EINSTEIN

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Sir.C.V.Raman Nagar, Tirunelveli-12

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Department of Computer b
Science and
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Engineering
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/c Principles and
Subject Name: /Digital
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System Design
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Subject Code : CS34
Year/Semester: II/III
Staff Name: R.Velayutham

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Syllabus
CS 34 DIGITAL PRINCIPLES AND SYSTEM DESIGN
(Common to CSE & IT)
AIM
To provide an in-depth knowledge of the design of digital circuits and the use of
Hardware Description Language in digital system design.
OBJECTIVES
To understand different methods used for the simplification of Boolean functions
To design and implement combinational circuits
To design and implement synchronous sequential circuits
To design and implement asynchronous sequential circuits
To study the fundamentals of VHDL / Verilog HDL

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UNIT I BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES

Review of binary number systems - Binary arithmetic Binary codes Boolean algebra
and theorems - Boolean functions Simplifications of Boolean functions using Karnaugh
map and tabulation methods Implementation of Boolean functions using logic gates.

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UNIT II COMBINATIONAL LOGIC

Combinational circuits Analysis and design procedures - Circuits for arithmetic
operations - Code conversion Introduction to Hardware Description Language (HDL)

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UNIT III DESIGN WITH MSI DEVICES

Decoders and encoders - Multiplexers and demultiplexers - Memory and programmable
logic - HDL for combinational circuits

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UNIT IV SYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL LOGIC

Sequential circuits Flip flops Analysis and design procedures - State reduction and
state assignment - Shift registers Counters HDL for Sequential Circuits.
UNIT V ASYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL LOGIC
Analysis and design of asynchronous sequential circuits - Reduction of state and flow
tables Race-free state assignment Hazards, ASM Chart.
TEXT BOOKS
1. M.Morris Mano, Digital Design, 3rd edition, Pearson Education, 2007.
REFERENCES
1. Charles H.Roth, Jr. Fundamentals of Logic Design, 4th Edition, Jaico
Publishing House, Cengage Earning, 5th ed, 2005.
2. Donald D.Givone, Digital Principles and Design, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2007

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OBJECTIVES

To understand different methods used for the simplification of Boolean functions

To understand and implement Logic Gates

Introduction to Combinational Logic

Motivation
Switches and logic gates
Logic functions, truth tables and variables
Boolean axioms and laws, sum of products, product of sums
Simple algebraic minimization - making things cheaper

To design and implement Multiplexer and Demultiplexer

To design and implement Decoder and Encoder

To design and implement Magnitude Comparator

To design and implement BCD adder

To design and implement Memory

To design and implement PLDs

Sequential Logic

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Distinction between combinatorial and sequential logic (gates and flipflops)

SR Flip-flop
Clocked D Flip-flop
Master-Slave JK flip-flop
Clocked T Flip-flop
Shift registers
Counters

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To design and implement synchronous counters

To design and implement Asynchronous counters

To design and implement synchronous sequential circuits

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How logic is controlled

Mealy/Moore state machines
State diagrams & state tables

To design and implement Asynchronous sequential circuits

Comparison of synchronous/asynchronous circuits

Dealing with asynchronous inputs
Asynchronous hazards

To study the fundamental of Races

To study the fundamental of ASM Chart

To study the fundamentals of VHDL / Verilog HDL

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Digital System

The term digital refers to any process that is accomplished using discrete units

Digital computer is the best example of a digital system.

Basically deal with two types of signals in electronics

i)
Analog
ii)
Digital

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Types of Number Systems are

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Decimal Number system

Binary Number system
Octal Number system
Hexadecimal Number system

Complements
Complements are used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction
operation and for logical manipulation. There are two types of complements
i)
rs complement
ii)
(r-1)s complement.

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Binary Codes

Dec Hex Oct

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

000
001
002
003
004
005
006
007
010
011
012
013
014
015
016
017

Dec Hex Oct

Bin
00000000
00000001
00000010
00000011
00000100
00000101
00000110
00000111
00001000
00001001
00001010
00001011
00001100
00001101
00001110
00001111

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1A
1B
1C
1D
1E
1F

00010000
00010001
00010010
00010011
00010100
00010101
00010110
00010111
00011000
00011001
00011010
00011011
00011100
00011101
00011110
00011111

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020
021
022
023
024
025
026
027
030
031
032
033
034
035
036
037

Bin

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Binary to Decimal
Binary
110112
24+23+01+21+20
Result

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Decimal to binary
Division
Remainder
25/2
= 12+ remainder of 1
12/2
= 6 + remainder of 0
6/2
= 3 + remainder of 0
3/2
= 1 + remainder of 1
1/2
= 0 + remainder of 1
Result
2510

Decimal
=16+8+0+2+1
2710

Binary
1 (Least Significant Bit)
0
0
1
1 (Most Significant Bit)
= 110012

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Binary to octal
100 111 0102 = (100) (111) (010)2 = 4 7 28
Decimal to octal
Division
177/8
22/ 8
2/8
Result
Binary

Result
= 22+ remainder of 1
= 2 + remainder of 6
= 0 + remainder of 2
17710

Decimal to Hexadecimal
Division
Result
378/16
= 23+ remainder of 10
23/16
= 1 + remainder of 7
1/16
= 0 + remainder of 1
Result
37810
Binary

Binary
1 (Least Significant Bit)
6
2 (Most Significant Bit)
= 2618
= 0101100012

Hexadecimal to binary

Hexadecimal
A (Least Significant Bit)23
7
1 (Most Significant Bit)
= 17A16
= 0001 0111 10102

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1011 0010 11112 = (1011) (0010) (1111)2 = B 2 F16

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Hexadecimal to octal

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Hexadecimal
5A816

Result

Binary/Octal
= 0101 1010 1000 (Binary)
= 010 110 101 000 (Binary)
= 2 6 5 0 (Octal)

Binary Arithmetic
Rules of Binary Addition

0
0
1
1

+
+
+
+

0
1
0
1

=
=
=
=

0
1
1
0, and carry 1 to the next more significant bit

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For example,
00011010 + 00001100 = 00100110

00010011 + 00111110 = 01010001

1 1

carries

0
+ 0

0
0

0
0

1
0

1
1

0
1

1
0

0 = 26(base 10)
0 = 12(base 10)

0 = 38(base 10)

1 1 1 1 1

carries

0
+ 0

0
0

0
1

1
1

0
1

0
1

1
1

1 = 19(base 10)
0 = 62(base 10)

1 = 81(base 10)

Note: The rules of binary addition (without carries) are the same as the truths of the
XOR gate.

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Rules of Binary Subtraction

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

=
=
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0
1, and borrow 1 from the next more significant bit
1
0

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For example,

00100101 - 00010001 = 00010100

tt

00110011 - 00010110 = 00011101

borrows
1

0
- 0

0
0

1 0
0 1

0
0

1
0

0
0

1 = 37(base 10)
1 = 17(base 10)

0 1

0 = 20(base 10)

0 10 1

borrows
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 = 51(base 10)
- 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 = 22(base 10)
1

0 1

1 1

= 29(base 10)

Rules of Binary Multiplication

0 x 0 = 0
0 x 1 = 0

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1 x 0 = 0
1 x 1 = 1, and no carry or borrow bits

For example,
00101001 00000110 =
11110110

0
0

0
0

1
0

0
0

1
0

0
1

0
1

1 =
0 =

0
1
0

0
0
1

0
1
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

0
1

0
0
1

0
0

0 =

41(base 10)
6(base 10)

246(base
10)

00010111 00000011 =
01000101

0
0

0
0

0
0

1
0

0
0

1
0

1
1

1 =
1 =

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1 1 1 1 1
0

0
0

0
0

0
1

1
0

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23(base 10)
3(base 10)
carries

0
1

1
1

1
1

1 =

69(base 10)

Note: The rules of binary multiplication are the same as the truths of the AND gate.

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Another Method: Binary multiplication is the same as repeated binary addition; add the
multicand to itself the multiplier number of times.

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For example,

00001000 00000011 = 00011000

carries
8(base 10)
8(base 10)
8(base 10)

0
0
+ 0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

1
1
1

0
0
0

0
0
0

0 =
0 =
0 =

0 = 24(base 10)

Binary Division
Binary division is the repeated process of subtraction, just as in decimal division.
For example,
00101010 00000110

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7(base 10)

= 00000111
1

0
1

= 42(base 10)
= 6(base 10)
borrows

1
1
-

0
1

0
1

1
0

1
1

1
1

0
0
0

10000111 00000101
= 00011011
1

1
-

1
1

1
0

cs

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=
=

1
0

1
1

1
0

1
1

1
1

0
0

= 27(base 10)

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0
1

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1
1
0

Binary Number System

System Digits: 0 and 1
Bit (short for binary digit): A single binary digit
LSB (least significant bit): The rightmost bit
MSB (most significant bit): The leftmost bit
Upper Byte (or nybble): The right-hand byte (or nybble) of a pair
Lower Byte (or nybble): The left-hand byte (or nybble) of a pair

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135(base
10)

5(base 10)

Binary Equivalents
1 Nybble (or nibble) = 4 bits
1 Byte = 2 nybbles = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 kilobytes = 1,048,576 bytes
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 megabytes = 1,073,741,824 bytes

Logic gates
Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the AND,
OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates. The basic operations are described
below with the aid of truth tables.
AND gate

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The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its
inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in
mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB

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OR gate

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The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of
its inputs are high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.

NOT gate

The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the
input at its output. It is also known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the

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inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also shown as A', or A with a bar
over the top, as shown at the outputs. The diagrams below show two ways that the
NAND logic gate can be configured to produce a NOT gate. It can also be done
using NOR logic gates in the same way.

