GEMS & GEMOLOGY

VOLUME XLI

WINTER 2005

WINTER 2005
PAGES 295388

Dr. Edward J. Gbelin

VOLUME 41 NO. 4

(19132005)

THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE GEMOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF A MERICA

Winter 2005

VOLUME 41, NO. 4

EDITORIAL _____________
295

One Hundred Issues and Counting...

Alice S. Keller

297

LETTERS ________
FEATURE ARTICLES _____________

298

A Gemological Pioneer: Dr. Edward J. Gbelin

Robert E. Kane, Edward W. Boehm, Stuart D. Overlin, Dona M. Dirlam,

John I. Koivula, and Christopher P. Smith
pg. 299

Examines the prolific career and groundbreaking contributions of

Swiss gemologist Dr. Edward J. Gbelin (19132005).

328

Characterization of the New Malossi Hydrothermal Synthetic Emerald

Ilaria Adamo, Alessandro Pavese, Loredana Prosperi, Valeria Diella, Marco Merlini,
Mauro Gemmi, and David Aj
Reports on a hydrothermally grown synthetic emerald manufactured since
2003 in the Czech Republic. Includes the distinctive features that can be
used to separate this material from natural and other synthetic emeralds.
pg. 337

REGULAR FEATURES _____________________

340

Lab Notes
Yellow CZ imitating cape diamonds Orange diamonds, treated by multiple
processes Pink diamonds with a temporary color change Unusually large
novelty-cut diamond Small synthetic diamonds Diaspore vein in sapphire
Unusual pearl from South America Unusually small natural-color black cultured
pearls Identification of turquoise with diffuse reflectance IR spectroscopy

350

Gem News International

Ornamental blueschist from northern Italy Emerald phantom crystal
Unusual trapiche emerald earrings Large greenish yellow grossular from
Africa Opal triplet resembling an eye Green orthoclase feldspar from
Vietnam New discoveries of painite in Myanmar Gem plagioclase reportedly from Tibet Spinel from southern China Update on tourmaline from Mt.
Mica, Maine Update on Cu- and Mn-bearing tourmaline from Mozambique
Lizard in amber? CZ as rough sapphire imitation Barium-rich glass sold
as diamond rough Color-change glass update Conference reports

370

Book Reviews

373

Gemological Abstracts

381

2005 Index

388

The Last Page: The G&G Digital Archives, 19341980

pg. 340

pg. 362

EDITORIAL
STAFF

Editor-in-Chief
Alice S. Keller
[email protected]
Publisher
William E. Boyajian
Managing Editor
Thomas W. Overton
[email protected]

Editor
Brendan M. Laurs
The Robert Mouawad Campus
5345 Armada Drive
Carlsbad, CA 92008
(760) 603-4503
[email protected]

Editors, Lab Notes

Thomas M. Moses and
Shane F. McClure
Editor, Gem News International
Brendan M. Laurs

Associate Editor
Stuart Overlin
[email protected]

Editors, Book Reviews

Susan B. Johnson,
Jana E. Miyahira-Smith, and
Stuart Overlin

Contributing Editor
James E. Shigley

Circulation Coordinator
Debbie Ortiz
(760) 603-4000, ext. 7142
[email protected]

Editor, Gemological Abstracts

A. A. Levinson*

PRODUCTION
STAFF

Art Director
Karen Myers

Production Assistant
Allison DeLong

Web Site:
www.gia.edu

EDITORIAL
REVIEW BOARD

Shigeru Akamatsu
Tokyo, Japan

A. J. A. (Bram) Janse
Perth, Australia

George Rossman
Pasadena, California

Alan T. Collins
London, United Kingdom

Alan Jobbins
Caterham, United Kingdom

Kenneth Scarratt
Bangkok, Thailand

G. Robert Crowningshield
New York, New York

Mary L. Johnson
Carlsbad, California

James E. Shigley
Carlsbad, California

John Emmett
Brush Prairie, Washington

Anthony R. Kampf
Los Angeles, California

Christopher P. Smith
New York, New York

Emmanuel Fritsch
Nantes, France

Robert E. Kane
Helena, Montana

Christopher M. Welbourn
Reading, United Kingdom

Henry A. Hnni
Basel, Switzerland

Thomas M. Moses
New York, New York

Technical Editor
Carol M. Stockton

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MANUSCRIPT
SUBMISSIONS

Gems & Gemology welcomes the submission of articles on all aspects of the field. Please see the Guidelines for Authors
on our Web site, or contact the Managing Editor. Letters on articles published in Gems & Gemology are also welcome.

COPYRIGHT
AND REPRINT
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ABOUT
THE COVER

Abstracting is permitted with credit to the source. Libraries are permitted to photocopy beyond the limits of U.S. copyright
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Postmaster: Return undeliverable copies of Gems & Gemology to The Robert Mouawad Campus, 5345 Armada Drive,
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Any opinions expressed in signed articles are understood to be the opinions of the authors and not of the publisher.

The work of Swiss gemologist Dr. Edward J. Gbelin (19132005) forever changed the study of gems. Best known for his
research in the area of gemstone inclusions, Dr. Gbelin wrote extensively on virtually every aspect of gemology. He was also
an innovator in gem-testing instruments, an influential educator, and a global ambassador of gemology. Accompanying this
picture of Dr. Gbelin at work in the laboratory are three photomicrographs from his Photoatlas of Gemstone Inclusions
(1986, with John I. Koivula). Top to bottom: An inclusion of muscovite in aquamarine from Pakistan (magnified 20), a pair
of scorpions in Dominican amber (magnified 35), and devitrite inclusions in green glass (magnified 50). Photo courtesy of
Edward W. Boehm; photomicrographs used with permission from Opinion Verlag, Basel, Switzerland.
Color separations for Gems & Gemology are by Pacific PreMedia, Carlsbad, California.
Printing is by Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas.
2005 Gemological Institute of America

All rights reserved.

ISSN 0016-626X

inter 2005 marks the 100th issue of the new

Gems & Gemology, which was introduced in
1981 with a full peer-review process, new sections, and a radical redesign from the smaller format that had
defined the journal for more than 45 years. Over the last
quarter century, the relaunched G&G has witnessed a virtual
revolution in the science of gemology.
In the early 1980s, heating of rubies and sapphires and oiling of emeralds were the most prevalent treatments, but of
relatively little concern to the trade. Over the next two
decades, less-identifiable treatment methods such as irradiation and new processes such as surface diffusion had a
greater impact in the market. More recently, the use of different emerald fillers, of lead-glass fillers in rubies, and the diffusion of light elements such as beryllium into corundum
have raised the bar on the technology being used to treat
colored gemsand to identify those treatments. At the same
time, the onset of new and better synthetics has made virtually every gem material suspect.
Also in the early 1980s, there were virtually no treatments for
colorless diamonds and very few (mainly irradiation/annealing
and coating) for their fancy-colored counterparts. With the
advent of fracture filling in the late 1980s and high
pressure/high temperature treatment in the late 1990s, diamantaires were rocked by the realization that they, too, must
rely on gemological research to protect the integrity of their
products. This was reinforced by developments in synthetic
diamonds: Whereas less than a dozen faceted synthetic
diamonds were even known in the early 1980s, today fancycolored synthetic diamonds are commercially available in the
marketplace. Diamond dealers and retailers worldwide now
recognize that the role of the gemologist in understanding
these developments and knowing how to identify a gem
or when to send it to a well-equipped laboratoryis more
crucial than ever.

Gems & Gemology has been at the forefront of virtually all

of these developments, advising and informing, often first in
Lab Notes or Gem News International and then in comprehensive articles that build on one another to explain the
scope of the problem and identify possible solutions. In addition, we have brought our readers updates on classic gem
localities and introduced them to new sources, described
new gem materials, and examined innovative lapidary techniques as well as the intricacies of evaluating diamond cut.

EDITORIAL

The Gemological
Abstracts section
has been critical in
exposing our readers
to developments in
other publications
and scientific disciplines, while our Book
Reviews have kept the
G&G audience up to
date on must-haves (and
must-nots) for the contemporary gemological library.
Radical advances in computer
capability and access have aided many
of the technical developments in gemology
over the last 25 years, and the rapid expansion of the Internet
has provided new opportunities for communication that go far
beyond the printed page. In keeping with these breakthroughs,
I am pleased to announce that beginning in early 2006, every
issue of Gems & Gemology from 1934 to the present will be
accessible online at www.gia.edu. The 19341980 issues will
be available free of charge (see The Last Page on p. 388 for
more), while there will be a small charge for the issues since
1981. Because it is impossible to ensure the accuracy of the
color reproduction on a computer monitor, we strongly recommend that readers continue to use the printed version as
reference for color-critical images.
As a final note, it is particularly appropriate that this 100th
issue leads off with a tribute to the late Dr. Edward J. Gbelin,
one of the most influential gemologists of the 20th century.
Dr. Gbelin wrote the lead article, on peridot from Zabargad,
in our first large-format issue. As the fascinating tribute
article points out, Dr. Gbelin published his first G&G
article in 1940 and his last in 2003, the longest association
with the journal63 yearsof any single person.
Gemology is fortunate to command such loyalty and
passion, and we are all richer for it.

Alice S. Keller
Editor-in-Chief

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

295

Mark your calendar for the

Manchester Grand Hyatt Hotel

San Diego, California
Sponsored by Charles & Colvard, Ltd.

THE SCIENCE OF GEMOLOGY is expanding in many exciting

directions that encompass not only mineralogy and geology, but
also fields such as physics, chemistry, and materials science. At
the GIA Gemological Research Conference, a multidisciplinary
approach will explore the challenges posed by new synthetic and
treated gem materials, as well as the characterization of natural
gems from traditional and new sources. Invited lectures, submitted
oral presentations, and a poster session will explore a diverse
range of contemporary topics in gemology and related sciences.

Call for Abstracts

Prospective oral and poster presenters are invited to submit
abstracts for the GIA Gemological Research Conference.
Abstracts should be submitted to [email protected] (for
oral presentations) or [email protected] (for poster presentations). The abstract deadline for all submissions is March 1,
2006. Abstracts of oral and poster presentations given at the
conference will be published in a Proceedings Volume.

Pre-Conference Field Trip

A field trip to the world-famous Pala pegmatite
district in San Diego County will take place
August 25, 2006. No more than 50 participants
can be accommodated. The field trip fee will
include ground transportation from the
Manchester Grand Hyatt Hotel in San Diego,
a light breakfast, and a boxed lunch.

Keynote Speakers
Geology of Gem Deposits
Dr. Jeff Harris, University of Glasgow, UK
Diamond occurrence and evolution
Dr. David London, University of Oklahoma, Norman
Geochemical cycle of certain elements that form gems
Gem Characterization Techniques
Dr. George Rossman, California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena Characterization of nanofeatures in gem materials
Dr. Emmanuel Fritsch, IMN, University of Nantes, France
Review and forecast of important techniques in gemology
New Gem Localities
Dr. Lawrence Snee, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver
Mapping of gem localities in Afghanistan and Pakistan
Dr. Federico Pezzotta, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale,
Milan Update on gem localities in Madagascar
Gem Synthesis
Dr. James Butler, Naval Research Laboratory,
Washington, DC Growth of CVD synthetic diamond
Dr. Ichiro Sunagawa, Tokyo Growth, morphology,
and perfection of single crystals: Basic concepts in discriminating
natural from synthetic gemstones
General Gemology
Shane McClure, GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
Genetic source type classification of gem corundum
Menahem Sevdermish, Advanced Quality A.C.C. Ltd.,
Ramat Gan, Israel Color communication: The analysis
of color in gem materials
Diamond and Corundum Treatments
Ken Scarratt, GIA Research, Bangkok
Corundum treatments
Dr. Mark Newton, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
Diamond treatments

Eight additional speakers for each session will be

selected from submitted abstracts.

The GIA Gemological Research Conference will be held in

conjunction with the 4th International Gemological Symposium,
which will take place August 2729, 2006. For further information on participating in or attending the GIA Gemological
Research Conference, contact the organizing committee at:

E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. James E. Shigley, Phone: 760-603-4019
Brendan M. Laurs, Phone: 760-603-4503
Fax: 760-603-4021
Web: www.gia.edu/gemsandgemology
or www.symposium.gia.edu

LETTERS
LETTERS

MORE ON SPECTROSCOPY OF YELLOW DIAMONDS

I read with interest Characterization and grading of natural-color yellow diamonds by John King and collaborators
in the Summer 2005 issue (pp. 88115). It is an informative
text putting together a lot of useful gemological and spectroscopic data. I was a little surprised in reading the description
of Group 2 that this category of yellow diamonds was not
recognized as belonging to the brown to grayish-yellow
family of hydrogen-rich diamonds defined by myself, Ken
Scarratt, and Alan Collins in 1991 (see E. Fritsch et al.,
Optical properties of diamonds with an unusually high
hydrogen content, in R. Messier et al., Eds., Materials
Research Society International Conference Proceedings,
2nd International Conference on New Diamond Science
and Technology, Washington, DC, Sept. 2327, 1991,
Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, PA, pp. 671676; E.

Fritsch and K. Scarratt, Gemmological properties of type Ia

diamonds with an unusually high hydrogen content,
Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 23, No. 8, 1993, pp. 1524).
The brownish yellow color is well within the range
described by the family name, and the color of such stones
extends all the way to brown (B. M. Laurs, Gem News
International: International Geological Congress, Gems &
Gemology, Vol. 41, No. 1, 2005, pp. 6769).
Nevertheless, I was delighted to learn that this category is so prominent among yellow diamonds (the second
most common after cape stones, representing about 4%
of submitted diamonds). This demonstrates that what
might be perceived as a curiosity when first described may
later turn out to be of larger significance.
Emmanuel Fritsch
IMN, University of Nantes, France

IN MEMORIAM: ALFRED A. LEVINSON (19272005)

Gems & Gemology mourns the loss of Dr. Alfred A.
Levinson, professor emeritus of geology at the University
of Calgary. A longtime contributor, reviewer, and editor
for G&G, Dr. Levinson passed away December 12 at the
age of 78.
Al Levinson was born and raised in Staten
Island, New York, and became interested in
geology at a young age. He attended college
for a year before enlisting in the Navy in 1945.
After the war, he used his G.I. Bill benefits to
attend the University of Michigan, where he
received a Ph.D. in mineralogy in 1952.
After working as an assistant professor of
mineralogy at Ohio State University in the
mid-1950s, Dr. Levinson spent the next 10
years in private industry, conducting mineral
exploration with Dow Chemical Co. and petroleum studies
for Gulf Research and Development Co. In 1966, he proposed a system of mineral nomenclature for rare-earth elements that was accepted by the International Mineralogical
Association in 1971 and to this day is widely known as the
Levinson system. In 2002, the mineral species levinsonite(Y) was named in his honor.
Eager to return to academia, Dr. Levinson accepted a
professorship at the University of Calgary in 1967. From
1967 to 1970, he also served as executive editor of Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, even as he was preparing
the Proceedings of the Apollo 11 Lunar Science Conference

LETTERS

(1970) and the Proceedings of the Second Lunar Science

Conference (1971). During the 1970s and 1980s, he published two textbooks on geochemistry.
Dr. Levinson turned to gemology late in his career, and
was particularly active after becoming a professor emeritus
in 1994. He was an acknowledged expert on
the occurrence, exploration, recovery, and economics of diamonds. Among the 10 feature
articles he coauthored for Gems & Gemology
were some of the most important diamond
papers in the journals history. Three received
Most Valuable Article awards: Age, origin,
and emplacement of diamonds: Scientific
advances in the last decade (Spring 1991);
Diamond sources and production: Past, present, and future (Winter 1992); and Diamonds
in Canada (Fall 2002). He also contributed a chapter on
diamond sources to The Nature of Diamonds (1998), edited
by Dr. George Harlow.
Al Levinson meant many things to Gems & Gemology.
He was a mainstay of the editorial review board since 1995
and the editor of the Gemological Abstracts section since
1997. And for the past three years, he carefully reviewed
the final set of page proofs for each issue before publication.
Yet his importance to G&G went beyond his intellectual
contributions. Above all, Al was a beloved friend and a constant source of support and encouragement for the entire
staff. He will be greatly missed.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

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297

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER:
DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN
Robert E. Kane, Edward W. Boehm, Stuart D. Overlin, Dona M. Dirlam,
John I. Koivula, and Christopher P. Smith

During a career that spanned more than 65 years, the eminent Swiss gemologist Dr. Edward J.
Gbelin (19132005) built a monumental legacy. He is perhaps best known for his pioneering
work on gemstone inclusions. He established the first systematic classification of inclusions in
natural gem minerals, and his research demonstrated the importance of these internal features
in determining a gems identity as well as its country of origin. He wrote extensively on nearly
all aspects of gemology, eloquently recording his observations in 13 major books and more
than 250 articles. A widely traveled explorer, Dr. Gbelin also reported on some of the worlds
most important gem localities. In addition, he was an innovator in gem-testing instruments, an
influential educator, a major gem collector, and one of gemologys most ardent and respected
global ambassadors.

To those who are able to explore their secrets, precious

stones relate a story as interesting as that of the huge
pyramids erected by the Pharaohs at Memphis, and it
would seem that their sublime internal spheres might
best be called, The Fingerprints of God.
Edward J. Gbelin
Inclusions as a Means of Gemstone Identification,
1953

he late Dr. Edward J. Gbelin (19132005; figure 1) will forever be linked to the study of
inclusions in gemstones, an area of research
he pioneered in the early 1940s. His lifelong studies
yielded breakthroughs in determining a gems identity and geographic origin based on these internal
features, thus helping to establish the foundation of
modern gemology. In many ways, he transformed
the way we look at and study these very special
minerals. Yet his acclaimed research on inclusions
tells only part of the story. Dr. Gbelin was also an
insightful and prolific writer whose works on nearly
all aspects of gems and their study have been widely
read and translated into several languages. He was
an inventor of gem-testing instruments, an important gem collector, and an educator who influenced

298

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

several generations of gemologists. In addition, he

was an explorer who chronicled many of the worlds
major gem sources, both classic and new.
As a tribute to one of the most remarkable figures in the history of gemology, this article examines the many dimensions of Edward J. Gbelins
career, from his early academic training to the
enduring legacy he has left behind.

THE EARLY YEARS

The story of Edward J. Gbelin begins with the
founding of a family business. In 1854, Jakob Josef
Mauritz Breitschmid opened a watchmakers shop
in the picturesque lakeside city of Lucerne, Switzerland. Breitschmids apprentice, Eduard Jakob
Gbelin, married his masters daughter in 1886 and
purchased the company in 1899. Their son, Eduard
Moritz Gbelin (18881945), took the reins in 1919
(150 Years of Gbelin, 2004).

See end of article for About the Authors and Acknowledgments.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 298327.
2005 Gemological Institute of America

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

Figure 1. The pioneering

Swiss gemologist
Edward J. Gbelin
(19132005) looks at a
set of gems from his personal collection, which
contains more than
5,000 specimens. Best
known for his landmark
research on gemstone
inclusions, Dr. Gbelin
was a renowned author,
photographer, educator,
and explorer whose contributions to the field
may never be surpassed.

Eduard Joseph Gbelin, the eldest son of Eduard

M. and Maria (Schriber) Gbelin, was born March
16, 1913. Young Eduard (figure 2) attended grammar
and high school in Lucerne, with a special focus on
natural science and languages. He eventually
became fluent in four languagesGerman, French,
English, and Italianin addition to his native Swiss
German, and he could read and write Latin and
Greek. Because Dr. Gbelin preferred the English
spelling of his given name when publishing for an
English-speaking audience, the balance of this article will refer to him as Edward.
Edward J. Gbelins lifelong passion for gems
was sparked while walking home from grammar
school one day, when he saw a brooch set with
rubies and diamonds in a shop window. To nurture
his sons budding interest, watchmaker Eduard M.
Gbelin took the remarkable step of adding a jewelry division to the company:
It must have been about 1922 or 23 when my
father wanted me and my younger brother to
decide which profession we wanted to take. And
I told my father Id like to become a jeweler. He
said, Okay, I like the idea. And under the circumstances, I shall add a jewelry section to the
firm. However, he was a watchmaker and he
didnt know much about gemstones and jewelry.
So he took a gemological course with Prof.
Michel, whofrom Viennawas the European
pioneer in gemology. (Gbelin, 2001)

In 1923, the senior Gbelin also established a

small gemological lab to support the fledgling jewelry

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

side of the business. This facility would become the

foundation for the Gbelin Gem Lab (150 Years of
Gbelin, 2004).

THE ACADEMIC AND HIS

THIRST FOR KNOWLEDGE
Academic Career. In 1932, at the age of 19, Edward
J. Gbelin joined the family business. While working part-time, he majored in mineralogy at the
University of Zurich, with additional studies in art
history, literature, and ancient languages (Jaeger,
2005).
A crucial period in Dr. Gbelins gemological
education was the winter 193637 term, which he
spent at the Institute of Precious Stones in Vienna.
There he studied under Prof. Hermann Michel, his
fathers tutor a decade earlier. The professor was
an early pioneer in practical gemology whose
books included the English-language Pocketbook
for Jewelers, Lapidaries, Gem & Pearl Dealers
(1929). Prof. Michel taught his young protg to
observe and distinguish inclusions within gemstones and to appreciate their diagnostic value
(Gbelin, 1953). Dr. Gbelins detailed notes from
this class reveal a systematic rigor and enthusiastic curiosity that would characterize his work over
the next seven decades.
Another influential figure during these formative
years was the renowned German gemologist and
mineralogist Prof. Karl Schlossmacher, who had
revised Dr. Max Bauers classic book Edelsteinkunde

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

299

Figure 2. Edward J. Gbelin, second from the left,

excelled from an early age in natural science and languages. Also shown, left to right, are his younger siblings Werner, Walter, Hans Ulrich, Robert, Maria, and
Albert Gbelin. Courtesy of Gbelin AG.

[Precious Stones] in 1932. During his university time

in Zurich, Dr. Gbelin attended a summer course
taught by Prof. Schlossmacher, who remained a
friend and guiding influence for many years
(Gbelin, 2001).
Dr. Gbelins doctoral dissertation, written in
1938, examined the minerals in dolomite from
Campolungo, in the Tessin region of the Italian
Swiss Alps (Gbelin, 1939). He was formally
awarded his doctorate from the University of
Zurich in 1941. His university studies completed,

1854

1913

1923

March 16,
1913
Edward J.
Gbelin born
in Lucerne

1854 Jakob Breitschmid opens

watchmaking shop in Lucerne,
forerunner of the Gbelin group
of companies

300

Dr. Gbelin traveled by steamship to the United

States in January 1939 to work in the Gbelin
firms New York office and improve his salesmanship and English skills. At this same time, he contacted Robert M. Shipley, founder of the
Gemological Institute of America, and enrolled in
the Institutes correspondence classes. Dr. Gbelin
arrived at GIA in Los Angeles in July 1939 to complete the coursework and prepare for his examinations. He later recalled, The deeper I delved [into
the courses], the more enthusiastic I grew
(Shuster, 2003, p. 66). In August 1939, he received
GIAs title of Certified Gemologist (the forerunner
of todays Graduate Gemologist, or G.G., diploma;
Certified Gemologist later became the title given
by the American Gem Society).
After graduating from GIA, Dr. Gbelin returned
to Lucerne, where he married Idda Niedermann
and rejoined the family business. During World
War II, he served in the Swiss Army as an intelligence officer while continuing to pursue gemological studies and independent research when his military duties allowed (figure 3). In 1945, he earned
his Diamond Certificate from the Swiss
Gemmological Society. He continued his studies
with the Gemmological Association of Great
Britain and became a Fellow of the Gemmological
Association of Great Britain (FGA) with distinction
in 1946. This was followed by a gemological certificate from the German Gemmological Society and
the Institute of Gemstone Research, both in IdarOberstein, in 1954. The next year, Dr. Gbelin was
awarded the Gemstone Expert Diploma of the
Swiss Gemmological Society.
When Dr. Gbelin was asked recently what

19361937

1938

19361937
Edward J.
Gbelin is
introduced
to the study
of inclusions
under Prof.
Hermann
Michel in
Vienna

1938 Completes doctorate in

mineralogy at the University of
Zurich (diploma awarded in 1941)

1923 Jewelry division added

to the watch company, as
well as the precursor to the
Gbelin Gem Lab

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

1939

1940
The
Gbelin
company
begins
issuing
diamond
and colored stone
certificates
signed by
Edward J.
Gbelin

1939 Earns Certified

Gemologist diploma at GIA
1940 Returns to the
family business in
Lucerne and marries
Idda Niedermann

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Publishes his first

Gems & Gemology
article, Differences
between Burma and
Siam rubies

Joins the
Swiss Army,
serves until
1945

WINTER 2005

other people, but remain curious to find out everything you can about gemstones (Gbelin, 2001).
Lifelong Thirst for Knowledge. Throughout his life,
Dr. Gbelins yearning for gemological knowledge
never diminished. Into the 21st century, he rigorously read gemological journals in at least four languages and frequently wrote letters to the authors of
these articles to compliment, critique, comment on,
or politely question their findings and conclusions.
Perhaps one reason Dr. Gbelin stayed so productive for so long was that his vocation was also
his hobby, and as such he did not make any distinction between work and pleasure. In 1991, at the age
of 78, he commented on his retirement from business 15 years earlier. Gemology has become a
necessity to me, something that I have to do, he
said (Berenblatt, 1991, p. 30). Im still studying
gemological literature. Im still receiving gems
from all over the world. I enjoy analyzing the
nature of the gems.

