vances in Si

for

Electronic war
James P. Stephens
Wright hboratory

ABSTRACT

The denial of effective communications by enemy

forces during hostile military operations has been a
primary concern for military commandcrs since the
inception of radio communications on the battlefield
before World War 11. Since then, the electromagnetic
environment has been in a constant state of evolution
toward more sophisticated jam-resistant and convert forms
of modulation. For example, exotic modulation techniques
employing spread spectrum (SS) signaling are routinely
used by our adversaries to provide their communication
links an advantage over US and Allied jammers. More
recently, these same spread spectrum modulation
techniques are being refined to provide convert, low
probability-of-intercept (LPI) features to the unintended
interceptor. The thrust of this paper focuses on
developments in the theory and algorithms for detection,
characterization, and exploitation of advanced waveforms
using new mathematical signal processing tools introduced
within the past decade. Specifically, quadratic
time-frequency signal representations, wavelet transforms,
and cyclostationary signal processing are introduced. This
overview demonstrates the importance of these advanced
techniques in a clear and concise manner. Applications

Authors Current Addicss:

Wright Laboratory, Avionics Directorate, Electronic Warfare Division.

Based on a presentation at NAECON 96.

US Government work not protected by US Copyright.

IEEE AES Systems Magazine, Noverriber 1996

and future research activities are described in this

significant area that is gaining much attention in a variety
of tcchnical fields.
INTRODUCTION
In the early days of electronic warfare an operator
would tune his radio across the band listening for threat
signals, likely in the form of voice modulation spoken in a
foreign language. Upon detection, he would simply place
his noise jammer at the same carrier frequency with as
much power as possible. The operator, using his ears and
brain, comprised the signal processor. Today, it is not
possible for manual operators to identity threat signals
efficiently and effectively because of the proliferation of
complex waveforms used for voice, data, radar, navigation,
and image transmission.
Modern electronic intercept systems must perform
the tasks of detection classification, identification, and
exploitation in a complex environment of high noise
intcrfcrcnce and multiple signals. Some waveforms are
intentionally designed to makc the detection process
ncarly impossible. Such signals are referred to as LPI or
LPD waveforms, meaning they offer a low probability
intercept or low probability-of-detection. After the signals
are detected, the task of classification requires sorting into
groups having similar characteristics. Parameters such as
carrier frequency, modulation type, data rate, and time or
angle-of-arrival are just a few of the fundamental features
that distinguish one signal from another. Data bases are
used to configure these signal parameters into arrays that
are compared to existing knowledge or to establish new

31

TECHNIQUES

A good understanding of the advances in signal

processing technology requires a discussion of the
fundamentals of Fourier Analysis. From this basic tool,
more complex processes have evolved. Some of the more
significant techniques currently being researched for
Electronic Warfare applications are described below.

Fig. IA. Stationary

Fig. 1B. Non-Stationary

Fig. 1. Stationary and Non-Stationary Signal

records. The sorting and cataloging of signals leads to the

process of identification, a critical step when effective
electronic countermeasures are to be initiated and the
jamming of ones own resources is to be avoided. Finally,
the problem of effectively and efficiently jamming the
signal is met. The electronic attacker must select a strategy
that requires the least amount of resources, but yet offer
the most effectiveness. Getting feedback regarding the
success of your jamming is extremely helpful, but not
always possible. A technique called look-through allows
the jammer to observe his effectiveness on the target. This
may be accomplished by stopping to listen periodically or
listening through the jamming by using special filters.
Overall, electronic attack can be thought of as a game and
many of the strategies of game theory can be applied to
the overall problem. Each of these initial processes:
detection, classification, identification, and exploitation
require advanced signal processing techniques. Many of
the theoretical signal detection concepts in use today were
advanced in the 1920s and 1930s during the early
development of radar technology. But, in the last 20 years
the development of exotic modulation schemes
implemented through advances in digital signal processing
gave rise to signals supporting higher information rates,
greater channel capacity, and improved noise immunity.
These same techniques are now being used to exploit thesc
modern waveforms.

