Chapter

Cell its structure and functions

In the previous class you have already

learnt about cells and their structure. You
have also learnt about discovery of the cell,
its sizes and shapes, unicellular and
multicellular organisms.
Let us recall some of the activities
related to these aspects. For example
Onion cells were nearly
rectangular while the cheek cells
were circular in shape.
Add other examples as the one given
above.
1) __________________________
2) __________________________
3) __________________________
Primarily, cells are studied under the
optical microscope. When we observe the
cell under a compound microscope, we can
see following organelles: cell wall,
cytoplasm, nucleus, chloroplast and the
mitochondria. However, when the same
cells are observed under the electron
microscope, a few other structures become
visible.
To study various cells scientists have
been trying to observe cells from different
parts of plants and animals, draw their
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structures, take photograph of them and

make of them. These have given valuable
information about the typical plant and
animal cells. Here we will try to study the
diagram of models of the cell.

Typical Cell
All the organelles shown in the typical
plant or animal cell will not exist in every
cell. For example, chloroplasts are always
shown in the typical plant cell, yet all plant
cells do not have chloroplasts. chloroplasts
only in the cells of green plant parts like
the leaf, tender stem etc. The organelles that
feature in most of the cells are included in
this model. The typical cell provides a way
to study cells. Once we arrive at such a
model, we can compare any cell with it.
Observe the given diagrams of typical plant
and animal cells (Fig-1 & 2).
1. What common features do you see
in both the cells?
2. What cell organelles are found
exclusively in plant cell?
3. Compare the vacuoles of plant and
animal cells, note down the
differences.
1

Endoplasmic reticulum
Nucleus

Mitochondria

Mitochondria
Plasmame

Nuecleus

mbrane
Golgi apparatus

Cellwall
Chloroplast

Golgiapparatus
Vacuole

Plasmamembrane

Endoplasmicreticulum

Plasmamembrane

Fig-2 Tipical Animal cell

Fig-1 Typical Plant cell

Let us study the different parts of plant

and animal cell.

solution on the membrane and leave it for

5 to 10 minutes.

Cell membrane or Plasma

membrane
In your earlier class you have already
studied that cell membrane is the covering
of the animal cell. In plant cell there is
another layer present over the cell
membrane known as the cell wall. With the
help of the given activity you will be able
to see a cell membrane.

Fig-3(a) Rheo leaf peel cells with membrane

(For preparing salt solution take 50 ml

of water and dissolve one tea spoon of salt
in it. Stir it well.)
Plasma
membrane

Activity-1
Observing cell membrane
Take Rheo leaf, tear the leaf in single
stroke. Observe it against the light. Take a
small piece of leaf peal with light coloured
(transparent) portion. Put it on slide and put
a drop of water on it. Cover it with cover
slip and observe the light portion of leaf
under the microscope.
Draw the diagram of what you have
seen?
Now put 1-2 drops of dilute salt
2

Shrunken
Cytoplasm
Fig-3(b) Cell membrane

Observe it under microscope. Draw

your observation in your note book.
Compare the observations of both
activities or fig-3(a) and 3(b) and
note down the differences?
Can you guess the reason of the
differences?
Cell its structure and functions