Figure 3. Dr. Gbelin began publishing on gemstone

inclusions in 1940. Here he is using the darkfield
Gemmoscope, which he developed in 1942 using the
latest in Zeiss optics. Inset: One of Dr. Gbelins early
photomicrographs, of curved striae and elongated gas
bubbles in a flame-fusion (Verneuil) synthetic ruby.

advice he would give a young gemology student

today, he responded, The best advice I can give
him is to be curious. Ask questions [of] yourself, [of]

1942

1945
1945
Takes over
the Gbelin
company
with brother
Walter after
the death of
their father

1946

1950

Founding member of the Swiss

Gemmological Society

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

Inclusions in gemstones speak eloquently of the

geological origins and subsequent history of their
costly host. All we need to do is open our eyes and
explore.
Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, 1986
(p. 518)

No one in the history of gemology has had as profound an impact on the research and appreciation of
inclusions as Edward J. Gbelin. When he first

1952

1953

1962

1963

1962 First trip to

1954 Receives
gemological certificate Burma (now Myanmar)
from the German
1963 Produces the film
Gemmological Society
Mogok, Valley of Rubies
with daughter Marie-Helen.
1953 Publishes the classic
He is the last Western
Inclusions as a Means of
gemologist to visit Mogok
Gemstone Identification
for nearly 30 years.

1952 Helps found

the International
Gemmological
Conference (IGC)

1946
Receives FGA
with distinction from the
Gemmological Association of Great
Britain

1942 Develops the Gemmoscope,

a darkfield-illuminator-equipped
microscope, and creates a diamond
cut gauge

UNLOCKING THE MYSTERIES OF

GEMSTONE INCLUSIONS

1950
Develops
the first
desk-model
gemological
spectroscope

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

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301

gazed into a microscope in the 1920s, inclusions

were considered little more than undesirable flaws
and imperfections. As a direct result of his pioneering research and photomicrography, inclusions are
now recognized as valuable indicators of a gems
identity, geographic origin, and natural or treated
condition, as well asin many casesconclusive
proof of whether a gem is natural or synthetic. They
are also appreciated as objects of natural beauty in
their own right, in gems cut or carved to showcase
their internal features.

Syngenetic (contemporaneous) inclusions:

Mineral inclusions, as well as fluids (liquids
and gases), that formed and were imprisoned
as the host crystal was growing are syngenetic.
Classic examples of syngenetic inclusions are
the well-known three-phase inclusions in
Colombian emeralds, and pyrite in quartz or
emerald (figure 4, middle).

1967

1968

1967 Publishes
Burma, Land der
Pagoden
1968 Publishes
Die Edelsteine der
Insel Ceylon

1969

1974

1975 Writes
groundbreaking articles
on green
grossular garnet (tsavorite)
deposit in
Kenya

1969
Publishes
Edelsteine,
translated
in 1975 as
The Color
Treasury of
Gemstones
1974 Publishes
Internal World of
Gemstones

302

1975

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

1976

1976
Officially
retires from
the Gbelin
company

1980

1982

1980 Receives the Jewelers of

America's International Award
for Jewelry Leadership

Photo by Robert Weldon

Protogenetic (preexisting) inclusions: Protogenetic inclusions formed before the growth of

the host. These inclusions are always minerals; preexisting gases and liquids are not considered protogenetic. Examples include actinolite and biotite in emerald, and pyrrhotite in
diamond. Calcite and dolomite in ruby can be
either protogenetic or syngenetic (figure 4, top).

In addition to when they were created, Dr.

Gbelin classified inclusions by their physical form.
This allowed for better description of the inclusion,
which has become increasingly important with the
multitude of treatments that often alter the internal
characteristics of a gemstone. Here he also broadened the definition of inclusion beyond internal
solids, liquids, and gases within a host gem to
encompass characteristics such as cracks and fissures and growth phenomena (e.g., twinning, color
zoning, and textural growth structures).
Today, Dr. Gbelins various inclusion classifications are widely accepted, and their usefulness
only grows as new localities are discovered and
new synthetics and treated materials continue to
emerge. The just-released Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Volume 2 (Gbelin and
Koivula, 2005) presents a new classification of
gemstone inclusions based on specific diagnostic

Photo by Robert Weldon

Classifying Gemstone Inclusions. In his 1953 book

Inclusions as a Means of Gemstone Identification,
Dr. Gbelin proposed a classification of mineral
inclusions based on when they formed in relation to
the host gem crystal.

Epigenetic (post-growth) inclusions: Epigenetic

inclusions formed after the host completed
growing, anywhere from immediately to millions of years later. Perhaps the best-known
examples are rutile needles in rubies and sapphires, as well as the fingerprints that occur
in many gemstones, including rubies and sapphires. Rutile needles occur in corundum
through exsolution of trace amounts of titanium forced out of the gems crystal structure
during cooling, while fingerprint-like inclusions result from the healing of internal surface-reaching fractures by growth fluids, sometimes long after the host crystals formation
(figure 4, bottom).

1982 Named
first honorary
member of the
American Gem
Trade Association (AGTA)

Founding organizer
of the International
Colored Stone
Association (ICA)

Writes seminal article on cause

of color in alexandrite and
alexandrite-like gems in Neues Jahrbuch
fr Mineralogie Abhandlungen

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

Figure 4. Dr. Gbelin classified mineral inclusions

according to when they
formed in relation to the
host gem crystal. Top: These
inclusions of actinolite in
Austrian emerald (left, magnified 32) and calcite in
Burmese ruby (right, 32)
are protogenetic (formed
before the growth of the
host). Middle: This pyrite
crystal in Brazilian quartz
(left, 25) and the threephase inclusions in
Colombian emerald (right,
50) are syngenetic (formed
and then imprisoned as
the host crystal was growing). Bottom: These rutile
needles in Burmese ruby
(left, 50) and fingerprints
in Burmese sapphire (right,
20) are epigenetic (formed
after the host completed
growing). Photomicrographs
by Edward J. Gbelin, from
the Photoatlas of Gemstone
Inclusions (1986); used with
permission from Opinio
Verlag, Basel, Switzerland.

mineral species, colors, morphology, and fluid

inclusions. It also makes correlations between the
inclusions and their hosts on the basis of their
geologic formation.

1986

1988

1991

1993

1991
Receives the
ICA Lifetime
Achievement
Award

1994

Inclusions as Diagnostic Tools. How did Dr.

Gbelin use these microscopic features as diagnostic tools? His understanding of mineralogy and of
how and where certain minerals formed in the

1997

1999

1993
Presented
with the
coveted
Medal of
the City
of Paris

1986 Publishes the classic

Photoatlas of Inclusions in
Gemstones (with John Koivula)

1994 Receives the

American Gem Society's
Robert M. Shipley Award

1988 Publishes the

World Map of Gem
Deposits (with the Swiss
Gemmological Society)
One of the first Westerners to
return to the gem areas of Mogok
A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

1997 Gems &

Gemology's Most
Valuable Article
Award is renamed
in his honor

2003

2005

1999
Publishes
Edelsteine:
Symbole der
Schnheit und
der Macht (with
Franz-Xaver
Erni), translated in 2000 as
Gemstones:
Symbols of
Beauty and
Power

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

20052006

March 15, 2005

Dies in Lucerne
at the age of 91
20052006
Posthumous publication of
Photoatlas of Inclusions in
Gemstones, Volumes 2 and 3
(with John I. Koivula)

2003 Inducted into GIA's

League of Honor

WINTER 2005

303

emeralds probable geographic origin using only a

microscope.

Figure 5. These amphibole fibers, which Dr. Gbelin

believed were tremolite, are characteristic of emeralds
from Sandawana, Zimbabwe. Photomicrograph by
Edward J. Gbelin, magnified 20, from the
Photoatlas of Gemstone Inclusions (1986); used with
permission from Opinio Verlag, Basel, Switzerland.

earth enabled him to surmise a great deal of information simply by looking at an inclusion with
magnification. With polarized-light microscopy, for
example, Dr. Gbelin could observe long, slender,
fibrous clusters of highly birefringent transparent
crystals in an emerald and conclude that they were
amphibole inclusions, such as tremolite or actinolite. He knew that such inclusions, with their
slightly rounded edges and lack of sharp crystal
faces, indicated a protogenetic formation. Protogenetic amphibole inclusions in emerald are
known to occur only in certain metasomatic geologic environments, such as those at the mines in
Sandawana, Zimbabwe (see, e.g., Gbelin, 1958).
Thus armed with a profound knowledge of the relationships between gem minerals, their host rocks,
and their internal features, Dr. Gbelin could look
through his microscope and ascertain within seconds that these protogenetic inclusions were
amphiboles and, on the basis of their morphology,
that the emerald in question grew in a geologic
environment similar to that at Sandawana (figure
5). The shape, size, quantity, distribution, and fissure patterns of these amphibole inclusions differentiate Sandawana emeralds from those found at
other sources, such as Habachtal in Austria or the
Ural Mountains in Russia, which also contain
amphibole crystals. It was remarkable that Dr.
Gbelin could identify these amphibole inclusions
without chemical analysis, and determine the

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A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

Characteristics of Gem Species. In some cases, Dr.

Gbelin stressed, an inclusion type alone will conclusively identify a particular gemstone species or
variety. For instance, thread-like trichites indicate tourmaline, and lily pads are typical of peridot from most localities. Octahedral negative crystals filled with white dolomite identify spinel.
Heat-wave or roiled-effect growth structures
are characteristic of hessonite. When such internal
features are present, no further tests are necessary to
identify the gemstone host (Gbelin, 1999).
His research also revealed that the internal features of many gemstones are globally analogous, or
even the same. A few examples of gems where the
inclusions are the same from one locality to the
next are beryl (other than emerald), kyanite, spodumene, and zircon.
Over the course of his long career, Dr. Gbelin
identified hundreds of mineral species as inclusions
in the tens of thousands of gems he examined. There
is scarcely a gem material he did not report on, from
the most common stones on the market to the
rarest collector gems, such as ekanite, taaffeite, axinite, and cassiterite. If a gemstone had inclusions, he
was intent on learning as much as he could about it.
Dr. Gbelin was the first to observe many inclusion
relationships, such as chromium-pyroxene in diamonds and apatite and calcite in hessonite. Also
consider quartz, which Dr. Gbelin once said he
regarded as the most interesting gem mineral. In an
October 1995 International Gemmological Conference (IGC) lecture in Thailand, he reported that
he had discovered 136 different inclusions in quartz,
40 of them in material from the Swiss Alps.
Genetic Conditions. In 2000, Dr. Gbelin (with
Franz-Xaver Erni) wrote, Just as fossils in rocks
give paleontologists information about past geological periods in the earths history, the inclusions in
precious jewels bear witness to formation and
growth conditions as well as to the gemstones
place of origin (p. 218). Conclusions about the
geologic conditions under which the original crystal grew can be drawn by studying the internal paragenesis (mineral association) of a gemstone. Dr.
Gbelin published his initial observations on this
in a 1943 Gems & Gemology article titled Survey
of the genesis of gem stones (figure 6). Calcite and
dolomite inclusions in a ruby are proof of the

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WINTER 2005

Figure 6. This illustration from Dr. Gbelins

Winter 1943 Gems &
Gemology article,
Survey of the genesis of
gem stones, shows a
system for classifying
primary and secondary
gem deposits.

metamorphic cycle that created the marble in

which the original crystal grew, whereas
pyrrhotite in ruby betrays its igneous (basaltic) origin. Some (igneous) peridot contains small black
chromite crystals, which are remnants from the
earths mantle, just as they are in some (ultramafic) diamonds.
Dr. Gbelin (1999) pointed out that not only do
certain inclusions indicate origin in a specific magmatic environment, but they also provide evidence
of where within the earth their gemstone hosts
formed. For example, chromium-rich diopside,
enstatite, and pyrope indicate origin in metamorphic ultramafic rocks of the upper mantle, whereas
actinolite, diopside, epidote, and ilmenite predominate in metamorphic rocks of the lithosphere,
which extends to the earths surface.
Diamonds contain a multitude of mineral inclusions (olivine, garnet, pyroxene, spinel, etc.), as well
as diamond itself. Because diamonds formed deep in
the mantle and were carried to the surface by a
magma, inclusions in diamond do not serve as indicators of geographic origin and typically are similar
from one locality to the next. They do, however,
offer scientists great insights into deciphering the

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

genesis of diamond and the composition of the

earths mantle at depths of approximately 200 km.
These depths are far beyond mans capability to
reach, and thus the information contained in these
inclusions is of much scientific interest (H. O. A.
Meyer in Gbelin and Koivula, 1986, p. 271).
Natural versus Treated. In some gemstones, inclusions supply evidence of treatment or the absence
thereof. With rubies and sapphires, for example, the
unaltered or altered state of the inclusions may indicate whether or not the stone has been heat treated
at moderate to high temperatures. In emeralds, the
microscope reveals visual evidence of the oils and
other foreign fillers that are commonly used to
reduce the visibility of fractures. As gemstone treatments became prevalent in the trade, Dr. Gbelin
began reporting on them (see, e.g., his 1964 Gems &
Gemology article, Black treated opals), and the
1986 Photoatlas contains an entire chapter devoted
to inclusions in treated corundum.
Natural or Synthetic Origin. Inclusions are essential
to identifying the vast majority of synthetics available today. Dr. Gbelins first report on a synthetic

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305

gem material was The synthetic emerald (Gbelin

and Shipley, 1941), which described the new products
from German manufacturer IG Farben. This article
detailed the gemological properties of the Farben synthetics and compared them to natural emeralds from
Colombia, Brazil, Russia, and Africa, with several
exceptional photomicrographs of the synthetic emeralds characteristic inclusions. This was the first of
many articles on the subject, and nearly every book
Dr. Gbelin published featured a discussion accompanied by photomicrographs of inclusions showing
the reader how to identify what he dubbed usurpers
from the factory (Gbelin, 1974a, p. 197). The 1986
Photoatlas devoted an entire section, comprising 10
chapters, to synthetics and imitations.
Locality Characteristics (Country of Origin). Historically, certain gemstones with a legendary provenancesuch as Burmese rubies, Kashmir sapphires,
and Colombian emeraldshave commanded higher
prices than comparable stones from other sources
(figure 7). Dr. Gbelin learned this fact as early as
the mid-1930s, even before his formal gemological
training, when the Gbelin firm was dealing with a
Colombian emerald:
They sent the emerald to Prof. Michel, and [he]
decided it was a genuine emerald from
Colombia. I wondered, Why is it so important
to know about Colombia? My father gave me
[the] rudimentary information he had, but it
impressed me very much. And especially afterwards when I learned about Burmese rubies and
the emphasis on Burmese rubies and Kashmir
sapphires, I wanted to know why. . . . I started
studying inclusions, and thats how I noticed
that [there were] visible differences, so I started
classifying inclusions. (Gbelin, 2001)

Dr. Gbelin systematically studied geographic

origin during his 193637 term under Prof. Michel,
who had a collection of gemstones that were classified according to localities and their typical inclusions. He learned that certain inclusions form only
in specific geologic environments. Dr. Gbelin
(1999) acknowledged the almost incalculable
number of factors that contribute to the variation of
inclusions from one gem deposit to another, but are
frequently consistent at one particular geographic
locality:
[E]ven gems formed in identical parent rocks e.g.
dolomitic marbles at Jagdalek (Afghanistan),
Mogok and Mong Hsu (Myanmar), Chumar and

306

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

Figure 7. The two sapphires in this photo illustrate the

commercial importance of determining a gems geographic origin, which was one of Dr. Gbelins specialties. Although the natural-color 8.92 ct loose sapphire on the right looks remarkably similar to a classic Kashmir sapphirewhich many dealers argued
that it wasthe fact that it was actually from
Madagascar resulted in its selling for less than onefifth the price of a comparable gem from Kashmir. The
price per carat of the 20.97 ct natural-color Burmese
sapphire in the ring would fall between the prices for
comparable Kashmir and Madagascar stones. The
matched pair of heated Burmese rubies weighs a total
of 4.02 ct. Photo Erica & Harold Van Pelt and Robert
E. Kane; courtesy of Fine Gems International.

Ruyil (Nepal), Hunza Valley (Pakistan),

Morogoro (Tanzania) and Luc Yen (Vietnam)
manifest specific local differences, by which the
gems from these deposits may be ascribed to
their particular place of origin. While pargasite
may be an inmate of rubies from Mogok and the
Hunza Valley, it has not been observed in rubies
from other similar sources. Hunza rubies also
usually boast margarite mica and pyrite inclusions, whereas calcite, scapolite, sphene, spinel,
and sometimes pyrite as well, characterise
rubies from Mogok. Rubies from Mong Hsu are
devoid of this inclusion assemblythey excel
rather in fluorite, which has not been encountered in rubies from any other locality. Rutile
usually with acicular habit and oriented along
three . . . directions (forming so-called silk)is
a regular inhabitant of rubies from most of those
places. . . .
However, it is not merely the presence of a
specific, single guest mineral which may indicate a particular mother rock, but more often the

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

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internal association of various repeatedly occurring guest minerals is symptomatic of a specific

source. . . . The guest mineral assembly such as
apatite, rutile, zircon, etc., in sapphires from
metamorphic rocks (e.g., from Sri Lanka) is completely different from that in sapphires from
basaltic beds (volcanic origin: Australia,
Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam) encompassing columbite, plagioclase, uraniumpyrochlor [sic] (uranpyrochlore). On the other hand,
allanite, pargasite, plagioclase, tourmaline and
zircon specify sapphires of pegmatitic origin in
Kashmir. (pp. 2022)

Dr. Gbelin was particularly adept at recognizing combinations of features that were characteristic of a particular locality. A classic example he
described was ruby from Mogok: The combination
of calcite- or dolomite- crystals (with their typical
lamellar cleavage and poly-synthetic twins) with
small gratings of rutile needles in swirly surroundings, is the privilege of the sought-after Burma
rubies (Gbelin and Koivula, 1986, p. 48).
He observed that fibrous inclusions in some
gemstones emphatically hint to definite places of
origin, such as almandine with fibrous sillimanite
from Okkampitiya, Sri Lanka; andalusite with sillimanite fibers from Santa Teresa, Minas Gerais,
Brazil; and quartz with fibrous, hair-fine sepiolite
from Finland (Gbelin, 1999, p. 22).
Conversely, Dr. Gbelin reported, the lack of a
particular mineral inclusion may also exclude a particular origin and therefore indicate another source
(Gbelin, 1999, p. 22). A well-known example he
cited, demantoid from Namibia, was found to be
devoid of the horsetail chrysotile inclusions that
are characteristic of its counterpart from Russias
Ural Mountains and Val Malenco, Italy.
Starting with the issuance of his first gemological report in the early 1940s, and propelled by his
continuing research and the trades widespread
acceptance of geographic locality origin in the
1960s, Dr. Gbelin in effect began what is now a
gemological cottage industry. Using techniques
pioneered by Dr. Gbelin, today many gemological
laboratories around the world issue reports on a
gems probable country of origin by analyzing a
combination of properties such as inclusions, traceelement chemistry, spectral characteristics, and
internal growth structures. Because origin determination is not an exact science, in situations where
ambiguity exists or properties overlap, most of these
labs will not provide a report opinion on the geographic origin of that specific gemstone.

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

The Science and Art of Capturing Inclusions on

Film. Dr. Gbelins introduction to photographing
inclusions through the microscope came during his
193637 gemological studies with Prof. Michel in
Vienna. Learning to take photomicrographs, he
recounted, was a great experience . . . to put down
on paper documents what I had seen with my eyes
(Gbelin, 2001). In the early 1940s, he began providing Gbelin jewelry store customers with a photomicrograph of a gems inclusions along with a certificate (Peet, 1957). Over the decades, he took tens
of thousands of photomicrographs, many of which
he published or presented to captivated audiences
during his lectures. Dr. Gbelins enthusiasm for
photographing inclusions never waned: He took his
last photomicrographs on March 5, 2005, just 10
days before his passing.
In his 1974 Internal World of Gemstones (p. 28),
Dr. Gbelin wrote, For research and documentation
the employment of microphotography is more or less
mandatory. Only photomicrographsif possible, in
colourallow comparison of objects, provide material
for proof of gemstone identity, and at the same time
preserve in permanent visual form the inner glories of
the world of inclusions for everyone. Indeed, Dr.
Gbelins artistic photomicrography, particularly
with the widespread use of color in his books and articles beginning in the 1960s, gave gemologists an
entirely new appreciation of the natural beauty of
inclusions. I was always fascinated by looking at
gemstones under the instruments, he once noted
(Berenblatt, 1991, p. 30). What has always motivated
me to continue my work has been the beauty of gemstones and the beauty of inclusions.
Dr. Gbelins photomicrographs were exceptional not only for their technical content, but also for
their visual quality. He had an artistic eye and an
intense curiosity, which he combined with an ability to build and adapt his equipment.
Dr. Gbelin began taking photomicrographs in
the 1930s with a monocular microscope before turning to the binocular Gemmoscope he developed in
1942. He also modified Prof. Schlossmachers horizontal immersion microscope to take many of the
photomicrographs that appeared in his 1953 book
Inclusions as a Means of Gemstone Identification
(see Development of Practical Gem-Testing
Instruments section below). In recent years, his
microscopes of choice were the Zeiss SV8 (with a
custom adapter for a Nikon SLR camera; figure 8) and
a Zeiss petrographic research microscope. With the
Zeiss research microscope and its built-in camera, he

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307

Figure 8. Throughout his career, Dr. Gbelin continuously refined his photomicrographic techniques. Here
he is shown taking a photomicrograph with his Zeiss
SV8 microscope with custom darkfield illumination.

It is unlikely that there is a gemologist anywhere

in the world who has not consulted one of Dr.
Gbelins invaluable photomicrographs. It is common practice for many gemologists to compare
what they observe in their microscopes to photomicrographs in Dr. Gbelins many published works.
This started with his landmark articles in the
1940s, and continued with his many books such as
Inclusions as a Means of Gemstone Identification
(1953), Internal World of Gemstones (1974a), and
the original Photoatlas of Gemstone Inclusions
(1986). His recently published Volume 2 (2005) and
the forthcoming Volume 3 (in preparation for 2006)
of the Photoatlas will continue to provide gemologists with the most current inclusions in gemstones
for many years to come. Without a doubt, his brilliant execution of photomicrography helped bring
the science of gemology to where it is today.

PROLIFIC AUTHOR
could attain 600 magnification and capture highly
detailed inclusion scenes. His last microscope was a
Zeiss SV11 with an advanced camera attachment and
special exposure timing device, which he used for the
new Photoatlas volumes (2005 and 2006).
Dr. Gbelin constantly experimented with the
best micro-optics available and continued to refine
his techniques. He worked with different light
sources from the early lamps through fiber optics in
his later years. In Internal World of Gemstones, Dr.
Gbelin describes how he combined darkfield and
transmitted light (lightfield) illumination, as well as
other techniques, to bring out the contrast between
the host mineral and the inclusion (1974a, pp.
2728). More recently, he used oblique fiber-optic
illumination and shadowing techniques to better
illuminate the desired inclusion. As he upgraded his
microscopes and camera equipment, he also adopted new and better film. His recent favorite was
Kodak Tungsten 64.
For his photomicrographs, Dr. Gbelin took
detailed notes in shorthand that included the date,
film type, magnification, exposure time, and description of the subject inclusion. As part of a larger acquisition, GIA obtained many of these log books along
with the entire collection of more than 22,000 slides
(see the Gem Collection section below). These
slides actually represent less than half the number he
developed, since he routinely disposed of duplicates
or those that did not meet his high standards.

308

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

Since his early years, when he was one of only a few

gemological researchers, Dr. Gbelin sought to
inform jewelers and gemologists of new developments in synthetics, treatments, and localities, as
well as inclusions. Although he achieved this
through his frequent lectures and classes around the
world (figure 9), Dr. Gbelins greatest impact was in
his numerous landmark articles and books. He was a

Figure 9. Dr. Gbelin began lecturing and teaching

gemological classes in the early 1940s. In this photo,
he is giving a lecture in Sweden (Swenska Dagblad
et, August 20, 1946). Courtesy of the Edward J.
Gbelin family.

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WINTER 2005

ing when one considers that he accomplished this as

co-director of the Gbelin group of companies, head
of its gemological laboratory, a devoted family man
with a wife and five daughters (figure 10), and an
international traveler. To assist in his prolific output
of gemological research, Dr. Gbelin always maintained two sets of fully equipped gemological laboratoriesone at the company, and another at his
homeso that he could work in the evenings and on
the weekends (figure 11). Even after his retirement in
1976, Dr. Gbelin dedicated more hours to his gemological pursuits than many do during their most productive working years.

