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FATIMA MICHAEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY Senkottai
Village, Madurai Sivagangai Main Road, adurai -625 020
An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution

LECTURE NOTES

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 6501-COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

UNIT-I (COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN)

1.1 Introduction

In general, a Computer Aided Design (CAD) package has three components:

a) Design, b) Analysis, and c) Visualization, as shown in the sketch. A brief description
of these components follows.

a) Design: Design refers to geometric modeling, i.e., 2-D and 3-D modeling, including,
drafting, part creation, creation of drawings with various views of the part, assemblies
of the parts, etc.

b) Analysis: Analysis refers to finite element analysis, optimization, and other number
crunching engineering analyses. In general, a geometric model is first created and
then the model is analyzed for loads, stresses, moment of inertia, and volume, etc.
c) Visualization: Visualization refers to computer graphics, which includes: rendering
a model, creation of pie charts, contour plots, shading a model, sizing, animation, etc.

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Each of these three areas has been extensively developed in the last 30
years. Several books are written on each of these subjects and courses are available
through the academic institutions and the industry.

Most commercial CAD packages (software) consist of only a single

component: design or analysis or visualization. However, a few of the vendors have
developed an integrated package that includes not only these three areas, but also
includes the manufacturing software (CAM). Due to the large storage requirement,
integrated packages use either an UNIX workstation or a mainframe platform, and not
the popular PC platform. With the improvement in PC computing speed, its only a
matter of time before we see an integrated package run on a PC. CAD has
revolutionized the modern engineering practice; small and large companies use it alike,
spending several billion dollars for the initial purchase or lease alone. CAD related jobs
are high in demand and the new graduates have advantage over their senior colleagues,
as they are more up to date and more productive.

In this course, we will limit our coverage to the design only. Those of you
interested in analysis area, look into the course ME 160 Introduction to Finite
Element Analysis.

Concurrent Engineering

Concurrent Engineering is another powerful CAD concept that has evolved in

the 90s. According to this concept, there is an instantaneous communication between the
designer, analyst, and manufacturing. Changes made at any of these work centers are
immediately passed on to the others and the product is modified without delay. Often, the
customer, management, and the marketing people join in and become part of the process.
Concurrent engineering saves the valuable time and helps get the product out in the
market quicker. Products that use to take years from the date of its concept to the actual
production now take only a few weeks, and the final product is better and cost-effective.

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Some large organizations have invested in Rapid Prototyping process. In this
process, the part is created by a CAD package and downloaded into the rapid prototyping
machine; the machine immediately manufactures the part, using a plastic material. This
is a good example of concurrent engineering, sometimes referred as Art to Part concept.

CAD Hardware

There are basically two types of devices that constitute CAD hardware: a)
Input devices, and b) Output devices. A brief description follows.

Input Devices

These are the devices that we use for communicating with computer, and
providing our input in the form of text and graphics. The text input is mainly provided
through keyboard. For graphic input, there are several devices available and used
according to the work environment. A brief description of these devices is given here.

Mouse: This is a potentiometric device, which contains several variable resistors that
send signals to the computer. The functions of a mouse include locating a point on the
screen, sketching, dragging an object, entering values, accepting a software command,
etc. Joystick and trackballs are analogous to a mouse device, and operate on the same
principle.

Digitizers: Digitizers are used to trace a sketch or other 2-D entities by moving a cursor
over a flat surface (which contains the sketch). The position of the cursor provides a
feedback to the computer connected with the device. There are electrical wires
embedded in orthogonal directions that receive and pass signals between the device and
the computer. The device is basically a free moving puck or pen shaped stylus,
connected to a tablet.
Light Pens: Lockheeds CADAM software utilized this device to carry out the graphic
input. A light pen looks like a pen and contains a photocell, which emits an electronic
signal. When the pen is pointed at the monitor screen, it senses light, which is

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converted to a signal. The signal is sent to the computer, for determination of the exact
location of the pen on the monitor screen.

Touch Sensitive Screens: This device is embedded in the monitor screens, usually, in the
form of an overlay. The screen senses the physical contact of the user. The new
generation of the Laptop computers is a good example of this device.

Other Graphic Input Devices: In addition to the devices described above, some CAD
software will accept input via Image Scanners, which can copy a drawing or schematic
with a camera and light beam assembly and convert it into a pictorial database.

The devices just described are, in general, independent of the CAD package being
used. All commercial CAD software packages contain the device drivers for the most
commonly used input devices. The device drivers facilitate a smooth interaction between
our input, the software, and the computer. An input device is evaluated on the basis of the
following factors:

Resolution

Accuracy

Repeatability

Linearity

Output Devices

After creating a CAD model, we often need a hard copy, using an output device.
Plotters and printers are used for this purpose. A plotter is often used to produce large
size drawings and assemblies, where as, a laser jet printer is adequate to provide a 3-D
view of a model. Most CAD software require a plotter for producing a shaded or a
rendered view.

CAD Software

CAD software is written in FORTRAN and C languages. FORTRAN provides the

number crunching, where as, C language provides the visual images. Early CAD
packages were turnkey systems, i.e., the CAD packages were sold as an integrated

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software and hardware package, with no flexibility for using second vendor hardware

(1970s and 80s). These systems were based on 16-bit word, and were incapable of
networking. The modern CAD software utilizes the open architecture system, i.e.,
software vendors do not design and manufacture their own hardware. Third party
software can be used to augment the basic CAD package. Most popular CAD package
will facilitate integration of the Finite Element Analysis and other CAD software from
more than one vendor. For example, IDEAS preprocessor can work with almost all
the FEA packages for pre and post analyses.

Networking is an important consideration in applications of CAD software. A

model created by one engineer must be readily accessible to others in an organization,
which is linked by a LAN or other means. The designer, analyst, management,
marketing, vendor, and others generally share a model. This is the concurrent
engineering in action, mentioned earlier.