When we put salt solution over the peel

of rheo leaf, water present inside the rheo
leaf cells come out. It results in the
shrinking of the cytoplasm along with cell
membrane. The outer boundary of coloured
area is actually the cell membrane (fig-3(b))
which became separated from the cell wall.
However we can observe the structure
of cell membrane only through an electron
microscope. Cell membrane is flexible and
is made up of mainly lipids and proteins.
The cell membrane is the outermost
layer of the cell that separates cytoplasm
from the external environment. This is also
known as the plasma membrane. The cell
membrane defines the shape and size of the
cell, encloses the cytoplasm and protects
it from the external environment. The
internal environment of the cell is different
from that of outside. Inside a cell, one finds
a very specific composition of substances
and balance of various substances is
maintained. The cell membrane plays a
crucial role in maintaining this balance.
Any substance entering or leaving the cell
can do so only through this membrane. The
uniqueness of this membrane lies in the fact
that it does not allow every substance to pass
through it. The exchange of substances
through the cell membrane happens very
selectively. Hence it is known as selectively
permeable membrane. This characteristic of
the membrane enables it to control the
exchange of substances between the cell and
its external environment. You will learn more
about the function of cell membrane in the
Chapter Movement of material across the
cell membrane.
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Cell wall
This is a unique feature seen in plant
cells. While the cell membrane acts as the
outer layer in an animal cell, in a plant cell
there is an extra layer (mainly of cellulose)
outside the cell membrane which is known
as the cell wall. This is considered to be
one of the major differences between plant
and animal cells.
The cell wall is a tough but flexible
porous layer that lends a definite shape to
the cell and it also provides protection.
Earlier it was believed to be inactive, but it
is now considered to be one of the most
significant organs of the cell that
continuously exchanges information with
other cells during growth and development.
What is the role of cell wall in plant
cells?
It exerts an inward wall pressure to
resist the outward directed pressure
exerted by cell sap hence; the plant cells
can withstand much greater changes in
surrounding medium than animal cells.

Nucleus
Lab Activity
Aim: To observe the nucleus in cheek
cells.
Material required: A tooth pick or
ice-cream spoon or spatula, glass slide,
coverslip, watch glass, needle, blotting
paper, 1% methylene blue, normal saline,
glycerine, microscope, etc.
Procedure:
1. Wash your mouth and scrap a little
of the internal lining of your mouth
3

with a clean tooth pick or spatula

or ice-cream spoon.
2. Place the scrapping in a watch glass
containing a very small quantity of
normal saline.
3. After cleaning, transfer the
material to a glass slide.
4. Put a drop of methylene blue and
wait for a couple of minutes.
5. Wipe off the extra stain with a fine
cloth or blotting paper.
6. Put a drop of glycerine over it.
7. Place a coverslip. Tap the coverslip
with the blunt end of needle so as
to spread the cells.
Precautions:
1. Do not scrap the cheek too hard as
it may injure you (buccal mucosa).
2. Scrapped material should be spread
uniformly on the slide.
3. Excess of stain should be drained
off.
4. There should be no air-bubble
under the cover slip
Observe the temporary mount under
low and high power of microscope. Draw
your observations in your notebook.
1. What was the shape of the cells that
you have observed?
2. Were these cells structure similar
to the structure in onion peel cell?
3. Was there any darkly coloured
spherical or oval dot like structure
near the centre of the cell?
You have already studied about this dark
coloured dot in cells. This is the nucleus.
It was named by Robert Brown in the year
4

Cytoplasm

1 8 3 1 .
Brown had
no
idea
Nucleus
about its
function.
This is one
Fig-4 Nucleus cheek cells
of the most
important organelles of the cell. This is also
known as the cells control room. The
nucleus is the largest and most distinct of
all cell organelles. Schleiden, who was one
of the proponents of cell theory, thought
that new cells were created from the
nucleus and he called it the cytoblast.
Barring a few exceptions, almost all
eukaryotic cells have a nucleus. Red blood
cells in some mammals and phloem sieve
tube in plants are examples of cells that do
not have a nucleus. Even these cells do have
nuclei in the beginning, but it is later thrown
out of the cells and destroyed.
The nucleus regulates and controls all
the functions of a cell and determines the
characteristics of the organism. It consists
of all genetic information. The nucleus is
also closely involved in the process of cell
division.
Cell membrane

Genetic
Material

Nucleolus
Nuclear
pore

Nuclear
membrane
Nucleo Plasm

Fig-5 Nucleus
(view through Electron microscope)

The membrane that encloses the

nucleus and separates it from contents of
cytoplasm is known as the nuclear
Cell its structure and functions

membrane. This is very similar to the cell

membrane. Almost the entire genetic
material of the cells is found in the nucleus.
On the basis of the presence or absense
of the organised nucleus cells are
categorized into two types, i.e. Prokaryotic
cells (without organised nucleus) and
Eukaryotic cells (with organised nucleus).
The above description was primarily
about eukaryotic cells that contained a
membrane bound nucleus. Cells that do not
have a nuclear membrane bound nuclear
material are called prokaryotic cells. We
have mentioned earlier that the bacterium
is a prokaryotic cell. Cyanobacteria, bluegreen algae also belong to this category.