NAND gate

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This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT

gate. The outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The
symbol is an AND gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle
represents inversion.

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NOR gate

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This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate.

The outputs of all NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high.
The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle
represents inversion.

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EXOR gate

The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but
not both, of its two inputs are high. An encircled plus sign ( ) is used to show
the EOR operation.

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EXNOR gate

The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EOR gate. It will give a low
output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. The symbol is an EXOR gate
with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

The NAND and NOR gates are called universal functions since with either one the AND
and OR functions and NOT can be generated.

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Note:

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A function in sum of products form can be implemented using NAND gates by replacing
all AND and OR gates by NAND gates.

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A function in product of sums form can be implemented using NOR gates by replacing
all AND and OR gates by NOR gates.
Table 1: Logic gate symbols

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Types of binary codes

Binary codes are codes which are represented in binary system with modification
from the original ones. Below we will be seeing the following: Weighted codes
and Non-Weighted codes
Weighted binary codes
Weighted binary codes are those which obey the positional weighting principles,
each position of the number represents a specific weight. The binary counting
sequence is an example.
Decimal
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

8421
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001

2421
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111

Excess-3
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100

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8421 code/BCD code

5211
0000
0001
0011
0101
0111
1000
1010
1100
1110
1111

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The BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) is a straight assignment of the binary

equivalent. It is possible to assign weights to the binary bits according to their
positions. The weights in the BCD code are 8,4,2,1.
Example: The bit assignment 1001, can be seen by its weights to represent the
decimal 9 because 1x8+0x4+0x2+1x1 = 9
2421 code
This is a weighted code; its weights are 2, 4, 2 and 1. A decimal number is
represented in 4-bit form and the total four bits weight is 2 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 9. Hence
the 2421 code represents the decimal numbers from 0 to 9.

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5211 code
This is a weighted code; its weights are 5, 2, 1 and 1. A decimal number is
represented in 4-bit form and the total four bits weight is 5 + 2 + 1 + 1 = 9. Hence
the 5211 code represents the decimal numbers from 0 to 9.
Reflective code
A code is said to be reflective when code for 9 is complement for the code for 0,
and so is for 8 and 1 codes, 7 and 2, 6 and 3, 5 and 4. Codes 2421, 5211, and
excess-3 are reflective, whereas the 8421 code is not.
Sequential code
A code is said to be sequential when two subsequent codes, seen as numbers in
binary representation, differ by one. This greatly aids mathematical manipulation
of data. The 8421 and Excess-3 codes are sequential, whereas the 2421 and
5211 codes are not.

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Non-Weighted code

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Non weighted codes are codes that are not positionally weighted. That is, each
position within the binary number is not assigned a fixed value.

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Excess-3 code

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Excess-3 is a non weighted code used to express decimal numbers. The code
derives its name from the fact that each binary code is the corresponding 8421
code plus 0011(3).

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Example: 1000 of 8421 = 1011 in Excess-3

Gray code

The gray code belongs to a class of codes called minimum change codes, in
which only one bit in the code changes when moving from one code to the next.
The Gray code is non-weighted code, as the position of bit does not contain any
weight. The gray code is a reflective digital code which has the special property
that any two subsequent numbers codes differ by only one bit. This is also called
a unit-distance code. In digital Gray code has got a special place.
Decimal Number
0
1
2

Binary Code
0000
0001
0010

Gray Code
0000
0001
0011

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3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111

0010
0110
0111
0101
0100
1100
1101
1111
1110
1010
1011
1001
1000

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Error detecting and correcting codes

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For reliable transmission and storage of digital data, error detection and
correction is required. Below are a few examples of codes which permit error
detection and error correction after detection.

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Error detecting codes

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When data is transmitted from one point to another, like in wireless transmission,
or it is just stored, like in hard disks and memories, there are chances that data
may get corrupted. To detect these data errors, we use special codes, which are
error detection codes.

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Parity bit

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In parity codes, every data byte, or nibble (according to how user wants to use it)
is checked if they have even number of ones or even number of zeros. Based on
this information an additional bit is appended to the original data. Thus if we
consider 8-bit data, adding the parity bit will make it 9 bit long.
At the receiver side, once again parity is calculated and matched with the
received parity (bit 9), and if they match, data is ok, otherwise data is corrupt.
Two types of parity
Even parity: Checks if there is an even number of ones; if so, parity bit is zero.
When the number of ones is odd then parity bit is set to 1.

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Odd Parity: Checks if there is an odd number of ones; if so, parity bit is zero.
When number of ones is even then parity bit is set to 1.
Error correcting codes
Error-correcting codes not only detect errors, but also correct them. This is used
normally in Satellite communication, where turn-around delay is very high as is
the probability of data getting corrupt.
Hamming codes
Hamming code adds a minimum number of bits to the data transmitted in a noisy
channel, to be able to correct every possible one-bit error. It can detect (not
correct) two-bit errors and cannot distinguish between 1-bit and 2-bits
inconsistencies. It can't - in general - detect 3(or more)-bits errors.

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Alphanumeric codes

The binary codes that can be used to represent all the letters of the alphabet,
numbers and mathematical symbols, punctuation marks, are known as
alphanumeric codes or character codes. These codes enable us to interface the
input-output devices like the keyboard, printers, video displays with the computer.

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ASCII codes

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ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It has
become a world standard alphanumeric code for microcomputers and computers.
It is a 7-bit code representing 27 = 128 different characters. These characters
represent 26 upper case letters (A to Z), 26 lowercase letters (a to z), 10
numbers (0 to 9), 33 special characters and symbols and 33 control characters.

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EBCDIC codes

EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange. It is mainly

used with large computer systems like mainframes. EBCDIC is an 8-bit code and
thus accommodates up to 256 characters. An EBCDIC code is divided into two
portions: 4 zone bits (on the left) and 4 numeric bits (on the right).

Simplify the Boolean functions using

i)
Theorems and postulates.
ii)
K-Map
iii)
Tabulation methods

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Boolean Algebra theorems and postulates.

Principle of duality
1. Interchanging the OR and AND operations of the expression.
2. Interchanging the 0 and 1 elements of the expression.
3. Not changing the form of the variables.
T1: Commutative Law
(a) A + B = B + A
(b) A B = B A
T2: Associative Law
(a) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(b) (A B) C = A (B C)
T3: Distributive Law
(a) A (B + C) = A B + A C
(b) A + (B C) = (A + B) (A + C)
T4: Identity Law
(a) A + A = A
(b) A A = A
T5: Negation Law
(a)
(b)
T6: Redundance Law
(a) A + A B = A
(b) A (A + B) = A
T7:
(a) 0 + A = A
(b) 1 A = A
(c) 1 + A = 1
(d) 0 A = 0
T8 :

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(a)
(b)
T9 :
(a)
(b)
T10 : De Morgan's Theorem
(a)
(b)

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Using theorems,

Using truth table,

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What is a Karnaugh map?

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A Karnaugh map provides a pictorial method of grouping together expressions with

common factors and therefore eliminating unwanted variables. The Karnaugh map can
also be described as a special arrangement of a truth table.

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The diagram below illustrates the correspondence between the Karnaugh map and the
truth table for the general case of a two variable problem.

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The values inside the squares are copied from the output column of the truth table,
therefore there is one square in the map for every row in the truth table. Around the edge
of the Karnaugh map are the values of the two input variable. A is along the top and B is
down the left hand side. The diagram below explains this:

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The values around the edge of the map can be thought of as coordinates. So as an
example, the square on the top right hand corner of the map in the above diagram has
coordinates A=1 and B=0. This square corresponds to the row in the truth table where
A=1 and B=0 and F=1. Note that the value in the F column represents a particular
function to which the Karnaugh map corresponds.
Example 1:

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Consider the following map. The function plotted is: Z = f(A,B) = A + AB

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Note that values of the input variables form the rows and columns. That is the
logic values of the variables A and B (with one denoting true form and zero
denoting false form) form the head of the rows and columns respectively.
Bear in mind that the above map is a one dimensional type which can be used to
simplify an expression in two variables.
There is a two-dimensional map that can be used for up to four variables, and a
three-dimensional map for up to six variables.

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Using algebraic simplification,

Z = A + AB
Z = A( + B)
Z=A
Variable B becomes redundant due to Boolean Theorem T9a.
Referring to the map above, the two adjacent 1's are grouped together. Through
inspection it can be seen that variable B has its true and false form within the
group. This eliminates variable B leaving only variable A which only has its true
form. The minimised answer therefore is Z = A.

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Example 2:
Consider the expression Z = f(A,B) =
map:

+A +

B plotted on the Karnaugh

Pairs of 1's are grouped as shown above, and the simplified answer is obtained by
using the following steps:

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Note that two groups can be formed for the example given above, bearing in mind
that the largest rectangular clusters that can be made consist of two 1s. Notice that
a 1 can belong to more than one group.
The first group labelled I, consists of two 1s which correspond to A = 0, B = 0
and A = 1, B = 0. Put in another way, all squares in this example that correspond
to the area of the map where B = 0 contains 1s, independent of the value of A. So
when B = 0 the output is 1. The expression of the output will contain the term

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For group labeled II corresponds to the area of the map where A = 0. The group
can therefore be defined as . This implies that when A = 0 the output is 1. The
output is therefore 1 whenever B = 0 and A = 0
Hence the simplified answer is Z = +

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The tabular method which is also known as the Quine-McCluskey method is

particularly useful when minimising functions having a large number of variables, e.g.
The six-variable functions. Computer programs have been developed employing this
algorithm. The method reduces a function in standard sum of products form to a set of
prime implicants from which as many variables are eliminated as possible. These prime
implicants are then examined to see if some are redundant.
The tabular method makes repeated use of the law A + = 1. Note that Binary
notation is used for the function, although decimal notation is also used for the functions.
As usual a variable in true form is denoted by 1, in inverted form by 0, and the abscence
of a variable by a dash ( - ).