CAD Platform

In general, we can run CAD software on three different CAD platforms:

Mainframe, Workstation, and PC. When the CAD programs first became available, they
could only be run on a mainframe computer. However, as the PCs have become faster
and cheaper, almost all the CAD vendors have introduced a version of their CAD
software that will effectively run on a Pentium or higher computer. Currently, the most
popular platforms are PCs and Workstations. Popularity of Workstations stems from
their ability to network easily with other computers, and also, due to their large memory
storage capability. However, PC platform is still the most preferred medium for most
engineers. Increasing popularity of the PC platform can be attributed to several factors,
including, total user control, the speed, capability of storing large memory, ease of
hardware upgrading and maintenance, and the overall reasonable cost.

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CAD PLATFORMS

MAINFRAME

WORKSTATIONS

PCs

Large Data storage

Medium size data storage

Limited data storage

Networked

Networked

Can be networked

Expensive

Relatively inexpensive

Inexpensive

Need interface language

Runs on Unix

Run on MS-Windows

No user control

No user control

User controlled

Good for Large corporations Good for small companies

Good for all users

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CAD Evaluation Criteria

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In the current CAD market, ProE and AutoCAD are arguably the most dominating
CAD software. AutoCAD is basically a 2-D program, with some capability to create 3D models, where as, ProE is a truly 3-D CAD package. Besides this software, there is
several other CAD software, listed in the previous section (Sec 1.3), that has sales
exceeding $100 millions. No one CAD package is suitable for all the CAD users in the
world. The product we are designing dictates the type of CAD package we need. A good
CAD package includes good software, as well as, a compatible hardware. Following is a
brief description of the general criteria for evaluating a CAD package.

Hardware: Most desirable features in a good hardware are:

Open architecture

High speed, large storage

Compact size

Inexpensive components

Inexpensive upgrading

Software: In general, the most comprehensive software are written to satisfy almost all
the modeling needs of a modeler, consequently, the software tend to be very complex and
hard to learn. To create a simple model, we go through several unnecessary steps, and
lack the intuitiveness of a simple, straightforward program. ProE is a good example,
where we have to go through several layers of menus to create a simple solid. On the
other hand, if we were to use a simpler CAD program, the same solid can be created by
only a few simple commands. There are several other factors that we should consider
when evaluating software. Following is a brief description of these factors.

Operating System: Unix or Windows/NT. PCs in general use Microsoft

Windows, where as, operating system for Workstations is Unix. For a large
organization, Workstations are preferable.

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User Interface: Most popular CAD software have menu driven commands, which is
preferable to the old system of non-menu driven, where user interface was completely
by responding to software commands. The most popular CAD programs work with
menu driven interface, with some input/action required through command prompts.

Documentation and Support: Learning a software can be very difficult if the

software lacks good documentation. Documentation usually comes in the form of a
users manual, a tutorial book, commands manual, and on-line help. The recent trend
is to provide access to the above-mentioned documentation through the Internet, or
provide the manuals on a CD ROM. Some CAD vendors provide additional
technical support help through phone ProE is a very good example of this type of
support.

Maintenance: Cost of the hardware and software upgrades can significantly impact
the small and medium size companies decision to choose one software over the
others. Most CAD vendors go through an upgrade, on the average, every two years.
Usually, hardware upgrade is not as frequent.

Modeling Capabilities: In, general, a CAD software can be classified as either a 2D or a 3-D program. If we were basically involved in 2-D drawings, any well
established 2-D software, similar to AutoCAD would suffice our needs. On the other
hand, if we need to create 3-D models and assemblies, we will be better off with a 3D molder ProE, SOLIDWORKS, etc.

Ease of Modeling: As a rule-of-thumb, a general, all-purpose type CAD software is

much more complex and difficult to learn than a special purpose CAD package.

Interface with other CAD Packages and Data Transferability: A CAD package is used to
create models that will be used for analysis, manufacturing, or some other applications.
Therefore, a CAD software should be capable of transferring and accepting files from other
CAD or CAM programs, without this provision, the CAD program has only a very limited
use.

Design Documentation: Besides creating a model, the software should be capable of

creating drawings, assemblies, dimensioning, various views (isometric, orthogonal, etc.),
labels and attributes, etc.

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Mechanical Engineering Applications of CAD

Following is a brief description of the applications of CAD in mechanical engineering.

Two Dimensional Drafting: This is the most common use of a CAD package. 2-D
drawings are used for manufacturing a product.

Report Generating: To generate reports and bill of materials. Spreadsheets and

word-processors can be linked to provide a report writing facility.

3-D Modeling: To create the wireframe, surface and solid models. The 3-D
models are for concept verification, manufacturing, FEA, etc.

Finite Element Analysis: FEA package is used for pre-processing, analysis, and
post-analysis of structures. For this application, a CAD package contains both the
modeling and analysis modules.

Manufacturing: manufacturing software is usually called CAM, and contains CAD

software as one of the components. CAM software provides capabilities of carrying
out 2 and 3-axes machining.

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UNIT-II (GEOMETRIC MODELING)

Introduction

In order to understand the significance of curves, we should look into the types of model
representations that are used in geometric modeling. Curves play a very significant role in
CAD modeling, especially, for generating a wireframe model, which is the simplest form for
representing a model.

We can display an object on a monitor screen in three different computer-model forms:

d) Wireframe model

e) Surface Model

f) Solid model

Wireframe model: A wireframe model consist of points and curves only, and looks as if its
made up with a bunch of wires. This is the simplest CAD model of an object. Advantages of
this type of model include ease of creation and low level hardware and software
requirements. Additionally, the data storage requirement is low. The main disadvantage of a
wireframe model is that it can be very confusing to visualize. For example, a blind hole in a
box may look like a solid cylinder, as shown in the figure.

A wireframe model Model of a Solid object with a blind hol

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In spite of its ambiguity, a wireframe model is still the most preferred form, because it
can be created quickly and easily to verify a concept of an object. The wireframe model
creation is somewhat similar to drawing a sketch by hand to communicate or conceptualize
an object. As stated earlier, a wireframe model is created using points and curves only.

Surface Model: sweeping a curve around or along an axis can create a surface model. The
figures below show two instances of generating a surface model.

Generating a cylinder by sweeping a circle

Generating a donut by sweeping a

in the direction of an axis

circle around an axis

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The appearance or resolution of a surface model depends on the number of sweeping

instances we select. For a realistic looking model, we need to select a large number of instances,
requiring a large computer memory, or, opt for a not-so realistic model by selecting a small
number of instances, and save memory. In some commercial CAD packages we have the option
of selecting the resolution of a model; other packages have a fixed value for resolution that
cannot be changed by users.

