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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

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UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Notion of Algorithm

Need for studying algorithms:
The study of algorithms is the cornerstone of computer science. It can be recognized as the
core of computer science. Computer programs would not exist without algorithms. With computers
becoming an essential part of our professional & personal lifes, studying algorithms becomes a
necessity, more so for computer science engineers. Another reason for studying algorithms is that if we
know a standard set of important algorithms, They further our analytical skills & help us in developing
new algorithms for required applications
Algorithm
An algorithm is finite set of instructions that is followed, accomplishes a particular task. In
addition, all algorithms must satisfy the following criteria:
1. Input. Zero or more quantities are externally supplied.
2. Output. At least one quantity is produced.
3. Definiteness. Each instruction is clear and produced.
4. Finiteness. If we trace out the instruction of an algorithm, then for all cases, the
algorithm terminates after a finite number of steps.
5. Effectiveness. Every instruction must be very basic so that it can be carried out,
in principal, by a person using only pencil and paper. It is not enough that each
operation be definite as in criterion 3; it also must be feasible.

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An algorithm is composed of a finite set of steps, each of which may require one or more
operations. The possibility of a computer carrying out these operations necessitates that certain
constraints be placed on the type of operations an algorithm can include.
The fourth criterion for algorithms we assume in this book is that they terminate after a finite
number of operations.
Criterion 5 requires that each operation be effective; each step must be such that it can, at
least in principal, be done by a person using pencil and paper in a finite amount of time. Performing
arithmetic on integers is an example of effective operation, but arithmetic with real numbers is
not, since some values may be expressible only by infinitely long decimal expansion. Adding two
such numbers would violet the effectiveness property.

Algorithms that are definite and effective are also called computational procedures.

The same algorithm can be represented in several ways.

Several algorithms to solve the same problem

Different ideas different speed

Example:
Problem:GCD of Two numbers m,n
Input specifiastion :Two inputs,nonnegative,not both zero
Euclids algorithm
-gcd(m,n)=gcd(n,m mod n)
Untill m mod n =0,since gcd(m,0) =m
Another way of representation of the same algorithm
Euclids algorithm
Step1:if n=0 return val of m & stop else proceed step 2
Step 2:Divide m by n & assign the value of remainder to r
Step 3:Assign the value of n to m,r to n,Go to step1.
Another algorithm to solve the same problem
Euclids algorithm
Step1:Assign the value of min(m,n) to t
Step 2:Divide m by t.if remainder is 0,go to step3 else goto step4
Step 3: Divide n by t.if the remainder is 0,return the value of t as the answer and
stop,otherwise proceed to step4
Step4 :Decrease the value of t by 1. go to step 2

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1.2 Review of Asymptotic Notation

Fundamentals of the analysis of algorithm efficiency

Analysis of algorithms means to investigate an algorithms efficiency with

respect to resources:

running time ( time efficiency )

memory space ( space efficiency )

Time being more critical than space, we concentrate on Time efficiency of algorithms.
The theory developed, holds good for space complexity also.

Experimental Studies: requires writing a program implementing the algorithm and

running the program with inputs of varying size and composition. It uses a function, like
the built-in clock() function, to get an accurate measure of the actual running time, then
analysis is done by plotting the results.
Limitations of Experiments

It is necessary to implement the algorithm, which may be difficult

Results may not be indicative of the running time on other inputs not included in
the experiment.

In order to compare two algorithms, the same hardware and software

environments must be used

Theoretical Analysis: It uses a high-level description of the algorithm instead of an
implementation. Analysis characterizes running time as a function of the input size, n,
and takes into account all possible inputs. This allows us to evaluate the speed of an
algorithm independent of the hardware/software environment. Therefore theoretical
analysis can be used for analyzing any algorithm

Framework for Analysis

We use a hypothetical model with following assumptions

Total time taken by the algorithm is given as a function on its input size

Logical units are identified as one step

Every step require ONE unit of time

Total time taken = Total Num. of steps executed

Inputs size: Time required by an algorithm is proportional to size of the problem

instance. For e.g., more time is required to sort 20 elements than what is required to sort 10

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elements.
Units for Measuring Running Time: Count the number of times an algorithms basic operation
is executed. (Basic operation: The most important operation of the algorithm, the operation
contributing the most to the total running time.) For e.g., The basic operation is usually the
most time-consuming operation in the algorithms innermost loop.
Consider the following example:
ALGORITHM sum_of_numbers ( A[0 n-1] )
// Functionality : Finds the Sum
// Input : Array of n numbers
// Output : Sum of n numbers
i=0
sum=0
while i < n
sum=sum + A[i]
i=i + 1
return sum

Total number of steps for basic operation execution, C (n) = n

NOTE: Constant of fastest growing term is insignificant: Complexity theory is an
Approximation theory. We are not interested in exact time required by an algorithm to solve the
problem. Rather we are interested in order of growth. i.e How much faster will algorithm run on
computer that is twice as fast? How much longer does it take to solve problem of double input size?
We can crudely estimate running time by
T (n) Cop *C (n) , Where, T (n): running time as a function of n, Cop : running time of a single
operation. , C (n): number of basic operations as a function of n.
Order of Growth: For order of growth, consider only the leading term of a formula and ignore the
constant coefficient. The following is the table of values of several functions important for analysis
of algorithms.

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Worst-case, Best-case, Average case efficiencies

Algorithm efficiency depends on the input size n. And for some algorithms efficiency
depends on type of input. We have best, worst & average case efficiencies.

Worst-case efficiency: Efficiency (number of times the basic operation will be executed) for
the worst case input of size n. i.e. The algorithm runs the longest among all possible inputs
of size n.

Best-case efficiency: Efficiency (number of times the basic operation will be executed) for
the best case input of size n. i.e. The algorithm runs the fastest among all possible inputs
of size n.

Average-case efficiency: Average time taken (number of times the basic operation will be
executed) to solve all the possible instances (random) of the input. NOTE: NOT the
average of worst and best case

Asymptotic Notations
Asymptotic notation is a way of comparing functions that ignores constant factors and small
input sizes. Three notations used to compare orders of growth of an algorithms basic operation
count are:
Big Oh- O notation
Definition:
A function t(n) is said to be in O(g(n)), denoted t(n) O(g(n)), if t(n) is bounded above by some
constant multiple of g(n) for all large n, i.e., if there exist some positive constant c and some
nonnegative integer n0 such that
t(n) cg(n) for all n n0

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Big Omega- notation

A function t (n) is said to be in (g(n)), denoted t(n) (g (n)), if t (n) is bounded below by
some constant multiple of g (n) for all large n, i.e., if there exist some positive constant c and some
nonnegative integer n0 such that t(n) cg(n) for all n n0

Big Theta- notation

A function t (n) is said to be in (g (n)), denoted t(n) (g (n)), if t (n) is bounded both above and
below by some constant multiple of g (n) for all large n, i.e., if there exist some positive
constant c1 and c2 and some nonnegative integer n0 such that
c2 g (n) t (n) c1 g (n) for all n n0

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Basic Efficiency classes

The time efficiencies of a large number of algorithms fall into only a few classes.

fast

constant

log n

logarithmic

linear

n log n

n log n

n2

quadratic

n3

cubic

2n

exponential

n!

factorial

High time efficiency

low time efficiency

slow

1.3 Mathematical Analysis of Non-Recursive and Recursive Algorithms

Mathematical analysis (Time Efficiency) of Non-recursive Algorithms
General plan for analyzing efficiency of non-recursive algorithms:
1. Decide on parameter n indicating input size
2. Identify algorithms basic operation
3. Check whether the number of times the basic operation is executed depends only on the input
size n. If it also depends on the type of input, investigate worst, average, and best case
efficiency separately.
4. Set up summation for C(n) reflecting the number of times the algorithms basic operation is
executed.
5. Simplify summation using standard formulas
Example: Finding the largest element in a given array
ALOGORITHM MaxElement(A[0..n-1])
//Determines the value of largest element in a given array
//nput: An array A[0..n-1] of real numbers
//Output: The value of the largest element in A
currentMax A[0]
for i 1 to n - 1 do
if A[i] > currentMax
currentMax A[i]
return currentMax

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Analysis:
1. Input size: number of elements = n (size of the array)
2. Basic operation:
a) Comparison
b) Assignment
3. NO best, worst, average cases.
4. Let C (n) denotes number of comparisons: Algorithm makes one comparison on
each execution of the loop, which is repeated for each value of the loops variable
i within the bound between 1 and n 1.

Example: Element uniqueness problem

Algorithm UniqueElements (A[0..n-1])
//Checks whether all the elements in a given array are distinct
//Input: An array A[0..n-1]
//Output: Returns true if all the elements in A are distinct and false otherwise
for i 0 to n - 2 do
for j i + 1 to n 1 do
if A[i] = = A[j]
return false
return true

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Analysis
1. Input size: number of elements = n (size of the array)
2. Basic operation: Comparison
3. Best, worst, average cases EXISTS.
Worst case input is an array giving largest comparisons.

Array with no equal elements

Array with last two elements are the only pair of equal elements

4. Let C (n) denotes number of comparisons in worst case: Algorithm makes one
comparison for each repetition of the innermost loop i.e., for each value of the
loops variable j between its limits i + 1 and n 1; and this is repeated for each
value of the outer loop i.e, for each value of the loops variable i between its
limits 0 and n 2

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Mathematical analysis (Time Efficiency) of recursive Algorithms

General plan for analyzing efficiency of recursive algorithms:
1. Decide on parameter n indicating input size
2. Identify algorithms basic operation
3. Check whether the number of times the basic operation is executed depends only
on the input size n. If it also depends on the type of input, investigate worst,
average, and best case efficiency separately.
4. Set up recurrence relation, with an appropriate initial condition, for the number
of times the algorithms basic operation is executed.
5. Solve the recurrence.