32

The Fourier Transform

Traditional signal analysis deals with the
examination of time and frequency separately through the
use of the Fourier Transform. The Fourier Transform and
its digital implementation, the FFT (Fast Fourier
Transform), allow the decomposition of a signal into
individual frequency components and their amplitudes.
However, the major drawback of these tools is that time
and frequency information cannot be combined to tell how
frequency content is changing in time. For example, if you
look at the light coming from the sun above the earths
atmosphere, it is steady state and its frequency content is
the same over millions of years. If we look at thc suns light
at the surface of the Earth, the frequency content changes
dramatically during sunrise and sunset. We refer to the
first case as a stationary event and the second a
nonstationary event. A stationary signal is independent of
time, whereas, a non-stationary signal changes over time.
Figure 1 illustrates stationary and non-stationary signals
through the use of the Short-Time Fourier Transform
(STFT). The STFT is also known by the names
Windowed Fourier transform and spectrogram.
Almost all digital signal processing systems use the STFT
since the environment is typically sampled over some
time-interval, processed (i.e., FIT), and then output to its
intended function. This process is continually repeated.
But what is important to realize is that a only a portion of
the RF environment is analyzed during a small time
segment.
The STFT was the first tool devised for analyzing a
signal in both time and frequency simultaneously. The
basic idea is to Fourier analyze a small part of the signal
around the time of interest to determine the frequencies at
that time. Since the time interval is short compared to the
whole signal, the process is called taking the short-time
Fourier transform. In implementing the STFT, researchers
began to experiment with the window. How large should
the time interval be? What if we shape the window to give
more weight to the central points and less weight to the
end points? Different windows will produce different
short-time distributions. Unfortunately the estimates of
the properties of the signal are window dependent making
interpretation of the results difficult.
Time-Frequency Distributions

The motivation for the study of time-frequency

distributions is to improve upon the STFT. The basic
concept is to devise a joint function of time and frequency

IEEE AES Systems Magazine, November 1996

600

400

200
120

-200
0
005

01

015

02
025
03
Fiequenq (Hz)

035

04

045

05

frequency

Fig. 3A. STFT

Fig. 2. Time-Freqeuncy Distribution for Multiple Signals

that will describe the energy of the signal accurately in
both time and frequency. The word distribution may be
puzzling to some. One should think of it as a 3D surface
plot of how the energy is distributed in the time
frequency cells. For example, in Figure 2, the
time-frequency distribution for several signals is shown.
Present in this plot is a linear chirp moving down in
frequency, a frequency hopping signal increasing in
frequency, and a frequency varying signal having
non-linear properties. A time-plot of the sum of these
three waveforms is toward the left running up the page.
The power spectral density i:; shown below the main figure.
The nature of these signals is not obvious from either the
time-plot or the power spectral density. That
time-frequency distribution clearly provides a clearer
representation of the characteristics of these signals. The
time-frequency distribution tells not only what frequencies
exist, but at what time each existed making multiple signals
much easier to separate and identify. In other words, the
power spectrum density tells us the frequencies that
existcd for the whole duration of the signal. The
time-frequency distribution allows us to determine the
frequencies at a particular time.
What exactly is wrong with the STET you might
ask? The STFT is easily understandable and it gives a good
time-frequency representation for many signals. However,
it can be shown mathematically that the STFT does not
satisfy what are called marginal energies. Hence,
something is being added or subtracted from the
representation. If the joint density of the time-frequency
distribution satisfies the individual intensities in time and
frequency, marginal energies are satisfied. But, for the
STFT this condition is not satisfied. To do so would
require an arbitrarily small window in both time and
frequency. This is contradictory. A small window in time
results in a wide frequency window. The concept known as
the Uncertainty Principle states that good time and
frequency resolution cannot be simultaneously achieved.
One must be sacrificed at the expense of the other.

