AC fundamentals &

complex numbers

Test results
??

Electrical, Electronic and Computer Systems

Objectives
Sine waves

Average and RMS vales

Complex numbers

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DC & AC circuits
DC = direct current

AC = alternating current

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Wave
A wave is a disturbance. Unlike water waves, electrical waves cannot be
seen directly but they have similar characteristics. All periodic waves can
be constructed from sine waves, which is why sine waves are fundamental.

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Sine Waves
The sinusoidal waveform (sine wave) is the fundamental
alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage waveform.

Electrical sine waves are

named from the
mathematical function with
the same shape.

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Sine Waves
Sine waves are characterized by the amplitude and period. The
amplitude is the maximum value of a voltage or current; the
period is the time interval for one complete cycle.
20 V
15 V

The amplitude (A)

of this sine wave
is 20 V
The period is 50.0 s

10 V

0V

t (s)
25

-10 V
-15 V
-20 V

Electrical, Electronic and Computer Systems

37.5

50.0

Sine Waves
The period of a sine wave can be measured between any
two corresponding points on the waveform.
TT T T
A

By contrast, the amplitude of a sine wave is only measured

from the center to the maximum point.
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Frequency
Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles that a sine wave
completes in one second.
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).

If 3 cycles of a wave occur in one second, the frequency

is 3.0 Hz
1.0 s

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Period and Frequency

The period (T) and frequency (f) are reciprocals of each
other.
1
f
T

and

1
T
f

Thus, if you know one, you can easily find the other.

If the period is 50 s, the frequency is

0.02 MHz = 20 kHz.
Electrical, Electronic and Computer Systems

Sine Wave Voltage and Current

There are several ways to specify the voltage of a sinusoidal
voltage waveform. The amplitude of a sine wave is also
called the peak value, abbreviated as VP for a voltage
waveform.
20 V
15 V

VP

10 V

The peak voltage of

this waveform is 20 V.

0V

t (s)
0

-10 V
-15 V
-20 V

Electrical, Electronic and Computer Systems

25

37.5

50.0

Sine Wave Voltage and Current

The voltage of a sine wave can also be specified as either the
peak-to-peak. The peak-to-peak is twice the peak value.

20 V
15 V

The peak-to-peak
voltage is 40 V.

10 V

0V

VPP

-10 V
-15 V
-20 V

Electrical, Electronic and Computer Systems

t (s)
25

37.5

50.0

Sine Wave Voltage and Current

For some purposes, the average value (actually the halfwave average) is used to specify the voltage or current.
Average value of a sine wave over a complete cycle is zero
Average over a half cycle is not zero
By definition, the average value is as 0.637 times the peak
value.
20 V
15 V
10 V

The average value for

the sinusoidal voltage
is 12.7 V.

Vavg
0V

t (s)
0

25

-10 V
-15 V
-20 V

Electrical, Electronic and Computer Systems

37.5

50.0

RMS or Effective Values

Effective value or RMS value of an ac
waveform is an equivalent dc value
RMS = Root Mean Square
It tells how many volts or amps of dc that an ac
waveform supplies in terms of its ability to
produce the same average power

Vrms = Vp/2 = 0.707Vp

14
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Root Mean Square value

20 V
15 V

The peak voltage is

20 V
The rms voltage
is 20/2 = 14.1 V

10 V

0V

VP

Vavg

Vrms
t (s)

-10 V
-15 V
-20 V

Average = 12.7 V

Electrical, Electronic and Computer Systems

25

37.5

50.0

Angular Measurement
Angular measurements can be made in degrees (o) or radians.
The radian (rad) is the angle that is formed when the arc is
equal to the radius of a circle. There are 360o or 2p radians
in one complete revolution.

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Angular Measurement
Because there are 2p radians in one complete revolution and
360o in a revolution, the conversion between radians and
degrees is easy to write. To find the number of radians, given
the number of degrees:
rad

2p rad
degrees
360

To find the number of degrees, given the radians:

deg

360
rad
2p rad

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The Basic Sine Wave Equation

Voltage equation
V = Vp sin q

Vp is maximum (peak) voltage

q is instantaneous angular position
20 V
15 V
10 V

0V

VP
t (s)
0

25

37.5

50.0

-10 V
-15 V
-20 V

Electrical, Electronic and Computer Systems

18

Angular Velocity
V = Vp sin q

Units for are revolutions/second, or

radians/sec.

q t

2p

2pf

V V p sin t
V V p sin 2pft
19
Electrical, Electronic and Computer Systems

Phase Shifts
If a sine wave does not pass through zero
at t = 0, it has a phase shift
For a waveform shifted left
V = Vp sin(t + )

For a waveform shifted right

V = Vp sin(t - )

20
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Phase Shifts

VB = Vp sin(t - 90)

VB = Vp sin(t + 90)

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Phase Shifts
Example of a wave that lags the reference

and the equation

has a negative
phase shift

Referenc e
40
Peak voltage

30

v = 30 V sin (q - 45o)

Voltage (V)

20
10
0

45

90

135 180

225

270

315

-20
-30
- 40

Notice that a lagging sine

wave is below the axis at 0o
Angle ()

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360

405

Phase Shifts
Example of a wave that leads the reference

Notice that a leading sine

wave is above the axis at 0o

Referenc e
40

Peak voltage

30

Voltage (V)

20

v = 30 V sin (q + 45o)

10
-45

0 0
-10
-20
-30
-40

45

90 135

180

225

270

and the equation

has a positive
phase shift
Angle ()

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315

360

Complex numbers
Complex numbers = x+iy

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Imaginary Unit
Until now, you have always been told that
you cant take the square root of a
negative number. If you use imaginary
units, you can!
The imaginary unit is i or j.
i= - 1
It is used to write the square root of a
negative number.

