LANGUAGE ACQUISITION X LANGUAGE LEARNING

The expression "language learning" includes two clearly distinct concepts. Language
learning involves receiving information about the language, transforming it into knowledge
through intellectual effort and storing it through memorization. Language acquisition other
involves developing the skill of interacting with foreigners to understand them and speak their
language. The distinction between acquisition and learning is the most important hypothesis
established by Stephen Krashen in his highly regarded theory of foreign language learning
(Krashen, 1988).
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Language acquisition refers to the process of natural assimilation, involving intuition and
subconscious learning, which is the product of real interactions between people where the
learner is an active participant. It is similar to the way children learn their native tongue, a
process that produces functional skill in the spoken language without theoretical knowledge.
It develops familiarity with the phonetic characteristics of the language as well as its structure
and vocabulary, and is responsible for oral understanding, the capability for creative
communication and for the identification of cultural values. Teaching and learning are viewed
as activities that happen in a personal psychological plane. The acquisition approach praises
the communicative act and develops self-confidence in the learner.
A classic example of language acquisition involves adolescents and young adults who live
abroad for a year in an exchange program, attaining near native fluency, while knowing little
about the language in the majority of cases. They have a good pronunciation without a notion
of phonology, don't know what the perfect tense is, modal or phrasal verbs are, but they
intuitively recognize and know how to use all the structures.
LANGUAGE LEARNING
The concept of language learning is linked to the traditional approach to the study of
languages and today is still generally practiced in high schools worldwide. Attention is
focused on the language in its written form and the objective is for the student to understand
the structure and rules of the language through the application of intellect and logical
deductive reasoning. The form is of greater importance than communication. Teaching and
learning are technical and governed by a formal instructional plan with a predetermined
syllabus. One studies the theory in the absence of the practical. One values the correct and
represses the incorrect. There is little room for spontaneity. The teacher is an authority figure
and the participation of the student is predominantly passive. In the teaching of English in
Brazil, for example, the student will study the function of the interrogative and negative
modes, irregular verbs, modals, etc. The student learns to construct sentences in the perfect
tense, but only learns with difficulty when to use it. It's a progressive and cumulative process,
normally tied to a preset syllabus that includes memorization of vocabulary. It seeks to
transmit to the student knowledge about the language, its functioning and grammatical
structure with its irregularities, its contrasts with the student's native language, knowledge that
hopefully will produce the practical skills of understanding and speaking the language. This
effort of accumulating knowledge becomes frustrating because of the lack of familiarity with
the language.

Innumerable graduates with arts degrees in English are classic examples of language learning.
They often are trained and theoretically able to teach a language that they can communicate in
only with extreme difficulty.
INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACQUISITION AND LEARNING AND ITS
IMPLICATIONS
The clear understanding of the differences between acquisition and learning makes it possible
to investigate their interrelationships as well as the implications for the teaching of languages.
First, we ought to consider that languages, in general, are complex, arbitrary, irregular
phenomena, full of ambiguities, in constant random and uncontrollable evolution. Therefore,
the grammatical structure of a language can be too complex and abstract to be categorized and
defined by rules.
Even if some partial knowledge of the functioning of the language is reached, it is not easily
transformed into communication skills. What happens in fact is a dependency predominantly
opposite: to understand the functioning of a language as a system and to understand its
irregularities is a function of familiarity with it. Rules and exceptions as well will make sense
if we have already developed solid intuitive control of the language in its oral form, that is,
when we have assimilated it.
Krashen admits that the knowledge obtained through formal study (language learning) can
serve to monitor speaking. Krashen, however, doesn't specify the language that would be the
object of study, but he was probably using the study of Spanish as the basis for his inferences
and conclusions because it is the dominant foreign language in the United States, and
particularly in the state of California, where Professor Krashen lives and works.
Therefore, it is necessary to explore the degrees of irregularity and difficulty of the target
language and how that affects Krashen's theory.
THE DEGREE OF IRREGULARITY OF THE LANGUAGE AND THE SUPERIORITY OF
ACQUISITION: It is obvious that the effectiveness of the monitoring function is directly
proportional to the degree of regularity encountered in the language under study. If there is
regularity, there can be a rule and such a rule will be useful to produce and monitor language.
The smaller the regularity, the fewer the rules and more limited the monitoring.
Spanish shows a much higher degree of regularity when compared to English, especially in its
almost perfect correlation between the written language and its pronunciation. Therefore,
when interpreting Krashen's theory we can logically deduce that his conclusions concerning
the superiority of acquisition over learning would be more emphatic if the object of study and
analysis had been English as the target language instead of Spanish.
THE DEGREE OF PHONETIC SIGNALING IN THE LANGUAGE AND THE
INEFFICIENCY OF LEARNING: It's also easy to assess the degree of phonetic signaling of
languages and understand its importance. If we analyze and compare Spanish and Portuguese
with English, we conclude that there is a significant difference, being English considerably
more economical and compact than the Romance languages. This means a greater difficulty in

