Athlete-Centered

Coaching Guide
What Special Olympics Athletes Want From Their Coaches
As athletes, we want our coaches to be dedicated to the team by committing to
learn more, not only about their sport but also the athletes. We want our coaches to
know our individual strengths, weaknesses, and the personality traits that make us
unique from our fellow teammates.
As an athlete, I expect my coaches to:
- Put me in a position to be successful and challenge me to help realize my
potential.
- Teach us teamwork and unselfish play and to know our limits, keeping in mind
the safety first rule.
- Make playing and being part of a team a fun and enjoyable experience.
- Be open to change, because a drill may work for some of the team, but not for
all of the team.
- Know the rules of the sport with regard to both the sport-specific governing
body and Special Olympics standards.
Matt Millett, Special Olympics athlete and member of the
2013 Special Olympics International Coaching Fellowship

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Acknowledgements
This guide is a general introduction to coaching adults and children with intellectual disabilities. This
guide also includes a section focusing on some behaviors commonly associated with intellectual
disabilities and effective strategies to improve athlete learning.
Since this is a general guide, it is suggested that you consult as many resources as possible when meeting
and learning about your athletes. Resources include: the athlete, his or her family members or guardians,
teachers, employers, and others. Remember, athletes are unique individuals with unique interests, likes
and dislikes, and varying ways of expression.
Please note: References provided in this guide are listed at the end.

Special Olympics Coaching Fellowship

In addition, this guide was created as part of the U.S. Department of State-funded Special Olympics
Coaching Fellowship. Thank you to the 2013 American Fellows for their dedication and enthusiasm
writing this guide and to their fellow athletes and coaches in Special Olympics. Their efforts and expertise
produced this user-friendly guide that is athlete centered and coach driven so athletes are provided
appropriate levels of instruction, challenging yet achievable activities, and meaningful outcomes.
Linda Costello-Roth, Special Education teacher and administrator, Huntington, New York; certified
coach, Special Olympics New York
John Ford, Senior Claims Examiner, Commerce Insurance Company; Massachusetts Youth Soccer E, F
and G licenses; Football Association of Ireland Level 1; National Soccer Coaches Association of
America Regional and Advanced Regional; certified coach, Special Olympics Massachusetts
Ilima Kane, Community Engagement Grants Director, Colorado Foundation for Public Health and the
Environment; certified coach, Special Olympics Colorado (soccer, skiing and flag football)
Matt Millett, athlete, Special Olympics Massachusetts; Institute Security Officer, Justice Resource
Institute; participated in the first Special Olympics Unity Cup, Cape Town, South Africa
Rebecca Shangraw, Ed.D., Physical Education Department Head, Landmark College, Putney, Vermont;
certified coach, Special Olympics Massachusetts (basketball, softball, soccer and Unified Sports)

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Table of Contents
What are Intellectual Disabilities?
Conceptual Skills
Social Skills

Practical Skills

Characteristics Affecting Athlete Performance in Training and Competition 4

Examples of Intellectual Disabilities
Down Syndrome

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Co-occurring Conditions Commonly Associated with Intellectual Disabilities

Difficulty Processing Information (Sensory Processing Disorder)
Atlantoaxial Instability

Orthopedic Impairments

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Participation by Persons Who Are Blood-Borne Contagious Disease Carriers

Psychological Considerations Related to Learning and Recommended Teaching Strategies

Motivation

Perception

10

Comprehension
Memory

10

11

Developmental Appropriateness

11

12

Behavior Modification

Observation of Athletes Behavior During Training or Competition

Redirecting Undesirable Behavior

12

12
13

Communication Considerations When Working With Special Olympics Athletes

Teaching Sportsmanship and Teamwork
Athlete Conduct

14

After Competition

15

Post-Competition Team Meeting

14

16

Coaching Special Olympics Unified Sports

17

Health and Behavior Considerations and Strategies to Improve Learning

References Cited

19

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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

What are Intellectual Disabilities?

According to the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), intellectual
disability is characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning (reasoning, learning,
problem-solving) and adaptive behavior, which can cover a range of everyday social and practical skills. These
disabilities originate before age 18.i People with intellectual disabilities are unique, just like everyone else.
Disabilities impact each person differently, so it is important to get to know your athletes personally. The
information in this document will provide a broad overview of elements of intellectual disabilities to help you
understand the wide variety of athletes you will coach. Adaptive behaviors, as defined by the AAIDD (2013),
include actions and routines performed by people in their daily lives and include three categories: conceptual
skills, social skills, and practical skills.ii A summary of some elements that comprise these categories, as
described by the AAIDD, is below:

Conceptual Skills
Language and literacy
Financial competence and understanding
Concepts of time
Self-direction

Social Skills
Interpersonal skills
Self-esteem
Social responsibility
Gullibility
Naivet
An ability to follow rules

Practical Skills
Activities of daily living (self-care)
Occupational skills
Schedule/routines
Travel/transportationiii

Characteristics Affecting Athlete Performance in Training and Competition

The following are general observations from the field and will vary from athlete to athlete.
Athletes confidence levels may be low.
Athletes may be hesitant to try new things.
Athletes may be overwhelmed by a large amount of new information at once (such as multiple steps of a new skill
being presented at the same time).
Athletes with intellectual disabilities may view each learning experience as a new one, instead of attaching new
experiences to prior-learned ideas or knowledge.
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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Examples of Intellectual Disabilities

Down Syndrome
People with Down syndrome have 47 chromosomes, rather than 46.iv People with Down syndrome vary widely
in personality, ability, appearance, and intellectual functioning. Because symptoms of Down syndrome differ in
degree and occurrence, it is difficult to predict what coaching an athlete with Down syndrome will be like
without getting to know the athlete. Below are considerations to keep in mind when coaching an athlete with
Down syndrome.
BEHAVIORAL CONS IDERATIONS
Many athletes with Down syndrome:
May have delayed language and speech skillsv
Can communicate using the spoken word
May have shorter attention spanvi

PHYSICAL CONS IDERATIONS

Athletes with Down syndrome may:
Be short in stature vii
Have poor muscle tone and/or very loose jointsviii
Have poor equilibrium (balance)ix
May have a tendency to develop Alzheimers or symptoms of dementia at an earlier agex