Surface models are useful for representing surfaces such as a soft-drink bottle, automobile
fender, aircraft wing, and in general, any complicated curved surface. One of the limitations of a
surface model is that there is no geometric definition of points that lie inside or outside the
surface.

Solid Model: Representation of an object by a solid model is

relatively a new concept. There were only a couple of solids
modeling CAD programs available in late 1980s, and they
required mainframe computers to run on. However, in 1990s,
due to the low cost and high speed, PCs have become the
most popular solid modeling software platform, prompting
almost all the CAD vendors to introduce their 3-D solid
modeling software that will run on a PC.

Solid models represent objects in a very realistic and

unambiguous form; however, they require a large amount of
storage memory and high-end computer hardware. A solid

model can be shaded and rendered in desired colors to give it a more realist appearance.

Role of Curves in Geometric Modeling

Curves are used to draw a wireframe model, which consists of points and curves; the curves are

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utilized to generate surfaces by performing parametric transformations on them. A curve can be

as simple as a line or as complex as a B-spline. In general, curves can be classified as follows:

Analytical Curves: This type of curve can be represented by a simple mathematical

equation, such as, a circle or an ellipse. They have a fixed form and cannot be modified to
achieve a shape that violates the mathematical equations.

Interpolated curves: An interpolated curve is drawn by interpolating the given data points
and has a fixed form, dictated by the given data points. These curves have some limited
flexibility in shape creation, dictated by the data points.

Approximated Curves: These curves provide the most flexibility in drawing curves of very
complex shapes. The model of a curved automobile fender can be easily created with the help
of approximated curves and surfaces.

In general, sweeping a curve along or around an axis creates a surface, and the generated surface
will be of the same type as the generating curve, e.g., a fixed form curve will generate a fixed
form surface.

As stated earlier, curves are used to generate surfaces. To facilitate the computer-language
algorithm, curves are represented by parametric equations. Non-parametric equations are used
only to locate a point of intersection on the curve, and not for generating them. Let us briefly
discus the parametric and non-parametric form of a curve.

Conic Sections or Conic Curves

A conic curve is generated when a plane intersects a cone, as shown.

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A

The intersection of the plane PQ and the cone is a circle, where as, the intersection created by
the plane AB is an ellipse. Other curves that can be created are parabola and hyperbola.

Conic curves are used to create simple wireframe models of objects, which have edges that
can be represented by these analytical curves. The fixed-form or analytical curves do not have
inflection points, i.e., curves have slopes that are either positive or negative and do not change
their sign (positive slope will remain positive and negative slope will remain negative). All conic
curves can be represented by a quadratic equation, for example, circular and elliptical curves
have quadratic polynomial equations.
Cubic Spline Synthetic Curves

The analytical and interpolated curves, discussed in the previous section (4.4) and (4.5) are
insufficient to meet the requirements of mechanical parts that have complex curved shapes, such
as, propeller blades, aircraft fuselage, automobile body, etc. These components contain nonanalytical, synthetic curves. Design of curved boundaries and surfaces require curve
representations that can be manipulated by changing data points, which will create bends and
sharp turns in the shape of the curve. The curves are called synthetic curves, and the data points
are called vertices or control points. If the curve passes through all the data points, it is called an
interpolant (interpolated). Smoothness of the curve is the most important requirement of a
synthetic curve.

Various continuity requirements at the data points can be specified to impose various
degrees of smoothness of the curve. A complex curve may consist of several curve segments
joined together. Smoothness of the resulting curve is assured by imposing one of the continuity
requirements. A zero order continuity (C0) assures a continuous curve, first order continuity (C1)
assures a continuous slope, and a second order continuity (C2) assures a continuous curvature, as
shown below.

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C0 Continuity The curve

C1 Continuity- Slope

C2 Continuity -

is

Continuity

Curvature
continuity at the common

Continuous everywhere

at the common point

point

A cubic polynomial is the lowest degree polynomial that can guarantee a C2 curve.
Higher order polynomials are not used in CAD, because they tend to oscillate about the control
points and require large data storage. Major CAD/CAM systems provide three types of synthetic
curves: Hermite Cubic Spline, Bezier Curves, and B-Spline Curves.

Hermite Cubic Spline

Hermite cubic curve is also known as parametric cubic curve, and cubic spline. This
curve is used to interpolate given data points that result in a synthetic curve, but not a free
form, unlike the Bezier and B-spline curves. The most commonly used cubic spline is a
three-dimensional planar curve (not twisted). The curve is defined by two data points that
lie at the beginning and at the end of the curve, along with the slopes at these points. It is
represented by a cubic polynomial. When two end points and their slopes define a curve,
the curve is called a Hermite cubic curve. Several cubic splines can be joined together by
imposing the slope continuity at the common points. In design applications, cubic splines

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are not as popular as the Bezier and B-spline curves. There are two reasons for this:

The curve cannot be modified locally, i.e., when a data point is moved, the
entire curve is affected, resulting in a global control, as shown in the figure.

The order of the curve is always constant (cubic), regardless of the number
of data points. Increase in the number of data points increases shape
flexibility, However, this requires more data points, creating more splines,
that are joined together (only two data points and slopes are utilized for each
spline).

Effect of Moving the Data Point

Effect of Change in slope

Bezier Curves

Equation of the Bezier curve provides an approximate polynomial that passes near the
given control points and through the first and last points. In 1960s, the French engineer P. Bezier,
while working for the Renault automobile manufacturer, developed a system of curves that
combine the features of both interpolating and approximating polynomials. In this curve, the
control points influence the path of the curve and the first two and last two control points define
lines which are tangent to the beginning and the end of the curve. Several curves can be
combined and blended together. In engineering, only the quadratic, cubic and quartic curves are
frequently used.
Beziers Polynomial Equation

The curve is defined by the equation

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P(t) = Vi Bi,n (t)

where, 0 t 1 and i = 0, 1, 2, , n

Here, Vi represents the n+1 control points, and Bi,n (t) is the blending function for the Bezier
representation and is given as

n
Bi,n (t) =

( ti ) (1-t)n-i

Where n is the degree of the polynomial and

n
i

n!
i = 0, 1, 2, .,n

=
i! (n-i)!