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Rules of Tabular Method

Consider a function of three variables f(A, B, C):

Consider the function:

Listing the two minterms shows they can be combined

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Now consider the following:

Note that these variables cannot be combined

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This is because the FIRST RULE of the Tabular method for two terms to combine, and
thus eliminate one variable, is that they must differ in only one digit position.

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Bear in mind that when two terms are combined, one of the combined terms has one digit
more at logic 1 than the other combined term. This indicates that the number of 1's in a
term is significant and is referred to as its index.
For example: f(A, B, C, D)
0000...................Index 0
0010, 1000.............Index 1
1010, 0011, 1001.......Index 2
1110, 1011.............Index 3
1111...................Index 4
The necessary condition for combining two terms is that the indices of the two terms
must differ by one logic variable which must also be the same.

Examples

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Example 1:
Consider the function: Z = f(A,B,C) =

C+A

+A C

To make things easier, change the function into binary notation with index value and
decimal value.

Tabulate the index groups in a colunm and insert the decimal value alongside.

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From the first list, we combine terms that differ by 1 digit only from one index group to
the next. These terms from the first list are then seperated into groups in the second list.
Note that the ticks are just there to show that one term has been combined with another
term. From the second list we can see that the expression is now reduced to: Z =
+
+ C+A

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From the second list note that the term having an index of 0 can be combined with the
terms of index 1. Bear in mind that the dash indicates a missing variable and must line up
in order to get a third list. The final simplified expression is: Z =
Bear in mind that any unticked terms in any list must be included in the final expression
(none occured here except from the last list). Note that the only prime implicant here is Z
= .
The tabular method reduces the function to a set of prime implicants.
Note that the above solution can be derived algebracially. Attempt this in your notes.
Example 2:
Consider the function f(A, B, C, D) =
is in decimal form.

(0,1,2,3,5,7,8,10,12,13,15), note that this

(0000,0001,0010,0011,0101,0111,1000,1010,1100,1101,1111) in binary form.

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(0,1,1,2,2,3,1,2,2,3,4) in the index form.

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The prime implicants are:

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D + BD + A

+ AB

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The chart is used to remove redundant prime implicants. A grid is prepared having all the
prime implicants listed at the left and all the minterms of the function along the top. Each
minterm covered by a given prime implicant is marked in the appropriate position.

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From the above chart, BD is an essential prime implicant. It is the only prime implicant
that covers the minterm decimal 15 and it also includes 5, 7 and 13.
is also an
essential prime implicant. It is the only prime implicant that covers the minterm denoted
by decimal 10 and it also includes the terms 0, 2 and 8. The other minterms of the

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function are 1, 3 and 12. Minterm 1 is present in

and D. Similarly for minterm 3.
We can therefore use either of these prime implicants for these minterms. Minterm 12 is
present in A
and AB , so again either can be used.
Thus, one minimal solution is: Z =

+ BD +

+A

Combinational Circuits
A combinational circuit neither contains a periodic clock signal nor has any
provisions for storage. There are no feedbacks involved and the output at all time is
dependent on the inputs provided. The name combinational is derived from the
combinations of logic gates used for such circuits.
A sequential circuit involves feedback and has memory (so it is employed for
designing RAM). It also has a periodic clock signal and hence the output is also a
function of time in addition to being a function of inputs and previous outputs. The name
sequential is derived as the output is produced in sequences as the clock circuit enables
and disables the functioning. (A latch is also a sequential circuit but has no clock signal
and hence is a special case. It is also the basic building block of any sequential circuit.)

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Designing Combinational Circuits

In general we have to do following steps:
1. Problem description
2. Input/output of the circuit
3. Define truth table
4. Simplification for each output
5. Draw the circuit

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ADDERS
Half adder

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A half adder is a logical circuit that performs an addition operation on two one-bit
binary numbers often written as A and B. The half adder output is a sum of the two
inputs usually represented with the signals Cout and S where . Following is the logic
table for a half adder:

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Inputs Outputs

A B C S
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
S=A (XOR) B
C=AB

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Full Adder
A full adder is a logical circuit that performs an addition operation on three onebit binary numbers often written as A, B, and Cin. The full adder produces a two-bit
output sum typically represented with the signals Cout and S.
Inputs Outputs

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A B Ci Co S
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1

0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1

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SUBTRACTOR

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Half subtractor

The half-subtractor is a combinational circuit which is used to perform subtraction of two

bits. It has two inputs, X (minuend) and Y (subtrahend) and two outputs D (difference)
and B (borrow).

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XYDB
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0

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Full subtractor
The Full_subtractor is a combinational circuit which is used to perform
subtraction of three bits. It has three inputs, X (minuend) and Y (subtrahend) and Z
(subtrahend) and two outputs D (difference) and B (borrow).
XYZDB
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
B=AB + AC + BC
C=A xor B xor C

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Parallel adder:

Parallel adder is the one where we input the all the bits of two
given numbers and we dont need any memory element.
Binary Adder: In this adder we need n full adders for n bit adder. In this adder we use
the n full adders in cascaded from to implement the ripple carry adder. This type of adder
is also called carry propagation adder. The circuit for 4-bit parallel adder is as follow:

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For example to add A= 1011 and B= 0011

subscript i:

Input carry:

0 1

Ci

Augend:

1 0

Ai

0 0

1 Bi

Addend:

2 1

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--------------------------------

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Sum:

1 0

Si

Output carry:

1 1

Ci+1

Binary Subtractor

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The subtrcation A B can be done by taking the 2s complement of B and adding

it to A because A- B = A + (-B)
It means if we use the inveters to make 1s complement of B (connecting each Bi
to an inverter) and then add 1 to the least significant bit (by setting carry C0 to 1)
of binary adder, then we can make a binary subtractor.

Adder Subtractor

The addition and subtraction can be combined into one circuit with one common
binary adder (see next slide).
The mode M controls the operation. When M=0 the circuit is an adder when M=1
the circuit is subtractor. It can be don by using exclusive-OR for each Bi and M.
Note that 1 x = x and 0 x = x

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Binary to Gray converter

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In this circuit well convert BINARY numbers to GRAY numbers. Following is the
truth table for it:
B3

B2

B1

B0

G3

G2

G1

G0

0.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

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K-MAPS:
K-MAP FOR G3:

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Equation for G3= B3

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K-MAP FOR G2:

Equation for G2= B3 B2 + B3 B2= B3 XOR B2

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K-MAP FOR G1:

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Equation for G1= B1 B2 + B1 B2= B1 XOR B2

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K-MAP FOR G0:

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Equation for G0= B1 B0 + B1 B0= B1 XOR B0

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B2

G2

B1

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G1

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G0

B0

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COMPARATORS

It is a combinational circuit that compares to numbers and determines their

relative magnitude
The output of comparator is usually 3 binary variables indicating:
A>B
A=B
A<B

For example to design a comparator for 2 bit binary numbers A (A1A0) and B
(B1B0) we do the following steps:

1-bit comparator: Lets begin with 1 bit comparator and from the name we can
easily make out that this circuit would be used to compare 1 bit binary numbers.

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If we list all the input combinations at the input then we get the following table
describing the corresponding outputs.

f (A>B) f (A=B) f (A<B)

And now we find the equations using K-maps each for f (A>B), f (A=B) and f
(A<B) as follow:

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For a 2-bit comparator we have four inputs A1A0 and B1B0 and three output
E ( is 1 if two numbers are equal) G (is 1 when A > B) and L (is 1 when A < B)
If we use truth table and KMAP the result is
E= A1A0B1B0 + A1A0B1B0 + A1A0B1B0 + A1A0B1B0
or E=(( A0 B0) + ( A1 B1))
G = A1B1 + A0B1B0 + A1A0B0
L= A1B1 + A1A0B0 + A0B1B0

4-Bit magnitude comparator

It means X0 = A0B0 + A0B0 and

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X1= A1B1 + A1B1

(A= B)

= x3x2x1x0

(A> B)

= A3B3 + x3A2B2 + x3x2A1B1+ x3x2x1A0B0

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(A< B) = A3B3 + x3A2B2 + x3x2A1B1+ x3x2x1A0B0

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BCD Adder
Number

S8

S4

S2

S1

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Number

S8

S4

S2

S1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

cs

Binary Sum
Number

//

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Z8

Z4

Z2

Z1

11

ht

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

10

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Number

Z8

Z4

Z2

Z1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

Number

Z8

Z4

Z2

10

11

12

13

14

15

17
18
19

0
1

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Z1

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16

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1

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C= K +
C= K + Z8*Z4+
C = K + Z8*Z4+Z8*Z2

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Decoders

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Accepts a value and decodes it

Output corresponds to value of n inputs

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Consists of:
Inputs (n)
Outputs (2n , numbered from 0 2n - 1)
Selectors / Enable (active high or active low)

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Encoder

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Perform the inverse operation of a decoder

2n (or less) input lines and n output lines

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 Can be implemented with 3 OR gates

A0 = D1 + D3 + D5 + D7;
A1 = D2 + D3 + D6 + D7;
A2 = D4 + D5 + D6 + D7;
If more than 2 inputs are active we need to use priority encoder (priority for
inputs)

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Multiplexer

It is a combinational circuit that selects binary information from one of the

input lines and directs it to a single output line
Usually there are 2n input lines and n selection lines whose bit combinations
determine which input line is selected
For example for 2-to-1 multiplexer if selection S is zero then I0 has the path to
output and if S is one I1 has the path to output

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Demultiplexer

SEL0
SEL1

ENABL
E

D
00

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D
01

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10

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D
11

//

ENBL

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tSEL1

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h
0
1
1
1
1

X
0
0
1
1

SEL2

X
0
1
0
1

D00 D01 D10 D11

0
1
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0

1 to 8 line Demultiplexer

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0
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
0
1

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Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

Programmable devices have their functionality programmed

before they are first used.
Range in complexity from 100s to 10,000s of logic gates.

