Transportation Engineering - II

Runway Length

Dr. Indrajit Ghosh

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Lecture Outline

Basic Runway Length

Corrections to basic runway length

Basic Runway length

Length calculated under the following assumed

conditions:

Airport is situated at sea-level

Standard temperature of 15o C at the airport
Runway is leveled in longitudinal direction

Zero effective gradient

No wind is blowing on runway

Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
No wind is blowing on the way to destination
Standard temperature exists along the way

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Determination of basic runway length

Performance characteristics of aircrafts using the

airport

Manner in which an aircraft actually performs landing

and take off operation

Consideration of following cases

Normal Landing
Normal Take-off
Engine Failure

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Landing

The aircraft should come to a stop within 60 percent

of landing distance assuming that the pilot makes an
approach at the proper approach speed and crosses
the threshold of the runway at a height of 15 m (50
ft)
The runway of full strength pavement is to be
provided for the entire landing distance

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Landing
Touchdown
Point
Stop
Runway (Full strength)
60% of landing distance

Landing Distance

15m

Runway
Threshold

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Landing: Calculations

Field length (FL) = Landing distance (LD)

LD = Stopping distance (SD) / 0.60
Length of full strength runway (FS) = LD

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Take-off

Take-off distance must be, for a specific weight of

aircraft, 115 percent of the actual distance the aircraft
uses to reach a height of 10.5 m (35 ft)
It requires a clearway at the end of the runway in the
direction of take-off

This should not be less than 150 m wide

It is kept free from obstructions

The upward slope of clearway from the end of the

runway shall not exceed 1.25 percent

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Take-off
10.5m
Runway (Full strength)
Lift off distance
115% of LOD

Clearway

Clearway >Half this

distance

Distance to reach a height of 10.5m

Take-off Distance

(115% of distance to 10.5 m

height)

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Take-off

Runway (Full Strength)

Clearway

Min. 150 m

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Take-off

Clearway

A rectangular area at the end of landing strip in the direction of

take off
Centrally located about extended centre line of runway
Selected or prepared as suitable area over which an aircraft
may take a portion of its initial climb to a specified height
Under the control of airport authorities

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Take-off: Calculations

Field length (FL) = Full strength runway (FS) + Clearway

(CW)
Take-off distance (TOD) = 1.15 D10.5m
Clearway (CW) = 0.5[TOD - 1.15(LOD)]
Take-off Run (TOR) = TOD - CW
Length of full strength runway (FS) = Take-off run (TOR)

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Engine Failure

If the engine fails at a speed, less than designated

engine failure speed, pilot decelerates the aircraft and
makes use of a stopway

If, however, engine fails at a speed higher than the

designated speed, there is no other option to the pilot
except to continue to take-off

Pilot may later take a turn in turning zone and land again for a
normal take-off

Requires either a clearway, or a stopway, or both

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Engine Failure

Stopway

A rectangular paved area at the end of runway in the direction

of take-off in which an aircraft can be stopped after an
interrupted take-off due to engine failure

Its width is at least equal to the width of runway

It is centrally located in alignment with centre line of runway

Used for decelerating aircraft and bringing it to a stop during

an aborted take-off

Strength of stopway pavement should be just sufficient to

carry the weight of the aircraft without causing any structural
damage to aircraft

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Engine Failure
Engine Failure

Lift-off

10.5

Point

Accelerate to V1
Runway (Full strength)

Stop way

Decelerate - Stop Distance

Clearway > Half this
Lift off distance
Accelerate - Stop Distance

distance

Take-off Distance
(distance to 10.5 m height)

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Engine Failure

Runway (Full Strength)

Stopway

Clearway
minimum

150 m

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Engine Failure: Related calculations

Take-off proceeded case

Take-off distance (TOD) = D10.5m

Clearway (CW) = 0.5 [TOD - LOD]

Take-off Run (TOR) = TOD - CW

Length of full strength runway (FS) = Take-off run

(TOR)