IEEE AES Systenis Magazine, November I996

loa:
50 -I

-504

;I

frequency

Fig. 3B. Wigner-Ville

Fig. 3. Cross-Terms Produced from
Wiper-Ville Distribution

To satisfy the marginal conditions, other

distributions such as the Wigner Distribution (WD) have
been developed. The WD is a quadratic (non-linear)
distribution that will produce interference terms, also
called cross-terms, when multiple signals are analyzed.
Although the WD provides improved time and frequency
resolution, the presence of the cross-terms is a
disadvantage. A variant of the WD, called the
Wigner-Ville Distribution (WVD) incorporates smoothing
to decrease the effect of cross-terms by using independent
windows in time and frequency. The WVD) is also a
quadratic distribution but through the choice of the length
of the time and frequency windows, reduced cross-term
suppression is obtainable. Figure 3 illustrates the
generation of cross-terms from two chirp signals through
the use of the WVD. Other distributions have been
developed both to minimize the effects of cross-terms and
because they are simpler to implement in software. The
main stumbling block in attempting to use the wide variety
of time-frequency analysis methods available is the fact
that their behavior is dramatically different from one
problem to the next and each has peculiar properties. It is

33

time

Fig. 4A. Wigner-Ville

15

10

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

lime

Fig. 4B. Choi-Williams

10

15

20

25

30

35

time

Fig. 4C. Rihaczek-Margenau

Fig. 4. Differences in Various

Quadratic Distributions

34

40

45

50

important to recognize that even though a distribution

may not behave properly in all respects or interpretations,
it may still be useful if a particular property is to be
exploited. This point is emphasized in Figure 4 using
topdown plots of the Wigner-Ville, Choi-Williams, and the
Rihaczek-Margenau distributions on identically the same
signal environment. Although, each distribution is
different in appearance, they are equivalent in the sense
that each can be obtained from the other and they each
contain the same amount of information. They are very
different, but nonetheless each has been used successfully
for particular applications. These are just three
possibilities out of a large number of choices, all with
different behavior. There has been considerable
controversy in the past few years regarding the choice of a
quadratic time-frequency distribution for the analysis of
non-stationary signals. The numerous distributions which
have been proposed may be interpreted as smoothed
versions of the WD, with the type of smoothing
determining the amount of attenuation of interference
terms, loss of time-frequency resolution, and mathematical
properties. Here again, the choice of the best distribution
depends on the nature of the signals to be analyzed and on
additional issues such as the mathematical properties
required and limitations in computation and storage. A
successful application of time-frequency distributions
presupposes some degree of expertise on the part of the
user. It is seldom possible to view time-frequency analysis
as a black box where the signal is input and some clear
and meaningful result is automatically obtained as the
output. Some prior knowledge about the signal must
generally be known in order to select the most suitable
distribution and adapt the parameters to the signal, [l,21
are outstanding sources for a description of many or the
more common~time-frequencydistributions.
Wavelets
The Wavelet Transform (WT) is of interest for the
analysis of non-stationary signals, because it provides still
another alternative to the STFT and many of the quadratic
time-frequency distributions. The basic difference is in
contrast to the STFT, which uses a fixed signal analysis
window. The WT uses short windows at high frequencies
and long windows at low frequencies. This helps to diffuse
the effect of the Uncertainty Principle by providing good
time resolution at high frequencies and good frequency
resolution at low frequencies. Unlike many of the
quadratic functions such as the Wigner-Ville and
ChoiWilliams distributions, the WT is a linear
transformation therefore extraneous cross-terms are not
generated. There is one other major difference between
the STFT and the WT. The STFT uses sines and cosines as
an orthogonal basis set to which the signal of interest is
effectively correlated against. The WT uses special
wavelets which usually comprise an orthogonal basis set.
The WT then computes coefficients, which represents a
measure of the similarities, or correlation, of the signal