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is defined as a developmental disability
significantly affecting verbal communication, nonverbal communication
and social interactions .xi As with athletes with Down syndrome, athletes
with Autism Spectrum Disorder will differ greatly. Understanding a
disability goes a long way, but getting to know each athlete as an individual
is essential to good coaching.
ATHLETES WITH AUTISM S PECTRUM DISORDER MAY:
Appear non-responsive to outside stimuli or demonstrate unusual responses to
sensory experiences, such as hearing a referees whistle, seeing the lights of a
score board, or feeling the rubber of a basketball
Engage in repetitive activity
Resist change in the environment or routine
Exhibit self-stimulatory behaviors, such as hand flapping or rocking

Not initiate conversations with peers/adultsxii

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Co-occurring Conditions Commonly

Associated with Intellectual Disabilities
Difficulty Processing Information (Sensory Processing Disorder)
Some athletes may have difficulty processing and/or responding appropriately to information from the five
senses. Athletes with this disorder may appear to struggle with coordination, have difficulty calming down
after an activity, withdraw from touch, be overly active or sluggish, or be hypersensitive to clothing
(uniforms).xiii
Coaching tips
Due to sensory challenges, some athletes may struggle to interact with their sports
environments. For example, the feeling of grass on their skin may make some athletes
feel very uncomfortable. You might notice an athlete avoiding stretches that involve
sitting on the grass. If a conversation with the athlete reveals that they do not like the
feel of grass on their skin, suggest they wear long sweat pants during stretches with
shorts underneath so they can take off the long pants if they get too hot during the
practice.
Some athletes may have sensory challenges that make important sports elements (like
whistles) overwhelming. It is important to help athletes slowly become accustomed to
these elements over time so the athlete can respond appropriately during competition.

Atlantoaxial Instability
According to Rule 2.02 (g) of the Special Olympics General Rules:
Accredited Programs must take the following precautions before permitting athletes who, during a physical
examination demonstrate symptoms of spinal cord compression and/or symptomatic AAI to participate in
certain physical activities:
1) Determination of Symptoms. All Athletes, when they receive the standard pre-participation physical
examination referred to in this Article 2, must be examined by a Licensed Medical Professional for
symptoms of adverse neurological effects, including those that could result from spinal cord compression or
symptomatic AAI. Such symptoms may include: significant neck pain, radicular pain (localized neurological
pain), weakness, numbness, spasticity (unusual tightness of certain muscles) or change in muscle tone,
gait difficulties, hyperreflexia (highly reactive deep tendon reflexes), change in bowel or bladder function or
other signs or symptoms of myelopathy (injury to the spinal cord).
a) Presence of Symptoms. If a Licensed Medical Professional confirms the presence of symptomatic
spinal cord compression and/or symptomatic AAI during the medical examination of an athlete, such
athlete may be permitted to participate in the Special Olympics sport of the athletes choice only if (i)
the athlete has received a thorough neurological evaluation from a physician, qualified to make such
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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

a determination, who certifies that the athlete may participate and the athlete, or the parent or
guardian of a minor athlete, has signed an informed consent acknowledging they have been informed
of the findings and determinations of the physician. The statements and certifications required by this
subsection shall be documented and provided to Accredited Programs using the standardized form
approved by SOI, entitled "Special Release for Athletes with Symptomatic Spinal Cord Compression
and/or symptomatic Atlanto-axial Instability," and any revisions of that form, approved by SOI (the
"Special Release Concerning Spinal Cord Compression and/or symptomatic Atlanto-axial
Instability").

Orthopedic Impairments
An orthopedic impairment is a severe impairment of the
skeletal system and associated structures of muscles and
ligaments that negatively impact quality of life or the ability to
independently perform activities of daily living (ADLs). The
term includes impairments caused by birth defects,
impairments caused by disease (such as poliomyelitis, bone
tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (such as
cerebral palsy, amputations and fractures, or burns that cause
contractures). Orthopedic impairments can be classified in
three categories: neuromotor impairments (such as spina
bifida and cerebral palsy), degenerative diseases (such as
muscular dystrophy), and musculoskeletal diseases
(rheumatoid arthritis).xiv Due to the broad nature of
orthopedic impairments, it is difficult to generalize what
symptoms an individual might have. Some possible symptoms
of orthopedic impairments include, but are not limited to, the
following:

Abnormal reflex development

Difficulty in coordinating and integrating basic movement patternsxv

Speech impairmentsxvi

Sensory impairments (visual motor control)

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is a
condition that describes athletes who display hyperactive and/or inattentive behaviors, have difficulty
attending to a task at hand due to a heightened awareness to external stimuli, and tend to be impulsive.xvii
According to the NIMH, symptoms of ADHD include, but are not limited to, the following:

Inattention

Hyperactivity

Poor listening skills

Restlessness

Impulsivenessxviii

SOCIAL/EMOTION AL CONSIDERATIONS
ASSOCIATED WITH ADHD:

Inappropriate responses to new or challenging

social/emotional situations that they may not
be prepared to handlexix

Difficulty in selecting appropriate responses

Inadequate practical social skillsxx

May avoid participation

May be verbally disruptivexxi

May seek constant reassurance

May exhibit tantrumsxxii

May have difficulty waiting for things they want or waiting their turnxxiii

Participation by Persons Who Are BloodBorne Contagious Disease Carriers

No Accredited Special Olympics Program or Games Organizing Committee (GOC) may exclude or isolate from
participation in any Special Olympics training or competition any athlete who is known to be a carrier of a
blood-borne contagious infection or virus, or otherwise discriminate against such athletes solely because of
that medical condition. In view of the risk that one or more Special Olympics athletes may have a blood-borne
contagious infection or virus, in conducting Special Olympics training and competition events, Accredited
Programs and GOCs shall follow Universal Precautions or Universal Blood and Body Fluid Precautions for
every exposure to any person's blood, saliva, or other bodily fluid. Special Olympics International shall keep
Accredited Programs apprised of the written Universal Precautions which meet the requirements of this
Section 2.05 in the General Rules. For more information about Universal Precautions, coaches are encouraged
to visit: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/bbp/universal.html.
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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Psychological Considerations Related to

Learning and Recommended Teaching
Strategies
There are four main psychological considerations related to an athletes ability to learn: motivation, perception,
comprehension, and memory.