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B-Spline Curve

B-spline curves use a blending function, which generates a smooth, single

parametric polynomial curve through any number of points. To generate a Bezier curve
of the same quality of smoothness, we will have to use several pieces of Bezier curves.
Unlike the Bezier curve, the degree of the polynomial can be selected independently of
the number of control points. The degree of the blending function controls the degree of
the resulting B-spline curve. The curve has good local control, i.e., if one vertex is
moved, only some curve segments are affected, and the rest of the curve remains
unchanged.

The mathematical derivation of the B-spline curve is complex and beyond the
scope of this course. The equation is of the form:
P(t) = Ni,k (t) Vi
Where, P(t) is a point on the curve.
i indicates the position of control point i
k is order of curve
Ni,k (t) are blending functions
Vi are control points

The matrix form of the uniform cubic B-spline curve is

Pi(t) = 1/6[t3 t2

t 1]

-1 3

-3

Vi-1

3 -6

Vi

-3

Vi+1

Vi+2

P0,0
P0,1

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P1,0
P1,1

P0,2

P2,0
P2,
1
P1,
P3,0

P0,

P2,

2
P3,1
P1,3
P3,2
P2,3

P3,3

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Unit 3 VISUAL REALISM

INTRODUCTION

Computer Graphics:
As objects: images generated and/or displayed by computers.
As a subject: the science of studying how to generate and display images using
computers.

Why: a picture is worth ten thousand words

Classifications:
Dimensions: 2 or 3

Types: vector, raster

Vector Graphics: deals with points, lines and shapes.

p1(x1,y1)

p2(x2,y2)

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Raster Graphics: deals with raster images. A raster image is a 2D grid of colored
dots. Each dot is called a pixel (picture element). Each horizontal line of pixels is called a
scan line.

Display Hardware:
CRT Display: 1950, MIT, for the Whirlwind computer
(a vector display device).
All modern computers use rater display devices.

Visual Realism: to make computer generated images look as real as possible.

Techniques for generating realistic perceptions:

Depth: hidden surface removal, foreshortening, and depth cueing.

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Direction: lighting, shading (constant, Gourand, Phong).

Material: shininess, translucency, reflection, shadow, (ray tracing), texture

Ray-tracing: simulate how rays of light reflect from the surfaces of objects.

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Motion: animation

Stereo: two images: left and right

polarized glass, LCD glass, R-B glass,
hologram, out-of-focus

Beyond Realism: new technologies, 90s~

Virtual Reality: interactive animated 3D stereo
Internet: HTML, GUI, Java 2D and 3D, VRML (virtual reality markup language),
X3D.

New Trends:

Applications:
from CAD and flight simulation to data and information visualization;
from workstations to PCs: Windows: GDI, WinG, OpenGL.

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Research:
more realism (radiosity, physically based rendering, ...);
more speed (parallel rendering, GPU, 3D display device, ...);
more data types (geometrical, attributed, scattered, ...)

Course to be taught in five segments:

1. Experience graphics using POV-Ray.

2. Understand graphics using VRML.
3. Look inside graphics using OpenGL.
4. Learn how to design and implement graphics engines.
5. Write graphics applications for New Media Arts.

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SHADING

In computer graphics, shading refers to the process of altering the color of an

object/surface/polygon in the 3D scene, based on its angle to lights and its distance from
lights to create a photorealistic effect. Shading is performed during the rendering process
by a program called a shader.
Angle to light source
Shading alters the colors of faces in a 3D model based on the angle of the surface to a
light source or light sources.
The first image below has the faces of the box rendered, but all in the same color. Edge
lines have been rendered here as well which makes the image easier to see.
The second image is the same model rendered without edge lines. It is difficult to tell
where one face of the box ends and the next begins.
The third image has shading enabled, which makes the image more realistic and makes it
easier to see which face is which.

Rendered image of a box. This

This is the same image with the

This is the same image rendered

image has no shading on its faces, edge lines removed.

with shading of the faces to alter

but uses edge lines to separate the

the colors of the 3 faces based on

faces.

their angle to the light sources.

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Lighting

Shading effects from floodlight.

Shading is also dependent on the lighting used. Usually, upon rendering a scene a number
of different lighting techniques will be used to make the rendering look more realistic.
Different types of light sources are used to give different effects.
Ambient lighting
An ambient light source represents a fixed-intensity and fixed-color light source that
affects all objects in the scene equally. Upon rendering, all objects in the scene are
brightened with the specified intensity and color. This type of light source is mainly used
to provide the scene with a basic view of the different objects in it. This is the simplest
type of lighting to implement and models how light can be scattered or reflected many
times producing a uniform effect.
Ambient lighting can be combined with ambient occlusion to represent how exposed each
point of the scene is, affecting the amount of ambient light it can reflect. This produces
diffuse, non-directional lighting throughout the scene, casting no clear shadows, but with
enclosed and sheltered areas darkened. The result is usually visually similar to an
overcast day.
Directional lighting
A directional light source illuminates all objects equally from a given direction, like an
area light of infinite size and infinite distance from the scene; there is shading, but cannot
be any distance falloff.

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Point lighting

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Light originates from a single point, and spreads outward in all directions.
Spotlight lighting
Models a Spotlight. Light originates from a single point, and spreads outward in a cone.
Area lighting
Light originates from a small area on a single plane. A more accurate model than a point
light source.
Volumetric lighting
Light originating from a small volume, an enclosed space lighting objects within that
space.
Shading is interpolated based on how the angle of these light sources reach the objects
within a scene. Of course, these light sources can be and often are combined in a scene.
The renderer then interpolates how these lights must be combined, and produces a 2d
image to be displayed on the screen accordingly.
Distance falloff
Theoretically, two surfaces which are parallel, are illuminated the same amount from a
distant light source, such as the sun. Even though one surface is further away, your eye
sees more of it in the same space, so the illumination appears the same.
Notice in the first image that the color on the front faces of the two boxes is exactly the
same. It appears that there is a slight difference where the two faces meet, but this is an
optical illusion because of the vertical edge below where the two faces meet.
Notice in the second image that the surfaces on the boxes are bright on the front box and
darker on the back box. Also the floor goes from light to dark as it gets farther away.
This distance falloff effect produces images which appear more realistic without having
to add additional lights to achieve the same effect.