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Example: Factorial function

ALGORITHM Factorial (n)
//Computes n! recursively
//Input: A nonnegative integer n
//Output: The value of n!
if n = = 0
return 1
else
return Factorial (n 1) * n
Analysis:
1. Input size: given number = n
2. Basic operation: multiplication
3. NO best, worst, average cases.
4. Let M (n) denotes number of multiplications.
M (n) = M (n 1) + 1
M (0) = 0

for n > 0
initial condition

Where: M (n 1) : to compute Factorial (n 1)

1

:to multiply Factorial (n 1) by n

5. Solve the recurrence: Solving using Backward substitution method:

M (n)

= M (n 1) + 1

= [ M (n 2) + 1 ] + 1
= M (n 2) + 2
= [ M (n 3) + 1 ] + 3
= M (n 3) + 3

In the ith recursion, we have

= M (n i ) + i
When i = n, we have
= M (n n ) + n = M (0 ) + n
Since M (0) = 0
= n

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M (n) (n)
Example: Find the number of binary digits in the binary representation of a positive
decimal integer
ALGORITHM BinRec (n)
//Input: A positive decimal integer n
//Output: The number of binary digits in ns binary representation
if n = = 1
return 1
else
return BinRec ( n/2 ) + 1
Analysis:
1. Input size: given number = n
2. Basic operation: addition
3. NO best, worst, average cases.
4. Let A (n) denotes number of additions.
A (n) = A ( n/2 ) + 1
A (1) = 0

for n > 1
initial condition

Where: A ( n/2 ) : to compute BinRec ( n/2 )

1 : to increase the returned value by 1
5. Solve the recurrence:
A (n) = A ( n/2 ) + 1

for n > 1

Assume n = 2k (smoothness rule)

A (2k) = A (2k-1) + 1 for k > 0; A (20) = 0
Solving using Backward substitution method:
A (2k) = A (2k-1) + 1
= [A (2k-2) + 1] + 1
= A (2k-2) + 2
= [A (2k-3) + 1] + 2
= A (2k-3) + 3

In the ith recursion, we have

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= A (2k-i) + i
When i = k, we have
= A (2k-k) + k = A (20) + k
Since A (20) = 0
A (2k) = k
Since n = 2k, HENCE k = log2 n
A (n) = log2 n
A (n) ( log n)

1.4 Brute Force Approaches:

Introduction
Brute force is a straightforward approach to problem solving, usually directly based on the
problems statement and definitions of the concepts involved.Though rarely a source of clever or
efficient algorithms,the brute-force approach should not be overlooked as an important algorithm
design strategy. Unlike some of the otherstrategies, brute force is applicable to a very wide
variety of problems.For some important problems (e.g., sorting, searching, string matching),the
brute-force approach yields reasonable algorithms of at least some practical value with no
limitation on instance size Even if too inefficient in general, a brute-force algorithm can still be
useful for solving small-size instances of a problem. A brute-force algorithm can serve an
important theoretical or educational purpose.

1.5 Selection Sort and Bubble Sort

Problem:Given a list of n orderable items (e.g., numbers, characters from some alphabet,
character strings), rearrange them in nondecreasing order.

Selection Sort
ALGORITHM SelectionSort(A[0..n - 1])
//The algorithm sorts a given array by selection sort
//Input: An array A[0..n - 1] of orderable elements
//Output: Array A[0..n - 1] sorted in ascending order
for i=0 to n - 2 do

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min=i
for j=i + 1 to n - 1 do
if A[j ]<A[min] min=j
swap A[i] and A[min]

Example:

Performance Analysis of the selection sort algorithm:

The inputs size is given by the number of elements n.
The algorithms basic operation is the key comparison A[j]<A[min]. The number of times it is
executed depends only on the arrays size and is given by

Thus, selection sort is a O(n2) algorithm on all inputs. The number of key swaps is only
O(n) or, more precisely, n-1 (one for each repetition of the i loop).This property distinguishes
selection sort positively from many other sorting algorithms.
Bubble Sort
Compare adjacent elements of the list and exchange them if they are out of order.Then we
repeat the process,By doing it repeatedly, we end up bubbling up the largest element to the last
position on the list
ALGORITHM

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BubbleSort(A[0..n - 1])
//The algorithm sorts array A[0..n - 1] by bubble sort
//Input: An array A[0..n - 1] of orderable elements
//Output: Array A[0..n - 1] sorted in ascending order
for i=0 to n - 2 do
for j=0 to n - 2 - i do
if A[j + 1]<A[j ]
swap A[j ] and A[j + 1]
Example

The first 2 passes of bubble sort on the list 89, 45, 68, 90, 29, 34, 17. A new line is shown
after a swap of two elements is done. The elements to the right of the vertical bar are in their final
positions and are not considered in subsequent iterations of the algorithm
Bubble Sort the analysis
Clearly, the outer loop runs n times. The only complexity in this analysis in the inner loop.
If we think about a single time the inner loop runs, we can get a simple bound by noting that it can
never loop more than n times. Since the outer loop will make the inner loop complete n times, the
comparison can't happen more than O(n 2) times.
The number of key comparisons for the bubble sort version given above is the same for all
arrays of size n.

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The number of key swaps depends on the input. For the worst case of decreasing arrays, it
is the same as the number of key comparisons.

Observation: if a pass through the list makes no exchanges, the list has been sorted and we
can stop the algorithm Though the new version runs faster on some inputs, it is still in O(n2) in the
worst and average cases. Bubble sort is not very good for big set of input. How ever bubble sort is
very simple to code.
General Lesson From Brute Force Approach
A first application of the brute-force approach often results in an algorithm that can be
improved with a modest amount of effort. Compares successive elements of a given list with a
given search key until either a match is encountered (successful search) or the list is exhausted
without finding a match (unsuccessful search).

1.6 Sequential Search and Brute Force String Matching.

Sequential Search
ALGORITHM SequentialSearch2(A[0..n], K)
//The algorithm implements sequential search with a search key as a sentinel
//Input: An array A of n elements and a search key K
//Output: The position of the first element in A[0..n - 1] whose value is
// equal to K or -1 if no such element is found
A[n]=K
i=0
while A[i] = K do
i=i + 1
if i < n return i
else return

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Brute-Force String Matching

Given a string of n characters called the text and a string of m characters (m = n) called the
pattern, find a substring of the text that matches the pattern. To put it more precisely, we want to
find ithe index of the leftmost character of the first matching
substring in the textsuch that
ti = p0, . . . , ti+j = pj , . . . , ti+m-1 = pm-1:
t0 . . . ti . . . ti+j . . . ti+m-1 . . . tn-1
p0 . . . pj . . . pm-1
1. Pattern:

text T
pattern P

001011

Text: 10010101101001100101111010
2. Pattern: happy
Text: It is never too late to have a happy childho

The algorithm shifts the pattern almost always after a single character comparison. in the
worst case, the algorithm may have to make all m comparisons before shifting the pattern, and this
can happen for each of the n - m + 1 tries. Thus, in the worst case, the algorithm is in (nm).

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UNIT - 2
DIVIDE & CONQUER
1.1 Divide and Conquer
Definition:
Divide & conquer is a general algorithm design strategy with a general plan as follows:
1. DIVIDE:
A problems instance is divided into several smaller instances of the same
problem, ideally of about the same size.
2. RECUR:
Solve the sub-problem recursively.
3. CONQUER:
If necessary, the solutions obtained for the smaller instances are combined to get a
solution to the original instance.
NOTE:
The base case for the recursion is sub-problem of constant size.
Advantages of Divide & Conquer technique:
For solving conceptually difficult problems like Tower Of Hanoi, divide &
conquer is a powerful tool
Results in efficient algorithms
Divide & Conquer algorithms are adapted foe execution in multi-processor
machines
Results in algorithms that use memory cache efficiently.
Limitations of divide & conquer technique:
Recursion is slow
Very simple problem may be more complicated than an iterative approach.
Example: adding n numbers etc

1.2 General Method

General divide & conquer recurrence:
An instance of size n can be divided into b instances of size n/b, with a of them needing
to be solved. [ a 1, b > 1].
Assume size n is a power of b. The recurrence for the running time T(n) is as follows:
T(n) = aT(n/b) + f(n)
where:
f(n) a function that accounts for the time spent on dividing the problem into
smaller ones and on combining their solutions
Therefore, the order of growth of T(n) depends on the values of the constants a & b and
the order of growth of the function f(n)
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Master theorem
Theorem: If f(n) (nd) with d 0 in recurrence equation
T(n) = aT(n/b) + f(n),
then

T(n) =

(nd)
(ndlog n)
(nlogba )

if a < bd
if a = bd
if a > bd

Example:
Let T(n) = 2T(n/2) + 1, solve using master theorem.
Solution:
Here: a = 2
b=2
f(n) = (1)
d=0
Therefore:
a > bd i.e., 2 > 20
Case 3 of master theorem holds good. Therefore:
T(n) (nlogba )
(nlog22 )
(n)

1.3 Binary Search

Description:
Binary tree is a dichotomic divide and conquer search algorithm. Ti inspects the middle
element of the sorted list. If equal to the sought value, then the position has been found.
Otherwise, if the key is less than the middle element, do a binary search on the first half,
else on the second half.

Algorithm:
Algorithm can be implemented as recursive or non-recursive algorithm.
ALGORITHM BinSrch ( A[0 n-1], key)
//implements non-recursive binary search
//i/p: Array A in ascending order, key k
//o/p: Returns position of the key matched else -1
l0
rn-1
while l r do
m( l + r) / 2
if key = = A[m]
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return m
else
if key < A[m]
rm-1
else
lm+1
return -1

Analysis:

Input size: Array size, n

Basic operation: key comparison
Depend on
Best key matched with mid element
Worst key not found or key sometimes in the list
Let C(n) denotes the number of times basic operation is executed. Then
Cworst(n) = Worst case efficiency. Since after each comparison the algorithm
divides the problem into half the size, we have
Cworst(n) = Cworst(n/2) + 1
for n > 1
C(1) = 1
Solving the recurrence equation using master theorem, to give the number of
times the search key is compared with an element in the array, we have:
C(n) = C(n/2) + 1
a=1
b=2
f(n) = n0 ; d = 0
case 2 holds:
C(n) = (ndlog n)
= (n0log n)
= ( log n)

Applications of binary search:

Number guessing game

Word lists/search dictionary etc

Advantages:

Efficient on very big list

Can be implemented iteratively/recursively

Limitations:

Interacts poorly with the memory hierarchy

Requires given list to be sorted
Due to random access of list element, needs arrays instead of linked list.