achieving oral proficiency in the target language when going from Portuguese or Spanish to
English than going the opposite direction. It also means that more time needs to be devoted to
the practice of the spoken language (especially listening) and less time spent on the study of
text and grammatical items.
WORD STRESSING: The unpredictability of word stressing in English and the absence of
any indication of stress from spelling is another element to demonstrate that, in the Brazilian
case, Krashen's arguments acquire even greater strength.
There are still many other points of contrast between English and Spanish that show the
greater degree of irregularity and difficulty of English. The fact is that even with a target
language with a large degree of regularity such as Spanish, the contribution of learning will
only be effective and durable if the student simultaneously develops familiarity and skill with
the language in natural environments.
FIRST IMPLICATION: INTROVERSION VS. EXTROVERSION IN LANGUAGE
LEARNING
The effect of grammar knowledge on a person's linguistic performance depends significantly
on that person's personality.
People who tend to be introverts, that show a lack of self-confidence or are perfectionists,
will benefit little from understanding the language's structure and its irregularities. The result
can be even the opposite, in the case of languages with a high degree of irregularity such as
English. After years of English learning in high school and language schools, where natural
deviations are classified as errors and are promptly corrected and repressed, the student who is
insecure by his nature will develop a block that discourages spontaneity due to his awareness
from experience that there is a high probability of making an error.
On the other hand, people who tend to be extroverts, who talk spontaneously, without
thinking twice, also benefit little from learning. Their monitoring function is almost
inoperative and subject to an impulsive personality that manifests itself without much concern
with linguistic forms. The only ones who benefit from learning are people whose personalities
are midway between introvert and extrovert, and manage to apply the monitoring function in
a moderate and effective form. However, this monitoring will only function if there are three
simultaneous conditions:

Concern with form: The learner must be concerned with correctness of the linguistic
form in addition to the content of the message.
Knowledge of the rules: There must be a rule that applies to the case and the learner
knows the rule and existing exceptions.
Time availability: When producing language, the learner must have enough time to
assess the alternatives provided by the applicable rules.

SECOND IMPLICATION: NATIVE VS. NON-NATIVE INSTRUCTOR

English teaching programs in Brazil are based on language learning and work predominately
with the written language, strictly following a syllabus and having as a first objective

transmitting information and knowledge. For this reason, non-native teachers with the
experience of "already having walked down the same path," in general, have an advantage
over native speakers.
In language acquisition, however, the primary goal is interaction between people, in which
one functions as a facilitator and through which the other (learner) selects his own route
building his skill in a direction that interests him personally or professionally. Instead of a
syllabus, language acquisition programs offer human interaction. Here, the presence of
genuine representatives of the language and culture that one hopes to assimilate is
fundamental. Native instructors, therefore, have a clear advantage in a communicative
approach, inspired by the concept of language acquisition.
Krashen finally concludes that language acquisition is more efficient than language learning
for attaining functional skill in a foreign language, and that the efficient teaching of languages
isn't that tied to a packaged course of structured lessons nor is the one that relies on
technological resources. Efficient teaching is personalized, based on the personal skills of the
facilitator in creating situations of real communication focusing on the student's interests and
taking place in a bicultural environment.
Schtz, Ricardo. "Assimilao Natural x Ensino Formal." English Made in Brazil
<http://www.sk.com.br/sk-laxll.html>. Online. 01 July 2006.
Krashen, Stephen D. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning.
Prentice-Hall International, 1988.
The Communicative Language Teaching, also called Communicative Approach or Functional
Approach was the British version of the movement in the early 60s in reaction to the
structuralism and behaviorism embodied in the audiolingualism then predominant.
The new directions in the theory of language aired by Chomsky and an increasing demand for
language teaching among the countries of the European Common Market were the thrusting
forces behind this methodology. The basic unit of language became not the sentence, but the
communicative act. Function rather than form, and meaning rather than pattern determine the
designing of materials. Communicative competence rather than grammatical competence is
the goal. Language is tentatively subdivided in areas according to functionality.
In my opinion the CLT was an intelligent move towards a more humanistic and learnercentered approach, eventually leading to language acquisition through bicultural human
interaction. It will be less effective however if it provides only the artificial role-playing
activities in a traditional classroom setting.
A Psycholinguistic Teaching Approach
Ricardo Schtz
This approach is inspired by Stephen Krashen's Natural Approach and acquisition theory and
is applicable ideally to small groups and private tutoring in non English speaking countries.
We have been using it with a great rate of success at our ESL school in Brazil. We do not

