Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

X.

Lasers Optical Cavities

LASERS - OPTICAL CAVITIES

Stability Criteria
In order for a laser to emit light, the optical cavity constructed around the gain medium
must allow the intracavity radiation (the amplified spontaneous emission) to build-up;
i.e., must allow (in optical terms) positive feedback. This means that the laser cavity
mirrors must be able to support a stable oscillating laser mode; i.e., not allow radiation
to be lost.
For example:

unstable

may be stable

on edge of stability region.

The stability criteria for a laser cavity that is to be constructed using two mirrors with
radii of curvature R1 and R2 can be evaluated using the RTMs from geometrical optics;
L

R1

R2

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

which is equivalent to
L

xo

f1 =

x1

R1
2

f2 =

R2
2

f1 =

R1
2

So, for a round-trip through the resonator we have

x1
=

1
1
f1

0
1
1 L 1

1 0 1

f2

0
1 L x0

1 0 1 0

1
x
f2
1 =
1 L 1 + 1 1

f f
1 2 f1 f 2

L 2
f
x0 A B x0
2

=

L
L L 0 C D 0
1

f1
f 2 f1

Now, we require the ray to reproduce itself after N round trips (N = 1, 2, 3 ) for a
stable cavity; i.e.

x0 A B
=

y0 C D

x0

y0

This is an eigenvalue problem!

x
A B x0

= 0
C D y 0
y0

A B

C D

x0
x
= N 0
y0
y0

A condition on is that N 1 .

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

For N = 1 we get

B x0
= 0
D y 0

= 2 ( A + D ) + 1 = 0

since AD BC 1 for RTMs.

So, the two eigenvalues are

1
(A + D)
2

( A + D )2 4

= m m2 1
where half the trace of the RTM, m =

A+ D
, is the
2

m parameter for the optical system.

Substituting m = cos gives
= cos i sin = e i
Clearly, this satisfies N 1 since 1 and provided that = 2

.
N
Consequently, a laser cavity (a periodic focusing system) will be stable if m 1 ; that is
if
1

A+ D
1
2

1
2L 2L
L2
0 1+ 2

+
2
f2
f1 f1 f 2
2
Dividing by 2 and realizing that 2 f i = Ri gives

L
L
1
0 1 1
R
R

1
2

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

In terms of the g-parameters, this cavity stability criteria is usually written as

0 g1g

L
Ri

= 1

i.e.

g1

g1 = g 2
R1 = R2

Unstable

Unstable

1
Stable
-1

B
Stable

g2

-1

Unstable

Unstable

The points A, B, and C illustrate three limiting cases for which R1= R2:
i)

g1 = g 2 = 1 (point A )

L
=0
Ri

i.e. Ri =

R1 =

R2 =

a plane-plane cavity

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

ii)

Lasers Optical Cavities

g1 = g 2 = 0 (point B)

L
=1
Ri

i.e. Ri = L

R1

R2
R1 = L

iii)

R2 = L

a confocal cavity
(common focus,
R L
fi = i = )
2 2

g1 = g 2 = 1 (point C )

L
= +2
Ri

i.e. Ri =

L
2

R1 =

L
2

L
2

L
2

R2 =

L
2

a cavity in which the

center of curvatures are
at a common point.
(a concentric cavity)

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

N.B.
The stability criteria can be expressed verbally;
A laser cavity is stable if either the mirror or its center of curvature (but not
both) is between the position and center of curvature of the other mirror.

E.g.
R2

R1 at

stable cavity

R2
z

R1 at

unstable cavity.

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

Gaussian Beams
__

the spatial EM eigenmodes of optical resonators with spherical mirrors.

Using the substitution E (r, t ) = E (r ) exp[ it ] , the wave equation can be reduced to
the Helmholtz equation;

+ k 2 E (r ) = 0 .