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Property of the square root of negative numbers

If r is a positive real number, then

-r i r
Examples:

-3 i 3

-4 i 4

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2i

If i - 1, then
i i
5

i -1
2

i -i
3

i 1
4

i -1
6

i -i
7

i 1
8

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Examples
2

1. (i 3 )
i 2 ( 3)2
-1( 3 * 3 )

-1(3)
-3

2. Solve 3x 2 10 -26

3x -36
2

x -12
2

x - 12
x i 12
x 2i 3
2

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Complex Numbers
A complex number has a real part & an
imaginary part.
Standard form (rectangular form) is:

a bi
Real part

Imaginary part

Example: 5+4i or 5+4j

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The Complex plane

Real Axis

Imaginary Axis
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Argand diagrams

- 2 5i

2 2i
4 - 3i

.
.

- 4 - 3i

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Adding and Subtracting

Add or subtract the real parts, then add or subtract the
imaginary parts

Ex: (-1 2i) (3 3i)

(-1 3) (2i 3i)
2 5i

Ex: 2i - (3 i) (2 - 3i)
(-3 2) (2i - i - 3i)

-1- 2i

Ex: (2 - 3i) - (3 - 7i)

(2 - 3) (-3i - -7i)
-1 4i
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Multiplying
Ex: - i(3 i)
-3i - i 2

-3i - (-1)

1- 3i

Ex: (2 3i)(-6 - 2i)

-12 - 4i - 18i - 6i 2
-12 - 22i - 6(-1)

-12 - 22i 6

-6 - 22i

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Conjugates

a bi

and

a - bi

are said to be conjugates of each other.

Example

- 2 i 3 and - 2 - i 3
1 3i

1- 3i

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Rationalize using the conjugate

8i
Ex:
1 3i
8i 1 - 3i

1 3i 1 - 3i

8i 24
8i - 24i

19
10
2

Electrical, Electronic and Computer Systems

4i 12
5

Rationalize using the conjugate

4i
Ex:
2i

4 i i 4i i

2
2i i
2i

4i i
4i - 1

2
-2
2i
2

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Rationalize using the conjugate

3 11i - 1 2i
Ex :
*
- 1 - 2i - 1 2i

- 25 - 5i

(3 11i )(-1 2i )

(-1 - 2i)(-1 2i)

- 25 5i

5
5

- 3 6i - 11i 22i 2

1 - 2i 2i - 4i 2

-5 - i

- 3 - 5i 22(-1)

1 - 4(-1)
- 3 - 5i - 22

1 4
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Absolute Value (magnitude) of a Complex

Number
If you have a complex number (a bi )
the absolute value can be found using:

magnitude a ib

a b
2

The distance the complex number is from the

origin on the complex plane.

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Examples
- 2 5i
1. - 2 5i

(-2) 2 (5) 2

4 25
29

2. - 6i
(0) 2 (-6) 2

0 36

36

6
Which of these 2 complex numbers is closest to
the origin?

-2+5i

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Angle of complex numbers

a bi

b
q tan
a
-1

2 3i

q
r

-p q p

3
q tan 0.98rad
2
-1

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Polar Form

Given a complex number z with real

part a and imaginary part b, its
magnitude is given by

z a b
2

and its angle is given by

b
q tan
a
-1

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-p q p

Polar Form

In polar form, a complex number z is

written as a magnitude |z| at an angle
q:
z = |z| q

2 3i

130.98

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Converting from Polar Form to Rectangular

Form
Given a complex number z = |z| q

a ib
its real part is given by

a z cos q
and its imaginary part is given by

b z sin q
Hence the polar form can be written in two ways:
|z|q
|z|(cos + i sin)
http://www.intmath.com/complex-numbers/4-polar-form.php
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Exponential Form

Complex numbers may also be written in

exponential form. Think of this as a
mathematically respectable version of polar
form.
Polar form

|z|q
Example:

Exponential Form

3p/6

|z|ejq

3ejp/6

In exponential form, q should be in radians.

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Eulers Identity

The exponential form is based on

Eulers identity, which says that, for
any q,

jq

cos q j sin q

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Euler formula for Sin and Cos

jq

cos q j sin q

What is this formula equal to?

jq

e e
2

- jq

cos q
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Euler formula for Sin and Cos

jq

cos q j sin q

What is this formula equal to?

jq

e -e
2j

- jq

sin q
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References
Circuit analysis : theory & practice (Lectures)
Allan Robbins, Wilhelm Miller.
Albany, N.Y. : Delmar ; London : International Thomson 2nd
ed. 1999

Introduction to Computer Graphics course, by Prof.

Yu-Chi Lai
Introductory Mathematics for Engineering
Applications, Kuldip S. Rattan, Nathan W. Klingbeil,
March 2014,

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