Teaching Language in Context. Chapter 7 Summary
Teaching Language in Context. Chapter 7 Summary
Theory of Bilingual Education
Adriana Sandí Cascante
Teaching Language in Context. Alice Omaggio Hadley
Chapter 7 Summary
Becoming Proficient in Writing
Learning to write is not simply “writing things down.” It can be a slow and painful process. Rivers differs
between speech and writing: “to write (…) communicating a message, (…) is an art which requires consciously
directed effort and deliberate choice of language. Bizzel distinguishes between composing (the process to write,
reflection about the topic, gathering of information, taking notes, working, on drafts, revising) and writing
(transcription of the material itself. Writing is subsumed under composing. Dvorak subsumes transcription and
composing under writing. Writing must be a continuum of activities, more than a mechanical writing down. In the
second or foreign language context, students first struggle transcription before more complex written expressions,
particularly in languages with a difficult writing system (Japanese, Chinese, Arabic, Russian, or Hebrew) even with
the same alphabet it can be difficult for novice or intermediate levels.
Magnan said that at first, students write down or transcribe in the second language what they might say.
Writing is considered a support skill for speaking. The difference between writing as a support skill and it as a
communicative art is paralleled to River’s distinction between skillgetting and skillusing activities. The first one
helps to understand the language and the second one uses the code for expressive writing a purposeful
communication. Skillgetting includes 2 categories of activities:
1. Writing down : copying or reproduction, spelling, punctuation, grammatical agreements.
2. Writing in the language : grammar practice activities, reinforcing growing knowledge
Skillusing develops flexibility and creative language and includes:
1. Flexibility measures : writing framework, transformation exercises, sentences combining,
expansions, or idea frames.
2. Expressive writing : guided and composition that fulfill “normal purposes” (practical things as note
taking, letter writing, to inform)
Rivers says that teachers must bridge the gap between skillgetting and skillusing. Activities might be
contextualized, meaningful, or personalized, and include different creative writing activities, like journal writing or
cinquain poetry. Tasks that elicit performance varying from “careful to vernacular style” (Tarone) develop written
proficiency at all levels.
A curricular planning for teaching writing
Writing begins with guidelines for planning, presented with the ACTFL proficiency descriptions in mind.
Activities attempt to combine writing purposes: writing as a support for what is learned in class; assignments and
exercises present language in context. As competence increases, assignments become less structured, less teacher
directed, and more creative. Students use the language to inform, narrate, describe, question, persuade, express
feelings and attitude, discuss ideas, and support points of view. Writing instruction helps them understand it as a
discourse(Kaplan). There are various conventions that distinguish it in style and tone from spoken discourse. Students
learn more about composing process, recursive, problemsolving activity affects students’ writing and thinking skills.
This chapter is divided into two sections:
1. Appropriate activities for novice and intermediate levels, and
2. Approaches to teaching writing.
Approaches to teaching writing at the lower levels of proficiency
Techniques for teaching writing as a support skill
Writing isn’t practice in isolation it is an interdependent fashion. For example, dictation involves listening,
fill out a form involves reading. To practice various skills approximate it to authenticity. Writing can be used to
support learning. Students can also write in discourselength frames for communicative purposes.
Novicelevel activities
Simple description with visuals
A picture is given to the students in order they identify and list the objects in a room, complete a descriptive
paragraph, use prepositions and locative expressions, or write a short description from questions.
SentenceBuilders
Students are asked to describe a daily routine using a guide with different columns, each one for every part
of the sentence structure: time adverb + subject + verb + object. Each column has a question mark that invites
students to add their own ideas.
Dictation and variation
It can be based on familiar material, students are stimulated to use listening a writing skills. At least a
paragraph in length is best. Partial dictation should be contextualized.
Filling in forms
Students are provided with an incomplete menu or a personal information form. They must complete them
with information they have learned, or their real information.
Cinquain poetry
Students create simple fivelines poems within a very structured framework, using learning vocabulary. It is
constructed according to this sheme:
Line 1: States a subject in 1 word (noun) Tree
Line 2: Describes it in 2 words Green branches
Line 3: Describes an action in 3 words Growing, living, reaching
Line 4: Expresses an emotion in 4 words Your shade protects me
Line 5: Restates the subject in 1 word (another noun) Peace
Intermediatelevel activities: preparing for advancelevel writing
They are a bridge between the structured writing and more advanced ones. Students can grate with the
language in very familiar context, using simple vocabulary, limited narration and description in present tense, and
very basic grammatical structures. Topics should coincide with their level of proficiency or to prepare them for the
next one.