For a wave propagating in the z-direction, we may write

E (r ) = ( x, y, z ) exp[ikz ] ,
so that the Helmholtz equation becomes

2
dx

2
dy

2
dz

+ 2ik

=0 .
dz

We will assume that the variation of with z is at most linear, so that

which gives the paraxial wave equation;
2
2

+
+ 2ik = 0 .
dx 2 dy 2
dz

A trial solution of the form

)]

= exp iQ ( z ) x 2 + y 2 exp[iP ( z )] ,

which gives

2
dx

2
dy

= 4 x 2 Q 2 + 2iQ

= 4 y 2 Q 2 + 2iQ

P
Q
=i
+ i x2 + y2
,
dz
z
z

2
dz 2

=0,

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

implying that

P
Q
4 x 2 + y 2 Q 2 + 4iQ 2k
2k x 2 + y 2
=0 .
z
z

This equation must hold independently for all powers of x and y, i.e.
P
2iQ = 0
z

x 0 and y 0

(x 2 + y 2 )

2Q 2 + k

Q
=0
z

Riccatis equation
Now, using q =

k
q
k Q
so that
=
, these two become;
z
2Q
2Q 2 z

P i
= ,
z q
q
=1 .
z

The solution to the latter equation can be written as

q = z qo = z ib ;

i.e., the constant of integration q o = ib , is purely imaginary (avoids real singularity in

P
equation).
z

P
i
=
z z ib
2

z
z
iz
P ( z ) = i ln 1 + = i ln 1 + tan 1
b
b
b
y
using the identity ln (x m iy ) = ln x 2 + y 2 i tan 1 .
x

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

Hence, ( x, y, z ) becomes

(
(

) exp i tan 1 z + ikz (x 2 + y 2 ) .

b 2(z 2 + b 2 )
)

kb x 2 + y 2
exp
2
2 z 2 + b 2
z
1+
b
1

At z = 0, ( x, y, z ) reduces to

k x2 + y2
( x, y, z ) = o = exp

2b

which, when compared to a Gaussian field distribution of the form

x2 + y2
E = E o exp
,
w 2

E
Eo

Eo
e

-w

r =

x2 + y2

defines the minimum beam waist w = wo at z = 0 ;

wo2 =

2b b o
=
.
k
n

The complex constant of integration, q o , can now be interpreted as the minimum

value of the complex size parameter of a Gaussian wave; i.e.,
inwo2
q o = ib =
.
o

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

Thus, for any z the Gaussian beam waist, w( z ) , or the spot size is given by

w 2 (z ) =

2 z2 + b2
kb

z 2
z 2
w ( z ) = w 1 + o 2 = wo2 1 +
nwo
b
2

(
(

2
o

)
)

kz x 2 + y 2
The term exp i
in ( x, y, z ) can be associated with the phase due to the
2
2
2 z + b
radius of curvature of the Gaussian beam. In the paraxial approximation, a spherical
wave propagating in the z-direction is given by
1
1
exp[ikR ] = exp ik x 2 + y 2 + z 2

R
R

ik x 2 + y 2
1
exp[ikz ] exp
.
z
2R

since z R and z 2 >> x 2 + y 2 .

Hence,
k
kz
=
.
2R 2 z 2 + b 2

So, the radius of curvature, R( z ) , of the beams phase front is given by

2 2
n

w
o
=
R ( z ) = z 1 +
o z

b 2
z 1 +
z

z
The additional phase factor ( z ) = tan 1 o in ( x, y, z ) describes the phase
nw 2
o

difference between the ideal plane wave propagating in the z-direction and the nearly
plane spherical wave of this theory.

10

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

To summarize;

zo

o
nwo

w( z o )

wo

R( z o )

phasefront

with
=

x2 + y2
wo
exp
w( z )
w 2 (z )

x2 + y2
exp ik
2 R(z )

amplitude

paraxial wave

exp[ i( z )]
with the diffraction angle, =

phase

o
, describing the divergence of the Gaussian beam;
nwo

i.e.,
2

w (z ) =

z
wo2 1 +

= wo2 + (z )2 .
b

The parameter, b, called the confocal parameter or Rayleigh range, therefore also gives
a measure of the divergence of the beam. Specifically, at z = b the cross-sectional area
of the beam is twice that at its narrowest point since w( z = b ) = 2wo .
[NOTE: R( z = b ) = 2b , which is the minimum value of R for the beam.]
11

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

N.B.
i)

Lasers Optical Cavities

The origin of the z-axis (i.e. z = 0 ) is always at the minimum beam waist
(i.e., when w = wo ) so that

wo

2 wo

R -ve

ii)

R=

R +ve

Given, R( z ) and w( z ) for a Gaussian beam, wo and z can be evaluated

using

wo2 =

z=

iii)

w2
nw 2
1 +
oR

R
R
1+ o 2
nw

In addition to the fundamental Gaussian beam, any Hermite-Gaussian

polynomial is a solution to the paraxial wave equation (c.f. laser modes).