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Two boxes rendered with an

OpenGLrenderer. Note that the colors of
the two front faces are the same even
though one box is farther away.

The same model rendered using ARRIS

CAD which implements "Distance Falloff"
to make surfaces that are closer to the eye
appear brighter.

Distance falloff can be calculated in a number of ways:

None - The light intensity received is the same regardless of the distance between
the point and the light source.

Linear - For a given point at a distance x from the light source, the light intensity
received is proportional to 1/x.

Quadratic - This is how light intensity decreases in reality if the light has a free
path (i.e. no fog or any other thing in the air that can absorb or scatter the light). For a
given point at a distance x from the light source, the light intensity received is
proportional to 1/x2.

Factor of n - For a given point at a distance x from the light source, the light
intensity received is proportional to 1/xn.

Any number of other mathematical functions may also be used.

Flat shading
Flat shading is a lighting technique used in 3D computer graphics to shade each polygon
of an object based on the angle between the polygon's surface normal and the direction of
the light source, their respective colors and the intensity of the light source. It is usually
used for high speed rendering where more advanced shading techniques are too

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computationally expensive. As a result of flat shading all of the polygon's vertices are
colored with one color, allowing differentiation between adjacent

polygons. Specularhighlights are rendered poorly with flat shading: If there happens to be
a large specular component at the representative vertex, that brightness is drawn
uniformly over the entire face. If a specular highlight doesnt fall on the representative
point, it is missed entirely. Consequently, the specular reflection component is usually
not included in flat shading computation.
Smooth shading
In contrast to flat shading with smooth shading the color changes from pixel to pixel. It
assumes that the surfaces are curved and uses interpolation techniques to calculate the
values of pixels between the vertices of the polygons.
Types of smooth shading include:

Gouraud shading

Phong shading

Gouraud shading
1. Determine the normal at each polygon vertex
2. Apply an illumination model to each vertex to calculate the vertex intensity
3. Interpolate the vertex intensities using bilinear interpolation over the surface
polygon
Data structures

Sometimes vertex normals can be computed directly (e.g. height field with
uniform mesh)

More generally, need data structure for mesh

Key: which polygons meet at each vertex

Advantages

Polygons, more complex than triangles, can also have different colors specified
for each vertex. In these instances, the underlying logic for shading can become more
intricate.

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Problems

Even the smoothness introduced by Gouraud shading may not prevent the
appearance of the shading differences between adjacent polygons.

Gouraud shading is more CPU intensive and can become a problem when
rendering real time environments with many polygons.

T-Junctions with adjoining polygons can sometimes result in visual anomalies. In

general, T-Junctions should be avoided.

Phong shading
Phong shading is similar to Gouraud shading, except that the Normals are interpolated.
Thus, the specular highlights are computed much more precisely than in the Gouraud
shading model:
1. Compute a normal N for each vertex of the polygon.
2. From bilinear interpolation compute a normal, Ni for each pixel. (This must be
renormalized each time)
3. From Ni compute an intensity Ii for each pixel of the polygon.
4. Paint pixel to shade corresponding to Ii.
Other Approaches
Both Gouraud shading and Phong shading can be implemented using bilinear
interpolation. Bishop and Weimer

proposed to use a Taylor series expansion of the

resulting expression from applying an illumination model and bilinear interpolation of the
normals. Hence, second degree polynomial interpolation was used. This type of
biquadratic interpolation was further elaborated by Barrera et al.,

where one second

order polynomial was used to interpolate the diffuse light of the Phong reflection
model and another second order polynomial was used for the specular light.
Spherical Linear Interpolation (Slerp) was used by Kuij and Blake

for computing both

the normal over the polygon as well as the vector in the direction to the light source. A
similar approach was proposed by Hast,

which uses Quaternion interpolation of the

normals with the advantage that the normal will always have unit length and the
computationally heavy normalization is avoided.
COMPUTER ANIMATION

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Computer animation, or CGI animation, is the process used for generating animated
images by using computer graphics. The more general term computer-generated
imagery encompasses both static scenes and dynamic images while computer
animation only refers to moving images.

Modern computer animation usually uses 3D computer graphics, although 2D computer

graphics are still used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time renderings.
Sometimes, the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is
another medium, such as film.
Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the stop motion techniques used
in traditional animation with 3D models and frame-by-frame animation of 2D
illustrations. Computer-generated animations are more controllable than other more
physically based processes, such as constructing miniatures for effects shots or
hiring extras for crowd scenes, and because it allows the creation of images that would
not be feasible using any other technology. It can also allow a single graphic artist to
produce such content without the use of actors, expensive set pieces, or props.
To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer monitor and
repeatedly replaced by a new image that is similar to it, but advanced slightly in time
(usually at a rate of 24 or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the
illusion of movement is achieved withtelevision and motion pictures.
For 3D animations, all frames must be rendered after the modeling is complete. For 2D
vector animations, the rendering process is the key frame illustration process, while
tweened frames are rendered as needed. For pre-recorded presentations, the rendered
frames are transferred to a different format or medium, such as film or digital video. The
frames may also be rendered in real time as they are presented to the end-user audience.
Low bandwidth animations transmitted via the internet (e.g. 2D Flash, X3D) often use
software on the end-users computer to render in real time as an alternative to streaming or
pre-loaded high bandwidth animations.