follow any specific plan or course of lessons and books, but promote language and culture
exchange in communicative activities. As language is a result of human interaction, our
school becomes a bilingual living and learning center with small groups led by a native in the
target culture. The instructor functions as a language counselor and facilitator. We respect
each instructor's style and rely on their ability to build relationships within the group and
create a natural need for communication.
We also offer language learning through the study of grammar as a complement, but the
emphasis is on language acquisition through communication, in which the role of the native
speaker is essential.
THE PSYCHOLINGUISTIC APPROACH: The ability to carry out creative and effective
communication is the main goal of all learners. Proficiency does not depend on linguistic
knowledge. Language knowledge is secondary when compared to the functional ability of
understanding and speaking, and reading and writing as a result. Therefore, while a structured
syllabus can provide some basic language knowledge, it is only through the creative effort to
communicate that complete communicative competence is acquired. The full process, from
passive listening to understanding and from active thinking to speaking, needs to be
thoroughly exercised. This can be achieved only through real human interaction.
In other words, nobody fully acquires language ability with only books, tapes, VCRs, CDROMs or on-line exercises. Although such materials are helpful when designed according to
contrastive linguistics, a brain needs another brain to interact with. Like Stephen Krashen, I
also believe in language acquisition rather than language learning as an effective way. But an
enlightened combination of methods can still provide a good language teaching design. For
this reason I believe that natural acquisition through real-life communicative experience can
be complemented with audiolingual exercises and even with grammar study. Our unique
teaching materials based on contrastive analysis play here an important role.
Whenever possible, the student should have a living experience in a country that represents
well the target language and culture for example: the United States, Canada or England for
English. Along with the traveling and the living experience, and especially when this is not
possible, I also support an approach like Charles Curran's CLL (Communicative Language
Learning).
Curran believes that psychological counseling and foreign language tutoring are closely
related. He advocates a unified concept of man and says that physical, intellectual,
psychological and emotional factors can all influence language acquisition. Affection and an
intimate relationship between the instructor and the learner, with both on the same level,
provide the necessary framework. The instructor plays a non-authoritarian and non-directive
role and activities are student-centered. The focus shifts from grammar and sentence
formation to a deep sense of personal communication. When language is used to satisfy a
strong desire to communicate, results can be impressive.
Taking into consideration the predominant characteristic of the Brazilian people open,
communicative, and good at improvising I support a psychological-communicative
approach as conducive to optimal language acquisition.

In this psycholinguistic approach, the counselor-teacher needs to try to build a personal