In order to move toward advance level, students need practice using past and future time in more extended
narration and description.
Slash sentences
(Intermediate) Students write short narrative from the sentences cues given, and complete them according to
the example:
The LeBlanc/to spend/summer/in the country
The LeBlanc spend the summer in the country
(Preparing for advance) Students write the paragraph in past, adding details.
Telegraphic sentences
As intermediate level, students describe the events using present tense; as preparation for advance, students
narrate events as a reporter would, by using past tense.
Partial translation
Students apply learned vocabulary and grammatical structures. It can serve as a model for letter writing in a
subsequent activity.
Sentences combining
It helps students to link simple propositions into more complex sentences. They must join them to write
paragraph, or compositions. This technique teaches principles of paragraph construction, connectors, qualifiers, and
other discourse features.
Paragraph completion
Students complete the description of the person in a given picture. This task improves the ability to describe
someone in detail.
Guided compositions: a bridge to free expression
The following activities have characteristics of Hillocks’ environmental mode and Applebee’s structured
process approaches. Teacher organize tasks to help students in the composing process and practice writing using
model texts, smallgroup interaction, and evaluative checklists. Composition tasks are guided through the use of
prewriting and semistructured writing activities.
Multiple tasks based on a picture
Raimes suggests writing tasks around a picture moves students to a higher level of difficult as they add
vocabulary, structural sophistication, and organizational skills.
Tasks can be prewriting for intermediate level (words, or questions tasks), description (intermediate),
narration (intermediate), and narration in the past, for preparing for advance level.
Elaboration
Students write fuller descriptions and narrations using cues supplied by the teacher. Elaboration includes
adjectives, adverbs, relative clauses, or whole sentences. By providing cues related to the content and style, the
teacher encourages students to enhance their creative expression.
Guide composition based on oral interview
Students interview a partner by choosing a topic from several categories (can be present, past, or future
tenses). They take notes on what their partners say. Then, they write a composition of three paragraphs about the
interview. Students practice skills needed at advance level in oral and written aspects.
Guide and free composition: writing letters and notes
Intermediate level
Short essays of 2 or 3 paragraph are expected. Topics elicit personal information and simple statements about
preferences, experiences, and likes.
Preparing for advance level
In this case topics are more specific as, writing a Christmas card, a page of your personal diary, planning on
getting married, getting a job, moving to another town, etc.
Dialogue journals (Novice through advance levels)
They are appropriate for beginning and intermediate students (Staton, Peyton and Reed). They provide a
written conversation between teachers and students that can continue during the entire course. Topics are interesting
to students (questions, promises, apologies, complaints). The teacher then reads the journals and responds to them.
One concern some teachers have is that journals are not corrected for structural errors; it depends on the
attitudes of students. However, Cathcart, Olsen, Leki, Jones, Fathman, and Whalley have revealed that ESL students
want all their errors corrected. Jones found that adult ESL students wanted correction in their journals. Peyton and
Reed suggest teachers can talk to students about the purposes of journal’s correction. It can provide students with
fluency without worrying about form. It is important offer options to teach students different strategies, but respect
their right to choose the kind of feedback they think will enhance their learning.
Writing and the computer
Smith’s experiment: Students use 2 typess of computerbased writing tools.
1. A computer conference system . Students engaged in discussions and collaborative writing activities
with other in the course. These students paid more attention to meaning than accuracy.
2. A wordprocessing program . Students worked on composing and rewriting compositions, producing
more accurate writing samples.
3. A third group had no computerassisted writing opportunities.
Smith found that computer users improved their ability to read and express oral and written ideas. The
control group didn’t develop the same level of expressive skill in writing as who had worked with the computer. He
concludes that combining creative conversational writing (computer conference) and attention to form (word
processing) develops writing proficiency.
Greenia estimates that students with computerbased instruction can produce 3 to 7 times more writing in a
semester than working without a computer.