Cytoplasm
When we look at the temporary mounts
of onion peel, we can see a large region of
each cell enclosed by the cell membrane.
This region takes up very little stain. It is
called the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is the
fluid content inside the plasma membrane.
It also contains many specialised cell
organelles. Each of these organelles
performs specific function for the cell.
Cell organelles are enclosed by
membranes. In prokaryotes, beside the
absence of a defined membrane bound
nucleus (or nuclear region), the membranebound cell organelles are also absent.

when it became clear that the fluid is

basically a medium in which various
particles and membranes float around and
that the functions of the cell actually take
place in these organelles, it began to be
understood that life resided in this
organization. In particular, the material
inside and outside the nuclear membrane
was differentiated after the discovery of
nucleus. Hence, protoplasm was renamed
as cytoplasm, that is, cell fluid. The fluid
inside the nucleus came to be known as the
nuclear fluid or nucleoplasm.

Cell organelles
Now let us discuss about some
important cell organelles. 1. Mitochondria,
2. Plastids, 3. Ribosoms, 4. endoplasmic
reticulum,
5.Glogi
apparatus,
6.Lysosomes, 7. vacuoles.
They are important because they carry
out very crucial functions in cells.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

When the cell was observed under the
electron microscope, a network of
membranes was observed throughout the
cytoplasm. This network creates passages
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Protoplasm vs. cytoplasm

For a long time it was believed that the
essence of life was stored in the fluid found
inside the cell. Hence this was named
protoplasm which means life fluid. But
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Smooth
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Fig-6 Endoplansmic Reticulum
5

within the cytoplasm for the transport of

substances from one part of the cell to
another. This network of membranes is
known as the endoplasmic reticulum.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a
large network of membrane-bound tubes
and sheets. The ER membrane is similar in
structure to the plasma membrane.
Endoplasmic reticulum may have some
granule like structure on there surface
called as ribosomes, such parts are called
as rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
Areas/sections that do not have ribosomes
on them are smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER). Rough endoplasmic reticulum is
sites of protein manufacture. The SER helps
in the manufacture of fat molecules, or
lipids, important for cell function. The
manufactured proteins and lipids are then
sent to various places in the cell depending
on need, using the ER. Some of these
proteins and lipids help in building the cell
membrane.
Thus, one function of the ER is to serve
as channels for the transport of materials
(especially proteins) between various
regions of the cytoplasm or between the
cytoplasm and the nucleus. It also functions
as a cytoplasmic framework providing a
surface for some of the biochemical
activities of the cell. In vertebrate liver cells
SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying
many poisons and drugs.

Golgi body or Golgi apparatus

Although Camillo Golgi had observed
this organelle in the year 1898 using an
optical microscope, its finer structure
6

came to be observed only under an electron

microscope.

Fig-7 Golgi apparatus

This organelle is also made up of

several membranes. These membranes
create sac-like structures around which
many fluid-filled vesicles abound. The
proteins and other substances produced in
the ribosome reaches the golgi body
through these vesicles. Here, these
substances are altered slightly. In one
sense, the function of the golgi bodies is
to package various substances before they
are transported to other parts of the cell.
From here these substances are either sent
towards the cell membrane or to another
organelle, the lysosome. After reaching the
cell membrane these substances are
secreted from the cell, and sometimes even
used to regenerate or repair the membrane.
The number of golgi bodies varies from
cell to cell. Their numbers are particularly
large in those cells that secrete hormones
and enzymes.

Lysosome
One of the facts that troubled the
scientists for a long time was that, certain
enzymes present in the cell that had the
Cell its structure and functions

ability to destroy almost all the structures

in the cell didnt damage it. This puzzle was
solved when lysosomes were discovered as
tiny particles visible in the cytoplasm. It
was found that they contained the
destructive enzymes. Thus the enzymes
normally do not come in contact with the
rest of the cell. The materials that need to
be destroyed are transported to the
lysosomes. At times, the lysosomes burst
and the enzymes are released to digest the
cell. Hence, lysosomes are also known as
the suicide bags of the cell.