Motivation
For challenges in motivation, coaches can help athletes gain and maintain interest. The following suggestions
for engaging and/or maintaining athletes interest stem from a 2012 study of elite Massachusetts Special
Olympics coaches xxiv.

Create competitive scenarios for athletes during

drills and other activities.

Reference local sports teams and well-known

athletes when delivering instruction or feedback.

Use encouraging phrases like well done and I

know you can do it. Praise effort when athletes
are practicing and refining skills.

Use encouraging gestures like high-fives and fistbumps (as long as the athletes do not have
sensory issues against touch) to encourage and
praise effort when athletes are practicing and refining skills.

Keep drill lines short to maintain athletes engagement.

In addition to the suggestions made above, coaches are encouraged to:

Keep the duration of drills short (about 8-10 minutes) to maintain athletes interest and attention.

Make short-term goals with athletes before each practice (goals can be related to sport performance or
behavior).

Occasionally build athletes skill strengths into drills and scrimmages so they experience feelings of
success and confidence when applying them in the context of performing the sport.

Coaching tips
Astacio was very motivated at the beginning of practices, but lost enthusiasm as
practices progressed. After a conversation with the coach, it was discovered that Astacio
felt he could never win at the drills, which left him feeling discouraged. The coach
modified practices to review the skills that Astacio was good at first, which built his
confidence for the remainder of practice. Finding success at the beginning of the practice
motivated Astacio to actively participate in the rest of practice.
Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Perception
For challenges in perception, coaches can help athletes process information about the sport. Coaches are
encouraged to:

Provide equipment or other

accommodations for athletes with physical
impairments that may affect perception,
such as visual or auditory disabilities.

Intentionally connect new concepts to

previously learned ideas in order to 1) help
athletes remember what they already know
and 2) help athletes correctly organize
information in their brains. For instance, if a
coach teaches her basketball athletes how
to do set shots on Monday, she can refer to
the hand position and shooting motion of a
set shot when she teaches athletes how to make foul shots on Friday.

Comprehension
For challenges in comprehension, coaches can help athletes understand the sport in which they are
participating and perform requisite skills. Several methods can be used to develop the skills and knowledge
needed to compete successfully. Coaches are encouraged to:

Apply the appropriate level of instruction. This is often done through trial and error. It is important to note
that every athlete will present with his/her own subset of skills and abilities, even an athlete with the same
diagnoses/disorder.

Realize that frequent repetition and reinforcement over time will improve the athlete's skill development.

Since some athletes have difficulty in generalizing skills, provide opportunities for athletes to utilize new
skills in appropriate situations. Coaches can provide opportunities for participation in competition-like
scenarios via scrimmages or other games that require athletes to feel time pressure, use decision-making
skills, or employ newly-learned technical skills.

When giving athletes feedback, coaches can ask them to verbally summarize or physically demonstrate
what they learned.

Coaches should periodically allow athletes time to rest their bodies and minds by providing settling time.
Settling time can be given in the form of water breaks; suggestions that athletes remove themselves from
practice for a few minutes; or by allowing athletes to independently decide to remove themselves from
practice for a few minutes.

Coaches can scaffold their lessons by giving a lot of support to athletes when they first learn a skill, then
reduce supports as skill levels increase. Coaches can chunk and chain content by breaking large
concepts into smaller pieces (chunking) and progressively teaching each piece in a progressing
sequence (chaining).

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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Coaching tips
Structure your season to use early practices to teach basic skills and provide
opportunities for team play. Then build on those basic skills and team play each
following practice. Planning the whole season of practices will make it easier to modify
your practices to fit the unique needs of your team and still ensure you will be ready for
competition.

Memory
For challenges with memory, coaches can help athletes remember and perform skills at the appropriate time.
Coaches are encouraged to repeat and refer to previously learned skills often and in different
scenarios/contexts. This will increase muscle memory in the athletes, freeing up brain power to focus on the
next level of skill/game development.

Developmental Appropriateness
When working with any athlete population, it is important
for coaches to ask athletes to perform technical skills
(fundamentals) and tactical skills (game or event
strategies) that are developmentally appropriate relative to
athletes physical and intellectual capabilities. Introducing
skills that are too advanced for athletes capabilities can
lead to unsafe sport environments and frustration. For
instance, it would be inappropriate for a soccer coach
working with 6-year-olds to ask her athletes to practice
slide tackles, because the physical and intellectual
processing skills required to successfully perform slide
tackles are not yet present in 6-year-olds.
Conversely, asking athletes to perform skills that are not challenging and do not promote skill development
can lead to boredom and regression of skill level. A challenge faced by every sport coach is to identify technical
and tactical skills that are developmentally appropriate and present a motivating (versus frustrating) challenge
for athletes.
In addition, coaches may notice that an athletes chronological age may not always align with his or her
developmental age and/or maturity level, but its important to note that developmental age does not affect
athletic ability or potential. Taking these respective ages into consideration can help a coach identify
techniques and game or event strategies that are appropriate for athletes to perform.

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

11

Behavior Modification
Observation of Athletes Behavior During Training or Competition
When coaching athletes with intellectual disabilities, observe specific athlete behaviors in order to determine
the coaching strategies and structure needed to address behaviors that may inhibit the athletes participation
in training or competitive environments:

Entering the site (environmental entrance): What is the behavior of the athlete when he/she comes to the
training site or competition venue? Is the athlete in control of his or her body and emotions? Note: athlete
control may look different in different scenarios and environments.

Leaving the site (environmental exit): What is the behavior of the athlete as he/she leaves the training or
competition site? Is the athlete in control of his or her body and mind, especially with regard to reactions to
winning or losing? Note: athlete control may look different in different scenarios and environments.

Active participation: Is the athlete in control (attentive, focusing on the task, persistent in completing the
task, and handling feedback without incident)?

