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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ADVANCED PACKAGING, VOL. 24, NO. 2, MAY 2001

An Overview of Solder Bump Shape Prediction

Algorithms with Validations
Kuo-Ning Chiang and Chang-An Yuan

AbstractThe trend to reduce the size of electronic packages

and develop increasingly sophisticated electronic devices with
more, higher density inputs/outputs (I/Os), leads to the use of
area array packages using chip scale packaging (CSP), flip chip
(FC), and wafer level packaging (WLP) technologies. Greater
attention has been paid to the reliability of solder joints and
the assembly yield of the surface mounting process as use of
advanced electronic packaging technologies has increased. The
solder joint reliability has been observed to be highly dependent
on solder joint geometry as well as solder material properties,
such that predicting solder reflow shape became a critical issue
for the electronic research community. In general, the truncated
sphere method, the analytical solution and the energy-based
algorithm are the three major methods for solder reflow geometry
prediction. This research develops solder joint reliability design
guidelines to accurately predict both the solder bump geometry
and the standoff height for reflow soldered joints in area array
packages. Three simulation methods such as truncated-sphere
theory, force-balanced analytical solution and energy-based
approach for prediction of the solder bump geometry are each
examined in detail, and the thermal enhanced BGA (TBGA)
and flip chip packages are selected as the benchmark models to
compare the simulation and experimental results. The simulation
results indicate that all three methods can accurately predict the
solder reflow shape in an accurate range.
Index TermsChip scale packaging, flip chip, reflow, reliability,
solder joint, thermal enhanced BGA, wafer level packaging.

I. INTRODUCTION

ITH increasing development in packaging technology,

critical issues of packaging design include the following:
re-routing/wireability, and bridging possibility; the reliability
characteristics of the solder I/Os; and the development cycle
time. For a specified solder material, solder joint reliability has
been found [1], [2] to be highly dependent on the solder joint
geometry characterized by the standoff height, lower/upper contact angles of the joint, solder pad diameter and pad shape, etc.
In recent years, the design on experiment (DOE) methodology
has been extensively adopted in many advanced package designs. However, DOE methodology requires many design cycles and is very time consuming. Importantly, this methodology
lacks sufficient physical information for further structural improvement and optimization of packages. Therefore, a fast and
accurate algorithm must be developed to accurately predict the

Manuscript received May 16, 2000; revised February 26, 2001. This work
was supported by the National Science Council, R.O.C., under Contract NSC892212-E-007-014.
The authors are with the Department of Power Mechanical Engineering,
National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan 30055, R.O.C. (e-mail:
[email protected]).
Publisher Item Identifier S 1521-3323(01)04070-9.

solder reflow shape. Moreover, the detailed geometrical information of the solder joint should be transferable to a finite element program such as MSC/NASTRAN, ANSYS, or ABAQUS
to analyze the reliability of the package.
The truncated sphere method does not take any force or energy factors into consideration because it is a purely geometrically-based algorithm. The truncated sphere method can predict the standoff height and the maximum solder width of the
solder ball within an accurate range for a lightweight package.
The force-balanced analytical solution includes the surface tension effect and has shown promising results in predicting the
PBGA solder reflow shape [5]. The analytical solution can deliver good predictions of solder shape if the surface arc of the
solder joint remains a perfect circular curve; if the gravity density of the solder ball could be neglected, and if the sizes of
the lower and upper pad are similar. In general, none of these
methods may be used to calculate the contact angle, which is a
critical factor in determining the reliability issue of the package.
Energy-based methods such as the surface evolver [8], include surface tension, gravitational effects, and internal/external
pressures. Solder joint equilibrium is achieved when the forces
due to surface tension, gravity and solder internal/external pressures are all balanced. Surface evolver allows fully 3-D problems to be examined by discretizing an initial surface into a set
of inter-connected triangular facets and then iterating this initial surface toward a minimal energy configuration by conjugate
gradient methods. A range of different boundary conditions and
energy integrals may be applied to the model, such as fixed constraints, surface tension forces, solder volume, and solder density. Surface evolver is quite robust in analyzing the single 3-D
solder model, and it has been successfully applied for predicting
the final shape of the BGA joint after reflow, for various pad
sizes and shapes, solder volumes, specific solder heights, and
surface tensions. However, surface evolver involves modeling
inconvenience and intense CPU usage when applied to multiple
solder joint models, especially when the pad dimensions, surface tension, and solder volumes for each joint in the area array
are not uniform. This research mainly aims to develop the solder
joint reliability design guidelines, and to select a feasible algorithm to predict both the solder bump geometry and the standoff
height of an area array package.
II. METHODS FOR PREDICTING LIQUID SURFACE SHAPE
Generally the geometry-based truncated sphere method, the
force-balanced analytical solution and the energy-based algorithm are the three main methods for predicting solder reflow
geometry. Each method is described in the following section.