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UNIT IV ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

TOLERANCE ANALYSIS
Tolerance analysis is the general term for activities related to the study of potential
accumulated variation in mechanical parts and assemblies. Its methods may be used on
other types of systems subject to accumulated variation, such as mechanical and electrical
systems. Engineers analyze tolerances for the purpose of evaluating geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T). Methods include 2D tolerance stacks, 3D Monte
Carlo simulations, and datum conversions.
Tolerance stackups or tolerance stacks are terms used to describe the problem-solving
process in mechanical engineering of calculating the effects of the accumulated variation
that is allowed by specified dimensions and tolerances. Typically these dimensions and
tolerances are specified on an engineering drawing. Arithmetic tolerance stackups use the
worst-case maximum or minimum values of dimensions and tolerances to calculate the
maximum and minimum distance (clearance or interference) between two features or
parts. Statistical tolerance stackups evaluate the maximum and minimum values based on
the absolute arithmetic calculation combined with some method for establishing
likelihood of obtaining the maximum and minimum values, such as Root Sum Square
(RSS) or Monte-Carlo methods.
Modeling[e
In performing a tolerance analysis, there are two fundamentally different analysis tools
for predicting stackup variation: worst-case analysis and statistical analysis.
Worst-case
Worst-case tolerance analysis is the traditional type of tolerance stackup calculation. The
individual variables are placed at their tolerance limits in order to make the measurement
as large or as small as possible. The worst-case model does not consider the distribution
of the individual variables, but rather that those variables do not exceed their respective
specified limits. This model predicts the maximum expected variation of the
measurement. Designing to worst-case tolerance requirements guarantees 100 percent of

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the parts will assemble and function properly, regardless of the actual component

variation. The major drawback is that the worst-case model often requires very tight
individual component tolerances. The obvious result is expensive manufacturing and
inspection processes and/or high scrap rates. Worst-case tolerancing is often required by
the customer for critical mechanical interfaces and spare part replacement interfaces.
When worst-case tolerancing is not a contract requirement, properly applied statistical
tolerancing can ensure acceptable assembly yields with increased component tolerances
and lower fabrication costs.
Statistical variation
The statistical variation analysis model takes advantage of the principles of statistics to
relax the component tolerances without sacrificing quality. Each components variation is
modeled as a statistical distribution and these distributions are summed to predict the
distribution of the assembly measurement. Thus, statistical variation analysis predicts a
distribution that describes the assembly variation, not the extreme values of that variation.
This analysis model provides increased design flexibility by allowing the designer to
design to any quality level, not just 100 percent.
There are two chief methods for performing the statistical analysis. In one, the expected
distributions are modified in accordance with the relevant geometric multipliers within
tolerance limits and then combined using mathematical operations to provide a composite
of the distributions. The geometric multipliers are generated by making small deltas to
the nominal dimensions. The immediate value to this method is that the output is smooth,
but it fails to account for geometric misalignment allowed for by the tolerances; if a size
dimension is placed between two parallel surfaces, it is assumed the surfaces will remain
parallel, even though the tolerance does not require this. Because the CAD engine
performs the variation sensitivity analysis, there is no output available to drive secondary
programs such as stress analysis. This software approach is typified in CE-TOL aka TITOL, originally from ADCATS at BYU
In the other, the variations are simulated by allowing random changes to geometry,
constrained by expected distributions within allowed tolerances with the resulting parts
assembled, and then measurements of critical places are recorded as if in an actual
manufacturing environment. The collected data is analyzed to find a fit with a known
distribution and mean and standard deviations derived from them. The immediate value
to this method is that the output represents what is acceptable, even when that is from

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imperfect geometry and, because it uses recorded data to perform its analysis, it is

possible to include actual factory inspection data into the analysis to see the effect of
proposed changes on real data. In addition, because the engine for the analysis is
performing the variation internally, not based on CAD regeneration, it is possible to link
the variation engine output to another program. For example, a rectangular bar may vary
in width and thickness; the variation engine could output those numbers to a stress
program which passes back peak stress as a result and the dimensional variation be used
to determine likely stress variations. The disadvantage is that each run is unique, so there
will be variation from analysis to analysis for the output distribution and mean, just like
would come from a factory. This approach was used by Variation Systems Analysis from
VSA, now owned by Siemens.
While no official engineering standard covers the process or format of tolerance analysis
and stackups, these are essential components of good product design. Tolerance stackups
should be used as part of the mechanical design process, both as a predictive and a
problem-solving tool. The methods used to conduct a tolerance stackup depend somewhat
upon the engineering dimensioning and tolerancing standards that are referenced in the
engineering documentation, such as American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
Y14.5, ASME Y14.41, or the relevant ISO dimensioning and tolerancing standards.
Understanding the tolerances, concepts and boundaries created by these standards is vital
to performing accurate calculations.
Tolerance stackups serve engineers by:

helping them study dimensional relationships within an assembly.

giving designers a means of calculating part tolerances.

helping engineers compare design proposals.

helping designers produce complete drawings.

Concerns with tolerance stackups

A safety factor is often included in designs because of concerns about:

Operational temperature and pressure of the parts or assembly.

Wear.

Deflection of components after assembly.

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The possibility or probability that the parts are slightly out of specification (but
passed inspection).

The sensitivity or importance of the stack (what happens if the design conditions
are not met).

MASS PROPERTY CALCULATION

Calculation of Mass Properties using Traditional Methods

Choosing the Reference Axes
The first step in calculating mass properties of an object is to assign the location of the
reference axes. The center of gravity and the product of inertia of an object can have any
numerical value or polarity, depending on the choice of axes that are used as a reference
for the calculation. Stating that a CG coordinate is "0.050 inches" means nothing unless
the position of the reference axis is also precisely defined. Any reference axes may be
chosen. For example, the center of gravity of a cylinder may be 4.050 inches from one
end, 0.050 inches from its midpoint, and 3.950 inches from the other end. Furthermore,
each end of the cylinder may not be perpendicular to the central axis, so that a means of
determining the "end" of the cylinder would have to be further defined.
Three mutually perpendicular reference axes are required to define the location of the
center of gravity of an object. These axes are usually selected to coincide with edges of
the object, accurately located details, or the geometric center of the object. It is not
sufficient to state that an axis is the centerline of the object. You must also specify which
surfaces on the object define this centerline. Moment of inertia is a rotational quantity
and requires only one axis for its reference. Although this can theoretically be any axis in
the vicinity of the object, this axis usually is the geometric center, the rotational center (if
the object revolves on bearings), or a principal axis (axis passing through the center of
gravity which is chosen so the products of inertia are zero).Product of inertia requires
three mutually perpendicular reference axes. One of these axes may be a rotational axis
or a geometric centerline. For maximum accuracy, it is important to use reference axes
that can be located with a high degree of precision. If the object is an aerospace item,
then we recommend that this object be designed with two reference datum rings per
section, which can be used to define the reference axes. These rings can be precision
attachment points that are used to interface the object with another section of a spacecraft
or rocket, or they can be rings that were provided solely for the purpose of alignment