Figure 10. This 1987 photo shows Edward and Idda

Gbelin and their five daughters. Standing (left to
right): Birgitta Burkart, Franziska Greising, Mrs.
Gbelin, Dr. Gbelin, Marie-Helen Boehm. Seated:
Isabelle Morelli and Daniela Strub. Courtesy of the
Edward J. Gbelin family.

gifted writer, with the ability not only to present his

ideas in an informative manner, but also to poetically stimulate the readers interest in the science and
beauty of gemstones. This excerpt from Internal
World of Gemstones (1974a, p. 137) offers a glimpse:

Books. During his career, Dr. Gbelin wrote 13 major

books (see Box A for an annotated bibliography).
Many of these were subsequently revised or published in various languages, for a total of at least 34
volumes. In addition, he wrote more than a dozen
promotional gem and jewelry booklets for the
Gbelin company. Each new book marked a unique
contribution to the gemological literature.
My favorite book is the Internal World of
Gemstones, because it is the most beautiful. I prefer
it, to a certain extent, to the Photoatlas because it is

Figure 11. Dr. Gbelins tremendous research output

was aided by his having access to two fully equipped
gemological laboratoriesone at the company and
another at his home. This photo shows his private laboratory as it appeared between 1942 and 1947.
Courtesy of the Edward J. Gbelin family.

The saturated green crystal-clear calm mountain

lake is the image of the most beautiful emeralds.
Such a peaceful mountain lake magnetizes our
gaze into its depths. As we sink into it we attain a
world where, in the shimmer of a distant greenish
light, fronds of weed cast shadows, rigid growths
stretch their limbs like chandeliers, vistas open
up in bizarre forests of plants motionless in the
eternal tranquility of the deep. . . . This, too, is the
scene in the depths of the loveliest emeralds, in
whose clear interior we find again vegetation of
the deeps and the green foliage; floating between
them, we dream our way into it, marvelling, as
we admire them under the microscope.

Dr. Gbelin was a dominant force in 20th century

gemological literature, with many books and more
than 250 articles. His output is all the more astonish-

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BOX A: BOOKS BY EDWARD J. GBELIN

Schmuck- und Edelsteinkundliches Taschenbuch [Jewelry and
Gemology Pocketbook] (with Karl
F. Chudoba, 1953): In the introduction, the authors suggest that
this is the first German-language
pocket reference on precious
stones. It contains brief characterizations of the major gems, plus
information on inclusions, synthetics and imitations, and instruments.

Between 1940 and 1957, Dr. Gbelin wrote more than

a dozen promotional booklets for the Gbelin jewelry
stores, covering a wide range of gem-related topics.
These handsome booklets were written for the gem
and jewelry buying public, both to educate and to generate excitement about precious gems. Most were in
German, and the topics included diamonds, color grading of diamonds, precious stones, rubies and sapphires,
emeralds, pearls, gems and jewelry, inclusions, and
birthstones.

Echt oder Synthetisch? [Natural or

Synthetic?] (with Karl F. Chudoba,
1956): This succinct volume on the
differences between natural and
synthetic gems provides a brief history of the development of synthetics and describes how they can
be identified by growth marks,
inclusions, and other features. It
contains exceptional black-and-white photomicrographs
of inclusions in synthetic and natural gemstones.

Edelsteine [Gemstones] (1952):

This small but comprehensive
book was intended for the layperson, with 18 beautiful watercolors
of rough and faceted gemstones.
First published in German in 1952,
it was translated into French
(Pierres Prcieuses), with 1953 and
1955 editions. An English version
(Precious Stones) was published in
1963, followed by a second edition and a third in 1973.

Edelsteinkundliches Handbuch
[Gemology Handbook] (with Karl
F. Chudoba, 1966): This retitled
and significantly revised second
edition of the 1953 Schmuck- und
Edelsteinkundliches Taschenbuch had considerable text and
photographs added. A third edition, with an expanded dictionary
and important new material on synthetics, followed
in 1974.

Inclusions as a Means of
Gemstone Identification (1953):
This is the first book in gemology to provide a comprehensive
classification of gemstone inclusions and explain their usefulness in identification. Detailed
text and 256 black-and-white
photomicrographs describe the
internal features in diamond as
well as ruby, sapphire, emerald,
and other major colored stones. This book is a compilation of Dr. Gbelins popular series of Gems &
Gemology articles on inclusions in gemstones, which
were published between 1940 and 1946.

Burma, Land der Pagoden

[Burma, Land of Pagodas] (1967):
Researched in various parts of
Burma in 1963, this volume is
illustrated with extraordinary
photos by Dr. Gbelins eldest
daughter, Marie-Helen Gbelin
Boehm. This German-language
text is a general-interest book on
Burma with a section on Mogok
and ruby mining. It was an important commentary on
this country, published just as a military regime took
power and foreign entry became severely limited for
the next several decades. A French version was later
issued.

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Die Edelsteine der Insel Ceylon

[The Gemstones from the Island
of Ceylon] (1968): Based on Dr.
Gbelins numerous travels to
Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), it
provides information on the
geology, mining, and production
of the islands gem wealth. It
also contains many of Dr.
Gbelins exceptional locality
photos and inclusion photomicrographs. Aside from
descriptions of individual gemstones, sources, and
inclusions throughout various chapters, the gemological properties and data are summarized in a tabular format in the last part of the book.
Edelsteine [Gemstones] (1969):
This all-new work with the
same German title as his 1952
book was also written in a
nontechnical style that emphasizes the beauty of gems. In
addition to profiles of the
major gemstones, it touches on
subjects such as rarity, cause of
color, lapidary arts, phenomenal gems, and ornamental
stones. It is accompanied by
superb color photographs, many of which were taken
by Dr. Gbelin. The German version sold 50,000
copies; it was also published in Italian as Pietre
Preziose, in French as Pierres Prcieuses, and rereleased
in German as Schmuck- und Edelsteine aus aller Welt
in 1977. The English edition was published in 1975 as
The Color Treasury of Gemstones.
Innenwelt der Edelsteine: Urkunde aus Raum und
Zeit [Internal World of Gemstones: Documents from
Space and Time] (1973, followed by the English
translation in 1974): This successor to Dr. Gbelins
1953 book on inclusions contains 350 color photomicrographs and additional text on the genesis of
these internal features. Sinkankas (1993) wrote of
this work, The photographs
of superb quality and sharpness of detail are expected to
provide ready reference as
the student examines inclusions in the microscope.
This book was ideally suited
for the gem expert as well.
Second and third English
editions appeared in 1979
and 1983.

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

Photoatlas of Inclusions in
Gemstones (with John I.
Koivula, 1986): The Photoatlas
is considered one of the most
important gemological texts of
the 20th century, and is the
crown of Dr. Gbelins 50
years of intensive research on
gemstone inclusions. It contains
some 1,400 color photomicrographs of inclusions in
diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald, quartz, and many
other gems, as well as in the synthetic and treated
gems introduced up to that time. First published in
both German and English in 1986, a second revised
English edition came out in 1992, followed by a third
revised edition in 1997, and a fourth edition in 2004. A
Chinese version was released in 1991.
Gemstones: Symbols of Beauty
and Power (with Franz-Xaver
Erni, 2000): This book, which
followed a 1999 German edition, and preceded a 2001 Polish
edition, is intended for a broad
audience. It is lavishly illustrated with several hundred color
photos, many by celebrated
gem and mineral photographers
Harold and Erica Van Pelt, with exceptional gem
mining photos by Dr. Gbelin.
Photoatlas of Inclusions in
Gemstones, Volumes 2 [2005]
and 3 [scheduled for late 2006]
(with John I. Koivula): These
two new volumes add to the
already comprehensive work
contained in the Photoatlas of
Gemstone Inclusions (1986).
They cover the many new localities for natural gems, the latest synthetics, and all the
treatments that the authors encountered in the 20
years since the publication of the first Photoatlas.
Thousands of original photomicrographs have been
included, along with an expanded inclusion classification system and a chapter
focusing on geologic correlations in origin determinations.
A first draft for this work as a
single volume was prepared
shortly before Dr. Gbelins
passing. Due to its length, however, the manuscript was divided into two separate volumes.

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Figure 12. The 1988 World Map of Gem Deposits, with more than 750 localities and color-coded designations for
the type of gem as well as its geologic environment, remains the most comprehensive map of its kind. On the back
are 40 photos of gem localities with descriptions of the mines and mining operations, as well as 24 photos of gems
from Dr. Gbelins collection. Inset: One of the locality photos, taken by Dr. Gbelin, which shows the alluvial
mining of gems in Southeast Asia.

more of a pictorial, while the Photoatlas is more of

a study book, he recalled (Berenblatt, 1991, p. 30).
But I am most proud of the Photoatlas, which I coauthored with John Koivula. I would call it the
crown of my work of investigation of inclusions in
gemstones.
Dr. Gbelin also contributed entire chapters to
other authors books. A few examples include: The
Great Book of Jewels (Heiniger and Heiniger, 1974);
Diamonds: Myth, Magic, and Reality (Legrand,
1980); Edelsteine und ihre Mineralieneinschlsse
(Weibel, 1985); and Emeralds of Pakistan (Kazmi
and Snee, 1989).
World Map of Gem Deposits. In 1988, Dr. Gbelin
published a remarkable reference guide, the World
Map of Gem Deposits (figure 12). The map, which
took two years to produce, was designed to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Swiss
Gemmological Society in 1992. It shows more than

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A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

750 deposits worldwide, with color-coded designations for the type of gem as well as its geologic environment. The text was presented in English, French,
German, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. The
reverse side of the map contains 65 photos of gems
and gem localities, with descriptions of the mines,
mining operations, and the gems themselves.
This world map was one of Dr. Gbelins proudest achievements. Its the work that gave me the
greatest pleasure to accomplish, he recalled
(Berenblatt, 1991, p. 30). It was just like traveling
around the world, though I never left my desk in
my living room. Traveling and visiting these
deposits always gave me great pleasure.
It remains the most complete gem deposit map
ever produced, and can be seen in jewelry stores and
gemological laboratories around the world.
Articles. During his career, Dr. Gbelin published
more than 250 scholarly articles (visit www.gia.edu/

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gemsandgemology and click on G&G Data

Depository for a complete list). He was a frequent
contributor to a host of gemological journals from
Australia, Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain,
India, Switzerland, and the U.S.
Dr. Gbelins longest affiliation, however, was
with Gems & Gemology. From 1940 to 2003, he
contributed 54 articles to the journal. Dr. Gbelins
first report, Differences between Burma and
Siam rubies, featured inclusion photomicrographs and engaging, descriptive text. This began
a popular six-year series in Gems & Gemology on
inclusions in gemstones, which in 1953 was compiled into the book Inclusions as a Means of
Gemstone Identification. His last contribution to
Gems & Gemology, which he co-authored with
six other researchers, was Poudretteite: A rare
gem species from the Mogok Valley (Smith et al.,
2003). The article was published in the Spring
2003 edition, a special issue celebrating Dr.
Gbelins 90th birthday.
The Dr. Edward J. Gbelin Most Valuable Article
Award. Dr. Gbelin also exerted a lasting influence
on the gemological literature with his support of
Gems & Gemologys annual Most Valuable Article
Award. The award was established in 1982 to recognize outstanding contributions, as voted by the journals readers. (Dr. Gbelin himself received an
award for his 1982 article The gemstones of
Pakistan: Emerald, ruby, and spinel.) In 1996, GIA
officials approached the eminent gemologist about
renaming the award in his honor. Dr. Gbelin
accepted, and 1997 marked the first Dr. Edward J.
Gbelin Most Valuable Article Award.
Dr. Gbelins generosity went beyond just lending his name and prestige to the award. Each year,
he insisted on writing a check that would cover the
prize money. In 2003, he established a fund that
would be used in perpetuity to provide a financial
award for the winning authors and thus promote
continuing excellence in gemological writing.

Over the years, Dr. Gbelin delivered hundreds of

lectures on various aspects of gemstones for both
scientific and popular audiences (figure 13). Some
were at regularly occurring events, such as the
annual meetings of the Swiss Gemmological
Society and the biennial International Gemmological Conference. Other speaking venues
included the American Gem Society Conclaves in
North America, the CISGEM Gemmologia Europa
in Milan, the Gemmological Association of Great
Britain meetings, the 1981 International Gemological Symposium in Los Angeles (figure 14), and
assemblies of gemological associations and trade
shows worldwide. His superabundance of enthusiasm (Ruff, 1948, p. 125) was infectious for the
many thousands who attended his lectures and
courses over the decades.
Dr. Gbelin took pains to combine scientific reasoning with ethics to protect consumer confidence
and promote the economic vitality of the gem and
jewelry trade. He invariably stressed that the consequence of applied gemology should culminate

Figure 13. In this photo from a 1967 Swiss Gemmological Society meeting, Dr. Gbelin uses a pair of
models to demonstrate crystal structure. His diagrams on the blackboard illustrate refractive indices
of various gem materials. Photo by Jrg H. Meyer.

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATOR AND MENTOR

Dr. Gbelins charm, elegance and intellect combined with an artists eye, a poets heart and a
philosophers approach to life has instilled in him a
unique talent to convey complex topics in a manner
which is readily understood and the ability to inject
others with his infectious adoration of gemstones.
Gbelin Gem Lab, 2005

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searcher, Dr. Gbelin served as an inspiration and

mentor to countless gemologists for more than six
decades.

INTREPID EXPLORER

Figure 14. In addition to speaking on inclusions at the

1981 International Gemological Symposium hosted
by GIA in Los Angeles, Dr. Gbelin also participated
in this panel with other prominent gemologists. From
right to left: Richard T. Liddicoat, Edward J. Gbelin,
Edward Tiffany, Bert Krashes, and G. Robert
Crowningshield. Photo GIA.

in ethical behavior for the benefit of the clientele

(Hays, 1989, p. 20).
As far as gemology was concerned, Dr. Gbelin
had no competitors, only colleagues. His work with
the Swiss Gemmological Society illustrates his dedication to training other gemologists. Each summer
he would devote one or (in later years) two weeks to
teaching gemology at the national meeting. Then
he would travel to each of the regional chapters and
lecture on a specific gem or other gem-related topic.
He could conduct the courses equally well in
English, French, German, or Italian.
His friend and colleague from the Swiss
Gemmological Society, Daniel Gallopin, recently
marveled that Dr. Gbelin could give an hour-long
lecture (in perfect French) illustrated with 100
inclusion slides and accurately identify all the
obscure mineral inclusions without any notes or
script. Dr. Gbelin exemplified the Universal
Spirit, said Mr. Gallopin (pers. comm., 2005). It
was not enough that he knew and could state the
scientific details accurately, but he could also say it
and write it in the proper manner.
Even as he limited his appearances in later
years, Dr. Gbelin still maintained an avid correspondence with fellow gemologists around the
world. Colleagues, including many of the authors
of this article, have retained those letters, which
are unique in their professional wisdom, kindness,
and encouragement. Just as the legendary Profs.
Michel and Schlossmacher helped guide his own
professional development as a gemological re-

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His academic pursuits made Edward J. Gbelin a

scholar, but his travels to hundreds of gem localities
and trading centers across the globe for nearly 50
years gave him rare practical experience (figure 15).
Dr. Gbelin relished these extensive, often rugged
expeditions to remote locales. Indeed, he was as
comfortable at a gem mine in mud-splashed khakis
as he was in a freshly pressed tuxedo at a symphony. He and his wife, Idda, also journeyed the world
as tourists interested in art and culture, to places
such as Afghanistan, Egypt, Greece, and South
Africa. Sometimes they were accompanied by one
of their five daughters, all of whom became world
travelers themselves.
Dr. Gbelin was often one of the first gemologists to write a detailed study about a major gem
locality. Many were classic sources, such as
Mogok and the jadeite mines of Upper Burma (see,
e.g., Gbelin, 19641965, 1965, 1966c, 1978); the
ancient turquoise mines of Iran (see, e.g., Gbelin,
1966a,b); the gem-rich island of Ceylon (Gbelin,
1968); and Zabargad, the ancient peridot island in
the Red Sea (Gbelin, 1981). Among the newer
localities he documented were the emerald and
alexandrite deposits at Lake Manyara in Tanzania
(Gbelin, 1974b, 1976), and later the Merelani
tanzanite mines in that same country (Gbelin
and Weibel, 1976); the tsavorite mines in Kenya
(Gbelin, 1975; Gbelin and Weibel, 1975); the
emerald, ruby, spinel, and topaz areas of Pakistan
(Gbelin, 1982; Gbelin et al., 1986); and the sapphires of Andranondambo, Madagascar (Gbelin,
1996; Gbelin and Peretti, 1997).
For nearly 50 years, he repeatedly visited the
most important gem sources on five continents,
examining the inclusions in gemstones and fieldcollecting or purchasing material for subsequent
investigations back in his Lucerne laboratory. The
knowledge he acquired from his many journeys to
gem deposits in Asia, Africa, North and South
America, and Australia appeared in his books, articles, lectures, and films.
Not only did Edward Gbelin have a passion
for the photomicrography of gemstone inclusions,
but he also mastered landscape, still life, and
action photography, as well as motion picture

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Figure 15. Over the course of more than 50

years, Dr. Gbelins travels took him to
hundreds of gem localities and trading centers across the globe. Upper left: Purchasing
rubies in Mogok, Burma, 1963 (photo by
Marie-Helen Gbelin Boehm). Upper right:
Buying gems in Bangkok with C. Supanya,
1970 (photo by Daniela Gbelin Strub).
Lower left: Sailing in 1980 to the oldest
known source of peridot, the Red Sea island
of Zabargad (photo by Peter Bancroft).

filming (see the Filmmaker section below).

During these trips, he excelled at capturing on film
the occurrence, mining, and recovery of gems at
their source (figure 16). What comes through most
vividly in Dr. Gbelins travel photography, however, is his fondness for people and their unique
cultures.
As a gem collector and, for more than 30 years,
the co-owner and president of the Gbelin group of
jewelry stores, Dr. Gbelin was also a major buyer
of fine gemstones for nearly five decadesa unique
situation for a research gemologist. One notable
incident occurred during a single 24-hour visit to
Rangoon, Burma, in 1964. Dr. Gbelin later
recounted, They showed me their goods . . .
Burmese rubies and sapphires and spinels, and
whatever the heart could ask for, and I just purchased like that. . . . I purchased for $2 million that
day between 11:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. (Gbelin,
2001).

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

Figure 16. After washing of the illam (gem-bearing gravels), miners in Sri Lanka examine them for gem rough.
Today, these time-honored recovery methods are still
used by many gem miners in Sri Lanka and elsewhere.
Photo by Edward J. Gbelin, from the early 1960s.

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DEVELOPMENT OF PRACTICAL
GEM-TESTING INSTRUMENTS
Edward J. Gbelins accomplishments in instrument development, though typically overshadowed
by his famed inclusion research and literary works,
stand alone as monuments to his innovative genius.
Much of Dr. Gbelins early research was performed
using instruments he invented or improved on during the 1940s and 50s. Gem-testing equipment was
not readily available in those days, and Dr. Gbelin
often recognized a need and filled it by developing a
particular instrument. This impulse, he later
recounted, grew out of his student days at GIA:
I never had [seen] any of these instruments. Id
never seen a Diamondscope or other instruments [GIA] had developed. And that was a great
experience for me. So these were my first activities when I returned to Switzerland, to improve
instruments. (Gbelin, 2001)

Back in Lucerne, Dr. Gbelin was full of enthusiasm, and soon gemological instruments began to
emerge from his workshop. Many of the following
instrument descriptions were from a January 20,
1983, letter to one of the authors (REK) from Dr.
Gbelin, while others mentioned in the last paragraph of this section were cited in a curriculum
vitae written by Dr. Gbelin in the early 1980s;
copies of both documents are archived at GIAs
Richard T. Liddicoat Library and Information
Center.

the Institute, and Robert Shipley granted him permission to develop a similar instrument. The GIA
unit used an incandescent bulb (producing yellowish light) that was covered by a blue filter to simulate natural daylight. To improve the accuracy of
diamond color grading, Dr. Gbelin utilized a daylight-equivalent fluorescent tube and created a
trough with slots in which ring-mounted diamonds
could be inserted in the proper position for color
grading. Like most of the instruments he designed,
the Koloriskop incorporated elements of practicality
and ease of use.
The Detectoscope. Dr. Gbelin also made improvements to the Detectoscope (figure 17C), an instrument first created by Prof. Michel and Gustav Riedl
in the mid-1920s (Eppler and Eppler, 1934) to examine the absorption of light in a gemstone when
placed over filters of different colors or a luminescence filter. A magnifying lens and a dichroscope
could also be inserted into a special holder in the
original Detectoscope (Michel, 1929). Dr. Gbelin
added a Chelsea color filter, a daylight filter, and to
further improve the instruments use in combination with a dichroscope, a milk glass diffuser
(Pough, 1949).

The Horizontal Immersion Microscope. One of the

existing instruments Dr. Gbelin modified and
improved was the horizontal immersion microscope (figure 17A), which he later used to take
many of the more than 250 photomicrographs that
appeared in his 1953 classic Inclusions as a Means
of Gemstone Identification. The main body of this
instrument had been invented by his friend and colleague, Prof. Karl Schlossmacher. With the help of
a few changes and additional accessories, Dr.
Gbelin later wrote in his 1983 letter to REK, it
became a very efficient photomicroscope.

The Gemmoscope. This darkfield illuminator

equipped binocular microscope (figure 17D) was
devised by Dr. Gbelin in 1942. He drew upon
newly developed Zeiss optics and improved the
darkfield illumination from a GIA Diamondscope.
Not only was this microscope useful for the observation and photography of inclusions, but it was
also compatible with Prof. Michels pearl-testing
device, enabling the visual examination of half- or
fully drilled pearls to determine whether they were
natural or cultured. The Gemmoscope even featured an ergonomically designed base for resting the
hands and forearms during use. It is interesting to
note that the logo at the top of Dr. Gbelins personal stationery was a stylized depiction of the
microscope objectives on the Gemmoscope positioned over a round brilliantcut gemstone.

The Koloriskop. The first instrument Dr. Gbelin

designed and had built was the Koloriskop, a selfcontained device that provided a controlled light
source for color grading diamonds (figure 17B). His
design was directly inspired by GIAs Diamolite (an
early version of the modern DiamondLite). Dr.
Gbelin had first used the Diamolite as a student at

The Cut-Measuring Device. That same year, Dr.

Gbelin created the Schliffmessgert fr Edelsteine
(gemstone cut measuring) diamond gauge (figure
17E). This innovative handheld device was
designed to measure the facet angles and proportions of faceted diamonds. A mere 6.5 cm (2 1 2 in.)
in diameter, with a thickness of only 5 mm (316 in.),

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Figure 17. Dr. Gbelin developed a number of diagnostic gem-testing instruments during the 1940s and 50s, including:
(A) the horizontal immersion photomicroscope, (B) the Koloriskop, (C) the Detectoscope, (D) the Gemmoscope, (E) the
cut measuring device, (F) the Jewelers Spectroscope, and (G) an innovative device that allowed the user to magnify and
then photograph a gems spectrum. With the exception of photo E, which was taken by Harold & Erica Van Pelt, all the
other photos were commissioned or taken by Dr. Gbelin shortly after the development of the instrument.

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it could be used to measure crown angles and pavilion angles, as well as the girdle thickness, table
diameter, crown height, pavilion height, and total
height of a cut gem. The back of the gauge listed
two separate sets of proportionsboth the
Tolkowsky and Eppler cut calculationsfor handy
reference. Along with his Swiss Army knife, Dr.
Gbelin carried this instrument with him almost
everywhere he went.
The Gemmolux. In 1945, Dr. Gbelin designed the
Gemmolux (Gbelin, 1945), a small, portable light
source for examining gemstones. This instrument
had built-in darkfield illumination and could be
fitted with a removable loupe or dichroscope. The
Gemmolux was especially handy when the user
was buying gems away from the office.
The Jewelers Spectroscope. One of Dr. Gbelins
influential mentors and teachers was B. W.
Anderson, the father of gem spectroscopy,
whom the young Edward Gbelin met on his
return from the U.S. in 1939. Anderson inspired in
Dr. Gbelin a great appreciation for the diagnostic
value of spectra in gem identification. In 1950, Dr.
Gbelin invented the worlds first desk-model
spectroscope unit (figure 17F) designed solely for
use with rough and cut gemstones (Bruton, 1951;
E.J. Gbelin, pers. comm., 1983). Prior to the introduction of this instrument, gemologists had to rely
on handheld spectroscopes that were designed for
use in other fields.
Dr. Gbelins spectroscope unit featured a clip
to hold the stone and a light built into the base of
the instrument, which enabled the gemologist to
position the gem and adjust the light intensity
(with a rheostat knob on the side of the instrument) so as to bring out the clearest spectrum possible. The spectroscope tube could be raised to permit observation by reflected light. The design also
allowed delicate opening and closing of the slit. In
addition, the unit sat on a work surface and was
inclined at such an angle that the gemologist could
sit comfortably for long periods of time while
examining spectra and still have both hands free to
take notes or draw the spectrum being observed.
Dr. Gbelin even added a forward-thinking
ergonomic touch: special eyepiece lenses that
could be used to lengthen the blue end of the spectrum and accommodate an observer who wore
eyeglasses.
Dr. Gbelin debuted his Jewelers Spectroscope

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unit during the 1951 Gemmological Exhibition

in London. On the second day of the exhibition,
Dr. Gbelin and Dr. G. F. Herbert Smith of the
Gemmological Association of Great Britain personally gave Queen Mary a special tour through the
event (Bruton, 1951).
Photographing Absorption Spectra. In addition to
the Jewelers Spectroscope, Dr. Gbelin designed
another innovative device that allowed him to
magnify and then photograph a gems spectrum
(figure 17G). Dr. Gbelin was keen on being able to
photograph spectra, and since such instruments
were not available, he developed his own.
Zeiss Spectrometer Optical Bench. Working with
the German optical company Zeiss, Dr. Gbelin
developed an ingenious optical bench spectrometer setup, whereby two spectra could be observed
simultaneously, one above the other. This was
accomplished by using a comparison prism. This
instrument was particularly useful for checking
the spectrum of an unknown gem against those of
standard reference stones (Pough, 1949). Not only
could the spectra be observed through an eyepiece
lens apparatus, but at the same time a 35 mm
camera mounted perpendicular to the eyepiece
could take photographs of the spectra.
Other Instruments. Dr. Gbelin also developed a
custom-made polariscope, suspension equipment
for specific gravity determination using heavy liquids, an electrical conductivity meter to differentiate treated blue diamonds from natural-color type
IIb blue diamonds, a fluoroscope for measuring fluorescence emission lines, and an apparatus for
examining the absorption spectra of gemstones
while they were exposed to long-wave ultraviolet
radiation. In addition, he was particularly adept at
getting the most out of commercially available
instruments. One example was his own Erb &
Gray refractometer, which he mounted on a specially designed stand that had a compact sodium
light source, providing sharper refractive index
readings (Pough, 1949).
Some of Dr. Gbelins state-of-the-art instruments, including the Koloriskop and Jewelers
Spectroscope, became important tools for gemologists around the world. Yet the place where these
devices made their greatest contribution was in
Lucerne, both at his personal home laboratory and
at the Gbelin Gem Lab.