Types of Programmable Logic Devices

PLDs ( Programmable Logic Devices)
ROM (Read-Only Memory)
PLA (Programmable Logic Array)
PAL (Programmable Array Logic)

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Programming by blowing fuses.

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(a) Before programming.

(b) After Programming.

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PROM Notation

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Using a PROM for logic design

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A simple four-input, three-output PAL device.

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Example of combinational logic design using a PLA.

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Karnaugh maps for the functions f1(x,y,z) = m(1,2,3,7) and f2(x,y,z) =

m(0,1,2,6)

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Two realizations of f1(x,y,z) = m(1,2,3,7) and f2(x,y,z) = m(0,1,2,6).

(a) Realization based on f1 and 2 (b) Realization based on 1 and 2

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Sequential Circuits

x1

z1

Combinational
logic

xn

zm

(a)

x1

z1

xn

zm

Combinational
logic

y1 yr

Yr Y1

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Memory

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(b)

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Flip Flop

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A circuit that changes from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1 when current is applied. It is one

bit storage location.

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SR Flip-Flop

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Graphical Symbol

Characteristic table

0 x No change
1 0
0 (reset)
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1
1
1 (set)

Characteristic Equation
Q(t+1)=S+R1Q
Logic diagram

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EXCITATION TABLE
Q

Q(next)

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S
0

R
X

tt
1

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D Flip-Flop

S
Q
C
Q
R
D

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Characteristic table

Q(t+1)

Operation

0
1

0
1

Reset
Set

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Characteristic Equation

t
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Q(t+1) = D

EXCITATION TABLE
Q

Q(next)

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JK Flip-Flop
Graphical Symbol

Characteristic table

Q(t+1)

Operation

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

Q(t)
0
1
Q(t)

No change
Reset
Set
Complement

Characteristic Equation
Q(t+1)

= KQ(t) + JQ(t)

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Logic Diagram

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EXCITATION TABLE
Q
0

Q(next)
0

J
0

K
X

T Flip-Flop
Graphical Symbol

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Characteristic Table

u
t
0
Q(t)
No change
e
s
1
Q(t)
Complement
c
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Q(t+1)

Operation

Characteristic Equation
Q(t+1)

= TQ(t) + TQ(t)
= T Q(t)

Logic Diagram

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Q
0

Q(next)
0

T
0

EXCITATION TABLE

Shift Register
A shift register is a cascade of Flip flops, sharing the same clock, which has the
output of any one but the last flip-flop connected to the "data" input of the next
one in the chain, resulting in a circuit that shifts by one position the onedimensional "bit array" stored in it, shifting in the data present at its input and
shifting out the last bit in the array, when enabled to do so by a transition of the
clock input. More generally, a shift register may be multidimensional, such that
its "data in" input and stage outputs are themselves bit arrays: this is implemented
simply by running several shift registers of the same bit-length in parallel.

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Counters
In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device which stores (and sometimes
displays) the number of times a particular event or process has occurred, often in
relationship to a clock signal.

Asynchronous (ripple) counter changing state bits are used as clocks to

subsequent state flip-flops
Synchronous counter all state bits change under control of a single clock
Decade counter counts through ten states per stage
Updown counter counts both up and down, under command of a control input
Ring counter formed by a shift register with feedback connection in a ring

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Johnson counter a twisted ring counter

Cascaded counter
Asynchronous Up-counter (Ripple Counter)

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Asynchronous Down Counter

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Synchronous (Parallel) Counter

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Synchronous Down and UP/Down Counter

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Counters are a specific type of sequential circuit.

Like registers, the state, or the flip-flop values themselves, serves as the
output.
The output value increases by one on each clock cycle.
After the largest value, the output wraps around back to 0.
Using two bits, wed get something like this:

Present State
A
B
0
0
1
1

00

0
1
0
1

Next State
A
B

0
1
1
0

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01

11

1
0
1
0

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Counter Design

Lets try to design a slightly different two-bit counter:

Again, the counter outputs will be 00, 01, 10 and 11.

Now, there is a single input, X. When X=0, the counter value should
increment on each clock cycle. But when X=1, the value should
decrement on successive cycles.
Well need two flip-flops again. Here are the four possible states:

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00

01

11

10
0

00
0

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Present State
Q1
Q0

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0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

01

11

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0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

Inputs
X
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Next State
Q1
Q0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1

1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0

If we use D flip-flops, then the D inputs will just be the same as the desired
next states.
Equations for the D flip-flop inputs are shown at the right.

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Why does D0 = Q0 make sense?

Present State
Q1
Q0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

Inputs
X

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Next State
Q1
Q0

0
1

Q1

0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1

1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0

1
0
X

Q0
0
1

Q1

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ht D

1
1
X

Q0
0
0

0
0

= Q0

If we use JK flip-flops instead, then we have to compute the JK inputs for each flip-flop.
Look at the present and desired next state, and use the excitation table on the right.

Present State
Q1
Q0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

cs

//

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D1 = Q1 Q0 X

1
1

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1
0

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

Inputs
X

Next State
Q1
Q0

J1

Flip flop inputs

K1
J0

0
0
1
0
x
1
1
1
1
1
x
1
0
1
0
1
x
x
1
0
0
0
x
x
0
1
1
x
0
1
1
0
1
x
1
1
0
0
0
x
1
x
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1
1
0
x
0
x

K0
x
x
1
1
x
x
1
1

We can then find equations for all four flip-flop inputs, in terms of the present
state and inputs. Here, it turns out J1 = K1 and J0 = K0.
J1 = K1 = Q0 X + Q0 X
J0 = K0 = 1
Johnson Counter

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State Table

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The state table representation of a sequential circuit consists of three sections labelled
present state, next state and output. The present state designates the state of flip-flops
before the occurrence of a clock pulse. The next state shows the states of flip-flops after
the clock pulse, and the output section lists the value of the output variables during the
present state.
State Diagram
In addition to graphical symbols, tables or equations, flip-flops can also be
represented graphically by a state diagram. In this diagram, a state is represented by a
circle, and the transition between states is indicated by directed lines (or arcs) connecting
the circles. An example of a state diagram is shown in Figure below.

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Figure .
State
Diagram

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State Table
Present State

00
01
10
11

Next State
X=0
11
11
10
10

Output

X=1
01
00
11
10

X=0
0
0
0
0

X=1
0
0
1
1

State reduction
In the design of sequential circuits, we need to reduce the number of flip flops and
the number of logic gates used in the combinational circuit part. Reduction of the number
of flip-flops may result from the reduction of the number of states in the circuit. This is
possible if we are interested in the input output relationship of the circuit and not in the
outputs of the flip-flops.

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State Assignment
State Assignment procedures are concerned with methods for assigning binary
values to states in such a way as to reduce the cost of combinational circuit that drives the
flipflop.
State
A
B
C
D

Assignment 1
001
000
010
110

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Assignment 2
000
010
101
111

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Races
A race condition or race hazard is a flaw in an electronic system or process whereby
the output and/or result of the process is unexpectedly and critically dependent on the
sequence or timing of other events. The term originates with the idea of two signals
racing each other to influence the output first.

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Transition Table

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The analysis of the circuit starts by considering the excitation variables (Y1 and Y2) as
outputs and the secondary variables (y1 and y2) as inputs.
The next step is to plot the Y1 and Y2 functions in a map:

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Combining the binary values in corresponding squares the following transition table is
obtained:

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/
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Primitive flow table: one that has only one stable state int
each row.
.
To obtain the circuit described by a flow table, it is necessary
to assign
e
to each state a distinct binary value, which converts
the flow table into a
b
transition table.
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Races
A race condition exists in an asynchronous circuit when two or more binary state
variables change value in response to a change in an input variable. When unequal delays
are encountered, a race condition may cause the state variable to change in an
unpredictable manner. If the final stable state that the circuit reaches does not depend on
the order in which the state variables change, the race is called a noncritical race.
Examples of noncritical races are illustrated in the transition tables below:

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The transition tables below illustrate critical races:

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Hazard
In digital logic, a hazard in a system is an undesirable effect caused by either a
deficiency in the system or external influences. Logic hazards are manifestations of a
problem in which changes in the input variables do not change the output correctly due to
some form of delay caused by logic elements (NOT, AND, OR gates, etc.) This results in
the logic not performing its function properly. The three different most common kinds of
hazards are usually referred to as static, dynamic and function hazards.
Hazards are a temporary problem, as the logic circuit will eventually settle to the desired
function. However, despite the logic arriving at the correct output, it is imperative that
hazards be eliminated as they can have an effect on other connected systems.
A static hazard is the situation where, when one input variable changes, the output
changes momentarily before stabilizing to the correct value. There are two types of static
hazards:

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Static-1 Hazard: the output is currently 1 and after the inputs change, the output
momentarily changes to 0 before settling on 1

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Static-0 Hazard: the output is currently 0 and after the inputs change, the output
momentarily changes to 1 before settling on 0

A dynamic hazard is the possibility of an output changing more than once as a result of
a single input change. Dynamic hazards often occur in larger logic circuits where there
are different routes to the output (from the input). If each route has a different delay, then
it quickly becomes clear that there is the potential for changing output values that differ
from the required / expected output. e.g. A logic circuit is meant to change output state

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from 1 to 0, but instead changes from 1 to 0 then 1 and finally rests at the correct value 0.
This is a dynamic hazard.