Non-active behavior (behavior that emerges as the athlete waits for a turn or needs to watch a
demonstration): Is the athlete in control and able to inhibit negative impulse behavior? Note: coaches are
encouraged to have a plan to keep athletes bodies and minds engaged during ALL stages of drills and
activities.

Competitive attitude: A negative/positive mental position or feeling an athlete has regarding any activity
that takes the form of a contest between individual athletes or teams of athletes.

Positive participation feedback: While engaged in a task or immediately following completion of a task the
athlete exhibits positive feedback, i.e., smiling, expression of joy, laughter, cheering, high-fiving, etc.

Negative participation feedback: While engaged in a task or immediately following completion of a task the
athlete exhibits negative feedback, i.e., cries, screams, swears, has tantrums, runs away, strikes out at a
coach/official/another athlete/spectator, etc. Note: the responses to different competition outcomes should
be discussed and rehearsed prior to the competition.

Reinforced participation: Athlete performs satisfactorily when continually reinforced by the coach, another
athlete, parent, etc., but performance is significantly affected negatively when reinforcement is not given.
Note: reinforcement should be slowly withdrawn; intermittent reinforcement is best.

Intrinsic participation: The athlete performs tasks without reinforcement and appears to be self-motivated
to perform.

Social interaction with peers: are the interactions positive or negative?

Social interaction with coach: are the interactions positive or negative?

Redirecting Undesirable Behavior

Redirection for many of the negative interactions should be consistent. All behaviors are driven by a need to
get something (praise/reward) or avoid something (non-preferred activity). When we know what drives a
behavior, we can develop a plan for changing it. Change is slow and steady if it is to be long-lasting. For
specific suggestions, see Health and Behavior Considerations and Strategies to Improve Learning section, page
19.
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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Communication Considerations When

Working With Special Olympics Athletes
The best way to assess athletes enjoyment, fears and concerns is to speak with them often; check in with each
athlete frequently during practice. If possible, coaches are encouraged to speak with guardians/parents/
caregivers to assess their perceptions of athletes enjoyment.
It is recommended that coaches employ several communication methods when conveying information to
athletes. Communication methods include:

Verbal communication

Gesture cues (thumbs up, high-fives)

Pointing to pictures. Pictures can be very simple; free

applications are available for download on smart
phones and tablets

When communicating with athletes, coaches are

encouraged to:

Be respectful: Speak to your athletes the way you

would want to be spoken to. Use appropriate eye
contact, respect personal spaces, give athletes time
to respond fully and use positive language.

Be clear: Use words that an athlete can understand

or for which an athlete has a point of reference, such as see the ball as opposed to find the target.

Be concrete: Use words that are specific to something physical and/or real. Since athletes have a cognitive
delay in processing information (especially words), the challenge is to make concepts concrete. For
example, when teaching the 3-second lane in basketball, a coach can use the physical words of hot and
cold Hot refers to the lane on offense; the athlete will burn up if he stops in the lane and not move
through it. Cold refers to the lane at the defensive end of the court; that lane is cool and the athletes
friend.

Be concise: Use a few descriptive keywords or cues. For example: Reach for the sky. Do not use long
sentences or multi-part instructions.

Be consistent: Use the same cue words for the same actions.

Make words command-oriented: Verbally reinforce the athlete immediately after a desired action. Make the
reinforcement action-oriented and specific to the skill.

Make sure an athlete is looking at you and can hear you when making a coaching point. When needed,
physically prompt an athlete to look at you.

Ask athletes questions rather than always providing directions. Encourage athletes to think for themselves.
Verify athlete responses.

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

13

A note on cues

Attach simple cues to important elements of technical and tactical skills. The following suggestions for using
cues come from a 2012 study of elite Massachusetts Special Olympics coaches.xxv
Following initial instruction of a sport skill or concept, coaches can use the following types of tactical and
technical cues to simplify feedback and make communication more efficient:

Verbal cues: simple, short phrases that include sport-specific terminology

Gesture cues: coach-demonstrated physical movements that remind athletes of the correct way to perform
a skill (often paired with verbal cues)

Touch cues: taps on the athletes body to elicit movement. Be sure the athlete is comfortable being
touched before using touch cues

A note on people-first language

Communicating respectfully about and to your athletes is the first step in gaining their trust and creating a
mutually respectful team. Always put the athlete first and leave the disability behind; for example, refer to a
person with an intellectual disability rather than an intellectually disabled person. Avoid labeling athletes in
any negative way, but do feel free to respectfully ask an athlete questions about his/her disability. When in
doubt, always ask an athlete if and /or how he or she prefers to talk about the disability. It is important to
understand your athletes fully, and understanding their disability is part of that.

Teaching Sportsmanship and Teamwork

Athlete Conduct
The coach is responsible for keeping athletes
under control. Do so by setting a good example
and by disciplining when necessary. Set team rules
for good behavior. If athletes attempt to cheat,
fight, argue, badger, or yell disparaging remarks, it
is your responsibility to confront the misbehavior.
Initially, it may mean removing athletes
immediately from the competition or practice. Let
them calm down, speak to them quietly, and
explain that his or her behavior is not acceptable for your team and if they want to participate, they must not
repeat the action. Allow athletes to return to play when ready, able and in control of their emotions.
Consider team rules in these areas of competition conduct:

14

Athlete language

Athlete behavior

Interactions with officials or judges

Discipline for misbehavior

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Respect opponents and officials. Without them, there wouldnt be a competition. Officials help provide a fair
and safe experience for athletes and, as appropriate, help them learn the sport. Opponents provide
opportunities for your team to test itself, improve, and excel.
You and your team should show respect for opponents by giving your best efforts. Showing respect means
being civil to your opponents. Dont allow your athletes to trash talk or taunt an opponent. This behavior is
disrespectful to the spirit of the competition and to the opponent. Immediately remove athletes from a
competition or practice if they trash talk or taunt an opponent. When appropriate, request that violations be
called. Enforcing the rules and calling violations assists athletes in maintaining a high level of their skills and
reinforces their learning the rules. As long as the calls are being made consistently on both sides, most of your
officiating concerns will be alleviated.
Coaching Tips
Keep your demeanor even and positive, conduct your responsibilities the same
regardless of the score, help correct your athletes errors in a positive manner, and
continue to offer encouragement to each athlete.