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159

Fig. 1. Solder ball cross section view.

Fig. 3. Solder joint upper pad force balance diagram.

Fig. 2. Solder ball on the board.

A. Truncated Sphere Theory

For the geometry-based method, the solder bump after reflow
is assumed to be a truncated sphere (Fig. 1). The truncated domain is defined by the pad, which is determined owing to that
molten solder does not flow onto a nonwettable solder mask.
The diameters of the solder bump and pad are expressed as
and ; the solder height is . The dimensions
,
and are related as in

Fig. 4.

Flip chip with 800 I/Os.

Fig. 5.

TBGA with 256 I/Os.

(1)
The volume of the solder ball with dimensions , and can
be estimated from the volume of a truncated sphere according
to

(2)
(3)
can
In practice, the bump height and solder diameter
be determined by changing the solder volume . Furthermore,
for an area array package mounted on a printed circuit board
(PCB), the solder joint between the package substrate and PCB
assumes the shape of a double truncated sphere (Fig. 2). As
a result, once the solder volume is known, the standoff height
and the diameter of the solder ball can be predicted by (4)(6).
In other words, the solder volume and can also be calculated
by the expected value of

Fig. 6. Flip chip bump SEM and simulation pictures.

where

In the case of
fied as

, the solder volume equation can be simpli-

(4)

(7)

(5)
B. Force-Balanced Analytical Solution
(6)

Heinrich et al. [4], [5] and Chiang and Chen [1][3] have
addressed the closed form solution of the force-balanced algo-

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TABLE I
GEOMETRICAL CONFIGURATION OF FLIP CHIP SOLDER BUMP

TABLE II
FLIP CHIP BUMP SHAPE SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS (UNIT: m)

rithm for solder formation. The geometrical prediction of the

area array package on the board model is based on the following
assumptions:
1) the solder joint attains static equilibrium when solidification occurs;
2) the solder pad on the substrate is circular and is perfectly
aligned during solidification;
3) the free surface of the solder joint is axisymmetric;
4) the meridian defining the free surface of the solder joint
is approximated by a circular arc;
5) the solder pad is completely covered by solder and the
solder does not spread beyond the pad;
6) the solder pad is perfectly wettable, and the surrounding
material is perfectly nonwettable.
A Laplace equation is used to calculate the contours of the solder
surface. The equation governing the exact equilibrium configuration of the solder surface may be expressed as
(8)

Fig. 7.

Top and side views of TBGA solder bump.

surface tension if the solder is in the minimum energy state. The

, as in
solder volume is a function of
(11)
Heinrich et al. [5] proposed that if the meridian defining the
, is approximated by a circular-arc
joints free surface,
, then the volume and unbalanced force may be expressed
as
(12)

where
and

principal radii of curvature of

the solder surface at height ;
, ,
ambient pressure, internal
pressure and surface tension,
respectively;
functions of such that,
variables , , , and
,
,
,
.
If gravity is neglected, the governing equation may be simplified
as
(9)

(13)
, and the unbalanced force
The meridian radius of the arc,
in (13) with an initial height can be determined. The standoff
exceeds the
height must be adjusted for further iteration if
converging tolerance. Once the force is balanced, the approximate shape and height of the solder ball can be determined.
C. Energy-Based Method