IEEE A E S Systems Magazine, November 1996

with respect to the set of wavelets. In other words, the WT

of a signal corresponds to its decomposition with respect
to a family of functions obtained by dilations (or
contractions) and translations (moving window) of an
analyzing wavelet. A filter bank concept is often used to
describe the WT. The WT can be interpreted as the result
of filtering the signal with a set of bandpass filters each
with a different center frequency f. In the STFT case, the
bandpass filters bandwidth is independent of the center
frequency. In contrast, the bandwidth of the WT is
proportional to f or equivalently, the filters quality factor
Q ( Q = f / bandwidth) is independent off. In other words,
the WT can be viewed as a constant-Q analysis.
Another interpretation of the WT is associated with
multiresolution analysis, where the decomposition, with
respect to an orthogonal basis set, is performed by an
iterative scheme based on high pass and low pass filtering
followed by downsampling. The signal is then decomposed
into a discrete set of orthogonal details from which the
signal can be exactly reconstructed. This offers the
potential for signal and data compression. Still another
interpretation suggests that the bank of filters represents a
set of matched filters whose outputs represent the
degree or correlation to a signal feature of interest. It is
important to note that, within certain technical constraints,
the mother wavelet may be chosen arbitrarily. This
means that an analyzing wavelet with properties especially
suited to the analysis of some particular class of signals,
such as spread spectrum waveforms, may be chosen to
support a given application.

Discrete Wavelet Tramtwm- Haar Wavelet om BPSK

10

IS

20

25

Fig. 5. Signal Analysis with a Haar Wavelet

on a BPSK Signal

Figure 5 illustrates the use of a Fast Wavelet

Transform (FWT) on a BPSK modulated signal. More
signal detail is visible at the lower end of the vertical axis.
The actual BPSK keying can be clearly extracted at the
1/64 scale and the carrier can be extracted U128 scale.

IEEE AES Systems Magazine, November 1996

X(t)

Fig. QA. Time Domain Implementation

of 2nd Order CyclostationaryProcess
exp(-jxnt)

exp(l mt)

Fig. 6B. Frequency Domain Implementation

o f 2nd Order CyclostationaryProcess
Cyclostationarity
Cyclostationarity is a statistical property exhibited
by essentially all digital signals and some naturally
occurring waveforms. As before, a stationary signal is one
whose statistics do not vary with time. Therefore, a
stationary signal can be sampled at periodic intervals
without being concerned that the signal may he changing
over time. A cyclostationary signal is periodically
stationary. That is by delaying the signal by some amount,
the statistics do not vary with respect to the signal before
the delay. By processing signals as cyclostationary, we can
take advantage of the periodic features of a waveform.
These preiodicitites arise from modulating, sampling,
keying, scanning, coding, multiplexing, and other similar
operations, or from naturally occurring periodic events or
the motion in rotating machinery.
In the same way that the power spectral density
(PSD) function fully characterized the second-order
statistical behavior in the frequency domain of a stationary
random signal, the spectral correlation density (SCD)
function fully characterizes the second-order statistical
behavior in the frequency domain of a cyclostationary
signal. That is, unlike stationary signals, such as thermal
noise, some spectral components in cyclostationary signals
will correlate with each other. There are two intuitive ways
to view the concept of cyclostationary signal processing: in
the time domain and in the frequency domain. In the time
domain, consider a simple delay-and-multiply operation as
shown in Figure 6A. If the signal contains a periodic
component, and if the delay is chosen properly, a strong
sinusoid will be present at the output. The computation of
the SCD consists of performing this operation over a wide
range of delays. Taking the Fourier Transform of each of
these outputs will produce the SCD. In the frequency
domain, Figure 6B, consider up-shifting the frequency
spectrum of interest by some small amount then
down-shifting the spectrum by the same amount and the

35

I101

24

II

h.ome) IHZI

C M-h

Wl

Fig. 7A. 3-D View

x 10

SPECTRAL CORRELATION DENSITY

194ul-95

4 t

Fig. 7B. End View

Fig. 7. Spectral Correlation Density

computer correlation of the two spectrums. If there is

correlation between shifted spectral components, spectral
lines will be generated. Repeating this process over a
range of frequency shifts will also produce the SCD.
Figure 7 illustrates a typical SCD for a BPSK signal
showing both the carrier frequency (16 Hz) and data rate
(0.5 Hz). The end view plot helps read these rates. The
cycle frequency equates to the amount of frequency shift
in the frequency domain interpretation of the SA.