Tolliver uses email to provide practice for her Spanish composition class. There are other way to use the
computer in writing like specially designed software programs such as systèmeD: writing assistant for French
(Noblitt and Pet). Students receive structure and direction for their assignments, but some of them feel that the tasks
limit their creativity. “comprehensible output hypothesis” suggested that tasks should be designed to student’s current
level of competence (Higgs and Clifford)
Expressive writing at the Intermediate and advance levels: approaches to teaching the
composing process
What do we know about writing? Insights from first language research
Although there are similarities between first and second language writing, the differences should be
recognized. Kroll says that writing in a second language in more complex. Direct transfer of literacy skills from the
native to the foreign language can’t be assumed. First and second language learners may not to approach a writing
task in the same way nor attend to feedback in the same way.
Characteristics of good writers
Writing in any language involves knowledge of standards of written discourse in that culture, as well the
ability to choose synonyms or syntactic structures, and adopt a style with the most positive rhetorical effect.
Instruction in rhetoric emphasizes writing at paragraph level and beyond. Developing outlines and plans, paragraph
with topic sentences, supporting details, comparison and contrast, and smooth transitions. Experienced writers
proceed differently in different genres or types of writing. None outlines before writing poetry. The stages of writing
are not real in a chronological sense. They have a plan for writing in mind before beginning to write: prewriting
(Emig).
Krashen distinguish good writer from poor writer in:
1. Planning : much more than less proficient writers and flexible plans
2. Rescanning : stopping to reread what they have written
3. Revising : making changes in content
Recursively: to interrupt writing because a discovery, and back to reformulate their original idea.
Good writers understand that composition is a “messy process that leads to clarity” (Shaughnessy) and they
have awareness of their audience and reader’s point of view. Hillocks suggests that instruction should concentrate on
planning, organization, or content. Applebee says that different strategies can be taught, some writing tasks require
only routine production, others require more complex problemsolving strategies.
Research in the composing process: first language studies
Conlcusions of Hillocks’ studies:
1. Teaching grammar in isolation : there is not positive effect on writing.
2. Sentence combining practice : positive results, but it is not reinforced, the effects disappear.
3. Using models of good writing : mixed results (benefits, and no differences between groups).
4. Using criteria/checklist for peer evaluation : positive effects, more effective revisions and superior first drafts.
5. Free writing practice : very few positive effects in children.
6. Teacher comments : no significant effects, positive feedback is preferred than negative or none.
Hillocks concludes that combining treatments is indicated to improve writing instruction in native language.
Research on writing in the second language
It is limited, and much of it relates to advance ESL learners. It is focused on feedback.
Research in the composing process: second language studies
Krapels: there are commonalities in their designs:
1. Studies are based on native language. 3. Most subjects were female.
2. Studies involved very small number of subjects. 4. Students were hardly ever chosen randomly.
He reported contradictory findings as results to the second language context. Krapels and Silva
agree that second and foreign language researchers should begin with the differences between L1n L2
writing rather than on the similarities.
Research on evaluation and feedback: second language studies
Some researchers recommend that we respond to content and not to form. Others say that we
respond to both. A general consensus involves students in their own correction is helpful, and a
combination of teacher, peer, and selfevaluation might yield the most successful results.
Empirical studies indicate that corrective feedback on form is not helpful. In Semke’s study with
no corrective feedback on form responded more favorably. The effects of feedback are divorced from
variables presented in the study, and are not entire clear.
Studies by Lalande, Fathman, Whalley, and Rieken showed beneficial results from teachers’
corrective feedback on compositions of second language learners. Lalande concludes that the combination
of awareness of one’s errors and rewriting with problemsolving techniques is beneficial for developing
writing skills. Fathman and Whalley found that when teachers underline errors in students’ texts, thay made
fewer errors in rewriting. Rieken investigate the interaction between feedback type and cognitive style. She
mention 3 levels of feedback: 1) no corrective feedback, 2) indirect correction, and 3) direct correction.
Also the teacher’s attitude toward correction has an effect on students.
Approaches to teaching writing as creative communication
Hillocks identifies 4 modes of writing instruction in native language composition:
1. The presentational mode : clear and specific objectives, teachercentered, and imitation and
analysis of models of writing assignments.