Field length (FL) = Full strength runway (FS) +

Clearway (CW)

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Engine Failure: Related calculations

Take-off aborted case

Field length (FL) = Full strength runway (FS) +

Stopway (SW)

FL = Accelerate stop distance (ASD)

Basic Runway length

Required runway length

In case of Jet engine aircrafts

All the three conditions are considered

The case giving the longest runway length is

finally recommended

Basic Runway length

Required field length and other components

Field length = max {LD, TOD2, TOD3, ASD}

Full strength runway = max {LD, TOR2, TOR3}
Stopway = ASD - max {LD, TOR2, TOR3}
Clearway = min {(FL - DAS), CW 2, CW 3}
Stopwaymin = 0
Clearwaymin = 0
Clearwaymax = 300 m

If both ends of runway are to be used by aircrafts

Field length components must exist in each direction

Basic Runway length

ICAO Specifications for Field Runway

Length

Specify four Declared Distances as

Takeoff run available (TORA)

Takeoff Distance available (TODA) {=TORA +
Clearway}
Accelerate Stop distance available (ASDA)
{=TORA + stopway}
Landing distance Available (LDA)

Basic Runway length

ICAO Specifications for Field Runway Length

Specify five cases as

I: with no CL and SW and with no displaced threshold

the four declared distances are normally equal to the
length of runway

II: When runway is provided with a CL, TODA will

include the CL

III: When runway is provided with SW, ASDA will

include the length of SW

Basic Runway length

ICAO Specifications for Field Runway Length

Specify five cases as

IV: When runway has a displaced threshold, LDA will

be reduced by the distance the threshold is displaced.
The displaced threshold at one end affects LDA for
approaches made to the threshold.

V: When a CL, SW and a displaced threshold is

provided

Basic Runway length

ICAO declared distances

CL

Basic Runway length

ICAO declared distances

Basic Runway length

ICAO declared distances

Basic Runway length

Example problem

Determine the runway length requirement for

turbine powered aircraft. Following aircraft
performance characteristics are observed.
Normal landing

Stop distance = 1500 m

Normal take off

Lift off distance = 2100 m

Distance of 10.5 m height = 2400 m

Basic Runway length

Example problem (continued)

Engine failure take off

Lift off distance = 2460 m

Distance of 10.5 m height = 2730 m
Accelerate stop distance = 2850 m

Engine failure aborted take off

Accelerate stop distance = 2850 m

Basic Runway length

Corrections for Elevation, Temperature and

Gradient

Basic runway length is for mean sea level

(MSL) elevation

Have standard atmospheric condition

Have zero effective gradient

Necessary corrections are applied

Any change in elevation, temperature and gradient

for the actual site of construction

Basic Runway length

Correction for elevation

Elevation increases

Air density reduces

Reduces the lift on wings of aircrafts

Require greater ground speed to rise to air

Need longer length of runway

ICAO recommendation

Basic runway length should be increased

At rate of 7 percent per 300 m rise in elevation of
airport above mean sea level

Basic Runway length

Correction for elevation

Airport elevation = 100 m
Basic length of runway = 600 m
Calculate actual length of runway.
Correction for elevation
= (7/100)* (100/300) * 600
= 14 m
Length of runway after correction for elevation
= 600 + 14 = 614 m

Basic Runway length

Correction for temperature

Rise in airport reference temperature has

same effect as that of increase in elevation
above MSL
ICAO recommendation

Initially basic runway length is corrected for

elevation of airport
Basic runway length is further increased at rate of 1
percent for every 10 C rise in airport reference
temperature above standard atmospheric
temperature at that elevation

Basic Runway length

Correction for temperature

Airport Reference Temperature

AFT = T1 + 1/3 (T2 - T1)

T1 = Monthly mean of average daily
temperature for the hottest month of the year
T2 = Monthly mean of the maximum daily
temperature for the same month

Basic Runway length

Correction for temperature

Airport Reference Temperature

Daily temp. data for hottest month of a year
for a given airport site
Date

Temp
Max

Avg.