Example of Hazard free circuit is,

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Normal KMap answer is

Y = x1x2 + x2 x3

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Hazard free map is

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Y = x1x2 + x2 x3 + x1x3
Hazard Free Logic diagram is

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Synchronous sequential logic

Nearly all sequential logic today is 'clocked' or 'synchronous' logic: there is a
'clock' signal, and all internal memory (the 'internal state') changes only on a clock edge.
The basic storage element in sequential logic is the flip-flop.

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The main advantage of synchronous logic is its simplicity. Every operation in the circuit
must be completed inside a fixed interval of time between two clock pulses, called a
'clock cycle'. As long as this condition is met (ignoring certain other details), the circuit is
guaranteed to be reliable. Synchronous logic also has two main disadvantages, as follows.
1. The clock signal must be distributed to every flip-flop in the circuit. As the clock is
usually a high-frequency signal, this distribution consumes a relatively large amount of

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power and dissipates much heat. Even the flip-flops that are doing nothing consume a
small amount of power, thereby generating waste heat in the chip.
2. The maximum possible clock rate is determined by the slowest logic path in the circuit,
otherwise known as the critical path. This means that every logical calculation, from the
simplest to the most complex, must complete in one clock cycle. One way around this
limitation is to split complex operations into several simple operations, a technique
known as 'pipelining'. This technique is prominent within microprocessor design, and
helps to improve the performance of modern processors.
In digital circuit theory, sequential logic is a type of logic circuit whose output
depends not only on the present input but also on the history of the input. This is in
contrast to combinational logic, whose output is a function of, and only of, the present
input. In other words, sequential logic has storage (memory) while combinational logic
does not.

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Sequential logic is therefore used to construct some types of computer memory, other
types of delay and storage elements, and finite state machines. Most practical computer
circuits are a mixture of combinational and sequential logic.

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There are two types of finite state machine that can be built from sequential logic circuits:

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Moore machine: the output depends only on the internal state. (Since the internal
state only changes on a clock edge, the output only changes on a clock edge too).
Mealy machine: the output depends not only on the internal state, but also on the
inputs.

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Depending on regulations of functioning, digital circuits are divided into synchronous

and asynchronous. In accordance with this, behavior of devices obeys synchronous or
asynchronous logic.

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Asynchronous sequential logic

Asynchronous sequential logic expresses memorizing effect by fixing moments of time,
when digital device changes its state. These moments are represented not in explicit form,
but taking into account principle before/after in temporal relations of logical values.
For asynchronous logic it is sufficient to determine a sequence of switchings irrespective
of any connections of the corresponding moments with real or virtual time.
Theoretical apparatus of sequential logic consists of mathematical instruments of
sequention and venjunction as well as of logic-algebraic equations on their basis.
An asynchronous sequential circuit is a sequential circuit whose behavior depends
only on the order in which its input signals change and can be affected at any instant of
time.

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Memory (delay) elements are either latches (unclocked) or time-delay elements

(instead of clocked FFs as in a synchronous sequential circuit).
+ An asynchronous sequential circuit quite often resembles a combinational circuit with
feedback.
+ Faster and often cheaper than synchronous ones, but more difficult to design, verify, or
test (due to possible timing problems involved in the feedback path).

Analysis Procedure
The analysis consists of obtaining a table or a diagram that describes the sequence of
internal states and outputs as a function of changes in the input variables.
1. Determine all feedback loops.
2. Designate each feedback-loop output with Yi and its corresponding input with yi for i
= 1; : : : ; k, where k is the number of feedback loops.
3. Derive the boolean functions for all Y s.
4. Plot the transition table from the equations.

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Design Procedure

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1. Obtain a primitive flow table.

2. Reduce the flow table.
3. Assign binary state variables to obtain the transition table.
4. Assign output values to the dashes to obtain the output maps.
5. Simplify the excitation and output functions.
6. Draw the logic diagram.

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Example problem

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Design a gated latch circuit with two inputs, G (gate) and D (data), and one output Q. The
gated latch is a memory element that accepts the value of D when G = 1 and retains this
value after G goes to 0. Once G = 0, a change in D does not change the value of the
output Q.
Solution
State table

State
a
b
c
d
e
f

Inputs
D
0
1
0
1
1
0

G
1
1
0
0
0
0

Output
Q
0
1
0
0
1
1

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Primitive Flow table

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Informal Merging

Formal Merging

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Compatible Pairs

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Maximal Compatibles

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Reduced Table

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Logic Diagram

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The same problem using SR Latch

Lists the required inputs S and R for each of the possible transitions from the
secondary variable y to the excitation variable Y.

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SR Latch Logic Diagram

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HDL

Basic idea is a programming language to describe hardware

The module starts with module keyword and finishes with endmodule.
Internal signals are named with wire.
Comments follow //
input and output are ports. These are placed at the start of the module definition.
Each statement ends with a semicolon, except endmodule.
Design entry using both structure and behaviour
Simulation modelling
Testing
It is a standard language

Register - Retains the last value assigned to it. Often used to represent storage elements.
wire equivalent; when there are multiple drivers driving them, the outputs of the drivers
are shorted together.

Arithmetic operators - *, /, +, -, %
Logical operators - ! logical negation && logical AND | | logical OR
Relational operators >, <, >=, <=, ==, !=
Bitwise operators ~, &, |, ^, ~^
Reduction operators (operate on all the bits within a word) &, ~&, |, ~|, ^, ~^
accepts a single word operand and produces a single bit as output
Shift operators >>, <<
Concatenation { }
Replication { n { } }
Conditional <condition> ? <expression1> : <expression2>

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Basic Structure

module module_name (list_of_ports);

input/output declarations;
local net declarations;
parallel statements;
endmodule
Simple AND circuit for HDL
module simpleand (f, x, y);
input x, y;

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output f;

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assign f = x & y;
endmodule

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Simple circuit diagram

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Simple HDL

module smpl_circuit(A,B,C,x,y);
input A,B,C;
output x,y;
wire e;
and g1(e,A,B);

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not g2(y, C);

or g3(x,e,y);
endmodule
Simple circuit with delay
module circuit_with_delay (A,B,C,x,y);
input A,B,C;
output x,y;
wire e;

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and #(30) g1(e,A,B);

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or #(20) g3(x,e,y);

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not #(10) g2(y,C);

endmodule
Effect of Delay

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Input

Output

(ns)

ABC

yex

<0

000

101

111

101

10

111

001

20

111

001

Time

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30

111

010

40

111

010

50

111

011

Simple circuit for Boolean functions

x = A.B + C1
y = C1

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//Circuit specified with Boolean equations

module circuit_bln (x,y,A,B,C);

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input A,B,C;
output x,y;

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assign x = A | (B & ~C);

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assign y = ~C ;
endmodule

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Dataflow description of 2-input Mux

module mux2x1_df (A,B,select,OUT);
input A,B,select;
output OUT;
assign OUT = select ? A : B;
endmodule

Behavioral description of 2-input mux

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module mux2x1_bh(A,B,select,OUT);
input A,B,select;
output OUT;
reg OUT;
always @ (select or A or B)
if (select == 1) OUT = A;
else OUT = B;
endmodule

//D Latch
module DLatch(D, Control, Q, notQ);

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input D, Control;

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output Q, Qnot;
reg Q, Qnot;

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always @ (Control or D)
begin

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if (Control) Q = D;

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Qnot = ~Q;
end
endmodule
//D flipflop

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module DFF(D, clock, Q, Qnot, Reset);

input D, clock, Reset;
output Q, Qnot;
reg Q, Qnot;
always @ (posedge clock or negedge Reset)
if (~Reset) {Q,Qnot} = 2b01;
else {Q,Qnot} = {D, ~D};
endmodule

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2 Marks Questions and Answers

1. Define the term digital.

The term digital refers to any process that is accomplished using discrete units
2. What is meant by bit?
A binary digit is called bit
3. What is the best example of digital system?
Digital computer is the best example of a digital system.
4. Define byte?
A group of 8 bits.
5. List the number systems?
v)
Decimal Number system
vi)
Binary Number system
vii)
Octal Number system
viii) Hexadecimal Number system

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6. State the sequence of operator precedence in Boolean expression?

i)
Parenthesis
ii)
AND
iii)
OR

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7. What is the abbreviation of ASCII and EBCDIC code?

ASCII-American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
EBCDIC-Extended Binary Coded Decimal Information Code.

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8. What are the universal gates?

NAND and NOR
9. What are the different types of number complements?
i) rs Complement
ii) (r-1)s Complement.
10. Why complementing a number representation is needed?
Complementing a number becomes as in digital computer for simplifying the
subtraction operation and for logical manipulation complements are used.
11. How to represent a positive and negative sign in computers?
Positive (+) sign by 0
Negative (-) sign by 1.

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12. What is meant by Map method?

The map method provides a simple straightforward procedure for minimizing
Boolean function.
13. What is meant by two variable map?
Two variable map have four minterms for two variables, hence the map consists
of four squares, one for each minterm
14. What is meant by three variable map?
Three variable map have 8 minterms for three variables, hence the map consists of
8 squares, one for each minterm
15. Which gate is equal to AND-inverter Gate?
NAND gate.

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16. Which gate is equal to OR-inverter Gate?

NOR gate.
17. Bubbled OR gate is equal to-------------NAND gate
18. Bubbled AND gate is equal to-------------NOR gate

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19. What is the use of Dont care conditions?

Any digital circuit using this code operates under the assumption that these
unused combinations will never occur as long as the system
.
20. Express the function f(x, y, z)=1 in the sum of minterms and a product of maxterms?
Minterms=(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7)
Maxterms=Nomaxterms.