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and/or measurement of mass properties. The accuracy of calculation (and the subsequent
accuracy of measurement of an actual piece of hardware) is only as good as
the accuracy of the means of locating the reference axes. We have found that the single
largest source of error in mass properties calculations is the uncertainty of the reference.
The dimensional data provided to the mass properties engineer must be sufficiently

accurate to permit mass properties tolerances to be met. For example, if you are asked to
make precise calculations of mass properties of a projectile, you should establish the error
due to reference misalignment as the first step in your calculations. If you are required to
calculate CG within an accuracy of 0.001 inch and the reference datum is not round
within 0.003 inch, then you cannot accomplish your task. There is no sense in making a
detailed analysis of the components of an object when the reference error prevents
accurate calculations. Furthermore, it will be impossible to accurately measure such a
part after it is fabricated and verify the accuracy of your calculations. The location and
accuracy of the reference axes must be of the highest precision.
If your task is to calculate the mass properties of a vehicle that is assembled in sections,
then serious thought should be given to the accuracy of alignment of the sections when
they are assembled. Often this can be the biggest single factor in limiting the degree of
balance (if the vehicle was balanced in sections because the total vehicle is too big for the
balancing machine). Alignment error is amplified for long rockets . . . a 0.001 inch lean
introduced by alignment error on a 12 inch diameter can result in a 0.007 inch CG error
on a 15 foot long rocket section. This is discussed in detail in the sections of this paper
that present the math for combining the mass properties of subassemblies.
The accuracy required for various types of calculations is summarized in later sections of
this paper.
Choosing the Location of the Axes
The axes in Figure 3 do not make a good reference because a small error in squareness
of the bottom of the cylinder causes the object to lean away from the vertical axis. The
axes below (Figure 4) make a better choice.
Figure 3
The first step in calculating mass properties is to establish the location of the X,
Y, and Z axes. The accuracy of the calculations (and later on the accuracy of
the measurements to verify the calculations) will depend entirely on the
wisdom used in choosing the axes. Theoretically, these axes can be at any
location relative to the object being considered, provided the axes are mutually
perpendicular. However, in real life, unless the axes are chosen to be at a

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Reference axes must be located at physical points on the object that can be accurately
measured. Although the center line of a ring may exist in midair, it can be accurately

measured and is therefore a good reference location as can the center of a close tolerance
hole which could be identified as the zero degree reference to identify the X axis (Fig. 4).
An axis should always pass through a surface that is rigidly associated with the bulk of
the object. In Figure 5 it would be better to locate the origin at the end of the object rather
than the fitting that is loosely dimensioned relative to the end.

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UNIT V CAD STANDARDS

GRAPHICAL KERNEL SYSTEM

The Graphical Kernel System (GKS) was the first ISO standard for low-level computer
graphics, introduced in 1977. GKS provides a set of drawing features for twodimensionalvector graphics suitable for charting and similar duties. The calls are
designed to be portable across different programming languages, graphics devices and
hardware, so that applications written to use GKS will be readily portable to many
platforms and devices.
GKS was fairly common on computer workstations in the 1980s and early 1990s, and
formed the basis of Digital Research's GSX and GEM products; the latter was common
on the Atari ST and was occasionally seen on PCs particularly in conjunction
with Ventura Publisher. It was little used outside these markets and is essentially obsolete
today except insofar as it is the underlying API defining the Computer Graphics Metafile.
A descendant of GKS was PHIGS.
A main developer and promoter of the GKS was Jos Luis Encarnao, formerly director
of the Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics (IGD) in Darmstadt, Germany.
GKS has been standardized in the following documents:[1]

ANSI standard ANSI X3.124 of 1985.

ISO standard ISO/IEC 7942, first part of 1985, parts 2-4 of 1997-99.

The language bindings are ISO standard ISO 8651.

GKS-3D (Graphical Kernel System for Three Dimensions) functional definition is

ISO standard ISO 8805, and the corresponding C bindings are ISO 8806.

The functionality of GKS is wrapped up as a data model standard in the STEP standard,
section ISO 10303-46.
OPEN GRAPHICS LIBRARY

OpenGL (Open

Graphics

Library)[3][4][5] is

platform application

programming

interface (API)

a cross-language, multifor rendering2D and 3D vector

graphics. The API is typically used to interact with a graphics processing unit (GPU), to
achieve hardware-accelerated rendering.

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Silicon Graphics Inc. (SGI) started developing OpenGL in 1991 and released it in

January 1992;[6] applications use it extensively in the fields of CAD, virtual

reality, scientific visualization, information visualization, flight simulation, and video
games. OpenGL is managed by the non-profit technology consortium Khronos Group.

Design

An illustration of the graphics pipeline process

The OpenGL specification describes an abstract API for drawing 2D and 3D graphics.
Although it is possible for the API to be implemented entirely in software, it is designed
to be implemented mostly or entirely in hardware.
The API is defined as a number of functions which may be called by the client program,
alongside

number

of named

integer

constants (for

example,

the

constant

GL_TEXTURE_2D, which corresponds to the decimal number 3553). Although the

function definitions are superficially similar to those of the C programming language,
they are language-independent. As such, OpenGL has many language bindings, some of
the most noteworthy being the JavaScript binding WebGL (API, based on OpenGL ES
2.0, for 3D rendering from within a web browser); the C bindings WGL, GLX and CGL;
the C binding provided by iOS; and the Java and C bindings provided by Android.
In addition to being language-independent, OpenGL is also platform-independent. The
specification says nothing on the subject of obtaining, and managing, an OpenGL
context, leaving this as a detail of the underlying windowing system. For the same
reason, OpenGL is purely concerned with rendering, providing no APIs related to input,
audio, or windowing.