1.4 Merge Sort

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Definition:
Merge sort is a sort algorithm that splits the items to be sorted into two groups,
recursively sorts each group, and merges them into a final sorted sequence.
Features:
Is a comparison based algorithm
Is a stable algorithm
Is a perfect example of divide & conquer algorithm design strategy
It was invented by John Von Neumann
Algorithm:
ALGORITHM Mergesort ( A[0 n-1] )
//sorts array A by recursive mergesort
//i/p: array A
//o/p: sorted array A in ascending order
if n > 1
copy A[0 (n/2 -1)] to B[0 (n/2 -1)]
copy A[n/2 n -1)] to C[0 (n/2 -1)]
Mergesort ( B[0 (n/2 -1)] )
Mergesort ( C[0 (n/2 -1)] )
Merge ( B, C, A )
ALGORITHM Merge ( B[0 p-1], C[0 q-1], A[0 p+q-1] )
//merges two sorted arrays into one sorted array
//i/p: arrays B, C, both sorted
//o/p: Sorted array A of elements from B & C
I 0
j0
k0
while i < p and j < q do
if B[i] C[j]
A[k] B[i]
ii + 1
else
A[k] C[j]
jj + 1
kk + 1
if i == p
copy C [ j q-1 ] to A [ k (p+q-1) ]
else
copy B [ i p-1 ] to A [ k (p+q-1) ]

Example:
Apply merge sort for the following list of elements: 6, 3, 7, 8, 2, 4, 5, 1
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Analysis:

Input size: Array size, n

Basic operation: key comparison
Best, worst, average case exists:
Worst case: During key comparison, neither of the two arrays becomes empty
before the other one contains just one element.
Let C(n) denotes the number of times basic operation is executed. Then
C(n) = 2C(n/2) + Cmerge(n) for n > 1
C(1) = 0
where, Cmerge(n) is the number of key comparison made during the merging stage.
In the worst case:
Cmerge(n) = 2 Cmerge(n/2) + n-1
for n > 1
Cmerge(1) = 0
Solving the recurrence equation using master theorem:
C(n) = 2C(n/2) + n-1 for n > 1
C(1) = 0
Here a = 2
b=2
f(n) = n; d = 1
Therefore 2 = 21, case 2 holds
C(n) = (ndlog n)
= (n1log n)
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= (n log n)

Advantages:

Number of comparisons performed is nearly optimal.

Mergesort will never degrade to O(n2)
It can be applied to files of any size

Limitations:

Uses O(n) additional memory.

1.5 Quick Sort and its performance

Definition:
Quick sort is a well known sorting algorithm, based on divide & conquer approach. The
steps are:
1. Pick an element called pivot from the list
2. Reorder the list so that all elements which are less than the pivot come before the
pivot and all elements greater than pivot come after it. After this partitioning, the
pivot is in its final position. This is called the partition operation
3. Recursively sort the sub-list of lesser elements and sub-list of greater elements.
Features:
Developed by C.A.R. Hoare
Efficient algorithm
NOT stable sort
Significantly faster in practice, than other algorithms
Algorithm
ALGORITHM Quicksort (A[ l r ])
//sorts by quick sort
//i/p: A sub-array A[l..r] of A[0..n-1],defined by its left and right indices l and r
//o/p: The sub-array A[l..r], sorted in ascending order
if l < r
Partition (A[l..r]) // s is a split position
Quicksort(A[l..s-1])
Quicksort(A[s+1..r]
ALGORITHM Partition (A[l ..r])
//Partitions a sub-array by using its first element as a pivot
//i/p: A sub-array A[l..r] of A[0..n-1], defined by its left and right indices l and r (l < r)
//o/p: A partition of A[l..r], with the split position returned as this functions value
pA[l]
il
jr + 1;
Repeat
//left-right scan
repeat ii + 1 until A[i] >=p
repeat jj 1 until A[j] < p
//right-left scan
if (i < j)
//need to continue with the scan
swap(A[i], a[j])
//no need to scan
until i >= j
swap(A[l], A[j])
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return j
Example: Sort by quick sort the following list: 5, 3, 1, 9, 8, 2, 4, 7, show recursion tree.

Analysis:

Input size: Array size, n

Basic operation: key comparison
Best, worst, average case exists:
Best case: when partition happens in the middle of the array each time.
Worst case: When input is already sorted. During key comparison, one half is
empty, while remaining n-1 elements are on the other partition.
Let C(n) denotes the number of times basic operation is executed in worst case:
Then
C(n) = C(n-1) + (n+1) for n > 1 (2 sub-problems of size 0 and n-1 respectively)
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C(1) = 1
Best case:
C(n) = 2C(n/2) + (n)

(2 sub-problems of size n/2 each)

Solving the recurrence equation using backward substitution/ master theorem,

we have:
C(n) = C(n-1) + (n+1) for n > 1; C(1) = 1
C(n) = (n2)
C(n) = 2C(n/2) + (n).
= (n1log n)
= (n log n)

NOTE:
The quick sort efficiency in average case is ( n log n) on random input.

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UNIT - 3
THE GREEDY METHOD
3.1 The General Method
Definition:
Greedy technique is a general algorithm design strategy, built on following elements:
configurations: different choices, values to find
objective function: some configurations to be either maximized or minimized

The method:

Applicable to optimization problems ONLY

Constructs a solution through a sequence of steps
Each step expands a partially constructed solution so far, until a complete solution
to the problem is reached.
On each step, the choice made must be
Feasible: it has to satisfy the problems constraints
Locally optimal: it has to be the best local choice among all feasible choices
available on that step
Irrevocable: Once made, it cannot be changed on subsequent steps of the
algorithm

NOTE:
Greedy method works best when applied to problems with the greedy-choice
property
A globally-optimal solution can always be found by a series of local
improvements from a starting configuration.

Greedy method vs. Dynamic programming method:

LIKE dynamic programming, greedy method solves optimization problems.

LIKE dynamic programming, greedy method problems exhibit optimal
substructure
UNLIKE dynamic programming, greedy method problems exhibit the greedy
choice property -avoids back-tracing.

Applications of the Greedy Strategy:

Optimal solutions:
Change making
Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)
Single-source shortest paths
Huffman codes
Approximations:
Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP)
Fractional Knapsack problem

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3.2 Knapsack problem

One wants to pack n items in a luggage

The ith item is worth vi dollars and weighs wi pounds

Maximize the value but cannot exceed W pounds

vi , wi, W are integers

0-1 knapsack each item is taken or not taken

Fractional knapsack fractions of items can be taken

Both exhibit the optimal-substructure property

0-1: If item j is removed from an optimal packing, the remaining packing is an optimal
packing with weight at most W-wj

Fractional: If w pounds of item j is removed from an optimal packing, the remaining

packing is an optimal packing with weight at most W-w that can be taken from other n-1
items plus wj w of item j

Greedy Algorithm for Fractional Knapsack problem

Fractional knapsack can be solvable by the greedy strategy

Compute the value per pound vi/wi for each item

Obeying a greedy strategy, take as much as possible of the item with the greatest value per
pound.

If the supply of that item is exhausted and there is still more room, take as much as
possible of the item with the next value per pound, and so forth until there is no more
room

O(n lg n) (we need to sort the items by value per pound)

O-1 knapsack is harder

knapsack cannot be solved by the greedy strategy

Unable to fill the knapsack to capacity, and the empty space lowers the effective value per
pound of the packing

We must compare the solution to the sub-problem in which the item is included with the
solution to the sub-problem in which the item is excluded before we can make the choice

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3.3 Job sequencing with deadlines

The problem is stated as below.

There are n jobs to be processed on a machine.

Each job i has a deadline di 0 and profit pi0 .

Pi is earned iff the job is completed by its deadline.

The job is completed if it is processed on a machine for unit time.

Only one machine is available for processing jobs.

Only one job is processed at a time on the machine

A feasible solution is a subset of jobs J such that each job is completed by its deadline.

An optimal solution is a feasible solution with maximum profit value.

Example : Let n = 4, (p1,p2,p3,p4) = (100,10,15,27), (d1,d2,d3,d4) = (2,1,2,1)

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Consider the jobs in the non increasing order of profits subject to the constraint that the resulting
job sequence J is a feasible solution.

In the example considered before, the non-increasing profit vector is

(100 27
p1 p4

15
p3

10)
p2

(2

1 2

1)

d1 d d3 d2

J = { 1} is a feasible one
J = { 1, 4} is a feasible one with processing sequence ( 4,1)
J = { 1, 3, 4} is not feasible
J = { 1, 2, 4} is not feasible
J = { 1, 4} is optimal

Theorem: Let J be a set of K jobs and

= (i1,i2,.ik) be a permutation of jobs in J such that di1 di2 dik.

J is a feasible solution iff the jobs in J can be processed in the order without violating any
deadly.

Proof:

By definition of the feasible solution if the jobs in J can be processed in the order without
violating any deadline then J is a feasible solution.
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So, we have only to prove that if J is a feasible one, then represents a possible order in which
the jobs may be processed.

Suppose J is a feasible solution. Then there exists 1 = (r1,r2,,rk) such that

drj j,

1 j <k

i.e. dr1 1, dr2 2, , drk k.

each job requiring an unit time.

= (i1,i2,,ik) and 1 = (r1,r2,,rk)

Assume 1 . Then let a be the least index in which 1 and differ. i.e. a is such that ra ia.