After Competition
When the competition is over, join your team in congratulating the coaches and athletes of the opposing team,
and then be sure to thank the officials. Check on any injuries athletes may have sustained during the
competition and inform athletes of how to care for them. Be prepared to speak with the officials about any
problems that occurred during the competition. Then hold a brief meetingor team circleto ensure that
your athletes are on an even keel, whether they won or lost. Do a Cool Down, stretching all major muscles.
This can either be done separately or incorporated into your team circle while you address the team.
When celebrating a victory, make sure your team does so in a way that doesnt show disrespect for the
opponents. It is okay and appropriate to be happy and celebrate a win, but do not allow your athletes to taunt
the opponents or boast about their victory. Keep winning in perspective. Winning and losing are a part of life,
not just a part of sport. If athletes can handle both equally well, theyll be successful in whatever they do.
Athletes self-worth should not be tied to the win or the loss. Recognize and reward efforts and attitudes.
Athletes are competitors, and competitors are disappointed in defeat. If your team has made a winning effort,
let them know this. After a loss, help them keep chins up and maintain a positive attitude that will carry over
into the next practice and contest.
Coaching Tips
Immediately following a competition, regardless of the outcome, stay positive. When the
athletes return to practice after a competition, make certain that you let the previous
competition go, learn from the experience, make needed corrections, and focus on the
next opponent and next competition.

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

15

Post-Competition Team Meeting

Following the competition, gather your team for a team circle in a designated area for a short meeting. The
athletes can sit or kneel on one knee, and they may take off any extra equipment, if applicable. Before this
meeting, decide as a coaching staff what to say and who will say it. Be sure that the coaching staff speaks with
one voice following the competition.
If your athletes have performed well in a contest, compliment them and congratulate them. Tell them
specifically what they did well, whether they won or lost. This will reinforce interest in repeating good
performances. Dont use this time to criticize individual athletes for poor performances in front of teammates.
Help athletes improve skills, but do so in the next practice, not immediately after the competition.
The post- competition team circle isnt
the time to go over tactical problems
and adjustments. The athletes will be
excited after a win or disappointed
after a loss and wont absorb much
tactical information. Your first concern
should be your athletes attitudes and
mental well-being. You dont want
them to be too high after a win or too
low after a loss. This is the time you
can be most influential in keeping the
outcome in perspective and keeping
them on an even keel. Set goals based
on the sports statistics such as
rebounds, steals, turnovers, completed passes, field goals and free throws (attempts and makes), fast breaks,
etc. Following the game, note how many of those goals were achieved; those goals not achieved provide
information on what we need to work on next.
Remember, too, that although the final outcome of the competition may be extremely important to you, the
staff, and some of the parents, sometimes athletes are more focused on the possibility of pizza after the
competition. Realize that the majority of your athletes are participating to have fun; their desire to go out
together for something to eat rather than reliving the competition is not a reflection on the desire to perform
well. Stay positive, allow the athletes to be themselves, and avoid making too much over the outcome of the
competition.
Finally, gather your athletes, coaches and parents/providers, go to your vehicles and drive home. Ensure your
athletes have appropriate transportation.

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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Coaching Unified Sports

Special Olympics Unified Sports is a program that joins people with
intellectual disabilities (athletes) and without intellectual disabilities
(partners) on the same team. Furthermore, Unified Sports is dedicated to
promoting social inclusion through shared sports training and
competition experiences. This was inspired by a simple principle: training
together and playing together is a quick path to friendship and
understanding.
When Unified Sports teams are made up of people of similar age and
ability, practices are more fun and games more challenging and exciting
for all. Having sport in common is just one more way that preconceptions
and false ideas are swept away. When coaching a Unified Sports team, it
is important to remember and emphasize that every player on your team
is equally important to the success of the team. Partners should be
coached as much as athletes to ensure team cohesion and success.
As in all sports, the need for most athletes to belong or affiliate with other team members is of critical
importance. The process of making friends and developing certain roles within the group is as much a part of
sport as training and competition. Coaches should be especially alert at the beginning of the season when
teammates are getting to know each other and judgments about others are being developed.
A key component in the genuine integration of special populations in Unified Sports programs is the attitude,
knowledge and subsequent behavior of the coach. Genuine integration of athletes and partners relies on
three key factors, all influenced by the coach:
(a) Interaction among teammates
(b) Perception of special treatment given to the athlete or partner by the coach
(c) Recognition and acceptance of individual impairments in preparing teammates to successfully train
and compete with each other
The challenge of Unified Sports competitions is to help people without intellectual disabilities integrate into
the previously exclusionary teams of Special Olympics. Coaches need to plan, implement and evaluate actions
to assure meaningful participation and enhanced social development of all players. The type of activity,
amount of accommodation necessary, and intensity of competition are considered in structuring the sport
experience. Activities should foster respect for the uniqueness of everyones abilities, motivation and
contribution to the Unified Sports team. Developing sport skills is the foremost task of the coach since
athletes who are not competent to meet the demands of the Unified Sports setting and related social roles
risk disapproval from teammates and others, along with blows to self-esteem. The risks of winning and losing
in integrated programs are compounded for both athlete and partner.

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

17

Group cohesion is a term to describe the tendency for members of a group to stick to together
and remain united as they work toward collective goals and social purposes. Athletes and partners in cohesive
teams will display more positive attitudes, increased confidence and maximize sport performance. Group
cohesion can be improved by the following suggestions:

Use small groups (3-6 people) for practice drills and other team tasks when possible.

Set team goals that athletes and partners understand and success can be easily determined.

Clarify each team members role on the team.

Encourage all players to communicate by calling each other by his or her name.

Create opportunities for general communication among players before, during, and after practice or
competition.

Take the time to recognize specific players for good performance and encourage teammates to do the
same.

Use cooperative drills that build respect for each players contribution to the sport.