12

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

The ABCD Law

In geometrical optics, ray transfer matrices (RTMs) described the propagation of
optical rays;

x 2 A B x1
=

2 C D 1

x2 = Ax1 + B1
2 = Cx1 + D1

But, for a Gaussian (spherical) wave we have

= tan

ray

x
R

paraxial approximation

R=

Hence, if a wave with radius R1 enters an optical system and R2 exits it, the RTM of
the system implies

1 A 1 + B

x
= AR1 + B .
R2 = 2 = 1
2
x
CR1 + D
1 C 1 + D
1

Not surprisingly, the radius of curvature, R, of the spherical wave obeys the relations
expected from geometric optics;
1
=
R2

R
1

R1

R2 = R1 + d

+1
=

1 1

R1 f

for a lens
for propagation through distance d.

13

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

For a Gaussian beam, the complex size parameter, q, obeys the same rule as the radius
of curvature, R, viz:
q = z qo

q 2 = q1 + d

and,
1
1
z + ib
=
=
q z ib z 2 + b 2
=

1
b 2
z 1 +
z

i
z 2
b 1 +
b

i o
1 1
= +
q R nw 2

So, for example, for a lens w2 = w1 , so that

i o
1
1
=
+
q2
R2
nw22

1 1 i o
+
2
R1 f nw1

1
1 1
=

q 2 q1 f

In other words, there is a formal equivalence between q and R , so that in the RTM
formalization we may write

q2 =

Aq1 + B
Cq1 + D

14

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

Example #1: Focusing a Gaussian beam.

Consider a plane wave (R = ) Gaussian beam with a waist size W
incident on a lens of focal length f;

i o
1
=0+
q1
W 2

... n = 1

And after the lens

1 Cq1 + D
=
=
q 2 Aq1 + B

q1

+1

q1

i o
1
1
= +
.
q2
f W 2

So, since R2 = f , the location of the focal beam waist is given by

z=

f
1+ o 2
W

so that

wo2 =

W2
W 2

1+
o f

2o f 2
2W 2

f
wo o
W
a useful relation when focusing
Gaussian beams.

15

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

Example #2: An Optical Cavity

The q parameter for Gaussian beam propagation in the laser cavity must
obey the equation
q=

Aq + B
;
Cq + D

i.e., the q parameter reproduces itself after a round-trip of the cavity.

Thus,
2

1
1
B + ( A D ) C = 0
q
q

1
1
=
(D A)
q 2 B

( A D )2 + 4 BC

But, since the index of refraction in the resonator is constant, the

determinant of the RTM must equal unity; i.e., AD - BC = 1. Using this
fact, we get
1 D A
=

q
2B

A 2 2 AD + D 2 + 4( AD 1)
2B

1 D A i
A+ D
=
1

2B
q
B
2

The equation is in the standard form for the q parameter,

i o
1 1
= +
,
q R nw 2
which for a real spot size (complex q) implies that we must have
A+ D
< 1.
2
This again gives the cavity stability criteria:

L
L
< 1 .
0 < 1 1
R
R

1
2

16

Physics 425 Modern Optics

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

Lasers Optical Cavities

Notice that the ABCD formalism can be used to determine the

characteristics of the Gaussian beam in the resonator.

R1
R(z) = -R1

For example, we expect the radius of curvature of the wavefront in a

laser cavity at the starting and ending point (mirror R1) to be R1 since
the wavefront converges to a focus to the right of the mirror if R1 is
concave (f1 positive):

L
L

1
L 2
A B
f2
f

C D L 1 + 1 1 L 1 L L

f f
f1
f 2 f1
1 2 f1 f 2

R=

2B
= 2 f1 = R1
D A
as expected

17