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ROLE IN DEVELOPING
THE GBELIN GEM LAB
In 1923, not long after young Edward J. Gbelin
expressed his desire to become a jeweler, his father
established a small but well-equipped gem-testing
laboratory. This facility was staffed by Charles
Salquin, whom the senior Gbelin also had sent to
study with Prof. Michel. Having opened two years
before the London Laboratory, it is credited with
being one of the worlds first privately owned gemological laboratories (Gbelin, 2001). The lab was
added on to the firms Lucerne headquarters (figure
18) to ensure consumer confidence in the authenticity of gems purchased from the Gbelin jewelry
stores, at a time when the undisclosed sale of cultured pearls and synthetic rubies posed a major
threat to the international jewelry industry.
In late 1939, after completing his studies at GIA,
Dr. Gbelin assumed leadership of the laboratory.
He immediately began acquiring more gem-testing
instruments, and for many years it was considered
the best-equipped gemological laboratory in the
world (figure 19):
The main laboratory . . . is probably without
peer. Certainly, the GIA laboratories and the fine
London Laboratory do not have the full variety
of equipment that the Gbelin Laboratory
boasts. Here Dr. Gbelin maintains X-ray
diffraction and radiographic equipment; a quartz
spectrograph; a variety of spectroscopes and
spectroscope light sources, including a versatile
light and spectroscope mount of his own design;
a variety of ultraviolet light sources; separate
balances for weighing and S.G. determinations;
petrographic and binocular microscopes of
recent vintage (and the only darkfield-illuminator-equipped binocular microscopes we saw in
European laboratories); and many other instruments. Each of the three refractometers, including one of [only] three Rayner has made with a
diamond hemisphere, is equipped with its individual monochromatic sodium light source.
(Liddicoat, 1961, p. 138)

Figure 18. This photo provides a glimpse of the early

Gbelin Gemological Laboratory, circa 1930s. Note
the gemological property tables, which were handwritten by Dr. Gbelin when he was a 19-year-old
student at the University of Zurich. Courtesy of the
Edward J. Gbelin family.

tors, and museums were sending their gems to

Lucerne for reports (150 Years of Gbelin, 2004).
Today the Gbelin Gem Lab is a leader in ruby, sapphire, and emerald locality-of-origin determinations.

Figure 19. This represents only some of the gem-testing equipment at the Gbelin Gemological
Laboratory from 1946 to 1952. For many decades, it
was the regarded as the worlds best-equipped gemtesting lab. Courtesy of the Edward J. Gbelin family.

After taking over the laboratory, Dr. Gbelin

began issuing written gemological reports for the
customers of the Gbelin jewelry stores and gem
dealers (Gbelin, 2001). These included diamond
grading reports (figure 20), based on the system he
had learned while studying at GIA, as well as locality-of-origin reports for colored stones.
By the early 1960s, demand for the Gbelin labs
locality-of-origin services was growing, and a number of auction houses, insurance companies, collec-

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319

Through his publications, lectures, and extensive

correspondence, he broadcast the importance of
these advanced analytical tools to the international
gemological community.

LEADER OF THE GBELIN

GROUP OF JEWELRY STORES

Figure 20. By 1940, Dr. Gbelins expertise enabled

the family firm to issue diamond grading reports. This
certificate, signed by him, is dated May 28, 1940.

While Dr. Gbelins early inclusion investigations relied primarily on the microscope, he later
championed the application of advanced technologies in his laboratorys inclusion analyses and
locality-of-origin determinations. As early as the
mid-1960s, he began having lapidaries grind down
rough and faceted research samples to expose mineral inclusions in order to have them analyzed by
university scientists with an electron microprobe
or by X-ray diffraction, methods that allowed
definitive identification. He also had microthermal
analyses performed on fluid inclusions (Gbelin
and Koivula, 1986). UV-visible spectroscopy has
been used in the Gbelin lab for origin determinations (particularly of sapphires) since the 1960s
(see, e.g., Hnni, 1990; Schwieger, 1990). As technology advanced, lab gemologists were able to use
features in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum
and later in the near- and mid-infrared regions.
Origin-of-color determination in fancy-color diamonds using spectral analyses was also an interest
and a specialty of Dr. Gbelins.
After his official retirement in 1976 until his
passing in 2005, Dr. Gbelin remained a forceful
advocate of integrating advanced technologies into
gemological research. These included energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis, Raman
spectroscopy, and even laser ablationinductively
coupled plasmamass spectroscopy (LA-ICP-MS).
Once a particular analysis had been conducted on
an inclusion or the host gem, Dr. Gbelin would
incorporate the data into his ongoing research.

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A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

The Gbelin watch and jewelry company thrived

during the 1920s and early 30s, opening stores in
New York, St. Moritz, and Zurich, successively (The
House of Gbelin 18541954, 1954). Under the
senior Eduard Gbelins leadership, the firm weathered the Great Depression and World War II. When
the patriarch died suddenly in 1945, Dr. Gbelin and
his younger brother Walter took over the family
business. Walter was the watchmaker, while Dr.
Gbelin was the driving force in the gem and jewelry realm. He led the companys gem purchasing
activities, buying millions of dollars worth of fine
stones from various sources (figure 21). He also combined his gem expertise and literary flair to pen
Gbelin company promotional books and jewelry
catalogs. During these years, the firms reputation
benefited from articles about Dr. Gbelins gemological work and expertise that appeared in many popular magazines and newspapers (see, e.g., figure 22). In
the words of the late Richard T. Liddicoat (1961, p.
138), Dr. Gbelins enthusiastic appreciation of the
beauty of gemstones and fine jewelry craftsmanship,
as well as his knowledge of both, permitted him to
increase jewelry sales rapidly.
With the two brothers at the helm, the postwar
years saw continued growth of the Gbelin company, which boasted nine retail stores by the time Dr.
Gbelin retired from the business. Under the leadership of his nephew, Thomas Gbelin, the Gbelin
group of watch and jewelry stores, the gem laboratory, and associated companies continue to flourish.

THE DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

GEM COLLECTION
Dr. Gbelin was a world-class collector of many
objects, including books; antiques; paintings;
Russian icons; stamps; Greek, Egyptian, Roman,
Burmese, and Nepalese artifacts; andnot surprisinglygemstones. His main gem collection,
acquired over a period of more than 70 years from
gem dealers and on-site at gem localities around the
world, comprises approximately 2,700 gemstones,
at a total weight of some 24,000 carats, representing

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WINTER 2005

Figure 21. This circa

1963 Gbelin Atelier
bracelet features exceptional natural-color
Mogok rubies purchased in Burma by
Dr. Gbelin in the
early 1960s. Courtesy
of JOEB Enterprises;
photo Harold &
Erica Van Pelt.

more than 250 different gem varieties and mineral

species (Boehm and Morelli, 2005).
When viewing any of the four main collections
(see, e.g., figure 23), one is immediately impressed
with the fact that there are as many as seven examples of each gemstone type. The vast majority of
these gems are faceted. He arranged the main collection into four separate categories:

Figure 22. This 1956 photo of Dr. Gbelin sorting gemstones prior to setting into jewelry at the Gbelin
company appeared in the weekly Swiss newspaper
insert, Wochenbltter (Zurich).

1. The Geographic Collection. This is the largest

of the four major collections, with more than
1,000 gemstones from Brazil, India, Kenya,
Madagascar, Mexico, Mozambique, Myanmar
(figure 24), Namibia, Nepal, Sri Lanka,
Switzerland, Tanzania, Thailand, the United
States, and Zimbabwe. The total weight is
more than 10,000 carats.
2. The Species Collection. This includes varieties
of beryl, corundum, feldspar, fluorite, garnet,
opal, quartz, sapphirine, spinel, topaz, tourmaline, and zircon. The total weight of the more

Figure 23. Dr. Gbelin arranged his main gemstone

collection into four categories (geographic, species,
rare, and collector gems), comprising approximately
2,700 stones, at a total weight of some 24,000 carats.
Shown here are a few of the more than 70 boxes in the
main collection. Photo by Robert E. Kane.

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321

38 different mineral species, from apatite to

zoisite. The total weight is approximately
3,500 carats.
4. The Collector Items Collection. Many of the
gem species in the Rare Gemstone Collection
are also represented in this fourth collection,
with more than 95 additional species; samples
range from anglesite to zincite. It contains just
over 300 gems for a total weight of over 2,000
carats.
Among the highlights of the Edward J. Gbelin
Gem Collection are:
420 pieces from Sri Lanka, including a 6.22 ct
ruby, an 18.86 ct sillimanite, and a 13.23 ct
violet taaffeite
290 pieces from Brazil, including a 16.88 ct
deep-red tourmaline and six different colors of
Paraba tourmaline
215 pieces from Myanmar (Burma), including a
3.16 ct Mogok ruby, a 9.98 ct red spinel, and a
4.02 ct violet taaffeite (see figure 24, bottom
right)
The largest gemstone in the collection, a
100.99 ct morganite from Minas Novas, Brazil
Figure 24. Included in this 1993 photo are some of the
many fine Burmese gemstones in Dr. Gbelins collection. By vertical columns, from top to bottom:
Column 1 (far left)16.55 ct danburite, 14.18 ct
kornerupine, 5.13 ct tourmaline, 6.23 ct citrine, and
3.15 ct amblygonite. Column 28.08 ct scapolite,
15.39 ct tourmaline, 8.98 ct aquamarine, 10.13 ct zircon, and 4.62 ct apatite. Column 325.30 ct danburite, 10.77 ct chrysoberyl, 11.31 ct apatite, 8.38 ct
topaz, 4.84 ct zircon, and 1.69 ct chrysoberyl. Column
4 (far right)11.79 ct sillimanite, 6.78 ct amethyst,
5.51 ct fluorite, 9.09 ct zircon, and 4.02 ct taaffeite.
Note that the 15.39 ct tourmaline, 10.77 ct
chrysoberyl, 5.13 ct tourmaline, and 1.69 ct
chrysoberyl are part of the permanent collection at the
British Museum (Natural History) London, and were
part of a study Dr. Gbelin and one of the authors
undertook (Kane, 1993). Photo by Shane F. McClure,
Robert E. Kane.

than 750 gems in this collection is approximately 7,800 carats.

3. The Rare Gemstone Collection. This consists
of just under 500 gems, representing more than

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A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

In addition to the main collections, there are

several important specialty collections, comprising
several thousand gems, which are organized under
the headings of Ornamental, Synthetics, Treated
Stones, Imitations, Opals, Organics, Testing, and
Inclusion Research. These study and display collections contain virtually all materials ever cut for use
as gemstones in the above categories. They contain
at least one sample of each type of gem, and nearly
all treated gems, synthetics, and imitations (in
many cases, there are several to dozens of each).
Aside from the sheer beauty and rarity of the
gems, this is one of the most important gemological
research collections ever assembled. Much of its
research value stems from its completeness and the
known provenances, but it is also remarkable for
the thoroughness of the documentation. Many gemstones in the various collections were used for
research reported in Dr. Gbelins various publications, as well as in his teaching seminars over the
last six decades. In addition, among his records are
much unpublished data collected from many of
these gems. The fact that he personally obtained

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many of these specimens at their sourcesin large

part before modern treatment techniques existed
greatly enhances our understanding of gems from
the various localities.
The main gem collection and significant portions
of the specialty collections are now part of the GIA
Museum, where they will be used for public display,
research, education, and as a source of inspiration for
future generations of gemologists and other scientists. As part of the overall purchase, GIA also
acquired Dr. Gbelins vast collection of color slides
and literature reference files, as well as a number of
important early gemological instruments.

ESTABLISHMENT OF TRADE AND

GEMOLOGICAL ORGANIZATIONS
An active member of virtually every gemological
association in the world, Dr. Gbelin also founded
or co-founded several professional and trade organizations, with the vision of fostering professional
education in gemology, as well as the ethical promotion and sale of gemstones. He contributed his
vast energy and intellect to these associations,
which continue to thrive.
Swiss Gemmological Society. This organization, of
which Edward Gbelin was a co-founder, emerged
over a controversy. When the Gbelin company
began issuing grading reports on diamonds in 1940,

a practice then unheard of in Switzerland, many of

the firms Swiss competitors bitterly objected and
began planning legal action. Learning of this, the
senior Gbelin persuaded the jewelers to join him
instead. He convinced them that forming an association and studying diamond grading and gem testing, in seminars taught by his eldest son, would
actually benefit their businesses (Gbelin, 2001).
The new organization, established in 1942 and
modeled after the American Gem Society, was
named the Swiss Gemmological Society.
The one condition Eduard M. Gbelin imposed
was that his son could never be president of the
organization, only an adviser. And so for the first 40
years, until 1982, Dr. Gbelin served as scientific
counselor to the Swiss Gemmological Society.
Beginning in the early 1940s, the new Society held
annual five-day educational meetings, during which
Dr. Gbelin gave lectures and taught hands-on practical diamond grading and gem testing (figure 25),
generously sharing gemstones from his extraordinary collection and presenting his latest inclusion
research (Pough, 1949). He would dazzle the audience with his colorful and didactic inclusion slides.
As the decades passed, and gemology became
increasingly complex, the annual teaching sessions
were expanded to two weeks. Even after retiring
from the post of scientific counselor in 1982, until
October 2004, he continued to give lectures and
courses at the Societys annual meetings.

Figure 25. Dr. Gbelin

served as scientific
counselor to the Swiss
Gemmological Society
from 1942 to 1982. In
this 1940s photo, he is
seen standing at the
back of the classroom
giving personal instruction to one of the attendees of the organizations annual five-day
educational meetings,
which were held in various Swiss cities.

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323

International Gemmological Conference. Dr. Gbelin also helped found the International Gemmological
Conference (IGC), one of the longest running academic gatherings in the field today. The conference
was an outgrowth of the early Bureau International
pour la Bijouterie, Orfvrerie, Argenterie (BIBOA),
which eventually became the present-day CIBJO,
the World Jewellery Confederation. At a 1951
nomenclature meeting, Dr. Gbelin and fellow
BIBOA members such as Prof. Schlossmacher and
B. W. Anderson agreed to gather regularly to share
their latest gemological research, thereby establishing the framework of the IGC (figure 26).
The first International Gemmological Conference took place in October 1952 in Locarno,
Switzerland. At this inaugural assembly, Dr. Gbelin was joined by seven other leading European
researchers. Initially an annual event, the IGC
became biennial after 1958, held in a different country alternating between Europe and the rest of the
world.
Dr. Gbelin regularly attended the IGC conferences for nearly 50 years. He remained a member
of the executive committee through the 29th IGC,
held in September 2004 in Wuhan, China, which
was attended by delegates invited from 33 countries on six continents.

Figure 26. Dr. Gbelin and B. W. Anderson, seen in a

lighthearted exchange at the 1951 BIBOA Congress in
London, were two of the founders of the International
Gemmological Conference the following year.

International Colored Gemstone Association. Dr.

Gbelin was also a founding organizer of the nonprofit International Colored Gemstone Association
(ICA), established in 1984. Headquartered in New
York City with bureaus in Idar-Oberstein and Israel,
ICA is a trade association that has more than 500
members in 45 countries worldwide.
Dr. Eduard Gbelin Association for Research and
Identification of Precious Stones. In 2003, Dr.
Gbelin co-founded, with other members of the
Swiss gem trade and scientific community, what is
now known as the Dr. Eduard Gbelin Association
for Research and Identification of Precious Stones.
This nonprofit organization, based in Lucerne, was
established to initiate, promote, and support gemological research projects.

FILMMAKER
An accomplished filmmaker (figure 27), Dr. Gbelin
narrated and produced a number of high-quality 16
mm films, which were shown to lecture groups
around the world and in public theaters in Lucerne
and elsewhere. One of them, Mogok, Valley of
Rubies, (1963) appeared in German, French, and
English and was sold internationally as a videotape.
His other films include:
Ceylon, Fairyland of Gemstones (German,
English, and French versions)
Ceylon, Island of the Lion Folk (German)
Jade: Prehistoric Tool Material, Present-Day
Gem Material (German and French versions)
Sri Lanka: Pearl of the Tropics, Island of
Gems (German and French versions)
Ruby Mining in Burma (German and French
versions)
In addition to the films he produced, Dr. Gbelin
shot hundreds of hours of raw footage during worldwide travels to gem deposits. Occasionally, he would
film other aspects of a country that interested him.
One entire reel of film captures a traditional Burmese
folk dance accompanied by native music. Part of this
footage is featured in Mogok, Valley of Rubies.

HONORS AND AWARDS

In recognition of his achievements, Dr. Gbelin
received many awards, honorary memberships, and
commendations. Among the most prestigious are:

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 Honorary memberships in the gemological

associations of many different countries,
including Australia, Germany, Great Britain,
Japan, Poland, South Africa, Sweden, his native
Switzerland, and the United States
First Research Member of GIA (1943)
Research Diploma of the Gemmological
Association of Great Britain (1957)
Honorary Professor at the University of
Stellenbosch in South Africa (1973)
Jewelers of America International Award for
Jewelry Leadership (1980; figure 28)
First honorary member of the American Gem
Trade Association (1982)
ICA Lifetime Achievement Award (1991)
The Medal of the City of Paris (1993)
The American Gem Society Robert M. Shipley
Award (1994)
GIA League of Honor (2003)

ENDURING LEGACY
Long after he had revolutionized gemology,
Edward J. Gbelin was voted one of JCK magazines Gemstone People of the Century (Roskin,
1999). Yet even into the 21st century, until his
passing on March 15, 2005, one day shy of his
92nd birthday, Dr. Gbelin remained closely
involved in the science he had helped pioneer (figure 29). He still exuded palpable enthusiasm when
discussing his gem collection, a recent trip, a fine
gemstone, or a new discovery. Dr. Gbelins abiding passion for gemology was captured in these
words, which hung on the wall in his home laboratory for many years:

Figure 27. Dr. Gbelin, shown filming in Mogok in

1963, shot hundreds of hours of footage from his travels and produced several gem-related films. This photo
was taken by his daughter Marie-Helen Gbelin
Boehm, with whom he published the 1967 book
Burma, Land der Pagoden.

Figure 28. Among his many honors, Dr. Gbelin

received the Jewelers of America International Award for
Jewelry Leadership in 1980. (Harry Winston also received
this award, posthumously, that same year.) Presenting
the award is former JA president Michael Roman.

The job of a laboratory trade gemologist is an interesting occupationwe seldom see the same thing
twice and feel constantly the challenge or possibility
of something new, unusual or demanding.

Dr. Gbelin will be remembered not only for

his monumental contributions to gemology over
more than seven decades, but also for his extraordinary humanity. Despite the often solitary nature
of his research, he touched the lives of thousands
around the world. Whether you were his colleague,
his friend, his student, or simply one of the thousands of people around the globe who once met
him, you would undoubtedly remember his courteous way, his warmth and quick wit, and how he

A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

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325

Figure 29. Dr. Edward J.

Gbelin had an enthusiasm that never diminished, as evident in this
1997 photo of him riding
along the Ngorongoro
Crater, Tanzania, at the
age of 84. This gem and
animal safari trip was
organized by the
Gemmological
Association of Great
Britain. Photo by Eric
Van Valkenburg.

treated even the youngest colleague with respect.

Gem dealer David Atkinson said it well: He was
a 19th century gentleman, with 20th century
mobility.
Dr. Gbelin and his wife of 51 years, Idda, had
five daughters and many grandchildren and greatgrandchildren. He instilled in them an appreciation
of nature, including gems and minerals. In fact, two

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Mr. Kane ([email protected]) is president and CEO
of Fine Gems International, Helena, Montana, and former
director of the Gbelin Gem Lab in Lucerne, Switzerland.
Mr. Boehm, Dr. Gbelins grandson, is president of JOEB
Enterprises and a former staff gemologist at the Gbelin
Gem Lab. Mr. Overlin is associate editor of Gems &
Gemology, and Ms. Dirlam is director of the Richard T.
Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center, at
GIA in Carlsbad, California. Mr. Koivula is chief gemologist at the American Gem Trade Association (AGTA)
Gemological Testing Center, and co-author with Dr.
Gbelin of the Photoatlas of Gemstone Inclusions. Mr.
Smith is director of Identification Services at the GIA
Laboratory in New York and former director of the
Gbelin Gem Lab.

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A GEMOLOGICAL PIONEER: DR. EDWARD J. GBELIN

of his grandchildren have followed in his footsteps,

one as a goldsmith and the other as a gemologist.
Edward J. Gbelin has left behind an indelible
legacy through his writings and photomicrographs,
his laboratory, his gem collection, the instruments
he developed, the organizations he helped establish, and the future generations of gemologists he
will inspire.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The authors thank the Edward J.

Gbelin family for generously providing information, photographs, and access to Dr. Gbelins personal laboratory
and library. Thomas Gbelin kindly allowed the use of historical photos from the Gbelin company. They also thank the
following staff members of GIAs Richard T. Liddicoat
Gemological Library and Information Center for their assistance: Caroline Nelms, Ruth Patchick, Lynn Lewis, Valerie
Power, and Kathleen Dillon. Richard W. Hughes of the AGTA
Gemological Testing Center provided a comprehensive bibliography. E. Alan Jobbins of Gem-A and Dr. Henry Hnni of
the SSEF Swiss Gemmological Institute offered excellent suggestions. Charles Schiffman, who worked with Dr. Gbelin for
many years, provided helpful historical information. Tammy
Reich of Fine Gems International is thanked for her unwavering assistance in the preparation of the final manuscript.

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sapphires. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 26, No. 4, pp. 267280.
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Zurich, 111 pp.

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327

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE
NEW MALOSSI HYDROTHERMAL
SYNTHETIC EMERALD
Ilaria Adamo, Alessandro Pavese, Loredana Prosperi, Valeria Diella, Marco Merlini,
Mauro Gemmi, and David Aj

A new production of hydrothermal synthetic emeralds, grown in the Czech Republic with Italian
technology, has been marketed since December 2004 with the trade name Malossi synthetic
emerald. Several samples were investigated by standard gemological methods, combined with
chemical analyses and UV-Vis-NIR and IR spectroscopy. A comparison of this material with
natural and other synthetic emeralds (the latter grown by the flux and hydrothermal techniques)
reveals that Malossi hydrothermal synthetic emerald can be identified on the basis of microscopic features and chemical composition, along with the mid-infrared spectrum.

ecause of emeralds commercial value, a

remarkable number of synthetic emeralds,
grown by flux and hydrothermal processes,
have entered the market over the past five decades.
The hydrothermal synthetic emeralds are particularly notable in terms of the quantity produced and
their availability (see, e.g., Kane and Liddicoat,
1985; Koivula et al., 1996; Schmetzer et al., 1997;
Koivula et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2001; Mashkovtsev
and Smirnov, 2004).
The present study focuses on a new hydrothermally grown synthetic emerald manufactured since
2003 in Prague, Czech Republic. This new gem
material, called Malossi synthetic emerald (figure 1),
has been marketed since December 2004 in Italy by
Arsaurea Gems (Milan) and in the U.S. by Malossi
Inc., the U.S. subsidiary of Malossi Created Gems
(Raleigh, North Carolina). Currently, about
5,0006,000 carats of the faceted synthetic emeralds
are produced per year, and this rate is expected to
increase (A. Malossi, pers. comm., 2005). The crystals produced so far range from 25 to 150 ct, with a
mean weight of about 77 ct, and the largest faceted
stone obtained weighs about 15 ct (A. Malossi, pers.
comm., 2005). In this article, we report those fea-

328

MALOSSI HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD

tures of Malossi synthetic emeralds that can be used

to distinguish this material from natural and other
synthetic (hydrothermal and flux) emeralds.