For axisymmetric cases, the governing equation becomes

(10)
Fig. 3 indicates that the package weights at the upper pad
should be balanced by the solder joint internal pressure and the

Determining the restoring force in the direction of gravity

helps in evaluating the geometrical shape and standoff height of
the solder ball. In general, the total energy of a liquid body consists of three major energy portions: the surface tension energy,
the gravitational energy, and the external energy that is related to

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161

TABLE III
TBGA SOLDER BUMP SHAPE RESULTS (UNIT: m)

Fig. 8. TBGA solder ball experimental and simulation pictures.

the change in solder volume. Accordingly, the variational free

energy and restoring force along the gravitational direction of
the solder ball is given by

TABLE IV
TBGA STANDOFF HEIGHT AND MAXIMUM WIDTH RESULTS (UNIT: m)

TABLE V
PBGA SOLDER SHAPE RESULTS (UNIT: MM)

(14)

(15)
where is the total energy associated with the solder standoff
height , including the surface tension energy on the solder
surface, the gravitational energy of the solder, and the energy
due to the external forces. Each part of the energy in (14) can be
written as

(16)

(17)
(18)
,
In the above equations,
is a variational vector field which is a perturbation function.
is the surface tension, is the density, and is the acceleration
factor due to gravity. The restoring force of the solder ball along
the gravitational direction can be determined by giving a downward or upward offset perturbatio on the solder pad. Different
offsets on the solder pad correspond to different molten ball

*[5]

geometrical shapes and different gravitational restoring forces

while maintaining the same solder volume and pad size.
III. SOLDER BUMP HEIGHT AND STANDOFF HEIGHT
PREDICTIONS
This research considers two types of package as benchmark
models. One is the light-weight flip chip package (Fig. 4)
and the other is the thermally-enhanced BGA package with
weighing 4.23 g (Fig. 5, 256 solder balls, 16.2 dyne/ball). Both
solder materials are 37Pb/63Sn eutectic solder; the surface
tension of the eutectic solder at 380 C is 463 dyne/cm (from
the solder material menu of SenJu Metal Industry Co. LTD)
g/cm .
and the density is
Table I shows the solder bump geometry configurations of the
flip chip. Fig. 6 presents the SEM photograph and the surface
evolver simulation graphic of the solder bump. Table II displays
the simulation results according to truncated sphere theory and
the energy-based surface evolver method with experimental validation. Results show that both simulation methods can accurately predict solder bump geometry shape.

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The same methodology is applied to the TBGA (Fig. 7) bump

prediction to investigate volume and gravity effects. In this case,
the radius of the pad is 0.315 mm and the solder volume is
mm . Table III shows the simulation and the experimental
results.
Above results suggest that the energy-based method and the
truncated sphere theory may accurately predict the micro-bump
shape. However, Table III reveals that for a large ball size such
as the TBGA package, the gravitational effect should account
for the bump shape prediction. Theoretically, the truncated
sphere theory over-estimates bump height and under-estimates
the width of the solder ball.
A TBGA package on board is also investigated. In this case,
the pad radius of 0.37 mm (lower/upper pad ratio is 1.18) is used
on the board side. Fig. 8 shows the cross section of the solder
ball and the corresponding simulation pictures. The results are
shown in Table IV, indicating that both the energy-based and
truncated sphere theories accurately predict shape. However,
the force-balanced method provides less accurate results in this
case.
Finally, experimental results from literature are adopted
in this research to further verify each of the solder reflow
shape prediction algorithms. A PBGA package was selected
by Heinrich et al. [5]. This PBGA package contains 225
mm , specific
identical eutectic solder balls, of volume
g/cm and surface tension of 48.1
gravitational density of
dyne/mm. Radii of the upper and lower pads are 0.3 mm and
0.35 mm (lower/upper pad ratio is 1.17), respectively, and the
total package weighs 1.8 gram (7.84 dyne/ball). Table V lists
Heinrichs experimental results and this studys simulation
results. In this case, all three methods gave good results in
solder ball prediction.
Comparison of these two cases, the external loading of each
solder ball of the TBGA (16.2 dyne/ball) is twice that of the
PBGA package (7.84 dyne/ball). Moreover, the solder ball
volume of the TBGA is smaller than the solder ball volume
of the PBGA package and the pad size of the TBGA is bigger
than the pad size of the PBGA package. The combination
of these three factors may the cause of the inaccuracy of the
force-balanced algorithm [7], [8].