48.0

27.7

47.3

27.5

.
15

Date

Temp
Max

Avg.

16

47.7

26.8

17

48.5

27.2

46.1

27.3

.
46.5

27.1

30

Basic Runway length

Temperature

Standard Temperature at airport site at an

elevation (in o C)

STE = [Temp at MSL rate of change of temp.

x elevation]
= (15 - r x h )
Standard temperature at MSL is 15oC
r is rate of change of temperature with height
above MSL

6.50 C / 1000 m rise in elevation

h is height above MSL in meters

Basic Runway length

Correction for elevation and temp.

Airport elevation = 100 m
Basic length of runway = 600 m
Airport reference temp. = 28 o C
We found earlier,
Length of runway after correction for elevation
= 600 + 14 = 614 m
Standard temp. at airport site
= 15 (6.5*100/1000) = 14.35 o C

Basic Runway length

Correction for elevation and temp.

Rise in temp. = 28 -14.35= 13.65 o C
Correction for temp.
= (1/100 * 614) *13.65 = 83.81 = 84 m
Corrected runway length after elevation plus
temp. correction
= 614 + 84 = 698 m

Basic Runway length

Check for total correction for elevation plus

temp.

ICAO recommendation

Total correction should not exceed 35 percent of

basic runway length

If exceeds, the corrections should then be further

checked up by conducting specific studies at the
airport site by model sites

Basic Runway length

Correction for elevation and temp.

Corrected runway length after both corrections
= 698 m
Total correction in percentage
=(698 600)/600 * 100
Not done now
= 16.33% < 35%
Hence, OK

Basic Runway length

Correction for gradient

Runway Gradient

Runway gradients are of two types:

Longitudinal gradient

Transverse gradient

Quick disposal of water from the pavement surface

Basic Runway length

Correction for gradient

Runway Gradient

Longitudinal gradient

If the gradient is steep it may cause pre-mature lift-off

or may induce structural defects

It will cause more consumption of energy and will

require longer length of runway to attain the desired
ground speed

Basic Runway length

Correction for gradient

Runway Gradient

ICAO does not recommend any specific correction

FAA recommendation

Runway length to be increased at a rate of 10 percent

for every 1 percent of the effective gradient

Basic Runway length

Correction for gradient

Runway Gradient

Effective longitudinal gradient

Average gradient, computed based on difference in

maximum and minimum elevation along the runway
and divided by the total length of runway

Basic Runway length

Correction for elevation, temp. and gradient

Airport elevation = 100 m

Basic length of runway = 600 m
Airport reference temp. = 28 o C
Highest point along length = 98.2 m
Lowest point along length = 95.2 m

Basic Runway length

Correction for elevation, temp. and gradient

Effective gradient = (98.2 - 95.2 )/600

= 3/600 = 0.5%
Correction for gradient
= 10/100 * 698 * 0.5
= 34.9 = 35 m
Actual length of runway
= 698 + 35 = 733 m

Basic Runway length

Corrections to basic runway length

Elevation correction
Temperature correction
Gradient correction

These corrections have to be applied in the same

sequence as listed above

Basic Runway length

Corrections to basic runway length

Elevation Correction rate

Temperature Correction rate

le = 7 percent per 300m rise above MSL

lt = 1 percent for every 1o rise in ART above Std.

Atmospheric temp at that elevation

Gradient Correction rate

lg = 10 percent for every 1 percent of effective gradient

Basic Runway length

Example problem

Longitudinal section of runway provides

following data:
End to end of runway (m)

Gradient (%)

0 to 200

+1

200 to 600

-1

600 to 1200

+0.8

1200 to 1600

+0.2

Calculate effective gradient of runway.

Example

Mean of avg daily temp = 40 degree C

Mean of max daily temp = 50 degree C
Site is at MSL
Basic runway length = 800 m
Determine actual runway length.
Runway is on a level surface