GROWTH TECHNIQUE
Malossi synthetic emeralds are grown at about
450C in a small rotating autoclave that is lined
with gold and carefully sealed. A seed of natural yellow beryl, suspended by a platinum wire, is used to
help initiate growth. Concentrated hydrochloric
acid is usually used to prevent Cr (the only chromophore used) from precipitating. Large crystals of
the synthetic emerald can be grown in 4060 days
(A. Malossi, pers. comm., 2005).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For this study, we examined 30 emerald-cut gems
and 5 rough samples of the new synthetic emerald,

See end of article for About the Authors and Acknowledgments.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 328338.
2005 Gemological Institute of America

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Figure 1. Malossi synthetic emeralds are

grown by a hydrothermal technique in the
Czech Republic, using
Italian technology.
These crystals (28.40
141.65 ct and 7.169.9
mm) and emerald cuts
(1.347.89 ct) are some
of the samples examined for this study.
Photo by Alberto
Malossi.

which were provided by A. Malossi (see, e.g., figure

1). The faceted samples weighed 1.347.89 ct, and
the rough specimens ranged from 28.40 to 141.65
ct (30.069.9 10.822.5 7.114.8 mm). Representative faceted samples of hydrothermal synthetic emeralds from other commercial sources (all
from the collection of the Italian Gemological
Institute) were studied for comparison: Russian (5),
Biron (5), and Linde-Regency (1). In addition, literature comparisons were made to other synthetic
emeralds produced by the hydrothermal technique
(Chinese, Lechleitner), as well as to flux synthetics
and natural emeralds.
All the faceted samples were examined by standard gemological methods to determine their optical properties (refractive indices, birefringence, and
pleochroism), specific gravity, UV fluorescence, and
microscopic features.
Preliminary qualitative and semiquantitative
chemical analyses of 11 faceted synthetic specimens (8 Malossi, 1 Russian, 1 Biron, and 1 LindeRegency) were obtained by a Cambridge Stereoscan 360 scanning electron microscope, equipped
with an Oxford Isis 300 energy-dispersive X-ray
spectrometer, for the following elements: Si, Al, V,
Cr, Fe, Ni, Cu, Na, Mg, and Cl. Quantitative
chemical data (for the same elements) were
obtained from these same 11 samples using an
Applied Research Laboratories electron microprobe fitted with five wavelength-dispersive spectrometers and a Tracor Northern energy-dispersive
spectrometer.

MALOSSI HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD

Room-temperature nonpolarized spectroscopy in

the visible (460750 nm), near-infrared (130004000
cm 1), and mid-infrared (4000400 cm1) regions
was carried out on all Malossi, Russian, Biron, and
Linde-Regency samples. We used a Nicolet NEXUS
FTIR-Vis spectrometer, equipped with a diffuse
reflectance accessory (DRIFT), which had a resolution of 4 and 8 cm1 in the infrared and visible
ranges, respectively.
Mid-infrared spectroscopy (4000400 cm1) was
also carried out in transmission mode using KBr
compressed pellets with a 1:100 ratio of sample:KBr.
Since this is a destructive technique, we restricted
these IR measurements to portions of two rough
specimens only.
Additional UV-Vis-NIR reflectance spectra were
recorded by an Avantes BV (Eerbeek, the Netherlands) apparatus equipped with halogen and deuterium lamps and a CCD spectrometer with four gratings (200400 nm, 400700 nm, 700900 nm, and
9001100 nm), a 10 m slit, and a spectral resolution of 0.5 nm. A polytetrafluoroethylene disk
(reflectance about 98% in the 4001500 nm range)
was used as a reference sample.
X-ray powder diffraction was also used to investigate an incrustation on the surface of one
Malossi synthetic emerald crystal. Measurements
were performed at room temperature, by means of
a Bragg-Brentano parafocusing X-ray powder
diffractometer Philips XPert, in the mode,
with CuK radiation ( = 1.5418 ), over the range
of 5 to 75 2.

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329

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Gemological Testing. The standard gemological properties obtained on the 30 faceted Malossi samples are
summarized in table 1. All the samples were transparent, with a bluish green color. They exhibited
strong dichroism in yellowish green and bluish green.
Their R.I. and S.G. values: (1) overlapped those of
their natural counterparts, especially low-alkali
emeralds from various geographic localities (such as
Colombia and Brazil; Schrader, 1983); (2) were similar to those we measured in Biron and LindeRegency synthetics, and to those reported for Lechleitner and Chinese synthetic emeralds (Flanigen et
al., 1967; Kane and Liddicoat, 1985; Schmetzer,
1990; Webster, 1994; Schmetzer et al., 1997; Sechos,
1997; Chen at al., 2001); but (3) were lower than
those of our Russian synthetic samples (in agreement with Schmetzer, 1988; Webster, 1994; Koivula
et al., 1996; Sechos, 1997). Most flux-grown synthetic emeralds from various manufacturers have R.I.,
birefringence, and S.G. values that are lower than
those observed in the Malossi samples (for comparison, see Flanigen et al., 1967; Schrader, 1983;
Kennedy, 1986; Graziani et al., 1987). The pleochroism and Chelsea filter reaction of the Malossi samples were not diagnostic of synthetic origin.
The various synthetics showed significant differences in their fluorescence to UV radiation: Malossi
synthetic emeralds belonged to a group exhibiting
red UV fluorescence that includes Linde-Regency
and Chinese products, whereas Russian and Biron
synthetic emeralds are inert to long- and short-wave
TABLE 1. Gemological properties of Malossi hydrothermal synthetic emeralds.
Color
Diaphaneity
Optic character
Refractive indices
Birefringence
Specific gravity
Pleochroism

Chelsea filter reaction

UV fluorescence
Internal features

330

Figure 2. Straight, parallel growth bands, which also

may be present in natural emeralds, are seen in this
faceted Malossi synthetic emerald. Photomicrograph
by Renata Marcon; magnified 30.

UV radiation. The fluorescence of Malossi synthetic

emeralds might hint at a synthetic origin, although
a few high-Cr and low-Fe Colombian emeralds also
have red UV fluorescence (Graziani et al., 1987).
The Malossi synthetic emeralds showed a variety
of internal features when viewed with a gemological
microscope. Growth patterns of various forms
(straight, parallel, uniform, angular, and intersecting),
often associated with color zoning, were widespread
in some of the crystals and cut stones (e.g., figure 2).
Irregular growth structures (figure 3), similar to those
observed in other hydrothermal synthetic emeralds,
were seen in almost all the samples, providing evidence of hydrothermal synthesis. Six of the faceted
Malossi synthetic emeralds contained seed plates (figFigure 3. Irregular growth structures are also seen in
Malossi synthetic emeralds. Such features provide evidence of a hydrothermal synthetic origin. Note also
the natural-appearing fingerprints in this sample.
Photomicrograph by Renata Marcon; magnified 35.

Bluish green
Transparent
Uniaxial negative
n o = 1.5731.578
n e = 1.5681.570
0.0050.008
2.672.69
Strong dichroism:
o-ray = yellowish green
e-ray = bluish green
Strong red
Short-wave: moderate red
Long-wave: weak red
Crystals (probably synthetic phenakite),
fingerprints, two-phase inclusions,
growth tubes, fractures, various forms
of growth structures, color zoning, seed
plates, irregular growth zoning

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Figure 4. A seed plate (with obvious fluid inclusions)

forms the table of this faceted Malossi synthetic emerald (3.92 ct). Photomicrograph by Renata Marcon.

ure 4; this seed plate had ne = 1.568, no = 1.573, and a

birefringence of 0.005). In some cases, irregular
growth zoning was seen in the synthetic overgrowth
adjacent to the seed plates. The presence of a seed
plate is proof of synthetic origin.
Fingerprints and two-phase (liquid and gas)
inclusions were observed in most of the Malossi samples (again, see figure 3 and figure 5). In some cases,
these inclusions were similar to those observed in
natural emeralds, in contrast to flux-grown synthetics, in which any fingerprint-like inclusions consist
of fractures that are healed by flux filling. Fractures
were also common in the Malossi synthetic emeralds, but they do not provide any evidence of synthetic origin. Two Malossi samples contained small
cone-shaped growth tubes, filled with a fluid, similar
to those that were recently documented in a natural
emerald (Choudhary, 2005). Prismatic, transparent,

and colorless crystalsalone or in aggregateswere

observed in four Malossi samples (figure 6). On the
basis of their morphology, birefringence, and refractive index (higher than that of emerald), such crystalline inclusions are probably phenakite (Be2SiO4),
which is somewhat common in hydrothermal synthetic emeralds (Flanigen et al., 1967) and also may
provide evidence that the host emerald is synthetic
(Kane and Liddicoat, 1985).
X-ray powder diffraction of an incrustation on
the surface of one Malossi synthetic emerald crystal
revealed the presence of phenakite and beryl, hinting at the occurrence of an incongruent precipitation of beryl (Nassau, 1980; Sinkankas, 1981). We
did not observe the lamellar metallic inclusions
that are sometimes present in other synthetic emeralds (e.g., gold, which is frequently found in Biron
samples; Kane and Liddicoat, 1985).
Chemical Composition. Quantitative chemical
analyses of eight Malossi synthetic emeralds (samples A to H) and three other hydrothermal synthetic
emeralds (one each from Russian, Biron, and LindeRegency production) are summarized in table 2.
Chromium was the only chromophore found in
the Malossi samples. The following elements were
below the detection limits of the electron microprobe: Na, Mg, V, Fe (in all but one sample), Ni, and
Cu. Cl, probably from the growth solution (Nassau,
1980; Stockton, 1984; Kane and Liddicoat, 1985; see
also Growth Technique section), was inhomogeneously distributed within the samples and between

Figure 5. This faceted Malossi synthetic emerald contains conspicuous fingerprints (left) that are composed of
tiny two-phase (liquid/gas) inclusions (right). Photomicrographs by Renata Marcon; magnified 8 (left) and 60
(right, in darkfield illumination).

MALOSSI HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD

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331

Figure 6. These images show

examples of inclusion aggregates formed by transparent
colorless prismatic crystals in
Malossi synthetic emeralds.
Their optical characteristics
and occurrence in hydrothermal synthetic emerald suggest they are phenakite.
Photomicrographs by Renata
Marcon, in darkfield illumination (left, magnified 100)
and with crossed polarizers
(right, magnified 50).

different specimens, as shown in figure 7. The Cl

content ranged up to 0.93 wt.%, with a mean value
of 0.10 wt.%.
Figure 8 and table 2 compare the chemical properties of Malossi synthetic emeralds to those of representative samples from other hydrothermal producers. The chemical composition of Malossi synthetic

emeralds is distinctively different from Russian and

Biron synthetics. In agreement with the results of
Schmetzer (1988), Mashkovtsev and Solntsev (2002),
and Mashkovtsev and Smirnov (2004), our Russian
synthetic sample contained Cr, Fe, Ni, and Cu, but
neither Cl nor V was detected. Although not tested
for this study, Lechleitner synthetic emeralds report-

TABLE 2. Averaged electron-microprobe analyses of Malossi and other hydrothermal synthetic emeralds.a
Chemical
composition

Russian

Biron

LindeRegency

Malossi samples

No. analyses
Oxides (wt.%)
SiO2
Al2O3
V2O3
Cr2O3
Fe2O3b
NiO
CuO
Cl
BeOd

13

66.21
18.96
bdl
0.36
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.21c
13.79

66.00
19.01
bdl
0.43
0.06
bdl
bdl
0.09c
13.74

65.81
19.42
bdl
0.60
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.03c
13.70

65.34
18.81
bdl
0.82
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.05
13.60

65.72
18.14
bdl
1.96
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.06
13.68

64.50
18.28
bdl
1.01
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.06
13.43

66.02
19.35
bdl
0.66
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.09
13.74

64.33
16.77
bdl
0.34
3.31
0.24
0.18
bdl
13.39

64.09
18.56
0.75
0.75
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.31
13.35

65.83
19.05
bdl
0.78
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.18
13.70

99.56

97.28

99.86

98.56

66.01
19.69
bdl
0.51
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.14c
13.74

Total
99.53
99.33
100.09
99.56
Cl range
0.070.93 0.040.14 0.030.87 bdl0.06
Cr2O3 range 0.181.17 0.360.51 0.420.59 0.580.63
Ions per 6 Si atoms
Si
6.000
6.000
6.000
6.000
Al
2.025
2.037
2.109
2.087
V
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
Cr
0.026
0.031
0.037
0.043
Fe
bdl
0.004
bdl
bdl
Ni
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
Cu
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
Cl
0.032
0.014
0.022
0.005

98.62
0.030.11
0.760.87
6.000
2.036
bdl
0.060
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.008

0.020.11 bdl0.14 bdl0.25 bdl0.05

1.373.53 0.961.07 0.630.71 0.250.40
6.000
1.952
bdl
0.141
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.009

6.000
2.004
bdl
0.074
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.009

6.000
2.072
bdl
0.047
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.014

6.000
1.843
bdl
0.025
0.232
0.018
0.013
bdl

97.81

99.54

0.280.36
0.740.79

0.120.34
0.490.94

6.000
2.048
0.083
0.056
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.049

6.000
2.046
bdl
0.056
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.028

Instrument operating conditions: accelerating voltage = 15 kV, sample current = 15 nA, count time = 20 seconds on peaks and 5 seconds on background,
beam spot size = 15 m. Standards: natural omphacite (for Si, Fe, Al, Na, Mg) and sodalite (for Cl); pure V, Cr, Ni, and Cu were used for those elements.
Abbreviation: bdl = below detection limit (in wt.%): 0.05 V2O3 , 0.04 Fe2O3 , 0.11 NiO, 0.10 CuO, 0.02 Cl. Sodium and magnesium were below the detection
limits in all analyses (0.01 wt.% Na2O and 0.03 wt.% MgO).
b
Total iron is calculated as Fe2O3 .
c
Average Cl content was calculated for 6, 4, 12, and 3 points, respectively, for samples A, B, C, and D.
d
Calculated assuming Be/Si=0.5.

332

MALOSSI HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD

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edly have a similar composition (Hnni, 1982;

Schmetzer, 1990). In our Biron sample, V and Cr (acting as chromophores) were found along with Cl,
which is consistent with previously published results
(Stockton, 1984; Kane and Liddicoat, 1985;
Mashkovtsev and Solntsev, 2002; and Mashkovtsev
and Smirnov, 2004). The Linde-Regency synthetic
emerald was characterized by the presence of Cr and
Cl (see also Hnni, 1982; Stockton, 1984), similar to
the Malossi material. However, the Cl content in the
Malossi samples was generally less than 0.12 wt.%,
as shown in figure 7, whereas the Cl in our LindeRegency sample was never below 0.12 wt.%, in keeping with the results of Hnni (1982), who found a Cl
content of 0.30.4 wt.% in Linde synthetic emeralds.
Cr and Cl also were recorded in the two different generations of Chinese hydrothermal synthetic emeralds
examined by Schmetzer et al. (1997) and Chen et al.
(2001). Schmetzer et al. (1997) indicated an average Cl
content of ~ 0.68 wt.%, in an earlier Chinese synthetic production, whereas Chen et al. (2001) reported Cl
~ 0.15 wt.%, in the later generation, in addition to a
significant Na2O content (>1 wt.%). The earlier
Chinese production contains more Cl than the

Figure 7. The Cl contents measured in eight Malossi

synthetic emeralds (each represented by a different
color) are shown here. Most of the analyses contain less
than 0.12 wt.% Cl (detection limit of Cl is 0.02 wt.%).
For average Cl data, see table 2. Enriched contents of Cl
were recorded in a few of the analyses, which illustrates the compositional inhomogeneity of the samples.

MALOSSI HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD

Figure 8. The average contents of Cl, Cr, V, Fe, Ni,

and Cu are shown here for Malossi synthetic emeralds compared to representative samples of Russian,
Biron, and Linde-Regency hydrothermal synthetics
examined as part of this study. The Malossi and
Linde-Regency samples have similar chemical features, which are distinctively different from the
Russian and Biron synthetics.

Malossi material; the later Chinese synthetic emerald is distinguishable from Malossi synthetics by the
presence of Na.
As previously reported by Hnni (1982), Schrader
(1983), and Stockton (1984), chemical composition
can be of great importance in separating synthetic
and natural emeralds. In the case of Malossi synthetic emerald, the presence of chlorinewhich typically is not found in significant amounts in natural
emeraldcan be an important indicator. Yu et al.
(2000) reported Cl in some natural emeralds, typically at low concentrations, although some Colombian
and Zambian samples contained up to 0.19 wt.% Cl.
Thus, a Cl content above 0.2 wt.% provides a strong
indication of hydrothermal synthetic origin. The Fefree Malossi synthetic emeralds (except sample B,
with a trace of Fe) were similar in composition to
some Fe-poor natural emeralds from certain localities (such as Colombia), but they are easily distinguishable from Fe-rich natural emeralds (such as
Brazilian, Zambian, and Austrian stones: see Hnni,
1982; Schrader, 1983; Stockton, 1984; Yu et al.,
2000). The absence of any significant Na and Mg in
Malossi synthetic emeralds ( 0.01 and 0.03 wt.%
oxide, respectively) can be used to separate these
stones from alkali-rich natural emeralds (Hnni,
1982; Schrader, 1983).
Electron-microprobe analyses of a seed plate in a
Malossi sample (again, see figure 4) revealed an
appreciable iron content (0.40 wt.% Fe2O3), whereas
Cr, V, and Cl were below the detection limits. This

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333

composition, combined with the R.I. values of the

seed plate, is consistent with the producers claim
that natural yellow beryl is used for the seed material (compare to Sinkankas, 1981; Aliprandi and
Guidi, 1987; Webster, 1994).
Spectroscopy. The results of UV-Vis-NIR and IR
spectroscopy are summarized in table 3, including a
comparison to natural and other synthetic emeralds.
Mid-infrared spectra (40002000 cm1) in diffuse
reflectance mode are shown in figure 9. A series of
intense peaks between 4000 and 3400 cm1 in all the

synthetic emeralds we studied is related to their high

water contents (Stockton, 1987; Schmetzer et al.,
1997). Such features are characteristic of both natural
and hydrothermal synthetic emeralds, but they are
not found in flux synthetic samples (Stockton, 1987).
Bands in the range 31002500 cm1, commonly
used to identify hydrothermal synthetic emeralds
(Schmetzer et al., 1997; Mashkovtsev and Smirnov,
2004), were observed in our Malossi samples, as
well as in those from Biron and Linde-Regency (see
also Stockton, 1987; Mashkovtsev and Solntsev,
2002; Mashkovtsev and Smirnov, 2004). Schmetzer

TABLE 3. Main spectroscopic features of Malossi and other synthetic as well as natural emeralds.

Mid-IR (4000
2000 cm 1)

Near-IR
(9000
4000 cm 1)

Flux synthetic
emeralds b

Hydrothermal synthetic emeralds a

Spectral region
Malossi

Russian

Biron

Intense absorption
between 4000 and
3400 cm 1, associated with high
water content
Band at 3295 cm 1,
with shoulder at 3232
cm 1, probably related to vibration of
N-H bonds
Group of bands in
the 31002500 cm 1
range, associated
with Cl
Combination bands
and overtones of
water molecules

Intense absorption
between 4000 and
3400 cm 1, associated with high
water content

Intense absorption
between 4000 and
3400 cm 1, associated with high
water content

Combination bands
and overtones of
water molecules
Broad band at 8475
cm 1, related to Cu 2+
UV-Vis-NIR
Cr 3+ absorption
Cr 3+ absorption
(3001000 nm) features at 430, 476, features at 430, 476,
600, 637, 646, 662, 600, 637, 646, 662,
681, and 684 nm
681, and 684 nm

Natural emeralds b,c

Linde-Regency

Group of bands in
the 31002500 cm 1
range, associated
with Cl
Combination bands
and overtones of
water molecules

Intense absorption (none reported)

between 4000 and
3400 cm 1, associated with high
water content
Band at 3295 cm 1,
with shoulder at 3232
cm 1, probably related to vibration of
N-H bonds
Group of bands in
the 31002500 cm 1
range, associated
with Cl
Combination bands (none reported)
and overtones of
water molecules

Cr 3+ absorption
features at 430, 476,
600, 637, 646, 662,
681, and 684 nm

Cr 3+ absorption
features at 430, 476,
600, 637, 646, 662,
681, and 684 nm

Cr 3+ absorption
features at 430, 476
477, 600, 637, 646,
660-662, 680, and
683 nm

Band at 373 nm,

associated with Fe 3+
Band at 760 nm,
related to Cu 2+

Intense absorption
between 4000 and
3400 cm 1, associated with high
water content

Combination bands
and overtones of
water molecules

Cr 3+ absorption
features at (420),
430431, 476, 600
602, (629), 637,
645, 662, 680, and
683 685 nm
(Bands at 370 and
423 nm, associated
with Fe 3+)
(Bands at 820 and
833 nm, related to
Fe 2+ )
(Fe 2+/Fe 3+ intervalence charge transfer absorption band
between 599 and
752 nm)

Based on results from the present study.

Data from the gemological literature (Wickersheim and Buchanan, 1959; Wood and Nassau, 1967, 1968; Farmer, 1974; Kennedy, 1986; Graziani
et al., 1987; Stockton, 1987; Schmetzer, 1988).
c Features in parentheses are not seen in all natural emeralds.
b

334

MALOSSI HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

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Figure 9. Mid-infrared spectra (40002000 cm1) in

diffuse reflectance mode are shown for the Malossi,
Russian, Biron, and Linde-Regency hydrothermal synthetic emeralds tested for this study. The spectra
exhibit several differences, particularly in the band at
3295 cm1 with the associated shoulder at 3232 cm1
that is so pronounced in the Malossi material. (The
maxima above 3500 cm1 and below 2200 cm1
appear flat because of total absorption in these areas).

et al. (1997) found these bands in Chinese samples

as well. However, Russian and Lechleitner synthetic emeralds are transparent over the same energy
range (Stockton, 1987; Koivula et al., 1996;
Mashkovtsev and Solntsev, 2002; Mashkovtsev and
Smirnov, 2004; see also figure 9). Schmetzer et al.
(1997) attributed these bands to Cl, in agreement
with more recent results by Mashkovtsev and
Solntsev (2002) and Mashkovtsev and Smirnov
(2004), who specifically cited HCl molecules in the
hexagonal channels of the beryl structure. This
interpretation is consistent with the chemical compositions we determined for Malossi, Biron, and
Linde-Regency synthetics and with the producers
statement that Malossi synthetic emeralds are
grown in a solution of HCl.
An additional band at 3295 cm1, with a shoulder at 3232 cm1, occurred in both the Malossi and
Linde-Regency products (Stockton, 1987; Mashkovtsev and Solntsev, 2002; Mashkovtsev and
Smirnov, 2004; see also figure 9). Mashkovtsev and
Solntsev (2002) and Mashkovtsev and Smirnov
(2004) attributed this feature to the vibrational

MALOSSI HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD

stretching mode of the N-H bond (for details, see

also references cited in these two articles), which is
consistent with the known use of ammonium
halides in the solutions employed for emerald synthesis (Nassau, 1980).
The type of water molecules in Malossi synthetic emeralds can be determined by (destructive)
mid-infrared spectroscopy in transmission mode
(see box A in Schmetzer et al., 1997, for the advantages of transmission IR spectroscopy). In the diagnostic range of 38003500 cm1, we recorded a single sharp absorption band at 3700 cm1 (figure 10),
which indicates that H2O molecules in Malossi
stones are type I (i.e., their HH vector is parallel to
the c-axis in alkali-free beryl samples; Wood and
Nassau, 1967, 1968; Charoy et al., 1996; Kolesov
and Geiger, 2000; Gatta et al., in press). All this is in
keeping with the absence of any significant alkali
content in Malossi material, which agrees with
results reported by Kolesov and Geiger (2000), who
observed the same single mode at 3700 cm 1 in
other hydrous synthetic beryl crystals. However,
relatively recent spectroscopic and neutron diffraction studies (Artioli et al., 1995; Charoy et al., 1996;
Kolesov and Geiger, 2000; Gatta et al., in press) suggest that there are some uncertainties about the
vibrational behavior and orientation of H 2 O
molecules in various beryl samples.
Nonpolarized near-infrared spectra (90004000
cm 1) in diffuse reflectance mode of our Malossi,

Figure 10. The mid-infrared spectrum (38003500 cm1)

in transmission mode of a pressed pellet containing
powdered Malossi synthetic emerald shows a peak at
3700 cm1 that is related to the presence of type I
water molecules.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

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335

synthetic emeralds. Given that the absorption peaks

of Cr3+ and V3+ are very close to one another (see references above and Burns, 1993), it is not possible to
reliably discriminate the patterns of Malossi and
Linde-Regency synthetic stones (Cr-bearing only)
from those of Biron synthetic samples (Cr- and Vbearing). However, Russian synthetic emeralds
show differences from the other hydrothermal synthetics: a broad band at about 750 nm, which
Schmetzer (1988, 1990) related to Cu2+, as well as an
absorption at 373 nm, which he associated with
Fe 3+. In natural iron-bearing emeralds, absorption
bands for Fe3+, Fe2+, and Fe2+/Fe3+ may also be present (Schmetzer, 1988; again, see table 3).

IDENTIFICATION

Figure 11. Near-infrared spectra (90004000 cm1) in

diffuse reflectance mode are shown for the Malossi,
Russian, Biron, and Linde-Regency hydrothermal synthetic emeralds studied. The spectra of all samples
exhibit combination bands and overtones of water
molecules, which are typical features of both
hydrothermal synthetic and natural emeralds.