Mitochondria

You can do this activity by taking other

available material like leaves of Casiatora
or Cheek cells.
You may have observed green oval (or)
cylindrical grains scattered in the
cytoplasm. These are the mitochondria
Matrix
Cristae

Inner
Membrane

Outer
Membrane
Fig-8(b) L.S. of Mitochondria

Activity -2
Observing Mitochondria
Let us do this activity with onion peel.
i) Make a fresh solution of Janus
Green-B in a Beaker
ii) Mix 200mg Janus Green-B in 100ml
of water
iii) Take a watch glass pour some solution.
Put the onion peel in this solution and
keep it for about half an hour.
iv) Keep a piece of onion peel on the
slide and wash thoroughly with
water.
v) Cover the slide with a cover slip and
observe it under microscope at high
magnification.
Observe and
make a sketch of
the same in your
note
book.
Compare it with
Fig-8(a) Mitochondria
the given diagram.
in onion peel cell
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Mitochondria are small, spherical or

cylindrical organelles. Generally a
mitochondrion is 2-8 micron long and
about 0.5 micron wide. It is about 150 times
smaller than the nucleus. There are about
100-150 mitochondria in each cell. When
seen under the optical microscope, the
mitochondria appear as oval or cylindrical
dots in the cell. Electron microscope
reveals their unique internal structure in
great detail.
Information derived from the electron
microscope tells us that the mitochondria
are made of a double-membrane wall. The
inner membrane of the wall protrudes into
the interior in folds and forms structures
called cristae; the space between cristae is
known as the matrix.
Mitochondria are responsible for
cellular respiration, a process through
which the cell derives its energy to do work.
Because of this, mitochondria are also
known as the cells powerhouse of the cell.
7

Ribosomes
There are small granul like structures
in the cytoplasm of the cell. They are called
ribosomes. We can see ribosomes on the
surface of rough endoplasmic reticulam.

Plastids
Activity - 3

that you have observed under the

microscope.
Chloroplast is a type of plastid. Plastids
are present only in plant cells. Plastids are
mainly of two types chromoplasts
(coloured) and leucoplasts (colourless).
Chloroplasts are of different shapes
Granum

Outer Membrane

Observation of chloroplast in rheo

leaf
1. Take the peel of Rheo leaf and
mount it in water on a slide.
2. Observe it under compund
microscope.
Let us make a drawing of the
observations.
You will observe
small green granules
called chloroplast.
They mainly contain
green substance
called chlorophyll.
Fig-9(a)

Activity-4
Observing chloroplast in algae
Collect some algae from pond and
separate out thin filaments of them. Place
a few filaments on a slide. Observe it under
the microscope. Take the help of given
figure and draw the picture of chloroplast

Lumen

Inner Membrane
Stroma

Thylakoids

Fig-9(c)

disc, oval etc. In algae, these can be found

as ladders, stars, spirals or reticulate. The
diameter of chloroplasts in higher plants
can vary between 4 to 10 micron. The
primary function of chloroplasts is to trap
the energy from sunlight and transform it
to chemical energy, thus helping to carry
out photosynthesis.

Vacuole
Activity-5
Observing vacuoles
1. Take the leaf or stem of any
succulent plant (like the torch
cactus).
2. Take thin cross section of stem of
cactus in a watch glass containing
water.
3. Stain it with dilute safranine
solution.
4. Observe the section under low and
high power microscope.

Fig-9(b) Chloroplasts in Algae

8

Cell its structure and functions

What do you observe?

The large empty spaces present in the
cell are vacuoles. These are fluid-filled saclike structures. In animal cells vacuoles are
small in size while in plant cells they are
large. In mature plant cells they might
occupy almost the entire cell space.

Do you know?
Certain organelles are present in
large number in the cell for example
cells involved in photosynthesis may
contain around 50 to 200 chloroplasts.

Are cells flat?