relationship with the learner. Of course, this psychological involvement depends greatly on
the student's personality. Therefore, the teacher must be constantly alert and able to recognize
the communicative moments and opportunities and to explore them when they arise.
The key element of a psycholinguistic approach is the personal and intimate contact between
learner and counselor. The learner's interests are explored and his own ideas are used as
teaching materials. As in psychoanalysis, learner and counselor immerse in each other's mind.
Instead of texts or tapes the thoughts of the learner, even the ones of neurotic origin, are
discussed and brought to light in clear and appropriate language. The goal is to increase the
emotional load of the conversation, making the sessions more appealing and engaging.
Resorting to the same resources used in psychoanalysis, the counselor-instructor plays the role
of confidant and brings the conversation (always in the target language) to the center of the
learner's interest. The instructor adapts himself to the learner. If the learner is introverted, the
instructor takes a leading role talking about himself, about his experience with the foreign
culture, his difficulties and his weaknesses, opening his own heart, thus improving the mutual
trust and creating an atmosphere for the learner to get ready. If the learner is extroverted, the
instructor understands with empathy the learner's points of view encouraging him to express
himself confidently. At this point the instructor helps the learner to reaffirm his opinions
giving the precise language, just a little beyond the learner's capability (Krashen's
comprehensible input). The learner will then see his convictions in convincing language, with
good power of communication.
We do not emphasize error correction but communicative ability with beginners because
psychological obstacles must be overcome before linguistic accuracy can be attained. Selfconfidence and independence are the first steps. Still, linguistic forms like pronunciation and
sentence patterns are not completely overlooked. These are discussed whenever necessary to
address the learner's specific deviations. Again, the instructor needs to adjust his interventions
to the learner. Introverts normally lack self-confidence and therefore should be less frequently
interrupted and corrected than extroverts.
This communicative-psychological approach we recommend is ideal for intermediate and
advanced students and requires a skillful instructor. If not thoroughly bilingual, the person
should be a native speaker of the target language with some command of the learners' native
language. Besides the instructor's qualification the language therapy groups must be very
small and homogeneous, with affinity between group members being very important
INTERFERNCIA, INTERLNGUA E FOSSILIZAO
Ricardo Schtz
Atualizado em 1 de julho de 2006
As English becomes the chief means of communication between nations, it is crucial to
ensure that it is taught accurately and efficiently, ... David Crystal
Em lingstica e, mais especificamente no estudo do aprendizado de lnguas, o conceito de
interlngua sempre estudado em paralelo aos conceitos de interferncia e fossilizao.

Transferncia o aproveitamento de habilidades lingsticas prvias no processo de

assimilao de uma lngua estrangeira. Ocorre predominantemente entre lnguas com alto
grau de semelhana.
Interferncia a ocorrncia de formas de uma lngua na outra, causando desvios perceptveis
no mbito da pronncia, do vocabulrio, da estruturao de frases bem como no planos
idiomtico e cultural. A interferncia a principal caracterstica da interlngua e da
fossilizao.

Interlngua o sistema de transio criado pelo aprendiz, ao longo de seu processo de

assimilao de uma lngua estrangeira. a linguagem produzida por um falante no nativo a
partir do incio do aprendizado, caracterizada pela interferncia da lngua materna, at o
aprendiz ter alcanado seu teto na lngua estrangeira, ou seja, seu potencial mximo de
aprendizado.
Fossilizao ou cristalizao, refere-se aos erros e desvios no uso da lngua estrangeira,
internalizados e difceis de serem eliminados. caracterstica de quem estuda lnguas,
especialmente na infncia, sem ter contato com falantes nativos.
In the absence of a good target language model, the result may be a terminal classroom
pidgin.
A interlngua se caracteriza pela interferncia da lngua materna. Formas da lngua materna
inevitavelmente aparecem no linguajar usado pelo aprendiz. A ocorrncia e a persistncia de
interlngua significativamente maior em adultos do que em crianas. De acordo com Harpaz,
aquele que aprende uma segunda lngua, alm de ter que executar seqncias de operaes
mentais (estruturar a idia) e motoras (articular sons) novas, precisa tambm evitar os velhos
hbitos da lngua materna. As operaes relativas lngua me esto profundamente
enraizadas pela prtica constante, sendo por isso muito difceis de serem evitadas. Por esta
razo, adultos aprendizes de lnguas estrangeiras acham muito difcil no cair nas formas da
lngua materna, tanto nas operaes motoras de pronncia quanto nas operaes mentais de
estruturao das idias em frases. Para uma criana, este problema muito menor porque seus
hbitos lingsticos no se encontram to desenvolvidos e enraizados.