Russian, Biron, and Linde-Regency synthetic

emeralds are displayed in figure 11. All samples
show combination bands and overtones of water
molecules (Wickersheim and Buchanan, 1959;
Wood and Nassau, 1967, 1968; Farmer, 1974).
These features are also typical of natural emeralds
(see references above), whereas they are always
lacking in flux synthetic emeralds. Russian
hydrothermal synthetic emeralds exhibit a broad
band at 8475 cm 1 (see also Koivula et al., 1996;
Mashkovtsev and Smirnov, 2004) related to an
optical transition involving Cu2+ ions (Mashkovtsev and Smirnov, 2004) that is commonly
absent in hydrothermal specimens from other
producers.
Nonpolarized UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra of
our Malossi, Russian, Biron, and Linde-Regency
hydrothermal synthetic emeralds (figure 12) confirm the presence of Cr3+ through the occurrence of
two broad bands at 430 and 600 nm; peaks at 476,
637, 646, and 662 nm; and a doublet at 681684 nm
(see Wood and Nassau, 1968; Rossman, 1988;
Schmetzer, 1988, 1990), similar to natural and flux

336

MALOSSI HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD

Separation from Natural Emeralds. Malossi synthetic emeralds have a number of characteristics that, in
combination, allow them to be separated from natural emeralds:
1. Microscopic features: Irregular growth structures (observed in almost all Malossi synthetic
emeralds), natural seed plates (used to initiate
growth), and phenakite-like crystals (hinting
at the occurrence of an incongruent beryl precipitation) provide evidence of hydrothermal
synthesis.
Figure 12. The nonpolarized UV-Vis-NIR (300900
nm) absorption spectra of the Malossi, Russian, Biron,
and Linde-Regency hydrothermal synthetic emeralds
tested all show Cr3+ absorption bands. Only the
Russian sample exhibits other significant features,
such as a peak at 373 nm (related to Fe3+) and a broad
band at about 750 nm (associated with Cu2+).

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

2. Chemical composition: The presence of Cl,

combined with the absence of any significant
amounts of Fe, Na, and Mg, provides a useful
tool for the separation from Fe-alkali-bearing
natural emeralds. In the case of Fe-NaMgpoor natural samples (such as Colombian
stones), a Cl content >0.2 wt.% can be used
to identify the Malossi synthetics, although
due to possible compositional overlap, chemical analysis alone is not a reliable proof of
synthesis.
3. Spectroscopic measurements: Mid-infrared
bands in the 31002500 cm1 range (related to
Cl) and a band at 3295 cm1 with an associated
shoulder at 3232 cm 1, are further diagnostic
features of synthetic origin.
In summary, Malossi synthetic emeralds are
readily separated from most natural Fe- and/or alkali-bearing emeralds, whereas a combination of the
diagnostic features discussed above is required to
distinguish them from Fe- and alkali-poor natural
emeralds.

Figure 13. Faceted Malossi synthetic emeralds have

been commercially available in Italy and in the U.S.
since December 2004. These emerald cuts (4.00 ct, left,
and 2.20 ct, right) are set in rings together with synthetic moissanite. Composite photo by Alberto Malossi.

Regency hydrothermal synthetic emeralds is less

straightforward and further research is needed.

CONCLUSIONS
Separation from Other Synthetic Emeralds. Malossi,
like all other hydrothermal synthetic emeralds, are
readily separated from flux synthetic emeralds
because the latter (1) have lower refractive index
(from 1.556), birefringence (from 0.003), and specific
gravity (from 2.64) values; (2) contain typical flux
inclusions; and (3) do not exhibit water-related
bands in the mid- (between 4000 and 3400 cm1)
and near- (90005000 cm1) IR spectra.
Malossi synthetic emeralds, which are Cr- and
Cl-bearing, differ from the Russian, Lechleitner, and
Biron hydrothermal synthetic emeralds studied to
date on the basis of chemical composition. Russian
and Lechleitner synthetics have Cr, Fe, Cu, and Ni,
while Biron has V in addition to Cr and Cl. These
differences can be seen in their gemological and
spectroscopic properties. The separation of Malossi
from Chinese synthetic emeralds may be possible
based on either a larger amount of Cl in the earliergeneration Chinese material or the presence of Na
in the later-generation Chinese synthetics. Also,
according to information given by Chinese gemologists at the Fall 2004 International Gemological
Congress in Wuhan (China), the production of
Chinese hydrothermal synthetic emeralds has been
discontinued (K. Schmetzer, pers. comm., 2005).
The chemical separation of Malossi from Linde-

MALOSSI HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD

A new type of hydrothermal synthetic emerald is

now being produced in the Czech Republic with
Italian technology. These Malossi synthetic emeralds have been commercially available since
December 2004 (figure 13). This material belongs
to the group of Cl-bearing, alkali-free hydrothermal
synthetic emeralds, with Cr 3+ as the only chromophore. Water is present as type I molecules.
Malossi synthetic emerald can be distinguished
from its natural counterpart on the basis of microscopic features (in particular, irregular growth structures, seed plates, and/or phenakite-like crystals), as
well as by the presence of Cl combined with the
absence of significant Fe, Na, or Mg. In addition,
mid-infrared spectroscopy reveals diagnostic bands
in the 31002500 cm 1 range and at 3295 cm 1
(with a shoulder at 3232 cm1).
Malossi hydrothermal synthetic emerald can be
easily discriminated from its flux synthetic counterparts, primarily on the basis of the absence of
water molecules in the latter. The separation from
Russian, Lechleitner, Chinese, and Biron
hydrothermal synthetic emeralds can be made on
the basis of chemical composition. The discrimination from Linde-Regency hydrothermal synthetic
emeralds is more ambiguous, and further research
is needed.

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337

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Miss Adamo ([email protected]) and Mr. Merlini are
Ph.D. students, and Dr. Pavese is professor of mineralogy,
in the Earth Sciences Department at the University of Milan,
Italy. Dr. Pavese is also a member of the Environmental
Processes Dynamics Institute (IDPA), Section of Milan,
National Research Council (CNR), Italy. Dr. Prosperi is director of the Italian Gemological Institute laboratory, Sesto San
Giovanni, Italy. Dr. Diella is senior research scientist at IDPA,
Section of Milan. Dr. Gemmi is responsible for the electron
microscopy laboratory in the Earth Sciences Department of
the University of Milan. Dr. Aj is research director at the
Inorganic and Surface Chemistry Institute, CNR, Padua,

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338

MALOSSI HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHETIC EMERALD

Italy, and is responsible for the CNR Coordination Group for

Gemological Materials Research.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Alberto Malossi (Arsaurea
Gems, Milan) for providing samples and information
about these new hydrothermal synthetic emeralds.
Agostino Rizzi (IDPA, CNR, Milan) and Dr. Renata Marcon
(Italian Gemological Institute, Rome) are acknowledged
for SEM-EDS analyses and photomicrographs, respectively. The authors are indebted to Dr. Karl Schmetzer
(Petershausen, Germany) for a critical review of the
manuscript before submission.

Mashkovtsev R.I., Smirnov S.Z. (2004) The nature of channel

constituents in hydrothermal synthetic emerald. Journal of
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Schmetzer K., Kiefert L., Bernhardt H-J., Beili Z. (1997) Characterization of Chinese hydrothermal synthetic emerald. Gems
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141145.
Stockton C.M. (1987) The separation of natural from synthetic
emerald by infrared spectroscopy. Gems & Gemology, Vol.
23, No. 2, pp. 9699.
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440445.
Wood D.L., Nassau K. (1967) Infrared spectra of foreign
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7, pp. 22202228.
Wood D.L., Nassau K. (1968) The characterization of beryl and
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GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

Spring 2004

Spring 2002/Special Issue

Summer 2002

Fall 2002

Winter 2002

Spring 1997
Geophysics in Gemstone Exploration
Rubies and Fancy-Color Sapphires from Nepal
Properties of Near-Colorless Synthetic Diamonds

Summer 1999
On the Identification of Emerald Filling Substances
Sapphire and Garnet from Kalalani, Tanzania
Russian Synthetic Ametrine

Summer 1997
Emeralds from Zimbabwe
Modern Diamond Cutting and Polishing
Rhodochrosite from Colorado

Fall 1999Special Issue

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Observations on GE-Processed Diamonds,
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Fall 1997
Benitoite from San Benito County, California
Tairus Hydrothermal Synthetic Sapphires
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from Lundazi, Zambia
Winter 1997
Understanding the Effect of Blue Fluorescence
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Synthetic Moissanite: A Diamond Substitute
Chinese Hydrothermal Synthetic Emerald
Spring 1998
Modern Diamond Cutting in India
LeighaA Three-Dimensional Intarsia Sculpture
Russian Synthetic Pink Quartz
Summer 1998
Natural and Synthetic Rubies
Two Historical Objects from Basel Cathedral
Topaz, Aquamarine, and Other Beryls from
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Modeling the Round Brilliant Cut Diamond:
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Cultured Abalone Blister Pearls from
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Estimating Weights of Mounted Colored Stones
Winter 1998
Natural-Color Type IIb Blue Diamonds
Fingerprinting of Two Diamonds Cut from the
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Barite Inclusions in Fluorite
Spring 1999
The Identification of Zachery-Treated Turquoise
Russian Hydrothermal Synthetic Rubies and
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The Separation of Natural from Synthetic
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Winter 1999
Classifying Emerald Clarity Enhancement at
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Clues to the Process Used by General Electric
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Diopside Needles as Inclusions in Demantoid
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Garnets from Madagascar with a Color
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Spring 2000
Burmese Jade
Lapis Lazuli from Chile
Spectroscopic Evidence of GE POL Diamonds
Chromium-Bearing Taaffeites
Summer 2000
Characteristics of Nuclei in Chinese Freshwater
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Afghan Ruby and Sapphire
Yellow to Green HPHT-Treated Diamonds
New Lasering Technique for Diamond
New Oved Filling Material for Diamonds
Fall 2000
GE POL Diamonds: Before and After
Sapphires from Northern Madagascar
Pre-Columbian Gems from Antigua
Gem-Quality Hayne from Germany
Winter 2000Special Issue
Gem Localities of the 1990s
Enhancement and Detection in the 1990s
Synthetics in the 1990s
Technological Developments in the 1990s
Jewelry of the 1990s
Spring 2001
Ammolite from Southern Alberta, Canada
Discovery and Mining of the Argyle Diamond
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Hydrothermal Synthetic Red Beryl

Spring 2003

Summer 2004

Summer 2003

Summer 2001
The Current Status of Chinese Freshwater
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Characteristics of Natural-Color and HeatTreated Golden South Sea Cultured Pearls
A New Method for Imitating Asterism
Fall 2001
Modeling the Appearance of the
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Jeremejevite: A Gemological Update
Winter 2001
An Update on Paraba Tourmaline
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Pink to Pinkish Orange Malaya Garnets from
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Voices of the Earth: Transcending the
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Star of the South: A Historic 128 ct Diamond
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Fall 2002
Diamonds in Canada
Diffusion Ruby Proves to Be Synthetic Ruby
Overgrowth on Natural Corundum
Winter 2002
Chart of Commercially Available Gem Treatments
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Legal Protection for Proprietary Diamond Cuts
Rhodizite-Londonite from the Antsongombato
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Fall 2003

Winter 2003

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Photomicrography for Gemologists
Poudretteite: A Rare Gem from Mogok
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Beryllium Diffusion of Ruby and Sapphire
Seven Rare Gem Diamonds
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G. Robert Crowningshield:
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Cause of Color in Black Diamonds from Siberia
Obtaining U.S. Copyright Registration for the
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Winter 2003
CVD Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds
Pezzottaite from Madagascar: A New Gem
Red Beryl from Utah: Review and Update
Spring 2004
Identification of CVD-Grown Synthetic Diamonds
Cultured Pearls from Gulf of California, Mexico
X-Ray Fingerprinting Routine for Cut Diamonds
Summer 2004
Gem Treatment Disclosure and U.S. Law
Lab-Grown Colored Diamonds from Chatham
The 3543 cm-1 Band in Amethyst Identification
Fall 2004
Grading Cut Quality of Round Brilliant Diamonds
Amethyst from Four Peaks, Arizona
Winter 2004
Creation of a Suite of Peridot Jewelry: From the
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EDITORS
Thomas M. Moses and Shane F. McClure
GIA Laboratory

CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
G. Robert Crowningshield
GIA Laboratory, East Coast
Cheryl Y. Wentzell
GIA Laboratory, West Coast

Yellow CUBIC ZIRCONIA

Imitating Cape Diamonds
Two yellow kite-shaped step cuts
(1.77 and 1.70 ct; figure 1) were submitted to the West Coast laboratory
by Mitchell Swerdlow Inc. of Miami,
Florida, for diamond color origin
determination. Initial observation in
the laboratory weights and measures
department indicated specific gravity
values that were close to 6 for both,
requiring additional testing by the
Identification staff. Subsequent observation of the spectra seen with the
desk-model spectroscope appeared to
reveal a cape spectrum in both samples, with the addition of a line at
595 nm, which is often indicative of
irradiation and annealing in a yellow
diamond. However, due to the high
density of the specimens, it was obvi-

ous that they were in fact not diamonds at all, and further testing was
clearly required.
No inclusions were seen in either
sample when examined with magnification, and there was no visible strain.
Lack of doubling in the microscope
suggested that the kite shapes were
singly refractive, and they were over
the limits of the refractometer. In addition, they fluoresced weak orangy red
to long-wave ultraviolet radiation and
medium to strong orangy red to shortwave UV, which is also not consistent
with yellow diamonds.
When the visible absorption spectra were examined more closely, it
became apparent that although they
did closely resemble the spectrum of a
treated cape diamond, the 415 nm
band was missing, and the positions of
some of the main bands were shifted

Figure 1. These two yellow samples of cubic zirconia (11.30 5.50 3.72
and 10.54 5.57 3.71 mm) could be mistaken for irradiated and
annealed cape diamonds if a gemologist relied on their visible spectra to
identify them.

slightly on the scale. The spectra of

cape diamonds contain bands in the
violet-to-blue region, with lines at
approximately 415, 435, 452, 465, and
478 nm; the 415 and 478 nm bands
are the strongest. When a diamond is
artificially irradiated and annealed to
produce a yellow color, the cape lines
are usually fairly weak, and there are
often additional lines at 496 and 503
nm and a weak line at about 594 nm.
Figure 2 compares the spectrum of the
yellow samples we received for identification with a representative spectrum from a cape diamond. Due to the
close proximity of lines on the scale,
at first glance the 485 nm band in the
samples could have been confused
with the comparatively strong 478 nm
band in a cape diamond, although the
two samples also had an even closer
but weaker line around 473 nm. The
samples also had a fine weak line
around 594 nm, which could have
been confused with the same line in
an irradiated and annealed diamond,
but the more prominent band at 585
nm in the samples is really the culprit
in a potentially mistaken comparison.
To further characterize the spectra
of the two samples, research scientist

Editors note: The initials at the end of each item

identify the editor(s) or contributing editor(s)
who provided that item. Full names are given for
other GIA Laboratory contributors.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 340349

2005 Gemological Institute of America

340

LAB NOTES

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Yellow cubic zirconia (CZ)

Irradiated and annealed cape diamond

Figure 2. As seen from these approximate representations, the visible

absorption spectra of the two yellow CZs in figure 1 (top) and an irradiated and annealed cape diamond (bottom) are similar enough to lead to
confusion in a quick examination with a desk-model spectroscope.
Andy H. Shen collected UV-visible
spectra. The absorption features presented themselves generally as small

broad bands, and for the most part

they corresponded to the lines
observed in the desk-model spectro-

Figure 3. The UV-visible spectra of the two yellow CZs (top) and an irradiated and annealed cape diamond (bottom spectrum) support the bands
detected with the desk-model spectroscope (figure 2), and also show differences in the absorption features more distinctly. (All spectra were collected at room temperature.)

LAB NOTES

scope. However, the weak feature at

about 594 nm was not visible. A comparison of the UV-visible spectra of
the two yellow samples and an irradiated and annealed cape diamond is
shown in figure 3.
Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis performed by
senior research associate Sam Muhlmeister revealed Zr as the major
chemical component, along with a
trace of Y and Hf. These findings were
consistent with cubic zirconia. As this
note illustrates, if one is using a deskmodel spectroscope to quickly confirm the identification of a yellow
diamond, one must be aware that the
spectrum of a yellow CZ can be mistaken for that of a cape or treated cape
diamond. The lines should be studied
closely to avoid a potentially embarrassing error.
CYW

DIAMOND
Orange, Treated by
Multiple Processes
Two major laboratory treatment techniques have been applied to alter the
apparent bodycolor of diamond. One
is irradiation with or without annealing at a relatively low temperature;
the other is annealing under high
pressure and high temperature
(HPHT). Though these two processes
were first used in isolation, some
treaters have begun combining them
(see, e.g., W. Wang et al., Treatedcolor pink-to-red diamonds from
Lucent Diamonds Inc., Spring 2005
Gems & Gemology, pp. 619). The
diamonds in the Wang et al. article
were type Ia with very high concentrations of nitrogen; however, in the
East Coast laboratory, we recently
examined two diamonds treated in a
similar way to introduce an attractive
orange color, and these had extremely
low nitrogen contents (i.e., they were
virtually type IIa).
The 5.89 ct round brilliant was
color graded Fancy pinkish orange;
the 4.31 ct emerald cut was color
graded Fancy orange (figure 4). The

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341

Figure 4. These 5.89 ct Fancy pinkish orange (left) and 4.31 ct Fancy orange
(right) diamonds proved to have been treated by multiple processes. The
most likely scenario is HPHT annealing followed by irradiation and then
annealing at relatively low temperatures.

two diamonds had no unusual

internal characteristics, either inclusions or fractures. When exposed to
long-wave UV radiation, the round
brilliant displayed a moderately strong
yellow fluorescence, while the emerald cut showed a moderate-to-strong
yellow-green fluorescence; both displayed moderate-to-strong orange fluorescence to short-wave UV. No phosphorescence was observed.
A notable feature in both diamonds
was that the orange color was concentrated in their culets, though this was
more obvious in the round brilliant
(figure 5). It is well-known that this
feature can be created by irradiation
and annealing (see, e.g., E. Fritsch and
J. E. Shigley, Contribution to the
identification of treated colored diamonds: Diamonds with peculiar colorzoned pavilions, Summer 1989 Gems
& Gemology, pp. 95101).

In their infrared absorption spectra,

both diamonds appeared to be nearly
type IIa, with extremely weak absorption from both B-form nitrogen
(0.0120.014 cm1 in absorption coefficient at 1282 cm1, about 1 ppm each)
and isolated nitrogen (0.0040.005
cm1 in absorption coefficient at 1344
cm1, about 0.1 ppm each). The coexistence of isolated nitrogen and highly
aggregated B-form nitrogen has not
been reported in a natural-color diamond, and such a combination is contrary to the natural aggregation process. Thus, it was very likely the result
of HPHT annealing. (Under HPHT
conditions, part of the highly aggregated nitrogen will decompose and form
isolated nitrogen.) This conclusion was
supported by the presence of small
frosted surfaces near the girdle of the
round brilliant, a tell-tale trace of the
annealing process that is not always

Figure 5. The orange color was concentrated in the culets of both stones, a
feature often induced by irradiation. This feature is more evident in the
round brilliant (left) than in the emerald cut (right).

342

LAB NOTES

completely removed by re-polishing

after treatment (T. M. Moses et al.,
Observations on GE-processed diamonds: A photographic record, Fall
1999 Gems & Gemology, pp. 1422;
Wang et al., 2005).
UV-visible spectra collected at
cryogenic temperatures from the two
diamonds showed very similar
absorption features (figure 6). Relatively strong absorptions at 574.9 nm
[(N-V)0] and 637.0 nm [(N-V) -] and
their side bands were responsible for
the orange hues. These two centers
can be easily introduced by radiation/annealing of a diamond that contains isolated nitrogen. Other absorptions known to be due to irradiation
and annealing at relatively low temperatures were also detected, including those at 393.4 (ND1), 495.9 (H4),
594.2, and 741.0 nm (GR1).
While we do not know the original colors of these two diamonds, all
observations lead to the conclusion
that they were treated by at least two
processes to introduce an attractive
orange hue. The most likely scenario
is HPHT annealing followed by irradiation and then annealing at relatively low temperatures; this treatment method is known to produce a
pink hue (also caused by N-V centers)
in some type IIa diamonds. The use
of multiple processes to enhance the
bodycolor of natural diamonds presents a new identification challenge
for gem laboratories.
Wuyi Wang, TMM,
and Carol Pearce

Pink Diamonds with a

Temporary Color Change
Diamonds that change color for a brief
period in certain environments occupy
a special niche in the diamond world.
Most reported color-change diamonds temporarily change from a
greenish to a yellowish hue when heated or when placed in darkness for long
periods of time; these stones are
known in the trade as chameleon
diamonds. Even rarer are diamonds
that temporarily change color when

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Figure 6. Absorption spectra in the UV-visible region showed relatively

strong absorptions at 574.9 nm and 637.0 nm, which are responsible for the
orange hues. Absorptions at 393.4, 495.9, 594.2, and 741.0 nm are introduced by irradiation and annealing at relatively low temperatures.

cooled or exposed to UV radiation (e.g.,

Summer 1975 Lab Notes, pp. 5759; E.
Fritsch, The nature of color in diamonds, in G. E. Harlow, Ed., The
Nature of Diamonds, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, U.K.,
1997, pp. 2347; M. Van Bockstael,
Chameleon diamonds, Antwerp
Facets, 1997, pp. 4041; Summer 2002
Lab Notes, pp. 165166; Hainschwang
et al., A gemological study of a collection of chameleon diamonds, Spring
2005 Gems & Gemology, pp. 2034).
Earlier this year in the West
Coast laboratory, we examined two
pink diamonds (2.01 and 2.17 ct) that
temporarily changed color after
exposure to high-energy short-wave
( < 230 nm) UV radiation in the
DiamondView. The 2.01 ct stone
changed from Fancy Light pinkbrown to Fancy Light brownish yellow (figure 7); the 2.17 ct stone
changed from Fancy Light pink to
light brown (L color). Over a period
of several hours in normal lighting
conditions, both stones returned to
their original pink colors.
Both diamonds were type IIa with

LAB NOTES

no detectable impurities in the midinfrared spectrum, and both showed

distinctive cross-hatched strain patterns when viewed between crossed
polarizers. The 2.01 ct stone had a
moderate yellow reaction to long- and
short-wave UV, whereas the larger
diamond fluoresced a weak blue to

both. These two diamonds did not

change color after exposure to typical
long- or short-wave handheld UV
lamps (which emit UV radiation at
wavelengths of ~366 nm and ~254
nm, respectively). When examined
with diffused white light, the color
distribution in the 2.17 ct diamond
appeared uniform; subtle brown and
pink graining was present in the
smaller stone.
Visible-range absorption spectra
were collected at cryogenic temperatures from the 2.01 ct diamond in
both the pink and yellow color states
to assess the mechanism behind the
color change. In both states, the diamond displayed a distinct H3 defect
(503.2 nm; see figure 8), which was
responsible for the small amount of
green luminescence seen when the
diamond was viewed with magnification. The H3 band is extremely rare in
natural type IIa diamonds, and the reason for its occurrence in this diamond
is unclear.
In the stable pink color state, a general increase in absorption toward the
blue end of the spectrum and a broad
band at ~550 nm were responsible for
the pink color. After exposure to highenergy UV radiation, the baseline
absorbance increased and the 550 nm
band decreased substantially, leaving a
transmission window in the yellow

Figure 7. This 2.01 ct diamond experienced a notable change in color after

exposure to high-energy short-wave UV radiation. At left, before exposure,
the stone was Fancy Light pink-brown; afterward, it changed to Fancy
Light brownish yellow. The stone returned to its original color after several hours in normal light.

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343

interactions involving the band seem

to occur in some pink diamonds.
This type of color change is a rare
and interesting phenomenon that may
provide more insight into the nature
of the 550 nm absorption band that is
common in natural pink diamonds.
Christopher M. Breeding
and Andy Shen

Unusually Large Novelty Cut

Figure 8. Low-temperature visible absorption spectra from the 2.01 ct diamond in its pink-brown and brownish yellow states show that the presence of the 550 nm band produces a pink color before UV exposure,
whereas the absence of this band after exposure results in a transmission
window in the yellow region.

part of the spectrum. The change in

the 550 nm band is particularly interesting, because it is commonly associated with the graining features that
cause the bodycolor of most natural
pink diamonds.
Our results suggest that, in some
diamonds, the 550 nm band may be
temporarily removed (or bleached)
by exposure to high-energy UV radiation. Although the baseline absorbance
increased after exposure, it did so evenly across the visible spectral range, suggesting that it was most likely not
responsible for the noticeable decrease
in the 550 nm band.
Over the years, we have examined
a large number of pink diamonds in
the laboratory and observed that not
all that have a 550 nm band will
change color in this manner. The
change in intensity of the 550 nm
band in response to UV energy suggests that some sort of electronic structure or charge transfer may be associated with this feature. While the 550 nm
band is most likely due to plastic
deformation, more complex electronic

344

LAB NOTES

From time to time, diamonds cut into

the shapes of animals or objects such
as stars are submitted to the laboratory
for grading (see, e.g., Spring 1983 Lab
Notes, p. 43; Spring 1993 Gem News,
p. 52; Fall 2001 Lab Notes, p. 214).
Though the practice of carving diamonds into unusual shapes has a long
history, most of these novelty cuts
became possible only after the development of laser cutting and shaping
techniques. Such novelty cuts tend to
be relatively small and to be cut from
oddly shaped, near-colorless rough that

Figure 9. This 21.42 ct novelty-cut diamond, which resembles an eagles

head, is unusual for its large size and fancy color.