APPLICATIONS
Much work is underway to develop more advanced
signal processing techniques which will more effectively
and efficiently exploit modern digital communication and
radar signals. These techniques are directed at improving
the tasks of detection, classification, and identification.
The traditional STFT has been applied to signal
processing problems in many different areas including
electronic warfare. Some of the major applications for the
STFT include time-varying signal analysis, system
identification and spectral estimation, signal detection and
parameter estimation, speaker identification, speech

36

coding, estimation of the group delay or the instantaneous

frequency of a signal, and complex demodulation. Besides
processing received signals, these same STFT algorithms are
used to synthesize signals using inverse transform techniques.
Some applications of STFT synthesis techniques are
time-varyingfiltering, non-linear noise removal, room
dereverberation, time-scale modification, dynamic range and
bandwidth compression, and waveform design.
While many conventional statistical signal
processing methods treat random signals as stationary,
cyclostationary techniques take advantage of periodicities
associated with signals. Cyclostationary signal processing
has been shown to be very useful for signal processing
tasks such as the separation of spectrally overlapping
signals and reliable extraction of information from
spectrally overlapping signals. For example, information
such as emitter location, modulation type, and carrier and
clock frequencies can more easily be removed in congested
R F environments through cyclostationary signal
processing. The presence of signals buried in noise and/or
severely masked by interference can also be more easily
detected by exploiting the spectral redundancy associated
with cyclostationarity. Estimating parameters such as the
time difference-of-arrival at two reception platforms or the
direction of arrival at a reception array on a single
platform is improved over conventional systems that
ignore cyclostationarity.
Time-frequency representations are powerful tools
for the analysis and processing of non-stationary signals for
which separate Time-domain and frequency-domain
analysis are not adequate. Researchers have applied the
Wigner Distribution for signal detection, spectrum and
instantaneous frequency estimation, and pattern
recognition. Synthesis techniques have been used to
perform time-varying filtering, multi-component signal
separation, and window and filter design. A quadratic
time-frequency representation known as the ambiguity
surface has been used extensively in radar and
communications. In the radar case, an estimation of the
distance and velocity of a moving target is made, where the
distance and velocity correspond to the range and
Doppler shift parameters. The cross-ambiguity surface
provides pertinent information about the performance of
the maximum-likelihood estimator, thus aiding in the
design of the transmitted signal. Synthesis techniques can
also be used for isolating a desired component of a
multicomponent signal, provided the signal term of
interest does not overlap significantly with other signal
terms.
Wavelet theory provides a unified framework for a
variety of signal processing applications. For example,
wide use is found in multiresolution signal processing and
speech and imagc compression and enhancement. While
conceptually, the WT is a classical constant-Q analysis
concept, applied mathematicians have recently recognized
the many different views and applications stem from a
single theory. Still another alternative to the STFT, the

IEEE AES Systems Magazine, November 1996

main application of the WT iin signal processing will be in

non-stationary signal analysis. The zooming property of
wavelet analysis allows a very good rcpresentation of
discontinuities in the signal. For example, as applied to
image processing, the WT is very good at detecting and
enhancing edges. This property is useful for pulsed radar
signals, detecting the frequency transitions of frequency
hopping radios, or any abrupt transitions characteristic of
the signal-of interest. Perhaps the biggest potential use for
wavclet analysis is in signal compression, thus allowing
increased bandwidth efficiency.
FUTURE RESEAKC