Let rb = ia, so b > a (because for all indices j less than a rj = ij).

In 1 interchange ra and rb.

= (i1,i2, ia ib ik )

[rb occurs before ra

in i1,i2,,ik]
1 = (r1,r2, ra rb

rk )

i1=r1, i2=r2,ia-1= ra-1, ia rb but ia = rb

We know di1 di2 dia dib dik.

Since ia = rb, drb dra or dra drb.

In the feasible solution dra a drb b

So if we interchange ra and rb, the resulting permutation 11= (s1, sk) represents an order with
the least index in which 11 and differ is incremented by one.

Also the jobs in 11 may be processed without violating a deadline.

Continuing in this way, 1 can be transformed into without violating any deadline.

Hence the theorem is proved

GREEDY ALGORITHM FOR JOB SEQUENSING WITH DEADLINE

Procedure greedy job (D, J, n)

J may be represented by

// J is the set of n jobs to be completed

// by their deadlines //
J {1}
for I 2 to n do

//

one dimensional array J (1: K)

The deadlines are

D (J(1)) D(J(2)) .. D(J(K))

To test if JU {i} is feasible,
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If all jobs in JU{i} can be completed

we insert i into J and verify

D(J) r

by their deadlines

1 r k+1

then J JU{I}
end if
repeat
end greedy-job
Procedure JS(D,J,n,k)
// D(i) 1, 1 i n are the deadlines //
// the jobs are ordered such that //
// p1 p2 . pn //
// in the optimal solution ,D(J(i) D(J(i+1)) //
// 1 i k //
integer D(o:n), J(o:n), i, k, n, r
D(0) J(0) 0
// J(0) is a fictious job with D(0) = 0 //
K1; J(1) 1 // job one is inserted into J //
for i 2 to do // consider jobs in non increasing order of pi //
// find the position of i and check feasibility of insertion //
r k // r and k are indices for existing job in J //
// find r such that i can be inserted after r //
while D(J(r)) > D(i) and D(i) r do
// job r can be processed after i and //
// deadline of job r is not exactly r //
r r-1 // consider whether job r-1 can be processed after i //
repeat
if D(J(r)) d(i) and D(i) > r then
// the new job i can come after existing job r; insert i into J at position r+1 //
for I k to r+1 by 1 do
J(I+1) J(l) // shift jobs( r+1) to k right by//
//one position //
repeat
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if D(J(r)) d(i) and D(i) > r then

// the new job i can come after existing job r; insert i into J at position r+1 //
for I k to r+1 by 1 do
J(I+1) J(l) // shift jobs( r+1) to k right by//
//one position //
Repeat

COMPLEXITY ANALYSIS OF JS ALGORITHM

Let n be the number of jobs and s be the number of jobs included in the solution.

The loop between lines 4-15 (the for-loop) is iterated (n-1)times.

Each iteration takes O(k) where k is the number of existing jobs.

The time needed by the algorithm is 0(sn) s n so the worst case time is 0(n2).
If di = n - i+1 1 i n, JS takes (n2) time
D and J need (s) amount of space.

3.4 Minimum-Cost Spanning Trees

Spanning Tree
Definition:
Spanning tree is a connected acyclic sub-graph (tree) of the given graph (G) that includes
all of Gs vertices

Example: Consider the following graph

1

a
2

5
c

d
3

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The spanning trees for the above graph are as follows:

1

1
b

b
2

d
c

c
Weight (T2) = 8

Weight (T3) = 6

Weight (T1) = 9
Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)

Definition:
MST of a weighted, connected graph G is defined as: A spanning tree of G with
minimum total weight.

Example: Consider the example of spanning tree:

For the given graph there are three possible spanning trees. Among them the spanning
tree with the minimum weight 6 is the MST for the given graph
Question: Why cant we use BRUTE FORCE method in constructing MST ?
Answer: If we use Brute force method Exhaustive search approach has to be applied.
Two serious obstacles faced:
1. The number of spanning trees grows exponentially with graph size.
2. Generating all spanning trees for the given graph is not easy.

MST Applications:

Network design.
Telephone, electrical, hydraulic, TV cable, computer, road
Approximation algorithms for NP-hard problems.
Traveling salesperson problem, Steiner tree
Cluster analysis.
Reducing data storage in sequencing amino acids in a protein
Learning salient features for real-time face verification
Auto config protocol for Ethernet bridging to avoid cycles in a network, etc

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3.5 Prims Algorithm

Some useful definitions:

Fringe edge: An edge which has one vertex is in partially constructed tree Ti and
the other is not.
Unseen edge: An edge with both vertices not in Ti

Algorithm:
ALGORITHM Prim (G)
//Prims algorithm for constructing a MST
//Input: A weighted connected graph G = { V, E }
//Output: ET the set of edges composing a MST of G
// the set of tree vertices can be initialized with any vertex
VT

{ v0}

ET

for i

1 to |V| - 1 do
Find a minimum-weight edge e* = (v*, u*) among all the edges (v, u) such
that v is in VT and u is in V - VT
VT

VT U { u*}

ET

ET U { e*}

return ET

The method:
STEP 1: Start with a tree, T0, consisting of one vertex
STEP 2: Grow tree one vertex/edge at a time
Construct a series of expanding sub-trees T1, T2, Tn-1.
At each stage construct Ti + 1 from Ti by adding the minimum weight edge
connecting a vertex in tree (Ti) to one vertex not yet in tree, choose from
fringe edges (this is the greedy step!)
Algorithm stops when all vertices are included

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Example:
Apply Prims algorithm for the following graph to find MST.
1
b
3

c
4

6
5

2
6

8
e

Solution:
Tree
vertices

Remaining
vertices

a ( -, - )

b(a,3)
c(-,)
d(-,)
e(a,6)
f(a,5)

b ( a, 3 )

c(b,1)
d(-,)
e(a,6)
f(b,4)

c ( b, 1 )

d(c,6)
e(a,6)
f(b,4)

Graph
b
3
a

1
3

4
a

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1
b

3
f ( b, 4)

d(f,5)
e(f,2)

f
2
e

1
b
3
e ( f, 2)

d(f,5)

c
4
5

2
e

d( f, 5)

Algorithm stops since all vertices

are included.
The weight of the minimum spanning
tree is 15

Efficiency:
Efficiency of Prims algorithm is based on data structure used to store priority queue.
Unordered array: Efficiency: (n2)
Binary heap: Efficiency: (m log n)
Min-heap: For graph with n nodes and m edges: Efficiency: (n + m) log n

Conclusion:

Prims algorithm is a vertex based algorithm

Prims algorithm Needs priority queue for locating the nearest vertex. The
choice of priority queue matters in Prim implementation.
o Array - optimal for dense graphs
o Binary heap - better for sparse graphs
o Fibonacci heap - best in theory, but not in practice

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3.6 Kruskals Algorithm

Algorithm:
ALGORITHM Kruskal (G)
//Kruskals algorithm for constructing a MST
//Input: A weighted connected graph G = { V, E }
//Output: ET the set of edges composing a MST of G
Sort E in ascending order of the edge weights
// initialize the set of tree edges and its size
ET
edge_counter 0
//initialize the number of processed edges
K 0
while edge_counter < |V| - 1
kk + 1
if ET U { ei k} is acyclic
ET ET U { ei k }
edge_counter edge_counter + 1
return ET

The method:
STEP 1: Sort the edges by increasing weight
STEP 2: Start with a forest having |V| number of trees.
STEP 3: Number of trees are reduced by ONE at every inclusion of an edge
At each stage:
Among the edges which are not yet included, select the one with minimum
weight AND which does not form a cycle.
the edge will reduce the number of trees by one by combining two trees of
the forest
Algorithm stops when |V| -1 edges are included in the MST i.e : when the number of
trees in the forest is reduced to ONE.

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Example:
Apply Kruskals algorithm for the following graph to find MST.
1
b
3

c
4

6
5

2
8

Solution:
The list of edges is:
Edge
Weight

ab
3

af
5

ae
6

bc
1

bf
4

cf
4

cd
6

df
5

de
8

ef
2

cf
4

af
5

df
5

ae
6

cd
6

de
8

Sort the edges in ascending order:

Edge
Weight

Edge
Weight
Insertion
status
Insertion
order

Edge
Weight
Insertion
status
Insertion
order

bc
1

ef
2

ab
3

bf
4

bc

YES
e

1
1

ef

2
a

YES
2

d
2

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Edge
Weight
Insertion
status
Insertion
order

Edge
Weight
Insertion
status
Insertion
order
Edge
Weight
Insertion
status
Insertion
order
Edge
Weight
Insertion
status
Insertion
order

Edge
Weight
Insertion
status
Insertion
order

10CS43

ab

3
a

YES

2
e

bf

c
4

YES

d
2

4
cf
4
NO
af
5
NO
-

df

1
3

5
YES

c
4

d
5
2

Algorithm stops as |V| -1 edges are included in the MST

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Efficiency:
Efficiency of Kruskals algorithm is based on the time needed for sorting the edge
weights of a given graph.
With an efficient sorting algorithm: Efficiency: (|E| log |E| )

Conclusion:

Kruskals algorithm is an edge based algorithm

Prims algorithm with a heap is faster than Kruskals algorithm.

3.7 Single Source Shortest Paths.

Some useful definitions:

Shortest Path Problem: Given a connected directed graph G with non-negative

weights on the edges and a root vertex r, find for each vertex x, a directed path P
(x) from r to x so that the sum of the weights on the edges in the path P (x) is as
small as possible.

Algorithm

By Dutch computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra in 1959.