Dependendo da intensidade de exposio lngua estrangeira, bem como do modelo de

performance a que o aprendiz estiver exposto, sua interlngua ser mais ou menos acentuada,
isto , apresentar um maior ou menor grau de interferncia da lngua materna, como mostra o
grfico ao lado.
Se a intensidade de exposio lngua estrangeira for insuficiente, a interlngua persistir por
mais tempo, causando uma tendncia maior fossilizao dos desvios. Isto porque as
necessidades de comunicao na lngua estrangeira enfrentadas pelo aluno podem exigir uma
freqente produo de linguagem imprecisa, que se no for contrabalanada e sobrepujada por
input autntico, acabar causando uma internalizao prematura de formas da interlngua, isto
, a fossilizao dos desvios que a caracterizam.
Alm disso, se o modelo de performance da lngua estrangeira no for autntico, isto , se o
professor no tiver um nvel de proficincia equivalente de um nativo, o aprendiz j estar
assimilando desvios que caracterizam a interlngua, causando uma tendncia maior
fossilizao dos mesmos.
Assim como um artista precisa de um modelo real constantemente ao alcance de seus olhos
para captar as formas, luzes e cores da realidade que procura retratar, assim o aluno precisa de
um ambiente autntico de lngua e cultura estrangeira para uma assimilao mais pura. A
afinao de um instrumento nunca ser perfeita se o diapaso j estiver desafinado.
When fluency is emphasized at the expense of accuracy, the result may also be a terminal
classroom pidgin.

CONCLUSES:

Qualidade de performance do modelo: Quanto maior o grau de qualidade e

autenticidade do input recebido, tanto menor a interferncia e a possibilidade de
formao de interlngua. Em outras palavras, importante que o instrutor tenha
domnio equivalente ao de lngua materna, principalmente quando os aprendizes forem
crianas e adolescentes.

Tamanho do grupo: Grupos de treinamento em lngua estrangeira tero xito

inversamente proporcional ao tamanho do grupo. Quanto maior o grupo, menor a
exposio ao modelo correto de performance do instrutor e maior a exposio
interlngua dos demais participantes.

Intensidade: Quanto mais intensa a exposio lngua estrangeira e quanto mais

rpido o processo de assimilao, tanto menor a durao da interlngua e a
possibilidade de fossilizao de seus desvios. Em outras palavras, programas
intensivos preservam melhor o potencial do aluno. Melhor ainda a imerso total
proporcionada pelos programas de ingls no exterior.

Vulnerabilidade dos extrovertidos: Alunos extrovertidos, aqueles mais afoitos, que

buscam um canal de comunicao mesmo sem disporem da habilidade necessria,

estaro mais vulnerveis formao de interlngua e fossilizao de desvios.

Extroverso uma qualidade positiva para o aprendizado de lnguas pois impulsiona
uma maior produo oral da lngua estrangeira. Precisa entretanto ser acompanhada de
input autntico e intenso.

Metodologias de risco: Mtodos de ensino/aprendizado que no incluem contato

freqente com modelos de performance autnticos, em situaes reais de interao
humana, so de validade questionvel. Por exemplo, estudo da lngua s atravs de
textos, mtodos autodidticos, distncia, cursos atrelados a planos didticos
seqenciais tipo Livro 1, 2, 3 e emprego de instrutores sem plena proficincia.

INTERLNGUA PORTUGUS > INGLS (ERROR ANALYSIS)

A interlngua criada por brasileiros que estudam ingls como lngua estrangeira, que em
linguagem comum se chamaria de "ingls aportuguesado", tem caractersticas prprias.
Atravs de um estudo comparativo das duas lnguas, e atravs da anlise dos erros comumente
praticados por falantes nativos de portugus, pode-se explicar e prever esta interferncia. Um
estudo desta natureza deve abranger pelo menos trs reas: pronncia, vocabulrio e sintaxe.
Sobre interferncia na pronncia, veja:
Erros fonolgicos na articulao de fonemas:
o Vogais: portugus - ingls
o Consoantes: portugus - ingls
o Pronncia do sufixo ...ed
Acentuao tnica
Ritmo e reduo de vogais
Sobre interferncia no vocabulrio, veja:
Falsos conhecidos
Ambigidade lxica
Contrastes idiomticos
Sobre interferncia na sintaxe (estruturao gramatical), veja:
Contrastes gramaticais
Como redigir corretamente em ingls
Como traduzir
Alm destes trs aspectos lingsticos que causam interferncia entre diferentes lnguas e
devem ser analisados, existem tambm diferenas culturais que podem causar interferncia
negativa. Veja:
Cultural Differences
Estudos comparativos semelhantes podem ser feitos para quaisquer idiomas.