax so RL dt = RL t = RL t

This gives after some rearrangement,

Finally we write,

V
t
i = s exp( )
R

i=

Vs
t
exp(
)
R
L/R

with LR time constant =

L
R

]
]

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Graph of current decay in LR circuit.

1.0

y = 1 for t < 0

t
y = exp( ) for t 0

switch is closed

0.8

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-2

-1

t/

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Summary
What you need to be able to do:
(a) Compute or derive mutual and self-inductances, and the induced emf.
(b) Analyse the LR circuit.

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