PHYS 111 - Additional final preparation.

Concepts to know for the final which werent covered in the first midterm.
1. Star formation:
a. Virial theorem: What conditions are required to form a star?
The viral theorem
2K + U = 0
describes the condition of equilibrium for a stable, gravitationally bound system. If twice the total
internal kinetic energy of a molecular cloud (2K) exceeds the absolute value of the gravitational
potential energy (|U|), the force due to the gas pressure will dominate the force of gravity and
the cloud will expand. On the other hand, if the internal kinetic energy is too low, the cloud will
collapse. The boundary between these two cases describes the critical condition for stability
when rotation, turbulence, and magnetic fields are neglected. That is,
2K > |U| > Expansion
2K < |U| > Collapse

b. Can you calculate the Jeans Mass of a cloud?

The minimum mass necessary to initiate the spontaneous collapse of a cloud must satisfy:

is called the Jeans mass.

c. Why does the cloud fragment upon collapse?

Since the masses of fairly large molecular clouds could exceed the Jeans limit from part
1b, this seems to imply that stars can form with very large masses, possibly up to the initial
mass of the cloud. However, observations show that this does not happen. Furthermore, it
appears that stars frequently (perhaps even preferentially) tend to form in groups, ranging from
binary star systems to clusters that contain hundreds of thousands of members.

This process of fragmentation that segments a collapsing cloud is an aspect of star

formation that is under significant investigation. An important consequence of the collapse of a
molecular cloud is that the density of the cloud increases by many orders of magnitude during
free-fall. Consequently, since T remains nearly constant throughout much of the collapse, it
appears that the Jeans mass must decrease. After collapse has begun, any initial
inhomogeneities in density will cause individual sections of the cloud to satisfy the Jeans mass
limit independently and begin to collapse locally, producing smaller features within the original
cloud. The cascading collapse could lead to the formation of large numbers of smaller objects.
2. Main Sequence:
a. How does a stars luminosity relate to its mass on the main sequence?
Stars burning on the main sequence have luminosities such that

b. Use the above relation to determine the time on the main sequence.

c. What is the primary fusion product being created on the main sequence?
Helium-4
i.

What are the two modes of burning hydrogen to helium?

Proton-proton chains. CNO cycle.

ii. In what types of stars are proton-proton chain or CNO cycle dominant?
Proton-proton chains are dominant in stars smaller than 1.2 solar masses while the CNO cycle
is dominant in stars with mass greater than 1.2 solar masses.
d. What is the dominant mode of energy transport?
In regions with a low temperature gradient and a low enough opacity to allow energy transport
via radiation, radiation is the dominant mode of energy transport.
i.

When does radiation transport become ineffective?

A high opacity or high luminosity can cause a high temperature gradient, which results from a
slow flow of energy. Those layers where convection is more effective than radiative diffusion at
transporting energy will become convection zones.

ii. When does convection become effective?

If the temperature gradient becomes too steep, convection can begin to plan an important role
in the transport of energy.
1. In what types of stars is convection important near the surface?
In stars with mass between 0.5-1.5 solar masses.
2. In what types of stars is convection important near the core?
In stars with mass greater than 1.5 solar masses.

e. Can you identify the spectral type of a star based on its spectrum?
Yes. In astronomy, stellar classification is the classification of stars based on their spectral
characteristics. Light from the star is analyzed by splitting it with a prism or diffraction grating
into a spectrum exhibiting the rainbow of colors interspersed with absorption lines.
i.

What causes the absorption lines and breaks in certain stars spectra?

Each line indicates an ion of a certain chemical element, with the line strength indicating the
abundance of that ion. The relative abundance of the different ions varies with the temperature
of the photosphere. The spectral class of a star is a short code summarizing the ionization state,
giving an objective measure of the photosphere's temperature and density.

ii. What is the dominant source of opacity in the inner regions of stars?
The primary source of the continuum opacity in the atmospheres of stars later than F0 is the
photoionization of H- ions. An H- ion is a hydrogen atom that possesses and extra electron.
Because of the partial shielding that the nucleus provides, a second electron can be loosely
bound to the atom on the side of the ion opposite that of the first electron. In this position the
second electron is closer to the positively charged nucleus than it is to the negatively charged
electron. The net force is, therefore, attractive.
For stars of spectral types B and A, the photoionization of hydrogen atoms and free-free
absorption are the main sources of the continuum opacity. At the even higher temperatures
encountered for O stars, the ionization of atomic hydrogen means that electron scattering
becomes more and more important, with the photoionization of helium also contributing to the
opacity.
The total opacity is the sum of the opacities due to all source:

f. Why do stars luminosities slightly increase while on the main sequence?

As the Sun fuses hydrogen, the core begins to become "clogged up" with helium "ash", which
would tend to damp out the fusion reaction. The helium ash also increases the density of the
core. The result is that the temp and pressure goes up which increases the fusion rate which
tends to overcompensate for the helium build up. The increased fusion rate causes the star's
luminosity and radius to go up.