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Figure 10. These facets, intended

to represent the eagles feathers,
were cut by hand with a tool
made expressly for this diamond.
Magnified 8.

Figure 11. Many naturals were

left along the girdle edge of the
eagles head to emphasize that
the original rough had a shape
similar to that of the finished
stone. Magnified 38.

is not suitable for traditional shapes

and proportions. Thus, we at the East
Coast laboratory were very interested
to encounter a novelty cut that was
relatively large and in a fancy color.
This 21.42 ct yellow diamond (figure 9) was fashioned into the form of
an eagles head. In addition to its
notable size and color, the diamond
had curiously shaped facets in certain
areas that gave the appearance of feathers (figure 10). In conversation with the
manufacturer, we learned thatfar
from being the product of a laser cutting operationthese facets were cut
by hand using a rather primitive tool
that was created specifically for this
purpose. The manufacturer also mentioned that the shape of the original
rough evoked the outline of an eagle,
which fueled his desire to fashion the
diamond into this image. Some small
remnants of the diamonds natural surface were left unpolished around the
girdle edge to demonstrate how much
weight and shape was retained from
the original rough (figure 11).
We were also told that the rough
from which this eagles head was cut
was relatively flat. When colored diamonds are faceted from flat rough, it is
not uncommon for the color in the finished stone to concentrate near the
edges, with a somewhat colorless
window in the center. When color
grading such a diamond, the grader
concentrates on those areas where
color is observed. However, if that

color does not represent the majority

of the face-up appearance (i.e., the window predominates), the color distribution entry on the grading report would
state uneven. Such was the case
with this diamond (again, see figure 9),
which was graded Fancy Intense yellow with uneven color distribution.
Thomas H. Gelb and John M. King

LAB NOTES

Small SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS

Several months ago, the West Coast
laboratory received three melee-size
(0.11, 0.12, and 0.16 ct; figure 12)

bright orange-yellow gems of varying

shapes for colored diamond identification and origin reports. Observation
with a gemological microscope at
approximately 10 magnification
revealed that all three were fairly
clean, which is not unusual for such
small stones. At higher magnification, we could see that they contained
only diffuse clouds and had no obviously natural inclusions. The particles making up the clouds were fairly
regularly spaced and uniform in size.
The clouds seen in most natural diamonds tend to be more irregular, so
this led us to suspect that these samples might be of synthetic origin.
All three specimens were inert to
long-wave UV radiation. One fluoresced a weak, zoned chalky orange
and the other two displayed a very
weak green reactionto short-wave
UV radiation. Yet none of them displayed the diagnostic cross-shaped
pattern of chalky fluorescence often
seen in synthetic diamonds of this
color. Examination with high magnification while they were immersed in
methylene iodide did reveal at least
one sharp, elongated, near-colorless
zone in each specimen, but these
zones were difficult to view due to
the small size of the samples. However, examination with the DTC

Figure 12. Due to their small size and lack of obvious synthetic characteristics, these three melee-size synthetic diamonds (0.110.16 ct) could be a
challenge to identify outside a laboratory.

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345

Figure 13. The fluorescence patterns in these DiamondView images of two

of the small synthetic stones are diagnostic of synthetic diamond.

DiamondView, which uses higherenergy short-wave UV radiation,

revealed fluorescent patterns characteristic of synthetic diamonds (figure
13) in each of the samples. Therefore,
we concluded that all were indeed
synthetic.
In recent months, we have seen a
greater number of small synthetic diamonds of this color coming through
the laboratory. Many of these do display the characteristic yellow-green
chalky cross-shaped fluorescent pattern when exposed to UV radiation. As
these three samples illustrate, though,
some small synthetic diamonds cannot be readily identified with standard
gemological techniques alone.
Elizabeth P. Quinn

DIASPORE Vein in Sapphire

Diaspore, orthorhombic aluminum
hydroxide, is best known as a form of
the aluminum ore bauxite, and is only
rarely used as a gem material.
However, it may be associated with
corundum and can sometimes be seen
as an inclusion in ruby and sapphire.
G&G has previously reported on the
presence of diaspore as irregular
veins in Nepalese ruby (C. P. Smith
et al., Rubies and fancy-color sapphires from Nepal, Spring 1997 Gems
& Gemology, pp. 2441), and as the
solid phase in three-phase inclusions

346

LAB NOTES

in Sri Lankan sapphire (K. Schmetzer

and O. Medenbach, Examination of
three-phase inclusions in colorless, yellow, and blue sapphires from Sri
Lanka, Summer 1988 Gems &
Gemology, pp. 107111).
Recently, a 3.96 ct blue cushioncut stone was submitted to the West
Coast laboratory for identification.
Standard gemological testing proved it
to be natural sapphire. During the
microscopic examination, we noticed
that a distinctive circular fracture
breaking the surface of the pavilion
was filled with a material that had a

Figure 14. This 3.96 ct sapphire

contained a circular fracture
that in reflected light showed a
lower luster than the surrounding sapphire, resembling the
glass-like material commonly
seen in heat-treated corundum.
Magnified 40.

lower surface luster than the surrounding corundum (figure 14).

Though such a feature is typically
associated with the glass-like residues
found in fractures and cavities of some
rubies that have been exposed to hightemperature heat treatment, it is seldom seen in blue sapphires. Further,
the filler material contained numerous irregular thread-like voids that did
not resemble the patterns and inclusions we would expect to see in glassy
residues (figure 15). For this reason, we
decided to test the filler further.
Because the material broke the
pavilion surface in a relatively wide
vein, we were able to use Raman
spectroscopy for analysis. Even so, the
spectral peaks representing the surrounding corundum needed to be
subtracted from the spectrum of the
sample. The resulting spectrum (figure
16) was an excellent match for diaspore. Diaspore is known to be unstable
at temperatures over 600C (again, see
Schmetzer and Medenbach, 1988), so
its presence was an excellent indicator
that the stone had not undergone hightemperature heat treatment. Conversely, if we had found the material to
be a glassy residue, its presence would
be proof of heat treatment.
The similarity in appearance
between this material and glass
serves as an excellent reminder that
careful scrutiny and testing are neces-

Figure 15. The inclusions in the

material filling the fracture in
the sapphire in figure 14 did not
resemble those one would expect
to see in a glassy residue from
heating. Magnified 37.

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Figure 16. The Raman spectrum of the vein material with the primary
corundum peaks removed, or subtracted, shows a very close match to
the GIA labs library sample of diaspore.

sary to accurately interpret observations and, in this case, prevent mistaking evidence of no treatment for
evidence of treatment.
Kimberly Rockwell

Unusual PEARL from South America

The natural oyster pearls that we see
from south of the U.S. border usually
originate from Pinctada mazatlanica
or Pteria sterna along the Pacific coast
of Mexico or within the Gulf of
California. Typically, these pearls
occur in colors that include blacks to
grays, various shades of brown, and
deep purples. Many have iridescent
overtones (orient) of pink, purple,
green, blue, yellow, and/or orange.
Although a verbal description of these
pearls might not distinguish them from
those of French Polynesia, there are
visual subtleties in color, as well as in
shape and size, that can provide clues
as to the origin of some of these gems.
Recently, the West Coast laboratory
received an interesting 9.51 ct pearl (figure 17) whose size and unusual grayish

LAB NOTES

greenish yellow color made it difficult

to discern whether it might have originated from Tahiti or Central/South
America.
The long-wave UV luminescence
was very weak brown to reddish
brown with a very weak to weak
chalky yellow-green surface cast. This

Figure 17. This natural pearl from

the Pacific coast of South
America (11.1511.60 10.10
mm), presumed to be from a P.
mazatlanica oyster, exhibits a rare
color for pearls from this oyster.

subtle fluorescence ruled out P. sterna

as the source oyster due to a lack of the
characteristic stronger chalky reddish
fluorescence that would be observed in
that type of pearl (see, e.g., L. Keifert et
al., Cultured pearls from the Gulf of
California, Mexico, Spring 2004
Gems & Gemology, pp. 2638).
However, it matched that of a similarly colored outer nacreous band of a P.
mazatlanica shell in our research collection. It also matched that of the
non-nacreous outer lip of a Pinctada
margaritifera shell (the famed blacklipped oyster from French Polynesia),
but this was an area of the oyster
where the pearl could not have
formed.
The UV-visible absorption spectra
of pearls from P. mazatlanica are similar to those from P. margaritifera; as
with some dark pearls from both oysters, there was increased absorption
around 700 nm in this pearl. Although
the West Coast laboratory has not had
the opportunity to observe this 700
nm absorption in P. mazatlanica
pearls, it has been recorded in the past
(K. Scarratt, pers. comm., 2005).
The client reported that the pearl
originated from an undisclosed location along the Pacific coast of South
America, which is good circumstantial evidence that the producing oyster was P. mazatlanica rather than P.
margaritifera. The client also said
that, in his considerable experience,
the color of this P. mazatlanica pearl
was quite rare.
CYW and Shane Elen

Unusually Small Natural-Color

Black CULTURED PEARLS
The black cultured pearls from
French Polynesia we see in the laboratory are typically at least 9 mm in
diameter, but occasionally we see
them between 8 and 9 mm. So when
a very dark strand consisting mostly
of cultured pearls under 9 mm (with
several 8 mm or slightly less; figure
18) came into the West Coast laboratory, we were suspicious that they
might be dyed. However, visual

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347

that the geographic source may not be

French Polynesia.
CYW

Identification of TURQUOISE
With Diffuse Reflectance
Infrared Spectroscopy

Figure 18. Several of the very dark cultured pearls (11.00 mm to 8.00 7.80
mm) in this strand were smaller and had thinner nacre than is typical for
Tahitian exports.

observation of the nacre did not reveal

any evidence of dye. The cultured
pearls were highly polished, and some
had thin, transparent nacre through
which the bead nucleus could be seen
when viewed with transmitted light
from a fiber-optic source.
The long-wave UV luminescence
of such dark cultured pearls is often
inert to faint or occasionally very
weak, so we were somewhat surprised to see very weak to weak reddish brown fluorescence that is more
typical of slightly lighter Tahitian cultured pearls. Senior research associate
Sam Muhlmeister performed EDXRF
analysis to check for the presence of
metals such as Ag, which would be
proof of color treatment. The results
were consistent with naturally colored pearls and revealed no evidence
of dye. Using UV-visible spectroscopy, research gemologist Shane Elen
then characterized 18 cultured pearls
from the center of the strand; the
spectra were consistent with naturally colored dark pearls from the

348

LAB NOTES

Pinctada margaritifera, with increased absorption around 700 nm.

These results established that the
black cultured pearls were of natural
color. Observation of the bead nuclei
on an X-radiograph revealed that the
smallest nucleus seen in one twodimensional view measured approximately 6.2 mm in diameter, with
numerous others ranging from 6.3 to
7.0 mm. In this same X-radiograph,
the nacre varied from 0.3 to 1.7 mm,
with quite a few having nacre in the
0.40.6 mm range. It is interesting to
note, as G.I.E. Perles de Tahiti kindly
informed us, that the French Polynesian government requires a nacre
thickness of at least 0.8 mm on cultured pearls for export.
Also according to G.I.E. Perles de
Tahiti, there could be a number of
explanations for the pearls relatively
thin nacre. One is that the procedure
responsible for their high polish subsequently removed nacre to well
below the minimum thickness
required for their export. Another is

Turquoise has been treated by plastic

impregnation since the late 1960s (see,
e.g., T. Lind et al., The identification
of turquoise by infrared spectroscopy
and X-ray powder diffraction, Fall
1983 Gems & Gemology, pp.
164168). This treatment not only
improves color, luster, and durability,
but it can also protect the turquoise
from penetration by foreign substances
such as dirt and skin oils. Traditionally, IR spectroscopy has been the
most common method for detecting
polymer impregnation of gem materials (see, e.g., Lind et al., 1983; E. Fritsch
et al., Identification of bleached and
polymer-impregnated jadeite, Fall
1992 Gems & Gemology, pp. 176187;
M. L. Johnson et al., On the identification of various emerald filling substances, Summer 1999 Gems &
Gemology, pp. 82107). This test is
normally performed in transmission
mode for opaque gems; however,

Figure 19. Although the appearance and low specific gravity of

this turquoise tablet led to suspicions of treatment, no known polymer impregnation was detected.

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Figure 20. Comparing the diffuse infrared reflectance spectra of a natural turquoise, a Gilson synthetic
turquoise, and the tablet in figure 19 indicated that the tablet is natural turquoise (left). No known polymerrelated absorption bands, such as at 2965, 2930, and 2875 cm 1 were detected (right).

preparing an opaque sample for IR

transmission spectroscopy requires
scraping off a tiny amount of material
and combining it with potassium bromide (KBr) into a small compressed
pellet. Thus, it is both slightly destructive and somewhat time-consuming.
Recently, a bluish green turquoise
tablet (22.44 20.24 5.68 mm) was
submitted to the East Coast laboratory for identification (figure 19). It contained white veins and copper inclusions, and its spot refractive index
was 1.60. Although the specific gravity of natural, untreated turquoise
ranges from 2.60 to 2.90 (R. Webster,
Gems, 5th ed., rev. by P. G. Read,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford,
England, 1994), the S.G. of this tablet
was only 2.47. This suggested that
there might be some treatment, possibly plastic impregnation, causing a
lower result. We considered whether
this piece might have been subjected
to the so-called Zachery treatment,
but the S.G. of Zachery-treated
turquoise is typically 2.612.74, with-

in the normal range (E. Fritsch et al.,

The identification of Zachery-treated turquoise, Spring 1999 Gems &
Gemology, pp. 416).
We then decided to test the tablet
with diffuse reflectance infrared spectroscopy, rather than transmission
spectroscopy. In this method, which
requires no preparation or damage to
the sample, the IR radiation penetrates the surface of an opaque gem
only slightly, bounces off, and is collected by a curved mirror above it
before passing to the detector.
The major peaks detected were at
approximately 1125, 1050, and 1000
cm 1 (figure 20, left), indicating that
it was natural (not synthetic) turquoise (again, see Fritsch et al., 1999).
Additionally, no bands that could be
attributed to any known polymers
(such as Opticon or Pathalate) were
detected (figure 20, right).
However, a strong absorption band
was seen at 1746 cm1. To ensure that
this band was not caused by mineral
inclusions, we covered the turquoise

with a metal plate that had a 6 mm

hole in the center, and tested the
tablet again. The spectra obtained for
both the blue area with white veins at
the top and the pure blue area at the
base showed the band at 1746 cm1
(the spectrum for the metal plate was
subtracted out). We do not know the
assignment of this band.
This example shows that diffuse
reflectance infrared spectroscopy is a
simple, fast, and nondestructive
method to help with the separation
of natural and synthetic turquoise. It
may also be used to help identify
plastic (polymer) impregnation.
Kyaw Soe Moe, Paul Johnson,
and Carol Pearce

PHOTO CREDITS
C. D. Mengason1, 17, and 18; Jessica
Arditi4 and 19; Wuyi Wang5; Maha
Calderon7 and 12; Elizabeth Schrader
9; Thomas Gelb10; Chincheung
Cheung11; Christopher M. Breeding
13; Shane F. McClure14 and 15.

For regular updates from the world of GEMS & GEMOLOGY, visit our website at:
www.gia.edu/gemsandgemology

LAB NOTES

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349

EDITOR
Brendan M. Laurs ([email protected])

CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Emmanuel Fritsch, IMN, University of
Nantes, France ([email protected])
Henry A. Hnni, SSEF, Basel, Switzerland
([email protected])
Franck Notari, GIA Gem Tech Lab,
Geneva, Switzerland
([email protected])
Kenneth V. G. Scarratt, GIA Research, Bangkok, Thailand
([email protected])

COLORED STONES AND

ORGANIC MATERIALS
Ornamental blueschist from northern Italy. During the
late 1990s, blueschist from a small number of localities in
the lower Aosta Valley of the western Italian Alps was recognized as an ornamental material and polished into cabochons, beads, and other objects (see, e.g., figure 1). Since

Figure 1. Blueschist from Italys Aosta Valley, with its

combination of blue glaucophane, green omphacite,
red garnet, and white calcite, has been polished into
attractive objects, such as this 263 ct disk (80 4 mm).
The material also shows a sparkly sheen when cut parallel to the foliation of the schist. Photo by A. Stucki.

then, its attractive and distinctive appearance has led to

increased demand from Swiss and Italian lapidaries and
local jewelers. It is estimated that a few hundred pieces
(mostly cabochons) have been polished from this
blueschist to date. In recent years, the annual production
of rough blueschist has been in the range of a few hundred
kilograms.
Blueschist is formed by the relatively high-pressure and
low-temperature metamorphism of mafic rocks such as
basalt. The overall blue color is due to the predominance of
glaucophane (a sodic amphibole) in the rock. Outcrops of
blueschist in the Aosta Valley are usually accompanied by
eclogite and phengite schist (figure 2). Although blueschist
is locally abundant and may form masses up to several
meters wide, lapidary-grade material is quite rare, occurring
as layers and lenses up to 30 cm thick. Such blueschist has a
compact texture and is glaucophane-rich and mica-poor.
These outcrops are found at elevations from 300 to 2,500 m,
mostly in very steep, rugged terrain. Because of this, access
is possible only by foot in most cases, and mining is commonly done by local collectors using simple hand tools.

Editors note: The initials at the end of each item identify the
editor or contributing editor who provided it. Full names and
affiliations are given for other contributors. Dr. Mary L.
Johnson of the GIA Laboratory in Carlsbad is thanked for
her internal review of the Gem News International section.
Interested contributors should send information and
illustrations to Brendan Laurs at [email protected] (e-mail),
760-603-4595 (fax), or GIA, The Robert Mouawad Campus,
5345 Armada Drive, Carlsbad, CA 92008. Original photos
will be returned after consideration or publication.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 350369
2005 Gemological Institute of America

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Figure 2. This outcrop shows a tightly folded area of

dark blueschist and adjacent light-colored phengite-rich layers. The hammer (provided for scale) is
approximately 38 cm (15 inches) long. Photo by
Daniela Rubatto.

The ornamental blueschist is dominated by millimeter-size prismatic crystals of glaucophane, ideally

NaMg 3Al2(Si8O22)(OH)2. Electron-microprobe analyses
performed by this contributor and Dr. Barbara Kuhn at
the Institute of Mineralogy and Petrography, ETH Zurich,
determined that the glaucophane contains 78 wt.% FeO,
which corresponds approximately to a composition of
glaucophane0.66ferroglaucophane0.33 (a minor riebeckite
component is also present). While glaucophane from

Figure 3. When viewed in thin section with a petrographic microscope, the blueschist is seen to consist
of glaucophane with distinct blue-purple/near-colorless pleochroism, green omphacite, high-relief garnet
that appears colorless, and interstitial colorless calcite. Photomicrograph by A. Stucki; field of view is
approximately 5 4 mm.

other localities (e.g., the Coast Range in California) is generally dark gray rather than blue and not very appealing as
an ornamental stone, material from the Aosta Valley is
characterized by an attractive, pure blue color without
gray overtones. In thin section, the crystals show a distinct blue-purple/near-colorless pleochroism that is typical for iron-bearing glaucophane (figure 3). Also present in
this ornamental material are green omphacite (with the
composition diopside0.3hedenbergite0.1jadeite0.5aegirine0.1),
brownish red garnet (almandine0.6grossular0.2pyrope0.2),
and varying amounts of pale yellow clinozoisite, white
calcite, pyrite, and rutile.
This combination of blue, green, and red constituents
with minor white and/or reflective spots results in a unique,
striking appearance when properly fashioned. A schiller-like
phenomenon is shown by polished surfaces cut parallel to
the foliation of the schist; if cut perpendicular to this plane,
the glaucophane will appear much darker and duller.
Because of its compact, interlocking microtexture,
even thin pieces of blueschist from the Aosta Valley can
be polished, some into fairly sizable objects. The main
challenge for gem cutters is the large difference in Mohs
hardness between the constituent minerals, notably garnet
(77.5) and calcite (3).
Andy Stucki ([email protected])
Siber+Siber Inc.
Aathal, Switzerland
Emerald phantom crystal. At the July 2005 Jewelers of
America Show in New York, Ray Zajicek of Equatorian
Imports, Dallas, Texas, submitted an interesting emerald
crystal from Colombias Muzo mine to the AGTA laboratory for examination and research. This well-formed crystal (3.38 ct and 9.6 7.1 5.7 mm) had six hexagonal
prism faces, and was terminated at one end by a basal
pinacoid with six small rhombohedral faces.
Inside the crystal, we observed numerous growth tubes
and densely concentrated primary fluid inclusions that
had accumulated in the center. Collectively, these inclusions formed a translucent phantom that appeared a much
lighter green in comparison to the deeper color of the
transparent outer zone (figure 4).
The shape of the phantom corresponded almost exactly to the form of the outer parent crystal. The outer portion contained far fewer inclusions. These were primarily
three-phase inclusions of brine, a vapor bubble, and a cubic
crystal of saltwhich are typical of, and well-known as,
inclusions in Colombian emeralds.
Growth phantoms in emerald are not at all common.
This was one of the best examples these contributors have
encountered.
Lore Kiefert ([email protected])
AGTA Gemological Testing Center, New York
John I. Koivula
AGTA Gemological Testing Center, Carlsbad

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Figure 4. The phantom in this 3.38 ct emerald crystal

from the Muzo mine in Colombia is an unusual
growth feature. Photomicrograph by John I. Koivula;
courtesy of microWorld of Gems.

Figure 5. These Nectar of Life earrings incorporate two unusual trapiche emeralds (19.40 and
19.69 ct). Courtesy of Sandra Mller; photo
Harold & Erica Van Pelt.

Unusual trapiche emerald earrings. The gem world is

filled with remarkable oddities. However, the very qualities that make these gems notable often make them
unsuitable for use in conventional jewelry, leaving them
confined to the realm of collectors stones. It is therefore fairly rare to encounter jewelry featuring stones that
are truly distinctive in a gemological sense.
In late July 2005, the AGTA Gemological Testing
Center reported on a pair of unusual trapiche emeralds (see
www.agta-gtc.org/2005-07-26_trapiche_emerald.htm).
Unlike most such emeralds, these two stones (19.40 and
19.69 ct) had a colorless outer zone that had been cut into
the shape of a six-rayed star, with each arm of the star
radiating from a hexagonal prism face of the emerald core.
These gems have now been used to great advantage in a
unique pair of earrings (figure 5) by jewelry designer
Sandra Mller (Sandra Mller Fine Jewelry, Los Angeles).
Titled Nectar of Life, the jewelry is intended to portray slices of star fruit descending from strips of lemon
peel. The star fruit dangles contain the trapiche emeralds
in gold settings with yellow diamonds. (Star fruit is actually five-rayed, but one can forgive this as artistic license.)
The upper lemon peels are green gold set with green,
yellow, and colorless diamonds. Because of their weight,
the earrings are designed to hook inside the wearers ears
rather than on the ear lobes.
Clearly, even gemological oddities can make beautiful
jewelry, given sufficient artistic vision and inspiration.
Thomas W. Overton ([email protected])
GIA, Carlsbad
A large greenish yellow grossular from Africa. The GIA
Gem Tech Lab recently examined a 68.55 ct greenish
yellow round brilliant (figure 6) that, according to the
client, was a garnet from East Africa. This stone
showed unusually intense greenish yellow coloration
and exhibited very distinct roiled (scotch in water;
figure 7) structure that is typical for the hessonite variety of grossular.
The sample was examined by standard gemological
testing and various spectroscopic methods. The R.I. was
1.743, and the S.G. (measured hydrostatically) was 3.62.
Viewed between crossed polarizing filters, the sample
was isotropic but exhibited very distinct strain that followed the granular swirl-like structure seen with the
microscope. These results, as well as the specular
reflectance FTIR spectrum, provided a good match with
hessonite. EDXRF chemical analysis was consistent
with a calcium-aluminum garnet (Ca3Al2[SiO4]), which
confirms grossular, with a significant amount of Mn and
Fe present. These impurities are commonly found in
hessonite, but the quantity of Mn detected was greater
than is typically seen in this gem variety.
The UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectrum (figure 8) also
was unusual for grossular, with three strong bands at 372,
409, and 430 nm, and two weaker bands at 418 and 455

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Figure 6. This 68.55 ct grossular from East Africa

shows an unusually bright greenish yellow color.
Photo by T. Hainschwang.

nm. These absorptions can be attributed to Mn2+ (see

Winter 1991 Gem News, p. 258). The intense manganese
absorptions cause the steep slope starting at around 500
nm and cut off nearly all the blue in the spectrum. This
feature, combined with high transmittance from 500 to
750 nm, is responsible for the unusually intense greenish
yellow color in this garnet.
Manganese typically plays only a minor role in the coloration of grossular/hessonite. In the experience of these
contributors, although Mn2+ bands are often present in this

Figure 8. The UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectrum of

the grossular showed very strong Mn 2+-related
absorptions. These absorptions are responsible for
the strong greenish yellow color, in contrast to the
usual orange appearance of hessonite.