Solves the single-source shortest path problem for a graph with nonnegative edge
weights.
This algorithm is often used in routing.
E.g.: Dijkstra's algorithm is usually the working principle behind link-state
routing protocols

ALGORITHM Dijkstra(G, s)
//Input: Weighted connected graph G and source vertex s
//Output: The length Dv of a shortest path from s to v and its penultimate vertex Pv for
every vertex v in V
//initialize vertex priority in the priority queue
Initialize (Q)
for every vertex v in V do
Dv ; Pvnull // Pv , the parent of v
insert(Q, v, Dv) //initialize vertex priority in priority queue
ds0
//update priority of s with ds, making ds, the minimum
Decrease(Q, s, ds)
VT

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for i0 to |V| - 1 do
u*DeleteMin(Q)
//expanding the tree, choosing the locally best vertex
VTVT U {u*}
for every vertex u in V VT that is adjacent to u* do
if Du* + w (u*, u) < Du
DuDu + w (u*, u); Pu u*
Decrease(Q, u, Du)

The method
Dijkstras algorithm solves the single source shortest path problem in 2 stages.
Stage 1: A greedy algorithm computes the shortest distance from source to all other
nodes in the graph and saves in a data structure.
Stage 2 : Uses the data structure for finding a shortest path from source to any vertex v.
At each step, and for each vertex x, keep track of a distance D(x)
and a directed path P(x) from root to vertex x of length D(x).
Scan first from the root and take initial paths P( r, x ) = ( r, x ) with
D(x) = w( rx ) when rx is an edge,
D(x) = when rx is not an edge.
For each temporary vertex y distinct from x, set
D(y) = min{ D(y), D(x) + w(xy) }

Example:
Apply Dijkstras algorithm to find Single source shortest paths with vertex a as the
source.
1
b
3

c
4

6
5

2
6

8
e

Solution:
Length Dv of shortest path from source (s) to other vertices v and Penultimate vertex Pv
for every vertex v in V:
Da = 0 ,
Db = ,
Dc = ,
Dd = ,
De = ,
Df = ,

Pa = null
Pb = null
Pc = null
Pd = null
Pe = null
Pf = null
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Tree
vertices

a ( -, 0 )

b ( a, 3 )

c ( b, 4 )

f ( a, 5)

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RemainingDistance & Path

vertices
vertex
Da = 0 Pa = a
b ( a , 3Db
) = 3 Pb = [ a, b ]
c ( - , Dc
) = Pc = null
Dd
d ( - , ) = Pd = null
e ( a , 6De
) = 6 Pe = [ a, e ]
Df
f ( a , 5 ) = 5 Pf = [ a, f ]
Da = 0
c ( b , 3+1
Db) = 3
d ( - , Dc
) =4
e ( a , 6Dd
) =
f ( a , 5De
) =6
Df = 5
Da = 0
Db = 3
d ( c , 4+6 )
Dc = 4
e(a,6)
Dd=10
f(a,5)
De = 6
Df = 5
Da = 0
Db = 3
Dc = 4
d ( c , 10
)
Dd=10
e ( a , 6De) = 6
Df = 5

e ( a, 6)

d( c, 10)

Graph
b
3
a

Pa = a
Pb = [ a, b ]
Pc = [a,b,c]
Pd = null
Pe = [ a, e ]
Pf = [ a, f ]
Pa = a
Pb = [ a, b ]
Pc = [a,b,c]
Pd = [a,b,c,d]
Pe = [ a, e ]
Pf = [ a, f ]
Pa = a
Pb = [ a, b ]
Pc = [a,b,c]
Pd = [a,b,c,d]
Pe = [ a, e ]
Pf = [ a, f ]

Da = 0 Pa = a
Db = 3 Pb = [ a, b ]
Dc = 4 Pc = [a,b,c]
Pd = [a,b,c,d]
d ( c, 10Dd=10
)
De = 6 Pe = [ a, e ]
Df = 5 Pf = [ a, f ]

1
b

5
a

a
6
e

1
b
3
a

c
6
d

Algorithm stops since no

edges to scan

Conclusion:

Doesnt work with negative weights

Applicable to both undirected and directed graphs
Use unordered array to store the priority queue: Efficiency = (n2)
Use min-heap to store the priority queue: Efficiency = O(m log n)

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UNIT - 4

Dynamic Programming
4.1 The General Method
Definition
Dynamic programming (DP) is a general algorithm design technique for solving
problems with overlapping sub-problems. This technique was invented by American
mathematician Richard Bellman in 1950s.

Key Idea
The key idea is to save answers of overlapping smaller sub-problems to avoid recomputation.

Dynamic Programming Properties

An instance is solved using the solutions for smaller instances.

The solutions for a smaller instance might be needed multiple times, so store their
results in a table.
Thus each smaller instance is solved only once.
Additional space is used to save time.

Dynamic Programming vs. Divide & Conquer

LIKE divide & conquer, dynamic programming solves problems by combining solutions
to sub-problems. UNLIKE divide & conquer, sub-problems are NOT independent in
dynamic programming.
Divide & Conquer

Dynamic Programming

1. Partitions a problem into independent

smaller sub-problems

1. Partitions a problem into

overlapping sub-problems

2. Doesnt store solutions of subproblems. (Identical sub-problems

may arise - results in the same
computations are performed
repeatedly.)

2. Stores solutions of subproblems: thus avoids

calculations of same quantity
twice

3. Top down algorithms: which logically

progresses from the initial instance
down to the smallest sub-instances via
intermediate sub-instances.

3. Bottom up algorithms: in which

the smallest sub-problems are
explicitly solved first and the
results of these used to construct
solutions to progressively larger
sub-instances

Dynamic Programming vs. Divide & Conquer: EXAMPLE

Computing Fibonacci Numbers
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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

10CS43

1. Using standard recursive formula:

0
1
F(n-1) + F(n-2)

F(n) =

if n=0
if n=1
if n >1

Algorithm F(n)
// Computes the nth Fibonacci number recursively by using its definitions
// Input: A non-negative integer n
// Output: The nth Fibonacci number
if n==0 || n==1 then
return n
else
return F(n-1) + F(n-2)
Algorithm F(n): Analysis
Is too expensive as it has repeated calculation of smaller Fibonacci numbers.
Exponential order of growth.
F(n)

F(n-1)

F(n-2)

F(n-3)

F(n-2)

F(n-3)

F(n-4)

2. Using Dynamic Programming:

Algorithm F(n)
// Computes the nth Fibonacci number by using dynamic programming method
// Input: A non-negative integer n
// Output: The nth Fibonacci number
A[0] 0
A[1] 1
for i 2 to n do
A[i] A[i-1] + A[i-2]
return A[n]
Algorithm F(n): Analysis
Since it caches previously computed values, saves time from repeated
computations of same sub-instance
Linear order of growth

Rules of Dynamic Programming

1. OPTIMAL SUB-STRUCTURE: An optimal solution to a problem contains
optimal solutions to sub-problems
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10CS43

2. OVERLAPPING SUB-PROBLEMS: A recursive solution contains a small

number of distinct sub-problems repeated many times
3. BOTTOM UP FASHION: Computes the solution in a bottom-up fashion in the
final step

Three basic components of Dynamic Programming solution

The development of a dynamic programming algorithm must have the following three
basic components
1. A recurrence relation
2. A tabular computation
3. A backtracking procedure

Example Problems that can be solved using Dynamic Programming

method
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Computing binomial co-efficient

Compute the longest common subsequence
Warshalls algorithm for transitive closure
Floyds algorithm for all-pairs shortest paths
Some instances of difficult discrete optimization problems like knapsack problem
traveling salesperson problem

4.2 Warshalls Algorithm

Some useful definitions:

Directed Graph: A graph whose every edge is directed is called directed graph
OR digraph
Adjacency matrix: The adjacency matrix A = {aij} of a directed graph is the
boolean matrix that has
o 1 - if there is a directed edge from ith vertex to the jth vertex
o 0 - Otherwise
Transitive Closure: Transitive closure of a directed graph with n vertices can be
defined as the n-by-n matrix T={tij}, in which the elements in the ith row (1 i
n) and the jth column(1 j n) is 1 if there exists a nontrivial directed path (i.e., a
directed path of a positive length) from the ith vertex to the jth vertex, otherwise
tij is 0.
The transitive closure provides reach ability information about a digraph.

Computing Transitive Closure:

We can perform DFS/BFS starting at each vertex

Performs traversal starting at the ith vertex.
Gives information about the vertices reachable from the ith vertex
Drawback: This method traverses the same graph several times.
Efficiency : (O(n(n+m))
Alternatively, we can use dynamic programming: the Warshalls Algorithm

Underlying idea of Warshalls algorithm:

Let A denote the initial boolean matrix.

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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

10CS43

The element r(k) [ i, j] in ith row and jth column of matrix Rk (k = 0, 1, , n) is

equal to 1 if and only if there exists a directed path from ith vertex to jth vertex
with intermediate vertex if any, numbered not higher than k
Recursive Definition:
Case 1:
A path from vi to vj restricted to using only vertices from {v1,v2,,vk} as
intermediate vertices does not use vk, Then
R(k) [ i, j ] = R(k-1) [ i, j ].
Case 2:
A path from vi to vj restricted to using only vertices from {v1,v2,,vk} as
intermediate vertices do use vk. Then
R(k) [ i, j ] = R(k-1) [ i, k ] AND R(k-1) [ k, j ].
We conclude:
R(k)[ i, j ] = R(k-1) [ i, j ] OR (R(k-1) [ i, k ] AND R(k-1) [ k, j ] )

Algorithm:
Algorithm Warshall(A[1..n, 1..n])
// Computes transitive closure matrix
// Input: Adjacency matrix A
// Output: Transitive closure matrix R
R(0) A
for k1 to n do
for i 1 to n do
for j 1 to n do
R(k)[i, j] R(k-1)[i, j] OR (R(k-1)[i, k] AND R(k-1)[k, j] )
return R(n)
Find Transitive closure for the given digraph using Warshalls algorithm.
C

Solution:
R(0)

A
B
C
D

A
0
1
0
0

B
0
0
0
1

C
1
0
0
0

D
0
1
0
0
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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

R(0)