solution gives good results for a light-weight package such

as PBGA and flip chip. However, since this algorithm is very
sensitive to package weight, this method is best not applied to
a heave-weighted package such as TBGA type package.
REFERENCES
[1] K. N. Chiang, H. C. Cheng, and C. M. Liu, A comparison of thermal
stress/strain behavior of ellipse/round solder pads, 1999 InterPACK, in
Advances in Electronic Packaging. Maui, HI: ASME, 1999, vol. EEP261, pp. 413418.
[2] K. N. Chiang and H. C. Cheng, On enhancing eutectic solder joint reliability using a 2nd-reflow-process approach, in Proc. ASME Winter
Annu. Meeting, Thermomech. Characterization Evolving Packag. Mater.
Struct. Symp., vol. EEP-24, Anaheim, CA, Nov. 1520, 1998, pp. 2125.
[3] K. N. Chiang and W. L. Chen, Electronic packaging reflow shapes prediction for the solder mask defined ball grid array, ASME J. Electron.
Packag., vol. 120, pp. 175178, 1998.
[4] S. M. Heinrich, P. E. Liedtke, N. J. Nigro, A. F. Elkouh, and P. S. Lee,
Effect of chip and pad geometry on solder joint formation in SMT, J.
Electron. Packag., vol. 115, pp. 433439, 1993.
[5] S. M. Heinrich, M. Schaefer, S. A. Schroeder, and P. S. Lee, Prediction
of solder joint geometries in array-type interconnects, ASME J. Electron. Packag., vol. 118, pp. 114121, 1996.
[6] S. K. Patra, S. S. Sritharan, and Y. C. Lee, Quantitative characterization
of a flip-chip solder joint, J. Appl. Mech., vol. 62, pp. 390397, 1995.
[7] P. E. Liedtke, Prediction of solder joint geometry in surface mount technologyAn analytical approach, Ph.D. thesis, Marquette Univ., Milwaukee, WI, 1993.
[8] K. A. Brakke, Surface Evolver Manual, version 1.95. Minneapolis,
MN: The Geometry Center, 1994.

Kuo-Ning Chiang received the Ph.D. degree from

the Georgia Institue of Technology, Atlanta, in 1989.
He has more than 11 years of industrial/research
experience in analysis, design, and development of
electromechanical systems and CAE applications.
Between 1989 and 1993, he was a Senior Engineer
with R&D Division, MACNeal Swendler Corp. In
1993, he joined the National Center for High-Performance Computing (NCHC), Taiwan, R.O.C.,
as Division Head of R&D Division I. In August
1998, he became Associate Professor of power
mechanical engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan. He
has been published more than 70 conference/journal papers in the area of CAE
and electronic packaging. He was responsible for more than ten electronic
packaging projects that related to the solder reflow, package simulation/design
and reliability analysis of electronic devices. He holds three U.S. and four
Taiwan Electronic Packaging Device Patents, and has five U.S. and ten Taiwan
Electronic Packaging/Optical Device patents pending.

IV. CONCLUSION
Methods for accurately predicting the bump and solder on
board reflow shape have been investigated and experimentally
verified. All three methods predict the solder reflow shape
within an accurate range. Among these simulation methods,
the energy-based theory best predicts the geometry of bump
and solder on board. The truncated sphere theory is a purely
geometrically-based method, and predicts to the same accuracy
as does the energy-based theory. The force-balanced analytical

Chang-An Yuan is a Graduate Assistant in the Power

Mechanical Engineering Department, National Tsing
Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, R.O.C.