As military communication, radar, and navigation

systems become more complex, frequency employing
sophisticated anti-jam (AJ) or LPI signaling schemes to
provide robustness or covertness, the performance
limitations of the traditional radiometric energy dctector
becomes significant. Feature extraction techniques
become increasingly more difficult as the covert
communicator attempts to suppress and conceal his
features. Electronic countermeasures become more
difficult and less effective as .AJ techniques arc
implemented. Classical radiometric methods for energy
detection are highly susceptible to unknown and changing
noise level and interference activity. For example, spread
spectrum modulation techniques make it difficult for the
radiometer detectors to function because the signal is
spread in bandwidth to obtain some processing gain in the
presence of interfcrence. Spread spectrum may also
cmploy spectral overlapping techniques such as
code-division multiple access (CDMA) which will confuse
the radiometer since multiple, similar looking signals,
share a common bandwidth. New signal detection and
features extraction systems are needed to effectively
exploit these new waveforms in todays complex signal
environment. Developing new signal countermeasure
techniques and assessing the performance of these
techniques against a candida{e AJ/LPI waveform designs
requires new theoretical based approaches and
computational tools and techniques.
Timc-series data analysis is presently performed either
with costly and complex instruimcntation or through
computer analysis. Computer algorithms have been
developed which analyze and graphically display the results
of the data for user interpretation. However, new transforms
are currently being developed that provide improved
graphical representations of time varying data beyond that of
conventional FFTs. Pattern recognition techniques will be
merged with artificial intelligence technology and neural
networks to develop automated analysis and interpretation of
signal data in real-time. By establishing a database of
signatures signals will ultimately be automatically recognized
and an optimal jamming strategy generated.
Spectral correlation analysis instruments or
cyclostationary algorithms will become standard

IEEE AES Systems Magazine, November IN6

equipment in communications laboratories and production

facilities with either commercial or educational missions.
Analysis systems could bc designed for quality control
monitoring, testing, system design, performance
evaluation, teaching, and research and development. Fault
Testing and prediction are possible through the analysis of
time-series vibration data of rotating mechanical systems
such as engines. Higher-order cyclostationary moments
and cumulants are being researched to find new
techniques and algorithms for signal detection,
characterization, and exploitation against LPI waveforms
or against signals in difficult environments.
Considerable theoretical development has taken
place regarding advanced signal processing techniques in
the last 15 years. Computer models and simulations have
shown the advantages of thesc techniques. Recently,
algorithms have been developcd which speed the data
processing of these potential techniques to realizable
goals. Hardware is being developed and integrated into
current military systems using many of these, or related,
techniques. Industry needs to be made aware of the
possibilities that advanced signal processing techniques
offers, for cxample, new signal processing techniques are
currently being developed which cxploit the periodic
nature of naturally occurring signals. Periodic, cyclic, or
rhythmic phenomena arise naturally in many areas of
disciplines. Some of the fields where periodic, time-series,
data are analyzed include medicine, biology, meteorology,
climatology, hydrology, oceanology, and economics. The
techniques that are being researched for the detection
characterization, and identification of LPI waveforms
show great promise in these other scientific and
commercial fields. Quadratic time-frequency distributions
have served as useful analysis tools in fields as diverse as
quantum mechanics, optics, acoustics, bioengineering,
image processing, and oceanography. These techniques
have been used to analyze speech, seismic data, and
mechanical vibrations. An exccllent example is usc of
these techniques for recognizing cardiac patterns in the
fields of medicine and biology. Wavclets and
time-frequency distribution are being used for the
detection of elcctroencephalogram (EEG) spikes,
ventricular fibrulation in electrocardiograph (ECG)
patterns, and a variety of other biomedical related
waveforms. Research efforts have been made and continue
to make important groundwork contribution to EW
programs, but also continue to provide research benefits to
other applications.
REFERENCES
[l]Cohcn, Leon, July 1989,

Time-Frequency Distributions - A Review,

Proceedings of the IEEE,
Vol. 77, No. 7 .

[2] Hlawatsch, F. and Boudreaux-Bartels, G.F., April 1992,

Linear and Quadratic Time-Frequency Signal Representations,

IEEE Signal Processing Magazine.

37

[4] Gardner, William A., April 1991,

[3] Rioul, Olivier and Vetterli, Martin, October 1991,

Wavelets and Signal Processing,
IEEE Signal Processing Magazine.

Exploitation of Spectral Redundancy in Cyclostationary Signals,

lEEE Signal Processing Magazine.