R(1)

k=1
Vertex 1
can be
intermediate
node

A
B
C
D

A
0
1
0
0

B
0
0
0
1

10CS43

C
1
0
0
0

D
0
1
0
0

R1[2,3]
= R0[2,3] OR
R0[2,1] AND R0[1,3]
= 0 OR ( 1 AND 1)
=1
A
B
C
D
k=2
0
0
1
0
A
Vertex
B
1
0
1
1
{1,2 } can
C
0
0
0
0
be
0
1
0
0
intermediate D
nodes
R2[4,1]
= R1[4,1] OR
R1[4,2] AND R1[2,1]
= 0 OR ( 1 AND 1)
=1

A
B
C
D

A
0
1
0
0

B
0
0
0
1

C
1
1
0
0

D
0
1
0
0

A
B
C
D

A
0
1
0
1

B
0
0
0
1

C
1
1
0
1

D
0
1
0
1

A
B
C
D

A
0
1
0
1

B
0
0
0
1

C
1
1
0
1

D
0
1
0
1

R2[4,3]
= R1[4,3] OR
R1[4,2] AND R1[2,3]
= 0 OR ( 1 AND 1)
=1
R2[4,4]
= R1[4,4] OR
R1[4,2] AND R1[2,4]
= 0 OR ( 1 AND 1)
=1
R(2)

k=3
Vertex
{1,2,3 } can
be
intermediate
nodes

A
B
C
D

A
0
1
0
1

B
0
0
0
1

C
1
1
0
1

D
0
1
0
1

NO CHANGE

R(3)
k=4
Dept of CSE,SJBIT
Vertex
{1,2,3,4 }
can be
intermediate

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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

A
B
C
D

A
0
1
0
1

B
0
0
0
1

10CS43

C
1
1
0
1

D
0
1
0
1

A
B
C
D

A
0
1
0
1

B
0
1
0
1

C
1
1
0
1

D
0
1
0
1

R4[2,2]
= R3[2,2] OR
R3[2,4] AND R3[4,2]
= 0 OR ( 1 AND 1)
=1

A
B
C
D

A
0
1
0
1

B
0
1
0
1

C
1
1
0
1

D
0
1
0
1

TRANSITIVE CLOSURE
for the given graph

Efficiency:

Time efficiency is (n3)

Space efficiency: Requires extra space for separate matrices for recording
intermediate results of the algorithm.

4.3Floyds Algorithm to find -ALL PAIRS SHORTEST PATHS

Some useful definitions:

Weighted Graph: Each edge has a weight (associated numerical value). Edge
weights may represent costs, distance/lengths, capacities, etc. depending on the
problem.
Weight matrix: W(i,j) is
o 0 if i=j
o if no edge b/n i and j.
o weight of edge if edge b/n i and j.

Problem statement:
Given a weighted graph G( V, Ew), the all-pairs shortest paths problem is to find the
shortest path between every pair of vertices ( vi, vj ) V.
Solution:
A number of algorithms are known for solving All pairs shortest path problem
Matrix multiplication based algorithm
Dijkstra's algorithm
Bellman-Ford algorithm
Floyd's algorithm

Underlying idea of Floyds algorithm:

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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

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Let W denote the initial weight matrix.

Let D(k) [ i, j] denote cost of shortest path from i to j whose intermediate vertices
are a subset of {1,2,,k}.
Recursive Definition
Case 1:
A shortest path from vi to vj restricted to using only vertices from {v1,v2,,vk}
as intermediate vertices does not use vk. Then
D(k) [ i, j ] = D(k-1) [ i, j ].
Case 2:
A shortest path from vi to vj restricted to using only vertices from {v1,v2,,vk}
as intermediate vertices do use vk. Then
D(k) [ i, j ] = D(k-1) [ i, k ] + D(k-1) [ k, j ].
We conclude:
D(k)[ i, j ] = min { D(k-1) [ i, j ], D(k-1) [ i, k ] + D(k-1) [ k, j ] }

Algorithm:
Algorithm Floyd(W[1..n, 1..n])
// Implements Floyds algorithm
// Input: Weight matrix W
// Output: Distance matrix of shortest paths length
D W
for k 1 to n do
for i 1 to n do
for j 1 to n do
D [ i, j] min { D [ i, j], D [ i, k] + D [ k, j]
return D

Example:
Find All pairs shortest paths for the given weighted connected graph using Floyds
algorithm.
A
5
4

Solution:
D(0)

=
A
B
C

A
0
4

B
2
0
3

C
5

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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

D(0)

D(1)

D(2)

k=1
Vertex 1
can be
intermediate
node

k=2
Vertex 1,2
can be
intermediate
nodes

k=3
Vertex 1,2,3
can be
intermediate
nodes

A
B
C

A
0
4

10CS43

B
2
0
3

C
5

A
B
C

A
0
4

B
2
0
3

C
5
9
0

A
B
C

A
0
4
7

B
2
0
3

C
5
9
0

A
B
C

A
0
4
7

B
2
0
3

C
5
9
0

D1[2,3]
= min { D0 [2,3],
D0 [2,1] + D0 [1,3] }
= min { , ( 4 + 5) }
=9

A
B
C

A
0
4

B
2
0
3

C
5
9
0

D2[3,1]
= min { D1 [3,1],
D1 [3,2] + D1 [2,1] }
= min { , ( 4 + 3) }
=7

A
B
C

A
0
4
7

B
2
0
3

C
5
9
0

NO Change

D(3)
A
B
C

A
0
4
7

B
2
0
3

C
5
9
0

ALL PAIRS SHORTEST

PATHS for the given
graph

4.4 0/1 Knapsack Problem Memory function

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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

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Definition:
Given a set of n items of known weights w1,,wn and values v1,,vn and a knapsack
of capacity W, the problem is to find the most valuable subset of the items that fit into the
knapsack.
Knapsack problem is an OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM

Dynamic programming approach to solve knapsack problem

Step 1:
Identify the smaller sub-problems. If items are labeled 1..n, then a sub-problem would be
to find an optimal solution for Sk = {items labeled 1, 2, .. k}
Step 2:
Recursively define the value of an optimal solution in terms of solutions to smaller
problems.
Initial conditions:
V[ 0, j ] = 0
V[ i, 0 ] = 0

for j 0
for i 0

Recursive step:
max { V[ i-1, j ], vi +V[ i-1, j - wi ] }
V[ i, j ] =
if j - wi 0
if j - wi < 0
V[ i-1, j ]
Step 3:
Bottom up computation using iteration

Question:
Apply bottom-up dynamic programming algorithm to the following instance of the
knapsack problem Capacity W= 5
Item #
1
2
3
4

Weight (Kg)
2
3
4
5

Value (Rs.)
3
4
5
6

Solution:
Using dynamic programming approach, we have:

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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

Step
Calculation
1
Initial conditions:
V[ 0, j ] = 0 for j 0
V[ i, 0 ] = 0 for i 0

W1 = 2,
Available knapsack capacity = 1
W1 > WA,
CASE 1 holds:
V[ i, j ] = V[ i-1, j ]
V[ 1,1] = V[ 0, 1 ] = 0

W1 = 2,
Available knapsack capacity = 2
W1 = WA,
CASE 2 holds:
V[ i, j ] = max { V[ i-1, j ],
vi +V[ i-1, j - wi ] }
V[ 1,2] = max { V[ 0, 2 ],
3 +V[ 0, 0 ] }
= max { 0, 3 + 0 } = 3
W1 = 2,
Available knapsack capacity =
3,4,5
W1 < WA,
CASE 2 holds:
V[ i, j ] = max { V[ i-1, j ],
vi +V[ i-1, j - wi ] }
V[ 1,3] = max { V[ 0, 3 ],
3 +V[ 0, 1 ] }
= max { 0, 3 + 0 } = 3
W2 = 3,
Available knapsack capacity = 1
W2 >WA,
CASE 1 holds:
V[ i, j ] = V[ i-1, j ]
V[ 2,1] = V[ 1, 1 ] = 0

10CS43

Table
V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

1
0

2
0

3
0

4
0

5
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0

2
0
3

0
0

1
0
0

5
0

4
0
3

3
0
3

0
3

2
0
3

0
3

1
0
0
0

5
0
3

4
0
3

5
0
3

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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

10

W2 = 3,
Available knapsack capacity = 2
W2 >WA,
CASE 1 holds:
V[ i, j ] = V[ i-1, j ]
V[ 2,2] = V[ 1, 2 ] = 3

W2 = 3,
Available knapsack capacity = 3
W2 = WA,
CASE 2 holds:
V[ i, j ] = max { V[ i-1, j ],
vi +V[ i-1, j - wi ] }
V[ 2,3] = max { V[ 1, 3 ],
4 +V[ 1, 0 ] }
= max { 3, 4 + 0 } = 4
W2 = 3,
Available knapsack capacity = 4
CASE 2 holds:
W2 < WA,
V[ i, j ] = max { V[ i-1, j ],
vi +V[ i-1, j - wi ] }
V[ 2,4] = max { V[ 1, 4 ],
4 +V[ 1, 1 ] }
= max { 3, 4 + 0 } = 4
W2 = 3,
Available knapsack capacity = 5
W2 < WA,
CASE 2 holds:
V[ i, j ] = max { V[ i-1, j ],
vi +V[ i-1, j - wi ] }
V[ 2,5] = max { V[ 1, 5 ],
4 +V[ 1, 2 ] }
= max { 3, 4 + 3 } = 7
W3 = 4,
Available knapsack capacity =
1,2,3
W3 > WA,
CASE 1 holds:
V[ i, j ] = V[ i-1, j ]

10CS43

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

1
0
0
0

2
0
3
3

1
0
0
0

0
0
0

0
3
4

5
0
3

4
0
3
4

3
0
3
4
4

5
0
3

0
3
4

2
0
3
3
3

5
0
3

0
3

0
3
4

0
3
3

4
0
3

0
3
4

0
3
3

0
0
0
0

0
3

0
3
3

0
0
0

0
3
7

4
0
3
4

5
0
3
7

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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