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21. What is the algebraic function of Exclusive-OR gate and Exclusive-NOR gate?
F=xy1 + x1 y
F=xy +x1 y1
22. What are the methods adopted to reduce Boolean function?
i)
Karnaugh map
ii)
Tabular method or Quine mccluskey method
iii)
Variable entered map technique.
23. Why we go in for tabulation method?
This method can be applied to problems with many variables and has the
advantage of being suitable for machine computation.

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24. State the limitations of karnaugh map.

i)
Generally it is limited to six variable map (i.e.) more then six variable
involving expressions are not reduced.
ii)
The map method is restricted in its capability since they are useful for
simplifying only Boolean expression represented in standard form.
25. What is tabulation method?
A method involving an exhaustive tabular search method for the minimum
expression to solve a Boolean equation is called as a tabulation method.
26. What are prime-implicants?
The terms remained unchecked are called prime-implecants. They cannot be
reduced further.
27. Explain or list out the advantages and disadvantages of K-map method?
The advantages of the K-map method are
i. It is a fast method for simplifying expression up to four variables.
ii. It gives a visual method of logic simplification.
iii. Prime implicants and essential prime implicants are identified
fast.
iv. Suitable for both SOP and POS forms of reduction.
v. It is more suitable for class room teachings on logic
simplification.
The disadvantages of the K-map method are
i. It is not suitable for computer reduction.
ii. K-maps are not suitable when the number of variables involved
exceed four.
iii. Care must be taken to fill in every cell with the relevant entry, such
as a 0, 1 (or) dont care terms.

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28. List out the advantages and disadvantages of Quine-Mc Cluskey method?
The advantages are,
a. This is suitable when the number of variables exceed four.
b. Digital computers can be used to obtain the solution fast.
c. Essential prime implicants, which are not evident in K-map, can be clearly
seen in the final results.
The disadvantages are,
a. Lengthy procedure than K-map.
b. Requires several grouping and steps as compared to K-map.
c. It is much slower.
d. No visual identification of reduction process.
e. The Quine Mc Cluskey method is essentially a computer reduction
method.
29. Define Positive Logic.

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When high voltage or more positive voltage level is associated with binary 1
and while the low or less positive level is associated with binary 0 then the system
adhering to this is called positive logic.
30. Define Negative Logic.
When high voltage level is associated with binary 0 and while the low level is
associated with binary 1 then the system adhering to this is called negative logic
31. List the characteristics of digital Ics
i)
propagation delay
ii)
power dissipation
iii)
Fan-in
iv)
Fan-out
v)
Noise margin
32. What is propagation delay?
It is the average transition delay time for the signal to propagate from input to
output when the signals change in value.

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33. What is Noise margin?

It is the limit of a noise voltage, which may be present with out impairing the
proper operation of the circuit.

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34. What is power dissipation?

It is the power consumed by the gate, which must be available from the power
supply.

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35. Why parity checker is needed?

Parity checker is required at the receiver side to check whether the expected parity
is equal to the calculated parity or not. If they are not equal then it is found that the
received data has error.

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36. What is meant by parity bit?

Parity bit is an extra bit included with a binary message to make the number of 1s
either odd or even. The message, including the parity bit is transmitted and then checked
at the receiving and for errors.
37. Why parity generator necessary?
Parity generator is essential to generate parity bit in the transmitter.
38. What is IC?
An integrated circuit is a small silicon semiconductor crystal called a chip
containing electrical components such as transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors. The
various components are interconnected inside the chip to form an electronic circuit.
39. What are the needs for binary codes?

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a. Code is used to represent letters, numbers and punctuation marks.

b. Coding is required for maximum efficiency in single transmission.
c. Binary codes are the major components in the synthesis (artificial generation)
of speech and video signals.
d. By using error detecting codes, errors generated in signal transmission can be
detected.
e. Codes are used for data compression by which large amounts of data are
transmitted in very short duration of time.
40.Mention the different type of binary codes?
The various types of binary codes are,
f. BCD code (Binary Coded decimal).
g. Self-complementing code.
h. The excess-3 (Xs-3) code.
i. Gray code.
j. Binary weighted code.
k. Alphanumeric code.
l. The ASCII code.
m. Extended binary-coded decimal interchange code (EBCDIC).
n. Error-detecting and error-correcting code.
o. Hamming code.

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41.List the advantages and disadvantages of BCD code?

The advantages of BCD code are
a. Any large decimal number can be easily converted into corresponding
binary number
b. A person needs to remember only the binary equivalents of decimal
number from 0 to 9.
c. Conversion from BCD into decimal is also very easy.

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The disadvantages of BCD code are

a. The code is least efficient. It requires several symbols to represent even
small numbers.
b. Binary addition and subtraction can lead to wrong answer.
c. Special codes are required for arithmetic operations.
d. This is not a self-complementing code.
e. Conversion into other coding schemes requires special methods.
42. What is meant by self-complementing code?
A self-complementing code is the one in which the members of the number
system complement on themselves. This requires the following two conditions to be
satisfied.
a. The complement of the number should be obtained from that number by
replacing 1s with 0s and 0s with 1s.
b. The sum of the number and its complement should be equal to decimal 9.
Example of a self-complementing code is

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i.
ii.

2-4-2-1 code.
Excess-3 code.

43. Mention the advantages of ASCII code?

The following are the advantages of ASCII code
a. There are 27 =128 possible combinations. Hence, a large number of symbols,
alphabets etc.., can be easily represented.
b. There is a definite order in which the alphabets, etc.., are assigned to each code
word.
c. The parity bits can be added for error-detection and correction.
44. What are the disadvantages of ASCII code?
The disadvantages of ASCII code are
a. The length of the code is larger and hence more bandwidth is required for
transmission.
b. With more characters and symbols to represent, this is not completely
sufficient.

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45. What is the truth table?

A truth table lists all possible combinations of inputs and the corresponding
outputs.

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46. Define figure of merit?

Figure of merits is defined as the product of speed and power. The speed is
specified in terms of propagation delay time expressed in nano seconds.
Figure of merits=Propagation delay time (ns)*
Power (mw)
It is specified in pico joules (ns*mw=PJ).

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47. What are the two types of logic circuits for digital systems?
Combinational and sequential
48. Define Combinational circuit.
A combinational circuit consist of logic gates whose outputs at anytime are
determined directly from the present combination of inputs without regard to previous
inputs.
49. Define sequential circuits.
Their outputs are a function of the inputs and the state of memory elements. The
state of memory elements, in turn, is a function of previous inputs.
50. What is a half-adder?
The combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits are called a halfadder.

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51. What is a full-adder?

The combinational circuit that performs the addition of three bits are called a halfadder.
52. What is half-subtractor?
The combinational circuit that performs the subtraction of two bits are called a
half-sub tractor.
53. What is a full-subtractor?
The combinational circuit that performs the subtraction of three bits are called a
half- sub tractor.
54. What is Binary parallel adder?
A binary parallel adder is a digital function that produces the arithemetic sum of
two binary numbers in parallel.

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55. What is BCD adder?

A BCD adder is a circuit that adds two BCD digits in parallel and produces a sum
digit also in BCD.

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56. What is Magnitude Comparator?

A Magnitude Comparator is a combinational circuit that compares two numbers,
A and B and determines their relative magnitudes.

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57. What is decoder?

A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from n
input lines to a maximum of 2n unique output lines.

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58. What is encoder?

A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from
n
2 Input lines to a maximum of n unique output lines.

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59. Define Multiplexing?

Multiplexing means transmitting a large number of information units over a
smaller number of channels or lines.
60. What is Demultiplexer?
A Demultiplexer is a circuit that receives information on a single line and
transmits this information on one of 2n possible output lines
.
61. Give the truth table for a half adder.
Input
Output
X
Y
Sum ( S )
Carry ( C )
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0

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62. Give the truth table for a half Subtractor.

Input
X
Y
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

Output
Borrow( B )
0
1
0
0

Diffe ( D )
0
1
1
0

63.From the truth table of a half adder derive the logic equation
S=XY
C=X.Y
64. From the truth table of a half subractor derive the logic equation
D=XY
B = X1 . Y

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65. From the truth table of a full adder derive the logic equation
S=XYZ
C = XY + YZ + XZ

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66. What is code conversion?

If two systems working with different binary codes are to be synchronized in
operation, then we need digital circuit which converts one system of codes to the other.
The process of conversion is referred to as code conversion.

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67. What is code converter?

It is a circuit that makes the two systems compatible even though each uses a
different binary code. It is a device that converts binary signals from a source code to its
output code. One example is a BCD to Xs3 converter.

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68. What do you mean by analyzing a combinational circuit?

The reverse process for implementing a Boolean expression is called as analyzing
a combinational circuit. (ie) the available logic diagram is analyzed step by step and
finding the Boolean function
69. Give the applications of Demultiplexer.
i)
It finds its application in Data transmission system with error detection.
ii)
One simple application is binary to Decimal decoder.

70. Mention the uses of Demultiplexer.

Demultiplexer is used in computers when a same message has to be sent to
different receivers. Not only in computers, but any time information from one source can
be fed to several places.

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71. Give other name for Multiplexer and Demultiplexer.

Multiplexer is other wise called as Data selector.
Demultiplexer is otherwise called as Data distributor.
72. What is the function of the enable input in a Multiplexer?
The function of the enable input in a MUX is to control the operation of the unit.
73. Give the truth table for a full Subtractor.
Input
Output
X
Y
Z
Borrow ( B ) Diffe ( D )
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1

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74. Give the truth table for a full adder.

Input
X
Y
Z
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1

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Output
Sum ( S )
Carry ( C )
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1

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75. From the truth table of a full subtractor derive the logic equation
S=XYZ
C = X1Y + YZ + X1Z
76. What is priority encoder?
A priority encoder is an encoder that includes the priority function. The operation
of the priority encoder is such that if two or more inputs are equal to 1 at the same time,
the input having the highest priority will take precedence.
77. Can a decoder function as a Demultiplexer?
Yes. A decoder with enable can function as a Demultiplexer if the enable line E is
taken as a data input line A and B are taken as selection lines.
78. List out the applications of multiplexer?