Since January 1991, James P. Stephens has been employed as an electronics engineering with Wright
Laboratory, Avionics Directorate, R F Technology Division, Electronic Combat Branch, at Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base, Ohio. H e is responsible for the planning and execution of research projects which will exploit the
theory of communications jamming concepts applicable to future Air Force needs and objectives. His research
activities involve both in-house and contractual efforts in communications countermeasures toward the
development and evaluation of concepts, systems, and supporting technologies with emphasis on spread spectrum
and digital signal processing techniques. Mr. Stephens was previously assigned to Foreign Technoloa Division,
Directorate of Technology and Threat, as an electronics engineering analyst from 1982 to 1991. H e was also
employed by the Federal Communication Commission from 1969 to 1982. Mr. Stephens received an MSEE from
the Air Force Institute of Technology in 1990 and a BSEE from West Virginia Institute of Technology in 1969.

DARSAT-1
Observation Satellite:
adar (SAR) Image

The first RADARSAT image was acquired under conditions

of darkness, overcast skies, rain, and strong wind, at 5:41 p.m.
local time on the evening of November 28,1995. The satellite
was in the ascending, east-looking pass of its 348th orbit and its
imaging mode was a Standard 1 beam, with an incidence angle of
23 degrees. The image shows a portion of Cape Breton Island,
Nova Scotia, Canada, and is centered at latitude N 46 27 05
and longitude W 060 1850.It covers a n area of 132 km x 156
km with a spatial resolution of about 25 m, and was obtained
from an altitude of close to 800 km.
Cultural Features: Appearing as bright spots, buildings, power
lines, harbour structures, railways, and much of the city of
Sydney, including the three wharves in Sydney Harbour, are
evident. Local roads and runways at Sydney Airport are readily
identified. These are indicative of RADARSATs utility in land
use mapping and urban mapping.
Coastal Delineation: Shorelines and coastal features, which are
often obscured by fog or clouds, are clearly visible. The steep cliff
of Cape Smokey, the coastal inlet of Ingonish Harbour and its
barrier beaches along the northeastern shore of Nova Scotia are
evident. Middle Head peninsula, which divides North and South
Ingonish Bays, is also seen. RADARSATs coastal monitoring
capability is not only important to Canada but also to many other
parts of the world, especially the predominantly cloud covered
tropics. The identification of coastal features is also useful in
environmental monitoring programs.
Surface Landform: This image reveals the linear features of
the drumlin fields (elongated hills shaped by glaciers) in the
Islands Mira region. The prominent Aspy Fault and other major
faults and boundaries between rock types are easily identified.
These illustrate RADARSATs sensitivity to surface topography
and landforms, making RADARSAT a valuable tool for
detecting surface mineral deposits and geological features.

38

Ship Detection and Monitoring: Ship detection and surveillance

of activities in shipping lanes highlight another RADARSAT
capability. I n this image, the ship Portland Carrier and its
V-shaped wake can be seen. The shape of its wake indicates that
the ship was inbound towards Sydney Harbour.
Ocean Su8ace: The bright patches show RADARSATs
sensitivity to wind effects on the ocean surface, especially where
the water is exposed to the full force of the winds. The mapping
of currents, sea state, and many other ocean features for weather
forecasting, ship routing and fisheries resource management is
possible.
Forestiy: West of Ingonish, south of the Cheticamp reservoir
(white), it is possible to see the forested areas (darker) damaged
by the spruce budworm outbreaks of the 1970s and 1980s.
The purpose of the RADARSAT program of the Canadian
Space Agency is to provide radar imagery on an operational basis
to commercial, government and scientific users worldwide.
RADARSATs onboard tape recorder and RSIs international
network of distributors and ground stations ensure that users
around the world will have access to high-quality images of the
Earth, regardless of weather and light conditions.
RADARSAT-1, funded by the Federal and Provincial
Governments, was built by the prime contractor Spar Aerospace
Ltd. The satellite launch on 4 November 1995 was supplied by
the United States in return for radar imagery for use by NASA
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration), NOAA
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) and other
US Government agencies.
For more information, contact: Canadian Space Agency,
Communications Branch, 6767, route de IACroport,
Saint-Hubert, Quebec J3Y 8Y9; Telephone (514) 926-4351, Fax
(514) 926-4352, WWW Site http://radarsat.space.gc.ca/, Site
RADARSAT sur WWW http://radarsat.espace.gc.ca.

IEEE A E S Systems Magazine, November 1996