Effective Unified Sports teams benefit athletes and partners equally. The most effective learning occurs when
all players are actively learning by doing. Instruction designed for small groups and pairs will maximize time on
task and aid in providing critical feedback on performance. In designing small groups for a Unified Player
Development model, you can either place athletes/partners with similar ability in the same group, or design
groups of mixed ability. In all cases, there should be a representative number of athletes and partners, and all
team members are meaningfully involved and contribute to the team.
The following recommendations are useful in making decisions about grouping players:

When a skill, rule, or strategy is being taught that all your players need to know, use a single group for
instruction, but then allow for small groups of similar ability to practice the skill at various learning
stations.

When the activity involves combination drills or team tactics, use multiple groups of mixed ability for
practice. Some players will seem to play better with certain other players, but encourage all players to
get to know how to perform their best in any group situation.

Establish new groups or pairs for practicing different skills. Avoid similar player pairing for more than
one or two activities a practice.

Have a prepared plan for how to group or pair teammates for each activity. Have players self-select
teammates once in a while to build a sense of control and competence, but be careful of cliques that tend to
devalue less skilled players. Successful teams value each team member equally and will improve player selfesteem on and off the field.

Here is what two Unified Sports players had to say about their experiences:

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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

This experience made me a better team leader and a good friend. It made me brave to be myself.
~ Mackenzie Beauvais-Nikl,
Special Olympics Unified Sports Athlete

The biggest personal impact for me was

realizing how talented individuals with
disabilities can be. By experiencing firsthand the hard work and effort these
young adults put forth I have been
inspired to work just as hard and to be
who I am without fear of discrimination.
~ Dylan Spencer,
Special Olympics Unified Sports Partner

Health and Behavior Considerations and

Strategies to Improve Learning
The goal of the chart below is to provide coaches with information (not labels) and strategies regarding
different functional and learning characteristics (not labels) of athletes and to help Special Olympics coaches
work with athletes more effectively. However, a coach may have certain expectations of an athlete that may
not be realistic. This is not because the coach does not care, but because the coach does not understand or
appreciate the differences that may exist. When an athlete exhibits what is generally perceived as
inappropriate behavior(s), the inappropriate behavior(s) may not be defiance, acting out or silliness. These
behaviors may simply be a part of the person and/or what is operating at the moment. When possible, talk
with parents, providers, teachers, former coaches, etc. about an athletes characteristics and the successful
strategies used to affect learning. Use the characteristics as a checklist. Ensure that one or more of the
strategies opposite the respective characteristics are employed in each practice.
Characteristics

Strategies to Improve Learning

Learning occurs at a

1) Provide structure & train more frequently.

slower rate

2) Provide repetition and review. Circle back to previously mastered skills.

3) Break skills down into smaller parts. Dont move on until a skill is mastered.
4) Differentiate learning teach at the level of the athlete; remove supports as skills are
mastered.
5) Assign a partner, volunteer or assistant coach to help. Provide additional repetitions
without holding up the practice.
6) Present skills in a variety of ways. Explain, demonstrate, and practice. When
explaining a skill/drill, it may be necessary to illustrate the skill.

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

19

Characteristics
Short attention span

Strategies to Improve Learning

1) Train for short periods of time; provide numerous activities focusing on same task.
2) Provide repetition & review (key to gaining new skill).
3) Work one-on-one (gain full attention). Do not explain a drill/skill without gaining
attention from an athlete. This may be demonstrated by attaining eye contact or having
the player repeat after you the directions stated for the drill. (30 seconds is the amount
of time that people can retain information in short-term memory.)
4) Use stations. Stations are a great way to circle back to previously learned skills.
Depending on the number of volunteers, running 35 stations for 30 minutes of practice
is appropriate.

Resistance to

1) Structure training with clear expectations, consistent routines (follow same format for

change

each practice i.e.: warm-up lap, stretching, review drills for reinforcement of previously
learned material, new drills, controlled play situations in which to practice new skills) and
a cool down.
2) Players should be made aware when a transition will happen. State the time to be
spent on an activity and give a warning of its end 5 minutes prior; two minutes prior and
then at the close of the activity.
3) Identify motivating factors; build on successes. If there is a favorite drill, save it for the
end of practice when all objectives have been met.

Acting out; mood

1) Set clear rules, expectations and limits; specify location for individual to regain self-

swings

control. Consistent enforcement of limits is a MUST. Athletes will learn quickly when you
mean something and when you do not.
2) Consequences should be enforceable and short term.
3) Reinforce acceptable behaviors. Praising positive behaviors may be enough of a
motivator for the athlete. Rewards can also be given in the absence of undesirable
behaviors, that is, 5 minutes without cursing earns a check; five checks gets a reward
specific to the athlete.
4) Help the athlete find a replacement behavior that serves the same function. All
behavior serves a function. If the athlete attends school or lives in a group home, there
may be a behavior plan in place. Speak with the caretakers of the athlete and find out
what is in place.
5) NOTE: Just because a behavior has not been noted for an extended period of time,
does not mean it is gone. Be aware if it re-surfaces.
6) A behavior (intervention) support plan is developed after collecting information
about the function of a particular behavior to get something or avoid something. A
similar but acceptable behavior is then taught. The student is rewarded for using the
replacement behavior and the reinforcement schedule is reduced until the replacement
behavior has eliminated the inappropriate behavior.

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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Characteristics

Strategies to Improve Learning

Difficulty

1) Allow additional time to express thoughts. Dont finish the sentence or thought for

communicating

the athlete.
2) Use picture boards/other assistive devices. Simple sign language may also work.
Speak with caretakers to gain information on how they communicate with the athlete.
3) Ask him or her to demonstrate or show what he/she means. Some athletes have their
own communication devices or tools. If so, a conversation with a parent/caregiver might
be useful.

Verbal

1) Provide the appropriate level of instruction beginning with demonstration (can be

interpretation

spoken, drawn or demonstrated) followed by the appropriate level of prompting. Each

difficulties

athlete will require different supports at different times for different skills.
2) Keep verbal instructions to a minimum.
3) Use key words/cues, sign language or pictures to communicate.

Prone to seizures

1) Know signs and symptoms of different types of seizures.