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The various applications of multiplexer are

a. Data routing.
b. Logic function generator.
c. Control sequencer.
d. Parallel-to-serial converter.
79. List out the applications of decoder?
The applications of decoder are
a. Decoders are used in counter system.
b. They are used in analog to digital converter.
c. Decoder outputs can be used to drive a display system.
80. List out the applications of comparators?
The following are the applications of comparator
a. Comparators are used as a part of the address decoding
circuitry in computers
to select a specific input/output device for the storage of data.
b. They are used to actuate circuitry to drive the physical variable towards the
reference value.
c. They are used in control applications.

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81. What are the applications of seven segment displays?

The seven segment displays are used in
a. LED displays
b. LCD displays

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82. What is digital comparator?

A comparator is a special combinational circuit designed primarily to
compare the relative magnitude of two binary numbers.

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INPUTS
A

n-bit
comparator

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A>B A=B A<B

OUTPUTS
Block diagram of n-bit comparator
83. List the types of ROM.
i)
Programmable ROM (PROM)
ii)
Erasable ROM (EPROM)
iii)
Electrically Erasable ROM (EEROM)
84. Differentiate ROM & PLDs
PLDs (Programmable Logic Array)
1.It is a device that includes both AND
and OR gates with in a single IC package
2.PLDs does not provide full decoding of
the variable and does not generate all the
minterms

ROM (Read Only Memory)

1.It is a device that includes both the decoder
and the OR gates with in a single IC package
2.ROM does not full decoding of the
variables and does generate all the minterms

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85. What are the different types of RAM?

The different types of RAM are
a. NMOS RAM (Nitride Metal Oxide Semiconductor RAM)
b. CMOS RAM (Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor RAM)
c. Schottky TTL RAM
d. ELL RAM.

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86. What are the types of arrays in RAM?

RAM has two type of array namely,
a. Linear array
b. Coincident array

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87. Explain DRAM?

The dynamic RAM (DRAM) is an operating mod, which stores the binary
information in the form of electric charges on capacitors.
The capacitors are provided inside the chip by MOS transistors.

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Column (sense line)

Row
(control
line)

Storage
capacitor

DRAM cell

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The stored charges on the capacitors tend to discharge with time and the
capacitors must be tending to discharge with time and the capacitors must be
periodically recharged by refreshing the dynamic memory.
DRAM offers reduced power consumption and larger storage capacity in a
single memory chip.
88. Explain SRAM?
Static RAM (SRAM) consists of internal latches that store the binary
information. The stored information remains valid as long as the power is applied to
the unit.
SRAM is easier to use and has shorter read and write cycle.
The memory capacity of a static RAM varies from 64 bit to 1 mega bit.

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89. Differentiate volatile and non-volatile memory?

Volatile memory
They are memory units which lose stored
information when power is turned off.
E.g. SRAM and DRAM

Non-volatile memory
It retains stored information when power is
turned off.
E.g. Magnetic disc and ROM

90. What are the terms that determine the size of a PAL?
The size of a PLA is specified by the
a. Number of inputs
b. Number of products terms
c. Number of outputs
91. What are the advantages of RAM?
The advantages of RAM are
a. Non-destructive read out

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b. Fast operating speed

c. Low power dissipation
d. Compatibility
e. Economy

92. What is VHDL?

VHDL is a hardware description language that can be used to model a digital
system at many level of abstraction, ranging from the algorithmic level to the gate
level.
The VHDL language as a combination of the following language.
a. Sequential language
b. Concurrent language
c. Net-list language
d. Timing specification
e. Waveform generation language.
93. What are the features of VHDL?
The features of VHDL are
a. VHDL has powerful constructs.
b. VHDL supports design library.
c. The language is not case sensitive.

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94. Define entity?

Entity gives the specification of input/output signals to external circuitry.
An entity is modeled using an entity declaration and at least one architecture
body. Entity gives interfacing between device and others peripherals.

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95. List out the different elements of entity declaration?

The different elements of entity declaration are:
1. entity_name
2. signal_name
3. mode
4. in:
5. out:
6. input
7. buffer
8. signal_type

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96. Give the syntax of entity declaration?

ENTITY
entity_name is
PORT (signal_name: mode signal_type;
signal_names: mode signal_type;
:
:
signal_names: mode signal_type;

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END entity_name;
97. What do you meant by concurrent statement?
Architecture contains only concurrent statements. It specifies behavior,
functionality, interconnections or relationship between inputs and outputs.
98. What are operates used in VDHL language?
There are different types of operators used in VHDL language
Logical operators
: AND, OR, NOT, XOR, etc.,
Relational operator : equal to, <less than etc.,
Shift operators
: SLL- Shift Left Logical,
ROR- Rotate Right Logical etc.,
Arithmetic operators: Addition, subtraction etc.,
Miscellaneous operators: <= assign to etc.,
99. Define VHDL package?
A VHDL, package is a file containing definitions of objects which can be used
in other programs. A package may include objects such as signals, type, constant,
function, procedure and component declarations

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100. What is meant by memory decoding?

The memory IC used in a digital system is selected or enabled only for the
range of addresses assigned to it .

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101. What is access and cycle time?

The access time of the memory is the time to select word and read it. The
cycle time of a memory is a time required to complete a write operation.

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102. What is sequential circuit?

Sequential circuit is a broad category of digital circuit whose logic states depend
on a specified time sequence. A sequential circuit consists of a combinational circuit to
which memory elements are connected to form a feedback path.

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103. List the classifications of sequential circuit.

i)
Synchronous sequential circuit.
ii)
Asynchronous sequential circuit.
104. What is Synchronous sequential circuit?
A Synchronous sequential circuit is a system whose behavior can be defined from
the knowledge of its signal at discrete instants of time.
105. What is clocked sequential circuits?
Synchronous sequential circuit that use clock pulses in the inputs of memory
elements are called clocked sequential circuit. One advantage as that they dont cause
instability problems.

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106. What is called latch?

Latch is a simple memory element, which consists of a pair of logic gates with
their inputs and outputs inter connected in a feedback arrangement, which permits a
single bit to be stored.
107. List different types of flip-flops.
i)
SR flip-flop
ii)
Clocked RS flip-flop
iii)
D flip-flop
iv)
T flip-flop
v)
JK flip-flop
vi)
JK master slave flip-flop
108. What do you mean by triggering of flip-flop.
The state of a flip-flop is switched by a momentary change in the input signal.
This momentary change is called a trigger and the transition it causes is said to trigger the
flip-flop

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109. What is an excitation table?

During the design process we usually know the transition from present state to
next state and wish to find the flip-flop input conditions that will cause the required
transition. A table which lists the required inputs for a given chance of state is called an
excitation table.

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110. Give the excitation table of a JK flip-flop

:/

Q(t)
0
0
1
1

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Q(t+1)
0
1
0
1

J
0
1
X
X

K
X
X
1
0

S
0
1
0
X

R
X
0
1
0

111. Give the excitation table of a SR flip-flop

Q(t)
0
0
1
1

Q(t+1)
0
1
0
1

112. Give the excitation table of a T flip-flop

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Q(t)
0
0
1
1

Q(t+1)
0
1
0
1

T
0
1
1
0

113. Give the excitation table of a D flip-flop

Q(t)
0
0
1
1

Q(t+1)
0
1
0
1

T
0
1
0
1

114. What is a characteristic table?

A characteristic table defines the logical property of the flip-flop and completely
characteristic its operation.

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115. Give the characteristic equation of a SR flip-flop.

Q(t+1)=S+R1Q

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116. Give the characteristic equation of a D flip-flop.

Q(t+1)=D

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117. Give the characteristic equation of a JK flip-flop.

Q(t+1)=JQ1+K1Q

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118. Give the characteristic equation of a T flip-flop.

Q(t+1)=TQ1+T1Q

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119. What is the difference between truth table and excitation table.
i)
An excitation table is a table that lists the required inputs for a given
change of state.
ii)
A truth table is a table indicating the output of a logic circuit for various
input states.
120. What is counter?
A counter is used to count pulse and give the output in binary form.
121. What is synchronous counter?
In a synchronous counter, the clock pulse is applied simultaneously to all flipflops. The output of the flip-flops change state at the same instant. The speed of operation
is high compared to an asynchronous counter
122. What is Asynchronous counter?

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In a Asynchronous counter, the clock pulse is applied to the first flip-flops. The
change of state in the output of this flip-flop serves as a clock pulse to the next flip-flop
and so on. Here all the flip-flops do not change state at the same instant and hence speed
is less.
123. What is the difference between synchronous and asynchronous counter?
Sl.No.
Synchronous counter
1.
Clock pulse is applied
simultaneously
2.

Asynchronous counter
Clock pulse is applied to the first
flip-flop, the change of output is
given as clock to next flip-flop
Speed of operation is low.

Speed of operation is high

124. Name the different types of counter.

a)
Synchronous counter
b)
Asynchronous counter
i)
Up counter
ii)
Down counter
iii)
Modulo N counter
iv)
Up/Down counter

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125. What is up counter?

A counter that increments the output by one binary number each time a clock
pulse is applied.

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126. What is down counter?

A counter that decrements the output by one binary number each time a clock
pulse is applied.

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127. What is up/down counter?

A counter, which is capable of operating as an up counter or down counter,
depending on a control lead.
128. What is a ripple counter?
A ripple counter is nothing but an asynchronous counter, in which the output of
the flip-flop change state like a ripple in water.
129. What are the uses of a counter?
i)
The digital clock
ii)
Auto parking control
iii)
Parallel to serial data conversion.
130. What is meant by modulus of a counter?
By the term modulus of a counter we say it is the number of states through which
a counter can progress.