11

12

13

14

10CS43

W3 = 4,
Available knapsack capacity = 4
W3 = WA,
CASE 2 holds:
V[ i, j ] = max { V[ i-1, j ],
vi +V[ i-1, j - wi ] }
V[ 3,4] = max { V[ 2, 4 ],
5 +V[ 2, 0 ] }
= max { 4, 5 + 0 } = 5

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

W3 = 4,
Available knapsack capacity = 5
CASE 2 holds:
W3 < WA,
V[ i, j ] = max { V[ i-1, j ],
vi +V[ i-1, j - wi ] }
V[ 3,5] = max { V[ 2, 5 ],
5 +V[ 2, 1 ] }
= max { 7, 5 + 0 } = 7

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

W4 = 5,
Available knapsack capacity =
1,2,3,4
W4 < WA,
CASE 1 holds:
V[ i, j ] = V[ i-1, j ]

W4 = 5,
Available knapsack capacity = 5
CASE 2 holds:
W4 = WA,
V[ i, j ] = max { V[ i-1, j ],
vi +V[ i-1, j - wi ] }
V[ 4,5] = max { V[ 3, 5 ],
6 +V[ 3, 0 ] }
= max { 7, 6 + 0 } = 7

2
0
3
3
3

0
3
4
4

1
0
0
0
0
0

5
0
3
7
7

4
0
3
4
5
5

3
0
3
4
4
4

5
0
3
7

0
3
4
5

0
3
4
4
4
2

0
3
3
3
3

0
3
4
5

0
3
4
4

0
3
3
3
3

2
0
3
3
3

0
0
0
0
0

5
0
3
7
7

4
0
3
4
5
5

5
0
3
7
7
7

Maximal value is V [ 4, 5 ] = 7/-

What is the composition of the optimal subset?

The composition of the optimal subset if found by tracing back the computations
for the entries in the table.
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Design and Analysis of Algorithms

Step
1

10CS43

Table
V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

1
0
0
0
0
0

Remarks

2
0
3
3
3
3

3
0
3
4
4
4

4
0
3
4
5
5

5
0
3
7
7
7

V[ 4, 5 ] = V[ 3, 5 ]
ITEM 4 NOT included in the
subset

2
1
0
0
0
0
0

2
0
3
3
3
3

3
0
3
4
4
4

4
0
3
4
5
5

5
0
3
7
7
7

V[ 3, 5 ] = V[ 2, 5 ]
ITEM 3 NOT included in the
subset

0
0
0
0
0

2
0
3
3
3
3

3
0
3
4
4
4

4
0
3
4
5
5

5
0
3
7
7
7

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

1
0
0
0
0
0

2
0
3
3
3
3

3
0
3
4
4
4

4
0
3
4
5
5

V[ 2, 5 ] V[ 1, 5 ]
ITEM 2 included in the subset

Since item 2 is included in the knapsack:

Weight of item 2 is 3kg, therefore,
remaining capacity of the knapsack is
(5 - 3 =) 2kg
V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

V[ 1, 2 ] V[ 0, 2 ]
ITEM 1 included in the subset

0
3
7
7
7

Since item 1 is included in the knapsack:

Weight of item 1 is 2kg, therefore,
remaining capacity of the knapsack is
(2 - 2 =) 0 kg.

Optimal subset: { item 1, item 2 }

Total weight is: 5kg (2kg + 3kg)
Total profit is: 7/(3/- + 4/-)

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Efficiency:

Running time of Knapsack problem using dynamic programming algorithm is:

(n*W)
Time needed to find the composition of an optimal solution is: O( n + W )

Memory function

Memory function combines the strength of top-down and bottom-up approaches

It solves ONLY sub-problems that are necessary and does it ONLY ONCE.

The method:

Uses top-down manner.

Maintains table as in bottom-up approach.
Initially, all the table entries are initialized with special null symbol to indicate
that they have not yet been calculated.
Whenever a new value needs to be calculated, the method checks the
corresponding entry in the table first:
If entry is NOT null, it is simply retrieved from the table.
Otherwise, it is computed by the recursive call whose result is then recorded in
the table.

Algorithm:
Algorithm MFKnap( i, j )
if V[ i, j] < 0
if j < Weights[ i ]
value MFKnap( i-1, j )
else
value max {MFKnap( i-1, j ),
Values[i] + MFKnap( i-1, j - Weights[i] )}
V[ i, j ] value
return V[ i, j]

Example:
Apply memory function method to the following instance of the knapsack problem
Capacity W= 5
Item #
1
2
3
4

Weight (Kg)
2
3
4
5

Value (Rs.)
3
4
5
6

Solution:
Using memory function approach, we have:
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Computation
1

Remarks

Initially, all the table entries are initialized

with special null symbol to indicate that
they have not yet been calculated. Here
null is indicated with -1 value.

V[i,j] j=0
i=0
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0

1
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

2
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

3
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

4
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

5
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

1
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

2
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

3
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

4
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

5
0
3
-1
-1
-1

1
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

2
0
3
-1
-1
-1

3
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

4
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

5
0
3
-1
-1
-1

1
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

2
0
3
-1
-1
-1

3
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

4
0
-1
-1
-1
-1

5
0
3
7
-1
-1

MFKnap( 4, 5 )

V[ 1, 5 ] = 3
MFKnap( 3, 5 )

6 + MFKnap( 3, 0 )
5 + MFKnap( 2, 1 )

MFKnap( 2, 5 )

MFKnap( 1, 5 )

4 + MFKnap( 1, 2 )
3

0
MFKnap( 0, 5 )

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

3 + MFKnap( 0, 3 )

3+0

MFKnap( 4, 5 )

V[ 1, 2 ] = 3
MFKnap( 3, 5 )

6 + MFKnap( 3, 0 )

MFKnap( 2, 5 )

5 + MFKnap( 2, 1 )

4 + MFKnap( 1, 2 )

MFKnap( 1, 5 )
3

0
MFKnap( 0, 2 )

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

3 + MFKnap( 0, 0 )

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

3+0

MFKnap( 4, 5 )

V[ 2, 5 ] = 7
MFKnap( 3, 5 )

MFKnap( 2, 5 )
3
MFKnap( 1, 5 )
3

6 + MFKnap( 3, 0 )

5 + MFKnap( 2, 1 )
7
4 + MFKnap( 1, 2 )
3

V[i,j]
i=0
1
2
3
4

j=0
0
0
0
0
0

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Efficiency:
Time efficiency same as bottom up algorithm: O( n * W ) + O( n + W )
Just a constant factor gain by using memory function
Less space efficient than a space efficient version of a bottom-up
algorithm

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UNIT-5
DECREASE-AND-CONQUER APPROACHES, SPACE-TIMETRADEOFFS
5.1 Decrease and conquer :Introduction
Decrease & conquer is a general algorithm design strategy based on exploiting the relationship between
a solution to a given instance of a problem and a solution to a smaller instance of the same problem.
The exploitation can be either top-down (recursive) or bottom-up (non-recursive).
The major variations of decrease and conquer are
1. Decrease by a constant :(usually by 1):
a. insertion sort
b. graph traversal algorithms (DFS and BFS)
c. topological sorting
d. algorithms for generating permutations, subsets
2. Decrease by a constant factor (usually by half)
a. binary search and bisection method
3. Variable size decrease
a. Euclids algorithm
Following diagram shows the major variations of decrease & conquer approach.
Decrease by a constant :(usually by 1):

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Decrease by a constant factor (usually by half)

5.2 Insertion sort

Description:
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Insertion sort is an application of decrease & conquer technique. It is a comparison based

sort in which the sorted array is built on one entry at a time

Algorithm:
ALGORITHM Insertionsort(A [0 n-1] )
//sorts a given array by insertion sort
//i/p: Array A[0n-1]
//o/p: sorted array A[0n-1] in ascending order
for i

1 to n-1
V A[i]
j i-1
while j 0 AND A[j] > V do
A[j+1] A[j]
j j 1
A[j + 1] V

Analysis:

Input size: Array size, n

Basic operation: key comparison
Best, worst, average case exists
Best case: when input is a sorted array in ascending order:

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Worst case: when input is a sorted array in descending order:

Let Cworst(n) be the number of key comparison in the worst case. Then

Let Cbest(n) be the number of key comparison in the best case.

Then

Example:
Sort the following list of elements using insertion sort:
89, 45, 68, 90, 29, 34, 17
89
45
45
45
29
29
17

45
89
68
68
45
34
29

68
68
89
89
68
45
34

90
90
90
90
89
68
45

29
29
29
29
90
89
68

34
34
34
34
34
90
89

17
17
17
17
17
17
90

Advantages of insertion sort:

Simple implementation. There are three variations

o Left to right scan
o Right to left scan

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o Binary insertion sort

Efficient on small list of elements, on almost sorted list
Running time is linear in best case
Is a stable algorithm
Is a in-place algorithm

5.3 Depth-first search (DFS) and Breadth-first search (BFS)

DFS and BFS are two graph traversing algorithms and follow decrease and conquer
approach decrease by one variation to traverse the graph

Some useful definition:

Tree edges: edges used by DFS traversal to reach previously unvisited vertices
Back edges: edges connecting vertices to previously visited vertices other than
their immediate predecessor in the traversals
Cross edges: edge that connects an unvisited vertex to vertex other than its
immediate predecessor. (connects siblings)
DAG: Directed acyclic graph

Depth-first search (DFS)

Description:
DFS starts visiting vertices of a graph at an arbitrary vertex by marking it
as visited.
It visits graphs vertices by always moving away from last visited vertex to
an unvisited one, backtracks if no adjacent unvisited vertex is available.
Is a recursive algorithm, it uses a stack
A vertex is pushed onto the stack when its reached for the first time
A vertex is popped off the stack when it becomes a dead end, i.e., when
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there is no adjacent unvisited vertex