Usually when cells are seen under the
microscope, the image appears as flat and
two-dimensional. It seems that all the
organelles in the cell are situated in one
plane.
In reality, cells have length, breadth and
thickness. We can easily see the length and
breadth. Since we cannot see the thickness
of the cells under the microscope, we tend
to think that these are flat objects. However,
there are a few easy ways to observe the
thickness of the cells. The easiest method
is to slightly change the focus while
viewing plant cells on the slide and look at
the cell wall. Youll find that you are able

Fig-10 Cell
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to see the thickness of the wall. This threedimensional image becomes clear if you
reduce the intensity of light as well.
Each cell thus acquires its structure and
ability to function because of the
organization of its membrane and
organelles in a specific way.

Where do cells come from?

The observations so far made it clear
that all living beings are made of cells and
that each cell has a nucleus. Around 183839, two scientists expressed this in the form
of a theory. The scientists were Matthias
Jakob Schleiden (1804-1881) and Theodor
Schwann (1810-1882). Schleiden was a
botanist while Schwann was a zoologist. For
the record, it should be mentioned that
quite a few scientists had recognized by
that time that cells were present in all living
organisms and were expressing it in their
own ways. However, Schleiden and Schwann
were the first to claim that this fact was
true for the entire plant and animal
kingdom. In other words, they took the first
bold step of generalizing from observations
and coming up with a theory which was
applicable to all living organisms. And
because of this, the credit for propounding
the cell theory goes to them. What is
noteworthy is that there was a gap of about
200 years between Robert Hooke first
observing cells and the formulation of the
cell theory.
Schleiden and Schwann together
formulated the cell theory. This theory
however did not explain as to how the new
cells were formed. Rudolf Von Virchow
9

(1855) first explained that cells divided

and new cells can formed only by the
division of the pre-existing cells. He
modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and
Schwann to give the cell theory a final

shape. Cell theory as understood today is

based on two cardinal principles.
(i) All living organisms are composed
of cells and product of cell.
(ii)All cells arise from pre-existing
cells.

Key words
Plasma membrane, Selectively Permeable membrane, Prokaryotic cell,
Eukaryotic cell, Chromoplast, Leucoplast, Cisternae, Vesicles, Cristae, Matrix.

What we have learnt?

The fundamental organizational unit of life is the cell.
Cells are enclosed by a plasma membrane composed of lipids and proteins.
Plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane.
In plant cells, a cell wall composed of cellulose is located outside the cell
membrane.
In prokaryotes nuclear membrane is absent.
The endoplasmic reticulum functions both as passageway for intra cellular transport
and as manufacturing surface.
Lysosomes are membrane bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes.
The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of membranes bound vesicles that function
in the storage.
Mitochondria are also known as powerhouse of the cell.
Two types of plastids are present in cell; chromoplastids and leucoplastids.
Vacuoles are the storage sacs for solids or liquid contents.
All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Improve your learning

1. Differentiate between (A.S 1)
(a) Plant cell and animal cell
(b) Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
10

Cell its structure and functions

2.
3.
4.
5.

What happens if plasma membrane ruptures or breaks? (AS 2)

Prepare a model of plant cell or animal cell. (AS 5)
What would happen to the life of cell if there was no golgi complex? (AS 2)
What happen to cell if nucleus is removed? Give reasons to support your answer?
( AS 1)
6. Lysosomes are known as suicidal bags of the cell? Why? (AS 1)
7. Why do plant cell posses large sized vacuole? (AS1)
8. Prepare a temporary mount of any leaf peel observe the stomata draw their picture?
Write a short note on the same. (AS 5)
9. Cell is the basic unit of life, explain the statement.(AS 1)
10.How do you appreciate about the organization of cell in the living body?(AS 6)
11.If the organization of cell is destroyed due to physical and chemical influence what
will happen? (AS 6)
12.Read the chapter carefully collect the information about the functions of different
cell organelles and make a table which contains serial number. Cell organelle,
function. Dont forget write your specific findings below the table? (AS 4)
13.How could you appreciate function of tiny cell in a large body of an
organism (AS 6)
14.Look at the following cartoon of a cell. Find out the functions of cell
organelles (AS 5)

15.Who and when proposed cell theory. What are salient features of it? (AS 1)
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11