3. Post Main Sequence:

a. What causes a star to leave the main sequence?
Eventually the core exhausts its supply of hydrogen and the star begins to evolve off of the main
sequence. Without the outward pressure generated by the fusion of hydrogen to counteract the
force of gravity the core contracts until either electron degeneracy pressure becomes sufficient
to oppose gravity or the core becomes hot enough (around 100 MK) for helium fusion to begin.
Which of these happens first depends upon the star's mass.
b. What type of fusion is occurring along the red-giant branch?
Hydrogen shell burning via proton-proton chain.

c. When do stars leave the red-giant branch for the Horizontal Branch?
If the star has more than about 0.5 solar masses, the core eventually reaches the temperature
necessary for the fusion of helium into carbon through the triple-alpha process. The initiation of
helium fusion begins across the core region, which will cause an immediate temperature rise
and a rapid increase in the rate of fusion. Within a few seconds the core becomes nondegenerate and quickly expands, producing an event called helium flash. The output of this
event is absorbed by the layers of plasma above, so the effects are not seen from the exterior of
the star. The star now changes to a new equilibrium state, and its evolutionary path switches
from the red giant branch (RGB) onto the horizontal branch of the HertzsprungRussell
diagram.
d. Why is He burning referred to as the Triple Alpha Process?
Helium burning is called the triple-alpha process because the net effect is to combine 3 alpha
particles (that is, 3 He-4 nuclei) to form a C-12 nucleus.
e. What causes the star to leave the Horizontal Branch for the Asymptotic Giant
Branch?
The star enters the Asymptotic Giant Branch after it consumes the helium at the core. Hydrogen
and helium fusion continues in shells around a hot core of carbon and oxygen.
4. Late Stage Evolution
a. Below what mass can a star not burn C & O in its core?
8 solar masses
i.

What happens to low mass stars after the asymptotic branch?

These mid-range stars ultimately reach the tip of the asymptotic-giant-branch and run out of fuel
for shell burning. They are not sufficiently massive to start full-scale carbon fusion, so they
contract again, going through a period of post-asymptotic-giant-branch superwind to produce a
planetary nebula with an extremely hot central star.
ii. What is the compact object that remains after the planetary nebula?
The central star then cools to a white dwarf.
iii. What is the maximum mass of a white dwarf?
The physics of degeneracy yields a maximum mass for a non-rotating white dwarf, the
Chandrasekhar limitapproximately 1.4 M beyond which it cannot be supported by electron
degeneracy pressure.
b. Above what mass can a star continue to fuse heavier elements beyond C & O?

8 solar masses
i. What is the heaviest element that can be created by fusion that results in a net
release of energy?
Iron
ii. What are photodisintegration and electron capture and why are they important
in massive stellar cores?
Photodisintegration (also called phototransmutation) is a physical process in which an extremely
high energy gamma ray is absorbed by an atomic nucleus and causes it to enter an excited
state, which immediately decays by emitting a subatomic particle.
Electron capture (K-electron capture, also K-capture, or L-electron capture, L-capture) is a
process in which the proton-rich nucleus of an electrically neutral atom absorbs an inner atomic
electron, usually from the K or L electron shell. This process thereby changes a nuclear proton
to a neutron and simultaneously causes the emission of an electron neutrino.
Neutrinos interact very weakly with matter and easily escape the star. Energy is leaving, and
with it goes the pressure support. This causes core collapse which causes the star to become a
Supernova.
c. Above what mass can a neutron star no longer be maintained by the neutron
degeneracy pressure?
Above 2.5 solar masses.
i.

What is the ultimate result of a neutron star collapse?

A black hole.
5. Radiative Transfer:
a. What are the three primary sources of opacity in stars?
Free-Free absorption. Electron scattering. Photoionization of H-.
i.

What are the opacities as a function of wavelength?

1. Some sources of opacity only effect specific wavelengths. Why?

That is when the photon has the proper energy to interact with some opacity source (particle).

b. What is the equation for how flux is attenuated as it passes through a gas?

c. How are the opacity, , and the cross section, , related to each other?
The opacity of the stellar material is determined by the details of how photons interact with
particles (atoms, ions, and free electrons). If the photon passes within the cross sectional area
of the particle the photon may either be absorbed or scattered.
d. What is a mean free path and how does it relate to the optical depth, ?

The optical depth is the number of mean free paths along the line of sight.
e. What is the typical number of scatterings a photon must endure before traveling
some distance, d, given in terms of the mean free path, l?
N = (d/l)^2
6. Excitation and Ionization
a. What equation gives the ratio of the number of atoms in two excited states?
The Boltzman Equation.

i. At low temperatures, nearly all atoms are in the ground state. At high
temperatures, all states are occupied evenly. Why then can one get more
atoms in, for example, the n=3 state then the n=2 state at certain
temperatures?
The somewhat surprising result is due to the high
degeneracy of the n=3 orbital. The probability of being in any given quantum
state with a given energy level is much lower as the energy levels increase from
the ground state to the first excited state and so on, but the number of quantum
states, each with that same equal probability creates a cumulative probability that
allows for equal number of atoms with electrons in ground and second excited state
at a lower temperature than for equal number of atoms with electrons in ground
and first excited state.
b. What equation gives the ratio of the number of atoms in two ionization states?
The Saha Equation.