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131. What is meant by natural count of a counter?

By the term natural count of a counter we say that the maximum number of states
through which a counter can progress.
132.A ripple counter is a ------------ sequential counter.
Ans: Synchronous.
133. What is a modulo counter?
A counter that counts from 0 to T is called as modulo counter.
134. A counter that counts from to T is called a modulo counter. True or False.
Ans: True
135. The number of flip-flops required for modulo-18 counter is ------Ans: five.

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136. Form the truth table for 3-bit binary down counter.
Clk
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Q2
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1

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Q1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1

Q0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

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137. What is a ring counter?

A counter formed by circulating a bit in a shift register whose serial output has
been connected to its serial input.
138. What is BCD counter?
A BCD counter counts in binary coded decimal from 0000 to 1001 and back to
0000. Because of the return to 0000 after a count of 1001, a BCD counter does not have a
regular pattern as in a straight binary counter.
139. What are the uses of a ring counter?
i)
Control section of a digital system.
ii)
Controlling events, which occur in strict time sequence.
140. What is a register?
Memory elements capable of storing one binary word. It consists of a group of
flip-flops, which store the binary information.

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141. What is Johnson counter?

It is a ring counter in which the inverted output is fed into the input. It is also
know as a twisted ring counter.
142. What is a shift register?
In digital circuits, datas are needed to be moved into a register (shift in) or moved
out of a register (shift out). A group of flip-flops having either or both of these facilities is
called a shift register.
143. What is serial shifting?
In a shift register, if the data is moved 1 bit at a time in a serial fashion, then the
technique is called serial shifting.
144. What is parallel shifting?
In a shift register all the data are moved simultaneously and then the technique is
called parallel shifting.

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145. Write the uses of a shift register.

i)
Temporary data storage
ii)
Bit manipulations.

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146. What is a cycle counter?

A cycle counter is a counter that outputs a stated number of counts and then stops.

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147. Define state of sequential circuit?

The binary information stored in the memory elements at any given time defines
the state of sequential circuits.

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148. Define state diagram.

A graphical representation of a state table is called a state diagram.

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149. What is the use of state diagram?

i)
Behavior of a state machine can be analyzed rapidly.
ii)
It can be used to design a machine from a set of specification.
150. What is state table?
A table, which consists time sequence of inputs, outputs and flip-flop states, is
called state table. Generally it consists of three section present state, next state and
output.
151. What is a state equation?
A state equation also called, as an application equation is an algebraic expression
that specifies the condition for a flip-flop state transition. The left side of the equation
denotes the next state of the flip-flop and the right side; a Boolean function specifies the
present state.

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152. What is meant by race around condition?

In JK flip-flop output is fed back to the input, and therefore changes in the
output results change in the input. Due to this in the positive half of the clock pulse if
J and K are both high then output toggles continuously. This condition is known as
race around condition.
153. How many bits would be required for the product register if the multiplier has 6 bits
and the multiplicand has 8 bits?
The product register is 14-bit width with extra bit at the left end indicating a
temporary storage for any carry, which is generated when the multiplicand is added to the
accumulator.
154. What is SM chart?
Just as flow charts are useful in software design, flow charts are useful in the
hardware design of digital systems. These flow charts are called as State Machine Flow
Charts or SM charts. SM charts are also called as ASMC (Algorithmic State machine
chart). ASM chart describes the sequential operation in a digital system.

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155. What are the three principal components of SM charts?

The 3 principal components of SM charts are state box, decision box & Conditional
output box.

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156. What is decision box?

A diamond shaped symbol with true or false branches represents a decision box.
The condition placed in the box is a Boolean expression that is evaluated to determine
which branch to take in SM chart.

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157. What is link path? How many entrance paths & exit paths are there in SM block?
A path through an SM block from entrance to exit is referred to as link path. An
SM block has one entrance and exit path.

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158. Differentiate ASM chart and conventional flow chart?

A conventional Flow chart describes the sequence of procedural steps and decision
paths for an algorithm without concern for their time relationship.
The ASM chart describes the sequence of events as well as the timing relationships
between the states of a sequential controller and the events that occur while going from
one state to the next.
159. What is flow table?
During the design of synchronous sequential circuits, it is more convenient to name
the states by letter symbols without making specific reference to their binary values. Such
table is called Flow table.
160. What is primitive flow table?
A flow table is called Primitive flow table because it has only one stable state in
each row.

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161. Define race condition.

A race condition is said to exist in a synchronous sequential circuit when two or
more binary state variables change, the race is called non-critical race.
162. Define critical & non-critical race with example.
The final stable state that the circuit reaches does not depend on the order in
which the state variables change, the race is called non-critical race.
The final stable state that the circuit reaches depends on the order in which the
state variables change, the race is called critical race.
163. How can a race be avoided?
Races can be avoided by directing the circuit through intermediate unstable states
with a unique state variable change.
164. Define cycle and merging?
When a circuit goes through a unique sequence of unstable states, it is said to have
a cycle.
The grouping of stable states from separate rows into one common row is called
merging.

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165. Give state reduction procedure.

The state reduction procedure for completely specified state tables is based on
the algorithm that two states in a state table can be combined in to one if they can be
shown to be equivalent.

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166. Define hazards.

Hazards are unwanted switching transients that may appear at the output of a
circuit because different paths exhibit different propagation delays.

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167. Does Hazard occur in sequential circuit? If so what is the problem caused?
Yes, Hazards occur in sequential circuit that is Asynchronous sequential circuit.
It may result in a transition to a wrong state.
168. Give the procedural steps for determining the compatibles used for the purpose of
merging a flow table.
The purpose that must be applied in order to find a suitable group of compatibles
for the purpose of merging a flow table can be divided into 3 procedural steps.
i.
Determine all compatible pairs by using the implication table.
ii.
Find the maximal compatibles using a Merger diagram
iii.

Find a minimal collection of compatibles that covers all the states and is

closed.
169. What are the types of hazards?
The 3 types of hazards are 1) Static 0 hazards
2) Static 1 hazard
3) Dynamic hazards

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170. What is mealy and Moore circuit?

Mealy circuit is a network where the output is a function of both present state and
input.
Moore circuit is a network where the output is function of only present state.
171. Differentiate Moore circuit and Mealy circuit?
Moore circuit
Mealy circuit
a. It is output is a function of present state
a. It is output is a function of present state
only.
as well as the present input.
b. Input changes may affect the output of
b. Input changes do not affect the output.
the circuit.
c. Moore circuit requires more number of
c. It requires less numbers of states for
states for implementing same function.
implementing same
function.

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172. How can the hazards in combinational circuit be removed?

Hazards in the combinational circuits can be removed by covering any two
min terms that may produce a hazard with a product term common to both. The
removal of hazards requires the addition of redundant gates to the circuit.

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173. How does an essential hazard occur?

An essential hazard occurs due to unequal delays along two or more paths that
originate from the same input. An excessive delay through an inverter circuit in
comparison to the delay associated with the feedback path causes essential hazard.

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174. What is Timing diagram?

Timing diagrams are frequently used in the analysis of sequential network. These
diagrams show various signals in the network as a function of time.

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175. What is setup and hold time?

The definite time in which the input must be maintained at a constant value prior
to the application of the pulse is setup time
The definite time is which the input must not chance after the application of the
positive or negative going transition of the pulse based on the triggering of the pulse.
176. Define bit time and word time.
The time interval between clock pulses is called bit time.
The time required to shift the entire contents of a shift register is called word time.
177. What is bi-directional shift register and unidirectional shift register?
A register capable of shifting both right and left is called bi-directional shift
register.
A register capable of shifting only one direction is called unidirectional shift
register.

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178. Define equivalent state.

If a state machine is started from either of two states and identical output
sequences are generated from every possible set of sequences, then the two states are said
to be equivalent.
179. If a shift register can be operated in all possible ways then it is called as----------Ans: Univerasal register: It can be operated in all possible modes with bidirectional shift facility.
180. What is gate delay?
If the change in output is delayed by a time with respect to the input. We say
that the gate has a propagation delay of . Normally propagation delay for 0 to 1 output
(1) may be different than the delay for 1 to 0 changes (2).
181. Define state reduction algorithm.
State reduction algorithm is stated as Two states are said to be equivalent if, for
each member of the set of inputs they give the same output and send the circuit either to
the same state or to an equivalent state. When two states are equivalent, one of them can
be removed without altering the input-output relation.

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182. What is meant by level triggering?

In level triggering the output of the flip-flop changes state or responds only when
the clock pulse is present.

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183. Write the uses of a shift register.

i) Temporary data storage.
ii) Bit manipulations.

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184. What is meant by flow table?

During the design of asynchronous sequential circuits, it is more convenient to
name the states by letter symbols without making specific reference to their binary
values. Such a table is called a flow table.

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185. What are the problems involved in asynchronous circuits?

The asynchronous sequential circuits have three problems namely,
a. Cycles
b. Races
c. Hazards
186. Define cycles?
If an input change includes a feedback transition through more than unstable
state then such a situation is called a cycle.

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187. Define primitive flow table?

A primitive flow table is a flow table with only one stable total state in each
row. Remember that a total state consists of the internal state combined with the
input.
188. Define merging?
The primitive flow table has only one stable state in each row. The table can be
reduced to a smaller numbers of rows if two or more stable states are placed in the same
row of the flow table. The grouping of stable states from separate rows into one common
row is called merging.
189. What are the types of Registers?
i) Buffer Register
ii) Shift Register
iii) Uni directional Shift Register
iv) Bidirectional Shift Register

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