2. The natural process mode : free writing, positive feedback, cooperative learning, low structured
assignments, and nondirectional.
3. The environmental mode : clear and specific objectives, group work, and peer evaluation.
4. The individual mode : tutorials, programmed materials, and instruction oriented to student needs.
Raimes reviews 6 writing approaches:
1. The controlledtofree approach : accuracy over fluency or originality. It is sequenced.
2. The freewriting approach : vast amounts of fluencybased writing.
3. The paragraphpattern approach : organization over fluency or accuracy. Students copy, analyze, or
imitate.
4. The grammarsyntaxorganization approach : works on various formal features at the same time.
5. The communicative approach : stress purpose and audience, interaction among students and
teacher.
6. The process approach : writing process over product.
Silva describes the 4 most influential approaches in ESL writing (19451990)
1. Controlled composition : similar to controlledtofree.
2. Currenttraditional rhetoric : productoriented, focus on paragraph contruction, and essay
development. Writing styles.
3. The process approach : prewriting, multiple drafts, and peer editing.
4. English for academic purposes : write for an academic audience.
Advance level activities: preparing for superiorlevel writing
Students need to learn the composing process, composition tasks involve working to improve
discourse skills, and this can be achieved in some ways:
1. Attention focused in prewriting and writing stages
2. Peerediting help to improve composition rewriting.
3. Analyze the writing style of experts and attempt to use elements of that style.
When designing writing practice for advance level it’s important to include the composing process
in the instructional sequence, Cooper identifies the following:
1. Prewriting 6. Reformulating
2. Planning 7. Stopping
3. Starting 8. Contemplating
4. Making decisions 9. Revising
5. Reviewing
The steps of composing process are taught, discussed and practiced. The typical writing lesson involves 3
phases:
1. Prewriting : choose type of writing, analysis of the model’s organization and style, reader’s and
writer’s purpose.
2. Composing : preliminary outlines, organizational framework.
3. Revision : checklist with questions for reviewing.
This process is illustrated in outline form from Valdés:
I. Step one: before writing.
A. Definition of the function narration.
B. Students choose model of writing.
C. Exercises to distinguish narration from other types of writing.
II. Step two: writing the draft.
III. Step three: revision.
A. Review structure and organization.
III. Step three: revision
A. Review structure.
B. Review grammatical features.
C. Review grammatical features second time.
D. Review spelling.
E. Writing the final version.
Prose style analysis and pastiche
Gaudiani makes students study various styles of writing and analyze them. When they are ready to
do it, Gaudiani reads the excerpt that will be used for the pastiche (parody). In groups they write a prose in
fashion that resemble the model.
Refining the written draft
Peer editing
Gaudiani suggests “class editing process”; students help one to another improve their drafts with a
series of “passes”. The steps in this process are:
1. Comprehension of meaning.
2. Correction of grammar.
3. Analysis of prose style.
4. Analysis of organization.
5. Overview/synthesis.
Self editing using teacherdeveloped guidelines
Barnett outlines a selfediting approach to writing that requires advanced students to write 2 drafts
before turning in their compositions for a grade. It encourages student to focus on meaning. Teacher’s
comments incorporate feedback. It yields far more satisfying results for teacher and students.
Evaluation and grading of student writing
Teacher response has 2 forms: 1) corrective feedback on the microlevel and 2) overall evaluation
in the form of a grade (macrolevel). Perkins outlined the assumptions, procedures, and consequences of
using 3 principal scoring types:
1. Holistic scoring : one or more reader assigns a single grade (rating). The criteria for producing this
impression include:
Clarity of the thesis.
Effectiveness of the issue.
Support and development of the thesis.
Degree of grammatical and lexical cohesion.
Rhetorical devices.
2. Analytical scoring : separation of features of a composition into components for scoring purposes.
Perkins point out several disadvantages:
It isolates text features
Highest score represent a standard, but is too much to expect.
Scoring weights have to be adjusted, to reflect writer’s role or conception of the audience.
The procedure is time consuming.
3. Primary trait scoring : Teachers need to decide what extent the writing sample exhibits certain
characteristics (primary traits) that are essential to accomplishing a given writing purpose. It
focuses on the purpose of the writing task directly, but ignores other important aspects of writing
composing process.