2) Control OR MODIFY atmosphere/triggers (heat, sun, sugar, loud noise, etc.) of
seizures; respond appropriately. Have a volunteer/parent on sideline watch the athlete,
specifically during the practice/game for any signs that may occur. If the activity cannot
be modified, find something else for the athlete to do such as take stats, collect
equipment, or hand out scrimmage vests or T-shirts. He/she is still part of the team.
3) Prepare teammates to respond appropriately should a seizure occur. Have a plan in
place and practice it.

Poor muscle tone

1) Provide specific exercise and strengthening programs. Provide home exercises for
motivated athletes. Discuss with parents, siblings the importance of a home practice.
You can provide data sheets in which the athlete tracks his/her progress. Rewards can
be given for goals met.
2) Stretch within normal range of motion. Each athletes range of motion will be
different on different days. Teach athletes to listen to their bodies, and if it hurts, STOP!
3) Uneven surfaces increase risk of injury. Worn footwear can also contribute to injury.

Lower pain

1) When appropriate, establish eye contact when talking. Some athletes may become

threshold; sensitive

more upset about maintaining eye contact. Know your athletes.

to touch

2) Use softer/adaptive equipment; minimize loud noises like whistles (or gradually
introduce them).
3) Forewarn if any touch is necessary; respect wishes.

Difficulty forming

1) Work in small groups.

social bonds

2) Have each athlete work in pairs (same 2 people for several weeks). Some athletes will
prefer to work by themselves. Find a sport/position which will honor this preference. It
may be that the athlete needs to change sports.
3) Provide highly structured social situations when athlete is engaging in a preferred
activity with a peer.

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

21

Characteristics

Strategies to Improve Learning

Easily over-

1) Remove or lessen distracting stimuli (dim lights; soften sounds; remove unnecessary

stimulated

objects).
2) Train in separate room or smaller group; gradually add people and other stimuli.
3) Train with athletes who tend to be nonverbal.
4) Planned breaks and quiet time during practice, between activities if possible. This will
enable the athlete to regroup before moving on to another activity.

Difficulty with

1) Provide physical support, as needed, via partner or other assistive device.

balance or stability

2) Broaden base of support such as sitting down or leaning against wall; minimize
uneven surfaces. Certain positions on a team lend themselves to being more conducive
to athlete success than others. Find the position that fits your athletes abilities.
3) Allow for extra time to complete a task. Modify the task to fit the athletes ability
level.
4) Speak with physical therapist if possible, brainstorm with other coaches for ideas.
Caregivers may also be able to provide information/assistance.

Compulsive eating

1) Remove food from practice/competition sites.

2) Do not use food as reward (especially for individuals with Prader Willi).
3) Provide structure and routine for eating (time and place). If this has been a
longstanding issue for your athletes, caregivers can give suggestions on what they have
successfully used in the past which you can modify to fit your coaching situation.

Poor coordination

1) Break skills down into sequential tasks; substitute easier movement (walking instead
of running).
2) Progress from athletes current level of performance. Charting improvement is a
great motivator.
3) Allow additional time with one-on-one support.
4) Provide a home practice plan. This will help build muscle memory as well as stamina
and coordination. Using time at home for reinforcement will allow for more time at
practice for exposure to new drills/skills.

Physical limitations

1) Utilize those skills or parts of skills athlete can perform.

or impairments

2) For those skills or parts of skills athlete is unable to perform, allow athlete to
substitute other skills, have partner execute those skills or use assistive device.
3) Focus on activities that develop mobility and stability.
4) Speak with outside therapists, caregivers for suggestions.

Visual impairments

1) Use verbal cues, physical prompt and physical assistance as needed.

2) Utilize sound or physical devices such as beep balls, guide rope along lane line, tether
when running with partner, etc. and according to the rules.
3) Provide precise and action-specific and feedback.
4) Control any environmental factors which you can i.e. lighting; colors of balls, cones,
scrimmage vests or T-shirts, etc.
5) Wireless transmitter may be appropriate and available.

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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

Characteristics
Hearing impairments

Strategies to Improve Learning

1) Establish eye contact when talking.
2) Use signs, pictures or sign language; keep cochlear implants dry. You can even
develop sport-specific signs (think third base coach in baseball).
3) Demonstrate what is desired.
4) Use hand signals; remind athletes to look to the coach for directions. You may need
to have a parent/coach on other side of field to relay messages if needed or to direct
athlete to look at the coach.

Autism spectrum

1) Minimize verbal communication; emphasize use of visual supports such as pictures

disorder

(Board Maker application) to identify directions/commands (stop; wait; keep hands to

self, etc.). Also use pictures to develop schedules such as warm-up; pass the ball; play
the game; clean up the equipment; rest. Visual supports are helpful because of difficulty
in processing sensory stimuli (over arousal); provide only one item per picture.
2) Reduce sensory overload like whistles (some athletes are hypersensitive to noise).
3) Individualize schedule with known start & known finish (predictability); use clear,
consistent cues & prompts; cue transition from one activity to next.
4) Autism is a spectrum, so not all athletes with autism will have the same needs.
Some will be less severe than others. Individuals with Aspergers can be very bright but
have social deficits that may impede them from developing social bonds. Meet with
caregivers for specifics concerning your athlete.

Self-stimulatory

1) Become aware and monitor. Self-stimulatory behaviors are any behaviors that are

behaviors

serving a sensory need for the athlete. Sometimes, these behaviors are sexual in nature.
The athlete will need to be taught the time and place where these behaviors are
acceptable (a practice or a game is NOT one of them). Work with the caregiver to help
develop a protocol for the athlete.
2) Control situation. Engage athlete in activities that provide an alternative to selfstimulatory behavior. If an athlete flaps his or her hands/arms when running, practice
running with quiet hands.

Self-injurious

1) Become aware of cutting skin or banging head against table or wall. Work with

behaviors

medical personnel.
2) Control and prevent behavior. Redirect the athlete to an alternate behavior. Seek
support of medical personnel or caretakers, as needed.
3) Provide a behavior support plan to manage (page 20, under Acting Out, number 6).