Redraws graph in tree-like fashion (with tree edges and back edges
for undirected graph)

Algorithm:
ALGORITHM DFS (G)
//implements DFS traversal of a given graph
//i/p: Graph G = { V, E}
//o/p: DFS tree
Mark each vertex in V with 0 as a mark of being unvisited
count
0
for each vertex v in V do
if v is marked with 0
dfs(v)
dfs(v)
count count + 1
mark v with count
for each vertex w in V adjacent to v do
if w is marked with 0
dfs(w)

Example:

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Starting at vertex A traverse the following graph using DFS traversal method:
A

Solution:
Step

Graph

Remarks
Insert A into stack

A
A(1)
2
A

Insert B into stack

B (2)
A(1)

3
A

4
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Insert F into stack

F (3)
B (2)
A(1)
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Insert E into stack

E
5

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NO unvisited adjacent vertex for E, backtrack

E (4)
F (3)
B (2)
A(1)
Delete E from stack
E (4, 1)
F (3)
B (2)
A(1)

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for F, backtrack

Delete F from stack

E (4, 1)
F (3, 2)
B (2)
A(1)

7
Insert G into stack
A

B
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E (4, 1)
F (3, 2)
B (2)
A(1)

G (5)

Insert C into stack

E (4, 1)
F (3, 2)
B (2)
A(1)

Insert D into stack

E (4, 1)
F (3, 2)
B (2)
A(1)

C (6)
G (5)

D (7)
C (6)
G (5)

10

11

Insert H into stack

H (8)
D (7)
E (4, 1) C (6)
F (3, 2) G (5)
B (2)
A(1)

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for H, backtrack

Delete H from stack

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E (4, 1)
F (3, 2)
B (2)
A(1)

12

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for D, backtrack

13

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for C, backtrack

14

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for G, backtrack

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H (8, 3)
D (7)
C (6)
G (5)

Delete D from stack

H (8, 3)
D (7, 4)
E (4, 1) C (6)
F (3, 2) G (5)
B (2)
A(1)
Delete C from stack
H (8, 3)
D (7, 4)
E (4, 1) C (6, 5)
F (3, 2) G (5)
B (2)
A(1)
Delete G from stack
H (8, 3)
D (7, 4)
E (4, 1) C (6, 5)
F (3, 2) G (5, 6)
B (2)
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15

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for B, backtrack

16

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for A, backtrack

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A(1)
Delete B from stack
H (8, 3)
D (7, 4)
E (4, 1) C (6, 5)
F (3, 2) G (5, 6)
B (2, 7)
A(1)
Delete A from stack
H (8, 3)
D (7, 4)
E (4, 1) C (6, 5)
F (3, 2) G (5, 6)
B (2, 7)
A(1, 8)

Stack becomes empty. Algorithm stops as all the

nodes in the given graph are visited

The DFS tree is as follows: (dotted lines are back edges)

B
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D
H

Applications of DFS:

The two orderings are advantageous for various applications like

topological sorting, etc
To check connectivity of a graph (number of times stack becomes empty tells
the number of components in the graph)
To check if a graph is acyclic. (no back edges indicates no cycle)
To find articulation point in a graph

Efficiency:

Depends on the graph representation:

o Adjacency matrix : (n2)
o Adjacency list: (n + e)

Breadth-first search (BFS)

Description:

BFS starts visiting vertices of a graph at an arbitrary vertex by marking it

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as visited.
It visits graphs vertices by across to all the neighbors of the last visited vertex
Instead of a stack, BFS uses a queue
Similar to level-by-level tree traversal
Redraws graph in tree-like fashion (with tree edges and cross edges
for undirected graph)

Algorithm:
ALGORITHM BFS (G)
//implements BFS traversal of a given graph
//i/p: Graph G = { V, E}
//o/p: BFS tree/forest
Mark each vertex in V with 0 as a mark of being unvisited
count
0
for each vertex v in V do
if v is marked with 0
bfs(v)
bfs(v)
count count + 1
mark v with count and initialize a queue with v
while the queue is NOT empty do
for each vertex w in V adjacent to fronts vertex v do
if w is marked with 0
count count + 1
mark w with count
add w to the queue
remove vertex v from the front of the queue

Example:
Starting at vertex A traverse the following graph using BFS traversal method:
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Solution:
Step

Remarks

Graph

Insert A into queue

A
A(1)

2
A

Insert B, E into queue

A(1), B (2), E(3)

B (2), E(3)

E
3
A

Insert F, G into queue

B(2), E(3), F(3), G(4)

E
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E(3), F(3), G(4)

4

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for E, backtrack

Delete E from queue

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for F, backtrack

F(3), G(4)
Delete F from queue
G(4)

6
A

Insert C, H into queue

H

G(4), C(5), H(6)

C(5), H(6)

Insert D into queue

C(5), H(6), D(7)

H(6), D(7)

8
NO unvisited adjacent vertex for H, backtrack
9
NO unvisited adjacent vertex for D, backtrack
Queue becomes empty. Algorithm stops as all the
nodes in the given graph are visited
The BFS tree is as follows: (dotted lines are cross edges)
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Delete H from queue

D(7)
Delete D from queue

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A
B

F
C

Applications of BFS:

To check connectivity of a graph (number of times queue becomes empty tells

the number of components in the graph)
To check if a graph is acyclic. (no cross edges indicates no cycle)
To find minimum edge path in a graph

Efficiency:

Depends on the graph representation:

o Array : (n2)
o List: (n + e)

Difference between DFS & BFS:

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DFS
Data structure Stack
No. of vertex orderings 2 orderings
Edge types Tree edge
Back edge
Applications Connectivity
Acyclicity
Articulation points
Efficiency for (n2)
adjacency matrix
Efficiency for (n + e)
adjacency lists

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BFS
Queue
1 ordering
Tree edge
Cross edge
Connectivity
Acyclicity
Minimum edge paths
(n2)
(n + e)

5.4 Topological Sorting

Description:
Topological sorting is a sorting method to list the vertices of the graph in such an order
that for every edge in the graph, the vertex where the edge starts is listed before the
vertex where the edge ends.
NOTE: There is no solution for topological sorting if there is a cycle in the digraph .
[MUST be a DAG]
Topological sorting problem can be solved by using
1. DFS method
2. Source removal method

DFS Method:

Perform DFS traversal and note the order in which vertices become dead

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ends (popped order)

Reverse the order, yield the topological sorting.

Example:
Apply DFS based algorithm to solve the topological sorting problem for the given graph:
C1
C4
C3
C2

C5

Step
Graph

Remarks
Insert C1 into stack

C1

C1(1)
2
C1
Insert C2 into stack
C3

C2 (2)
C1(1)

3
C1

C4

C4 (3)
C2 (2)

C3
4
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C1

Insert C4 into stack

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C3

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C1(1)
Insert C5 into stack
C5 (4)
C4 (3)
C2 (2)
C1(1)

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for C5, backtrack

Delete C5 from stack

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for C4, backtrack

C5 (4, 1)
C4 (3)
C2 (2)
C1(1)
Delete C4 from stack

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for C3, backtrack

C5 (4, 1)
C4 (3, 2)
C2 (2)
C1(1)
Delete C3 from stack

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for C1, backtrack

C5 (4, 1)
C4 (3,2)
C2 (2, 3)
C1(1)
Delete C1 from stack

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C5 (4, 1)
C4 (3,2)
C2 (2, 3)
C1(1, 4)
Stack becomes empty, but there is a node which is unvisited, therefore start the DFS
again from arbitrarily selecting a unvisited node as source
9
Insert C2 into stack
C2
C5 (4, 1)
C4 (3,2)
C2 (2, 3)
C1(1, 4)
C2(5)
10

NO unvisited adjacent vertex for C2, backtrack

Delete C2 from stack

C5 (4, 1)
C4 (3,2)
C2 (2, 3)
C1(1, 4)
Stack becomes empty, NO unvisited node left, therefore algorithm stops.
The popping off order is:
C5, C4, C3, C1, C2,
Topologically sorted list (reverse of pop order):
C2, C1 C3 C4 C5

C2(5, 5)

Source removal method:

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Purely based on decrease & conquer

Repeatedly identify in a remaining digraph a source, which is a vertex with
no incoming edges
Delete it along with all the edges outgoing from it.

Example:
Apply Source removal based algorithm to solve the topological sorting problem for the
given graph:

C4

C1
C3
C2

C5

Solution:
C4

C4

C1

C3

C3
C2

Delete C1
C5

C5

C2
C2

Delete C2

C4

C4
Delete C3

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C5

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C3

Delete C4

Delete C5
C5

The topological order is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5

5.5 Space-Time Tradeoffs: Introduction

Two varieties of space-for-time algorithms:

input enhancement preprocess the input (or its part) to store some info to be used later in solving the
problem

counting sorts

string searching algorithms

pre structuring preprocess the input to make accessing its elements easier

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hashing

indexing schemes (e.g., B-trees)

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5.6 SORTING BY COUNTING

Assume elements to be sorted belong to a known set of small values between l and u, with potential duplication
Constraint: we cannot overwrite the original list Distribution Counting: compute the frequency of each
element and later accumulate sum of frequencies (distribution)
Algorithm:
for j 0 to u-l do D[j] 0

// init frequencies

for i 0 to n-1 do D[A[i]-l] D[A[i] - l] + 1 // compute frequencies

for j 1 to u-l do D[j] D[j-1] + D[j]

// reuse for distribution

for i n-1 downto 0 do

j A[i] - l
S[D[j] - 1] A[i]
D[j] D[j] - 1
return S

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5.7 INPUT ENHANCEMENT IN STRING MATCHING

Horspools Algorithm
A simplified version of Boyer-Moore algorithm:

preprocesses pattern to generate a shift table

that determines how much to shift the pattern
when a mismatch occurs

always makes a shift based on the texts

character c aligned with the last compared
(mismatched) character in the pattern according
to the shift tables entry for c

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