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Development

OpenGL is an evolving API. New versions of the OpenGL specifications are regularly
released by the Khronos Group, each of which extends the API to support various new
features. The details of each version are decided by consensus between the Group's
members, including graphics card manufacturers, operating system designers, and general
technology companies such as Mozilla and Google.[7]
In addition to the features required by the core API, GPU vendors may provide additional
functionality in the form of extensions. Extensions may introduce new functions and new
constants, and may relax or remove restrictions on existing OpenGL functions. Vendors
can use extensions to expose custom APIs without needing support from other vendors or
the Khronos Group as a whole, which greatly increases the flexibility of OpenGL. All
extensions are collected in, and defined by, the OpenGL Registry.[8]
Each extension is associated with a short identifier, based on the name of the company
which developed it. For example, Nvidia's identifier is NV, which is part of the extension
name GL_NV_half_float ,

the

constant GL_HALF_FLOAT_NV ,

and

the

function glVertex2hNV() .[9] If multiple vendors agree to implement the same

functionality using the same API, a shared extension may be released, using the identifier
EXT. In such cases, it could also happen that the Khronos Group's Architecture Review
Board gives the extension their explicit approval, in which case the identifier ARB is
used.[10]
The features introduced by each new version of OpenGL are typically formed from the
combined features of several widely-implemented extensions, especially extensions of
type ARB or EXT.
Documentation
OpenGL's popularity is partially due to the quality of its official documentation. The
OpenGL Architecture Review Board released a series of manuals along with the
specification which have been updated to track changes in the API. These are almost
universally known by the colors of their covers:
The Red Book
OpenGL Programming Guide, 8th Edition. ISBN 0-321-77303-9
A tutorial and reference book.

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The Orange Book

OpenGL Shading Language, 3rd edition. ISBN 0-321-63763-1

A tutorial and reference book for GLSL.
Historic books (pre-OpenGL 2.0):
The Green Book
OpenGL Programming for the X Window System. ISBN 978-0-201-48359-8
A book about X11 interfacing and GLUT.
The Blue Book
OpenGL Reference manual, 4th edition. ISBN 0-321-17383-X
Essentially a hard-copy printout of the man pages for OpenGL.
Includes a poster-sized fold-out diagram showing the structure of an idealised
OpenGL implementation.
The Alpha Book (white cover)
OpenGL Programming for Windows 95 and Windows NT. ISBN 0-201-40709-4
A book about interfacing OpenGL with Microsoft Windows

The Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) (pronounced eye-jess) is a

vendor-neutral file

format that

allows

the digital

exchange of

information

among computer-aided design (CAD) systems.

The official title of IGES is Digital Representation for Communication of Product
Definition Data, first published in January, 1980 by the U.S. National Bureau of
Standards as NBSIR 80-1978. Many documents (like early versions of the Defense
Standards MIL-PRF-28000[1] and MIL-STD-1840[2]) referred to it as ASME Y14.26M,
the designation of the ANSI committee that approved IGES Version 1.0.
Using IGES, a CAD user can exchange product data models in the form of circuit
diagrams, wireframe, freeform surface or solid modelingrepresentations. Applications
supported by IGES include traditional engineering drawings, models for analysis, and
other manufacturingfunctions.
CAD DATA EXCHANGE

CAD data exchange involves a number of software technologies and methods

to translate data from one Computer-aided design system to another CAD file format.

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This PLMtechnology

is

required

to

facilitate

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collaborative

work

(CPD)

between OEMs and their suppliers.

The main topic is with the translation of geometry (wireframe, surface and solid) but also
of

importance

is

other

data

such

as

attributes; metadata, assembly

structure and featuredata.

Methods of translation
There are basically three methods of transferring data from one CAD system to another.

Direct CAD system export/import

Direct 3rd party translators.

Intermediate data exchange formats

Direct internal
Some CAD systems can directly read and/or write other CAD formats, simply by using
file open and file save as options. As most CAD file formats are not open, this option is
limited to either systems owned by the same company or via hacking of competitor's file
format.
Direct external
There are a number of companies that specialize in CAD data translation software,
providing software that can read one system and write the information in another CAD
system format. These systems have their own proprietary intermediate format some of
which will allow reviewing the data during translation. Some of these translators work
stand-alone while others require one or both of the CAD packages installed on the
translation machine as they use code (APIs) from these systems to read/write the data.
Data translation formats
A common method of translation is via an intermediary format. The sending CAD system
exports out to this format and the receiving CAD system reads in this format. Some
formats are independent of the CAD vendors being defined by standards organisations
while others, although owned by a company, are widely used and are regarded as quasi
industry standards. It is becoming increasingly common for companies owning these

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quasi industry standards to further the use of their formats by openly publishing these
data formats.
Example formats:

STEP ISO 10303, a replacement for IGES and VDA-FS with the CAD specific

parts:

STEP AP203 and AP214: Mechanical CAD systems

STEP AP210: CAD systems for printed circuit board

STEP AP212: CAD systems for electrical installation and cable harness

STEP-NC AP238: CAD, CAM, and CNC machining process information

STEP AP 242, Managed Model-Based 3D Engineering the merging of

the two leading STEP application protocols, AP 203 and AP 214

IGES

VDA-FS

DXF

Parasolid XT

JT Open

DRG

A number of CAD data exchange methods are described by recent academic studies.
The neutral modeling command (NMC) method,[1] proposed by Zhejiang University, is
an example of these methods.
Level of information detail translated.
As each CAD system has its own method of describing geometry, both mathematically
and structurally, there is always some loss of information when translating data from one
CAD data format to another. The intermediate file formats are also limited in what they
can describe, and they can be interpreted differently by both the sending and receiving
systems.
It is therefore important when transferring data between systems to identify what needs to
be translated.

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If only the 3D model is required for the downstream process, then only the model

description needs to be transferred. However, there are levels of detail. For example: is
the data wireframe, surface, or solid; is the topology (BREP) information required; must
the face and edge identifications be preserved on subsequent modification; must the
feature information and history be preserved between systems; and is PMI annotation to
be transferred.
With product models, retaining the assembly structure may be required.
If drawings need to be translated, the wireframe geometry is normally not an issue;
however text, dimensions and other annotation can be an issue, particularly fonts and
formats.
No matter what data is to be translated, there is also a need to preserve attributes (such as
color and layer of graphical objects) and text information stored within the files.
Sometimes, however, there is a problem caused by too much information being
preserved. An example are the constraints placed on designers arising out of the design
intent-history captured in parametric design systems. The receiving system must provide
designers with the design freedom to modify geometry without having to understand the
history of, or undo, the design tree.
Some translation methods are more successful than others at translating data between
CAD systems.

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