Obsessive-compulsive

1) Become aware and monitor. Compulsive behaviors are any behaviors that are

behaviors

ritualized to a point that the athlete is unable to perform other functions, i.e. picking
fingers until bleeding, constant eating, or repetitive statements.
2) Control situation and prevent behavior. Redirect the athlete to an alternate behavior.
3) Provide a behavior support plan to manage (page 20, under Acting Out, number 6).

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

23

Characteristics
Hyperactivity

Strategies to Improve Learning

1) Set clear rules, consistent routines and smooth transitions with signals for changing
activities with motivating reinforcement.
2) Keep directions simple (2-3 steps at the most); minimize information.
3) Have athlete repeat back directions or show what has been asked of him/her to
demonstrate an understanding of what has been said.
4) Use stations to shift activities in a short period of time.

Lethargy (due to

1) Provide frequent rest intervals.

medication or other

2) Expose to sports that provide natural rest periods such as bocce, bowling, golf, etc.

causes)

3) Slowly progress to longer periods of activity.

4) Modify activities for athlete success.
5) Be aware of side effects of medications.

Lack of motivation to

1) Be aware that some athletes might tire easily or lack confidence and therefore be less

push self

motivated to continue an activity.

2) Match the athlete with a highly motivated teammate. First, select 2-3 highly
motivated teammates; let the athlete choose one of the teammates with whom he or
she will work. Then transition to the sport.
3) Reward even small improvements in performance. Charting progress is a great visual
motivator.
4) Use incentives that are based on achieving specific goals. For example, once we finish
_______ (non-preferred activity), we can do __________ (preferred activity).

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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

As we have seen, intellectual disabilities can manifest in different ways in different athletes, even those
with the same diagnoses. It is imperative to treat each athlete as an individual with different
wants/needs and with different ways of communicating these wants and needs with you, the coach.
Assumptions based upon disability type can be detrimental to the athlete, coach and team.
Conversations with the athletes current caretakers (parents, teachers, employers, etc.) can provide
important information about the athlete. Use these people as a resource when developing your practice
and game plans. Being flexible is also a bonus. The athletes, like all of us, can have different behaviors on
different days; be ready for anything!

Closing Notes
After reading this guide, I sincerely hope Special Olympics has given you the knowledge to help us,
the athletes, be successful both on and off the playing field.
We want our coaches to:
- Be role models by showing good sportsmanship.
- Encourage family members to help and volunteer in working with us.
- Challenge us and help make us better at our chosen sport.
- Value the opinion of each athlete.
- Most importantly, make it fun!
And lastly, always demonstrate the spirit of our Special Olympics athlete oath:
Let me win. But if I cannot win, let me be brave in the attempt.
Matt Millett, Special Olympics athlete and member of the
2013 Special Olympics International Coaching Fellowship

Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide

25

References Cited
i

American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. (2013). Definition of intellectual disability.
Retrieved from: http://www.aaidd.org/intellectual-disability/definition
ii
Ibid.
iii
Ibid.
iv
National Down Syndrome Society. (2012). What is Down syndrome? Retrieved from: http://www.ndss.org/DownSyndrome/What-Is-Down-Syndrome/
v
NIH (Nov 2012). What are the common symptoms of Down syndrome? Eunice Kennedy Shriver National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Retrieved from
http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/down/conditioninfo/Pages/symptoms.aspx
vi
Ibid.
vii
Ibid.
viii
Ibid.
ix
Mauerberg-de Castro, E. & Angulo-Kinzler, R.M. (2000). Locomotor patterns of individuals with Down
syndrome: effects of environmental and task constraints. In D.J. Weeks, R. Chua & D. Elliott (Eds.) Perceptualmotor behaviour in Down syndrome. (pp 71-98). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
x
Mtt, T., Mtt, J., Tervo-Mtt, T., Taanila, A., Kaski, M., & Iivanainen, M. (2011). Healthcare and
guidelines: A population-based survey of recorded medical problems and health surveillance for people with Down
syndrome. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 36(2), 118-126.
xi
Autism Research Institute. (2013). Is it Autism? Retrieved from: http://www.autism.com/index.php/is_it_autism
xii
Ibid.
xiii
Mailloux, Z., & Smith-Roley, S. (2001). Sensory integration. Autism: A Comprehensive Occupational Therapy Approach.
Bethesda, MD: American Occupational Therapy Association.
xiv
Ohio Dept. of Education (2013). Orthopedic Impairment. Retrieved from http://education.ohio.gov/Topics/SpecialEducation/Students-with-Disabilities/Orthopedic-Impairment
xv
Mayo Clinic (2013). Cerebral Palsy: Symptoms. Retrieved from: http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseasesconditions/cerebral-palsy/basics/symptoms/con-20030502
xvi
Ibid.
xvii
National Institute of Mental Health (2013). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Retrieved from
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivitydisorder/index.shtml?utm_source=REFERENCES_R7
xviii
Ibid.
xix
Ibid.
xx
Reitman, D., OCallaghan, P.M., & Mitchell, P. (2005). Parent as Coach: Enhancing Sports Participation and Social
Behavior for ADHD-Diagnosed Children. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 27(2), 57-68.
xxi
National Institute of Mental Health (2013). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Retrieved from
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivitydisorder/index.shtml?utm_source=REFERENCES_R7
xxii
Reitman, D., OCallaghan, P.M., & Mitchell, P. (2005). Parent as Coach: Enhancing Sports Participation and Social
Behavior for ADHD-Diagnosed Children. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 27(2), 57-68.
xxiii
National Institute of Mental Health (2013). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Retrieved from
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivitydisorder/index.shtml?utm_source=REFERENCES_R7
xxiv
Sherlock-Shangraw, R.A. (2012). Identifying Instructional Practices Employed by Massachusetts Special Olympics Hall
of Fame Coaches (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (ProQuest
Document ID: 1319579059)
xxv
Sherlock-Shangraw, R.A. (2012). Identifying Instructional Practices Employed by Massachusetts Special Olympics Hall
of Fame Coaches (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (ProQuest
Document ID: 1319579059)

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Special Olympics Athlete-Centered Coaching Guide