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Figure 7. With magnification, the grossular in figure 6

showed the distinct roiled scotch in water appearance that also is typically seen in hessonite. Photo by
T. Hainschwang; magnified 8.

material, they are very weak. In typical orange hessonite,

the spectrum is a featureless broad band with greater
transmittance in the orange and red parts of the spectrum.
This broad band is attributed to Fe2+Ti4+ intervalence
charge transfer, so the orange color in grossular is mainly
due to this mechanism (E. Fritsch, pers. comm., 2005).
The client did not know precisely where in East
Africa the material was found or whether more of this
attractive garnet is available in the market.
Thomas Hainschwang ([email protected])
and Franck Notari
GIA Gem Tech Lab
Geneva, Switzerland
An opal triplet resembling an eye. Bill Hawes (Conifer,
Colorado) recently brought to our attention a 9.75 ct (1.8
1.6 cm) opal triplet with an unusual pattern of play-of-color
that resembled an eye (figure 9). He said that the opal was
mined by Bob and Susan Thompson at their claim in eastern Idaho. Reportedly the Thompsons have also found one
additional opal with a similar concentric pattern, which
has been fashioned as a triplet and set into a pendant.
The triplet loaned by Mr. Hawes consisted of a very
thin (0.1 mm) layer of opal that was glued to a black
opaque backing with colorless cement, and covered by a
colorless glass top. The opal showed strong play-of-color,
with a near-round pupil surrounded by a multicolored
iris that showed a radiating columnar structure. As seen
in figure 9, the pupil appeared yellowish green in typical
viewing environments. However, when illuminated with
a fiber-optic source at an oblique angle, the pupil
showed patchy violet and orange coloration. Although we
could not measure the R.I. of the colorful layer (because it

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Figure 9. This unusual 1.8 1.6 cm opal triplet bears

a striking resemblance to an eye. Courtesy of Bill
Hawes; photo by Maha Calderon.

was so thin, and there was a risk of damaging the cement

with the R.I. liquid), it was identified as opal by its diagnostic play-of-color. The natural or synthetic origin of the
opal could not be ascertained due to its narrow thickness.
However, the columnar structure more closely resembled
that which is typical of synthetic opal. The GIA
Laboratory has not previously encountered an opal (natural or synthetic) with this intriguing appearance.
Elizabeth P. Quinn ([email protected])
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
BML
Green orthoclase feldspar from Vietnam. In July 2005,
these contributors received some interesting transparent
emerald green samples that were reported to be amazonite from a new find in Vietnam. Five faceted stones
were loaned and several pieces of rough were donated to
GIA by Bill Larson (Pala International, Fallbrook,
California). According to his supplier, Son T. Ta (I.T.C.
International Trade Center, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam),
they were mined from a pegmatite near Minh Tien, about
15 km south of Luc Yen in Yen Bai Province. This area is
also known to produce transparent green fluorite, which
when cobbed is similar in appearance to gem-quality
orthoclase.
The following properties were obtained by GIA staff
gemologist Eric Fritz on the five faceted feldspars
(1.313.68 ct; see, e.g., figure 10): colorgreen; pleochroismgreen and colorless; R.I.1.5211.529, with a birefringence of 0.008; and S.G.2.58. They were inert to
long-wave UV radiation, but displayed a moderate green
fluorescence to short-wave UV (with no phosphorescence). When viewed with a desk-model spectroscope, no
absorption features were seen. There was no reaction
when they were observed with a Chelsea color filter.

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Although the internal features were not recorded in these

faceted samples, a subsequent examination of one piece of
transparent rough revealed only fingerprint-like inclusions and a plane of minute transparent brown angular
crystals. In addition, two-phase inclusions, apatite, and
minute ruby crystals were reported in green Vietnamese
orthoclase by J. Ponahlo et al. (Transparent green orthoclase, a new ornamental stone from north Vietnam, 28th
International Gemmological Conference, Extended
Abstracts, Madrid, Spain, 2001, pp. 7175).
The green feldspar also was studied by one of us
(GRR) using additional techniques. Infrared spectroscopy
of a powdered sample in attenuated total reflectance
(ATR) mode showed that it resembled orthoclase more
closely than microcline (figure 11). Although X-ray
diffraction analysis would be necessary to precisely
establish the state of order of the feldspar (i.e., the distribution of Al and Si between tetrahedral sites)and
therefore its position within the orthoclase-microcline
seriesthe IR spectrum did reveal diagnostic absorption
features for orthoclase. The color of this feldspar is consistent with the observations of A. M. Hofmeister and
G. R. Rossman, who found that lead-containing orthoclase turned green upon irradiation, microcline became
blue, and intermediate feldspars turned blue-green (A
spectroscopic study of irradiation coloring of amazonite:
Structurally hydrous, Pb-bearing feldspar, American
Mineralogist, Vol. 70, No. 7/8, 1985, pp. 794804). The
green-to-blue color of such feldspars is due to color centers created by the exposure of the lead component in
the feldspar to natural radiation from the surrounding
rock and the potassium feldspar itself. The lead content
of one of the Vietnamese feldspars was determined by
energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy to be 0.29 wt.%
PbO, and it had a formula of K0.84Na0.15Pb0.004AlSi3O8 .
Even higher contents of lead (0.5 wt.% PbO) were measured in feldspar from this region by Ponahlo et al.
(2001). The green color of the orthoclase results from the

Figure 10. These transparent green orthoclase gemstones from Vietnam weigh 1.313.68 ct. Courtesy of
Pala International; photo by C. D. Mengason.

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Figure 11. These IR spectra were taken of powdered

green and blue-green samples of K-feldspar from
Vietnam and Colorado, respectively. Greater Al/Si
ordering produces sharper spectral features, as seen in
the microcline (highly ordered) from Colorado. In contrast, the less-resolved spectral features (particularly in
the 750 cm1 region) shown by the Vietnamese
K-feldspar correlate to an intermediate amount of
ordering, indicating that it is orthoclase.

This gem feldspar from Vietnam is typically sold as

amazonite, which is a varietal name referring to blue-togreen K-feldspar (generally microcline, rather than orthoclase). Transparent green microcline is unknown to these
contributors in the gem market, and it is very uncommon
for green orthoclase to be facetable. Such material was previously documented from just two localities: Broken Hill,
` ech et al., A green leadNew South Wales, Australia (F. C
containing orthoclase, Tschermaks Mineralogische und
Petrographische Meitteilungen, Vol. 15, Issue 3, 1971, pp.
213231) and Minas Gerais, Brazil (J. Karfunkel and M. L.
S. C. Chaves, Transparenter, schleifwuerdiger, gruener
Barium-Orthoklas aus Minas Gerais, Brasilien [Transparent, polishable, green barium orthoclase from Minas
Gerais, Brazil], Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 43, Issue 12, 1994, pp.
513).
Interestingly, Mr. Larson recently brought to our
attention some nearly transparent green feldspar (figure 13)
that was reportedly mined from Pazunseik in the Mogok
area of Myanmar (Burma).
BML
George R. Rossman
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, California

presence of a broad absorption band centered at 720 nm

(figure 12) that is strongly dependent on crystallographic
orientation (producing the corresponding pleochroism).
This band is not easily seen with a hand spectroscope
due to its broad nature.

Figure 12. A broad absorption band centered at 720

nm is responsible for the green color of the
Vietnamese orthoclase. This absorption was strongly
dependent on crystallographic orientation, producing
the distinct pleochroism shown by the material.
These spectra were obtained from a sample approximately 1 cm thick, and were normalized to 1 cm in
each crystallographic direction.

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James E. Shigley
GIA Research, Carlsbad

Figure 13. This crystal and cabochon (12.7 ct) of

green feldspar are from the Mogok area of
Myanmar. Courtesy of Pala International; photo
Jeff Scovil.

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New discoveries of painite in Myanmar (Burma). Painite

was discovered in the early 1950s in the vicinity of Mogok,
Burma. For many years, only two crystals of painite (1.7
and 2.1 g) were known to exist. Much later, a third crystal
was discovered in a batch of gem rough at GIA (J. E.
Shigley et al., New data on painite, Mineralogical
Magazine, Vol. 50, 1986, pp. 267270). The extreme rarity
of painite began to change in 2001, with the discovery of
an 11 g (55 ct) crystal, also near Mogok. The local gemologists suspected that it was painite, but they did not have
the means to make a firm identification. A small portion
of the crystal was removed and sent to this contributors
laboratory, where it was confirmed as painite. Shortly
thereafter, an approximately 2.5 ct faceted painite was
identified at a gem-testing laboratory in Thailand.
According to a Burmese source, additional specimens
of painite were discovered in secondary deposits around
Mogok in 2004, and local miners and geologists rushed to
locate the primary source. In May 2005, these efforts were
rewarded in an area near Mogok with the discovery of insitu painite at Thurein-taung and at the Wetloo mine.
More than a thousand crystals and crystal fragments
have been recovered. Although only a small percentage of
the rough was suitable for faceting, numerous stones have
been cut, mostly in small sizes. Of the more than 167
faceted painites that are currently known to this contributor, most range from 0.05 to 0.30 ct, although stones
weighing up to 1.32 ct have been cut (figure 14). In addition, a 2.02 ct painite was recently faceted (see
www.aigslaboratory.com/painite.php).
Interest in painite grew with the discovery of another
source in northern Myanmar, near the village of Namya (or

Figure 14. Recent finds of painite near Mogok,

Myanmar, have increased the availability of this rare
gem. The faceted examples shown here range up to
1.32 ct. Courtesy of Bill Larson (Pala International,
Fallbrook, California) and Mark Kaufman (Kaufman
Enterprises, San Diego); photo by Shane F. McClure.

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Nanyaseik) in 2002. The discovery occurred when this contributor identified two painite crystals in a bag of heavy
mineral concentrates from this area that was remained after
the gems had been picked out. The concentrates contained
mostly spinel, some corundum, and minor zircon. The painite from Namya is pale pink, much different from the dark
reddish to orangy brown material found in the Mogok
region. In addition, the few crystals of Namya painite found
to date are all quite small (most are <1 ct).
A detailed chronology of painite discoveries, as well as
absorption spectra, are available on the Internet at
http://minerals.gps.caltech.edu/FILES/Visible/painite/
Index.htm. Further information on the gemological and
chemical properties of painite from Mogok will be reported in a future article.
George R. Rossman ([email protected])
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, California
Gem plagioclase reportedly from Tibet. Facetable labradorite
has been known from Oregon for many years (see, e.g., C. L.
Johnston et al., Sunstone labradorite from the Ponderosa
mine, Oregon, Winter 1991 Gems & Gemology, pp.
220233); and more recently, gem-quality plagioclase was
reported to come from the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (Spring 2002 Gem News International, pp. 9495).
The Spring 2002 GNI entry documented the physical properties of three red samples of this feldspar, indicating that they
were andesine with slightly less than 50% anorthite content.
A later study illustrated a variety of colors, including red,
green, pale yellow, and colorless, and chemical analysis of
three samples showed that they were labradorite, with an
anorthite content of An5255 (M. S. Krzemnicki, Red and
green labradorite feldspar from Congo, Journal of
Gemmology, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2003, pp. 1523).
Since this colorful Congolese plagioclase first
appeared on the market in 2002, various gem dealers have
attempted to verify its origin and obtain rough material, but
both endeavors proved elusive. Some dealers pointed to
China as the most likely source of the material. In July
2005, GIA received a donation of rough gem feldspar, reportedly from China, from Mark Smith (Thai Lanka Trading
Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand). He had been obtaining such material since 2002 from a reliable Chinese supplier, who indicated that it was from a deposit in western China that is
mined on a seasonal basis due to cold winter weather.
Additional information and rough samples were provided in October 2005 by mine owner Jackie Li (Do Win
Development Co. Ltd., Tianjin, China) and her U.S. marketing partner, Bob Schwarztrauber (Buffalo, New York). They
claim that their deposit is located in an isolated mountainous area of central Tibet near Nyima. Organized mining
began in October 2002. The area is underlain by volcanic
rocks, and the best feldspar production has occurred from
secondary deposits to a depth of about 4 m. The deepest pits
reach down to 10 m, and have been excavated using only

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Figure 15. Tibet is reportedly the source of these

faceted plagioclases (up to 2.22 ct). The samples on
the right show the bright orange-red color that is typical of the better-quality production from the deposit.
Strong direct lighting was used to display the brownish red color of the stone on the far left; when viewed
in diffused light, this sample appears green. Photo by
Jackie Li.
hand methods due to the remoteness of the locality.
Because of the cold winters, the mine is closed from
November to April. During the mining season they recover
enough rough to produce about 300800 carats of faceted
stones each month. These commonly weigh 23 ct (figure
15), but a few clean stones of ~30 ct have been cut. The
rough material typically ranges up to 4 g, and most of it is
orange-red with a small amount of green produced. In addition, the deposit has yielded rare pieces that appear green in
diffused light and red when illuminated with a pinpoint
light source, as documented by Krzemnicki (2003). The
mining area also produces brown, orange, yellow, and colorless material, similar to the range of colors documented by
Krzemnicki (2003). However, the latter color varieties are
generally not collected by the miners due to the low
demand for such material.
A preliminary chemical analysis was made on a
faceted red sample of this feldspar that was obtained by
GIA at the 2005 JCK show in Las Vegas, where it was represented as Chinese sunstone. The analysis was performed
using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy by Dr. George
Rossman at the California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena, and indicated that the feldspar was andesine
(An46) with traces of Fe, Cu, and Ti.
BML

all of the rough in a second parcel was completely rounded. The largest stone he has faceted is a dark red 6.56 ct
round checkerboard cut, but most of the stones cut so far
range from 0.5 to 2 ct.
Mr. Bailey loaned and donated several rough and cut
samples to GIA for examination. The gemological properties of five faceted stones (0.976.56 ct; see, e.g., figure 16)
were recorded by GIA staff gemologist Eric Fritz: color
pink to purple or purplish red to brownish red to red; R.I.
1.716 ( 0.001); and S.G.3.593.61. Two samples (pink
and purplish red) exhibited very weak red fluorescence to
long-wave UV radiation; the remaining three were inert.
All of the samples were inert to short-wave UV radiation.
When viewed with a desk-model spectroscope, there was a
weak broad region of absorption below 600 nm in three of
the samples. The pink and the purple-red spinels also
showed an absorption cutoff at 430 nm, and the pink sample also showed chrome lines. There was no reaction to
a Chelsea color filter.
The rough spinel parcels obtained by Mr. Bailey contained some pieces that were doubly refractive. Raman
analysis at GIA of a reddish orange sample that was cut
from one of these pieces (again, see figure 16) identified the
stone as a member of the humite group, with the closest
spectral match to clinohumite. In our experience, reddish
orange is an unusual color for clinohumite.
BML
James E. Shigley
GIA Research, Carlsbad
Update on tourmaline from Mt. Mica, Maine. Gem miners
are notorious for predicting that bigger and better discoveries will happen if they dig a little deeper. In July 2005, this
came true for one of us (GF, together with Coromoto
Minerals LLC mining crew Jim Clanin and Richard
Edwards) at the Mt. Mica tourmaline mine in Oxford
County, Maine. As stated in a recent Gems & Gemology
article on Mt. Mica (W. B. Simmons et al., Mt. Mica: A

Figure 16. The four stones on the left (0.811.80 ct)

show colors typical of the spinel from China. The 0.49
ct round brilliant on the far right was cut from the
same parcel, but it proved to be a member of the
humite group (probably clinohumite). Courtesy of John
Bailey; photo by C. D. Mengason.

Spinel from southern China. In June 2005, John Bailey

(Klamath Falls, Oregon) sent GIA a parcel of spinel that
was reportedly from China. He purchased the rough at the
2005 Tucson gem shows from a Chinese dealer who stated
the material was from the Jinping area (Yunnan Province),
near the border with Vietnam. Mr. Bailey indicated that
most of the rough appeared alluvial, with varying degrees
of wear. Some of the pieces in the first parcel he obtained
showed variable presentation of octahedral faces, whereas

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Figure 17. In July 2005, a very large cavity containing

quartz, tourmaline, and other minerals was found at the
end of an approximately 25-m-long tunnel at Mt. Mica,
Maine. The sides of the tunnel consist of pegmatite rock,
whereas the dark-colored ceiling is the metamorphic
host rock. Several small vugs were found along this tunnel before the large pocket was encountered a few
meters beyond the orange fan. Photo by B. M. Laurs.

renaissance in Maines gem tourmaline production,

Summer 2005, pp. 150163), additional mineralization
was expected down-dip of the zone explored by Coromoto

Figure 18. After several weeks of excavation, the cavity at Mt. Mica measured approximately 11 m long. A
ramp was constructed for transporting buckets of
pocket material through a small passageway into the
main tunnel. Here, mine owner Gary Freeman digs
material from the base of the pocket while miner
Richard Edwards looks on. Note the mud-encrusted
quartz crystals on the pocket wall in the right foreground. Photo by B. M. Laurs.

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Minerals from May 2004 to June 2005. Work has continued in the tunnel (figure 17), and on July 7 the initial section of 2005 pocket number 11 was discovered (see G.
Freeman, August 2005 Mount Mica update, Rocks &
Minerals, Vol. 80, No. 6, 2005, pp. 409410). Once fully
excavated, this may prove to be the largest cavity ever
recorded at Mt. Mica.
The first sign of the large pocket came when a small
satellite cavity was discovered while drilling, and a large
volume of water exited the pocket system. Initially more
than 2,000 liters/day of water poured from the hole, providing a strong indication that the cavity was extremely
large. After two weeks of mining, the main cavity was
intercepted. Over the following six weeks, a chamber was
partially excavated that measured approximately 11 m
long, up to 2.1 m tall, and 1.5 m wide. The pocket was
accessed through a narrow opening of approximately 0.5 m
in diameter, thus preserving as much of the cavity walls as
possible. Once inside the pocket, there was plenty of room
to work; a ramp was installed and a hand-pulled sled used
to transport 5-gallon buckets of material into the main
tunnel (figure 18). Up to three buckets at a time could be
moved out of the pocket in this fashion.
In late August 2005, one of these contributors (BML)
visited Mt. Mica with filmmaker Pedro Padua from GIAs
Course Development Department. By this time, much of
the pocket had been excavated, but there were three areas
that continued to yield material. Because everything in the
pocket was wet and covered with sticky red-brown clay, it
was difficult to see the mineralization and excavations
were done mostly by feel. In addition, as with earlier cavities encountered at Mt. Mica, the pocket contents were
pervasively iron-stained. Limited exposures of the cavity

Figure 19. Possible extensions of the mineralization

were explored by drilling a few carefully placed holes to
depths up to 2 m. The drill is powered by compressed air
and the bit is cooled by water, so even a few minutes of
drilling produces a fine mist. Photo by B. M. Laurs.

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Figure 20. This green tourmaline (approximately 3 cm

wide) is shown shortly after its discovery, still embedded in the pocket mud next to a quartz crystal. The
screwdriver (left) was used to carefully excavate the
mud from around the crystals. Photo by B. M. Laurs.

Figure 21. After it was removed and the mud wiped

off its faces, the tourmaline in figure 20 was found
to be part of a larger crystal; this segment measured
approximately 3 8 cm. Photo by B. M. Laurs.

walls revealed areas of cleavelandite, massive quartz, lepidolite, black tourmaline, and quartz crystals with a pale
smoky color. To plan directions for future mining and test
for possible extensions of the mineralization, a few carefully placed holes were drilled into the pocket walls (figure
19), and two of these revealed continuations of the pocket.
From one of these areas, groundwater seeped continuously
into the pocket. A small pump operated during the day, but
the pocket was left to flood each night, so the ice-cold
water would discourage highgraders.
The pocket contents consisted mostly of quartz and
feldspar fragments with some large (>100 kg) well-formed
quartz crystals, as well as quartz clusters and irregular
plates, that were covered with yellow-brown mud.
Although most of the tourmaline crystals were not
revealed from the mud until the material was washed, the
larger, visible crystals were carefully worked out by hand
from the surrounding quartz crystals and other pocket
debris (figure 20). The largest tourmaline found during this
visit was a green crystal section that measured approximately 3 8 cm (figure 21). Much larger tourmalines were
produced during the initial stages of the pocket excavation, including a 20-cm-long specimen that is pictured by
Freeman (2005). In addition, a few colorless to pale pink
beryl crystals also were recovered.
After the pocket material was transported to the surface, it was washed on a stacked screening apparatus (figure 22). Two mesh sizes (1 cm and 0.3 cm) were used, and
the smaller fraction was stockpiled after hand picking for
future jigging. The vast majority of the tourmaline production from this pocket consisted of small crystals (typically
13 cm long and 0.5 cm in diameter). Most were pale
green, but yellow-green, dark green, colorless, pink, and
bicolored pink-green crystals were also seen (see, e.g., figure 23). Some of the pink or green crystals had flat black
terminations, such as those analyzed by Simmons et al.
(2005) as foitite. In total, the pocket produced approxi-

Figure 22. A stacked screening apparatus with two

mesh sizes was constructed by Mt. Mica miner Jim
Clanin, who is shown here hand-picking tourmaline
from the lower screen with helper Missy Robinson.
Several buckets of pocket material can be washed
and picked each hour. The inset shows a green tourmaline that was found during the initial washing of a
bucket of pocket material. Photos by B. M. Laurs.

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359

Figure 23. Most of the tourmaline in the pocket was

green, although bicolored crystals were common and a
limited amount of pink material (some showing chatoyancy) was recovered. The largest crystal shown here
measures 13 13 10 cm. Photo by Leonard Himes.

mately 90 kg of tourmaline, with less than 1% suitable for

faceting. A few medium to light green stones have been
cut so far, ranging from melee to about 4 ct. The facetgrade rough is being stockpiled along with the material
from prior pockets.
Some interesting geologic observations were made during the excavation of this unusually large pocket. First, it
is quite uncommon for a single pocket to yield so many
colors of tourmaline. The tourmaline also showed good
luster, in contrast to most of the material recovered from
the other large cavities at Mt. Micasuch as 2004 pocket
number 28, documented by Simmons et al. (2005) and in a
later article (New tourmaline production from Mount
Mica, Maine, Rocks & Minerals, Vol. 80, No. 6, 2005, pp.
396408). Also of note is the fact that large pegmatite
pockets do not necessarily produce large tourmaline crystals. In fact, the best-quality gem material found at Mt.
Mica was actually recovered from small vugs.
BML

ented in the Summer 2005 issue (Lab Notes, pp. 173175).

During the September 2005 Hong Kong International
Jewelry Fair, one of us (AA) saw several brightly colored
tourmalines, from what is reportedly a new find in
Mozambique, at the booth of W. Constantin Wild & Co.
(Idar-Oberstein, Germany). According to a press release
issued by that company (www.gemstone.de/gemstones/
news/unheatedTourmaline.php), the material was mined
in May 2005 from the Alto Ligonha region. The tourmalines occurred in a variety of colors, including violet, pink,
and blue to green, and were faceted into stones ranging up
to 6 ct.
In August 2005, the research laboratory of the Gemmological Association of All Japan (GAAJ) received 12
faceted samples of the highly saturated blue and bluegreen Mozambique tourmalines, ranging from 0.70 to 6.11
ct (see, e.g., figure 24), for examination. Standard gemological properties were obtained on all samples: R.I.ne=1.620
( 0.001), no=1.639 (0.002); birefringence0.019 (0.001);
and fluorescenceinert to short-wave UV radiation and
inert or yellow-green to long-wave UV. Strong pleochroism was displayed, with green-blue parallel to the optic
axis and blue perpendicular to the optic axis in the blue
stones. The corresponding pleochroic colors in the bluegreen stones were blue and green. The internal features
consisted of fluid inclusions, two-phase fluid-and-gas
inclusions, and healed fractures typical of tourmaline; no
particles of native copper were observed, such as those
seen in tourmalines of these colors from Paraba, Brazil
and Edeko, Nigeria.
Chemical analysis of the seven blue samples with
EDXRF showed small amounts of Cu and Mn, as well as
trace amounts of Ca, Ga, Pb, and Bi; no Ti or Fe was detected. The five blue-green tourmalines contained relatively
high concentrations of Cu and Mn, as well as the other

Figure 24. Bright blue and blue-green colors are displayed by these Cu- and Mn-bearing tourmalines from
Mozambique (0.362.53 ct). Photo by H. Kitawaki.

Gary Freeman
Coromoto Minerals, LLC
South Paris, Maine
Cu- and Mn-bearing tourmaline: More production from
Mozambique. The Fall 2004 issue of Gems & Gemology
reported on a new source of copper- and manganese-bearing
tourmaline from Mozambique (see Lab Notes, pp.
250251), and additional data on these samples were pres-

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trace elements detected above plus Zn. Quantitative chemical analysis performed with an LA-ICP-MS system recorded 0.260.51 wt.% CuO and 0.030.40 wt.% MnO in the
blue tourmalines. Significantly greater amounts of these
elements were found in the blue-green samples: 2.083.21
wt.% CuO and 3.554.81 wt.% MnO. Additional trace-element data on these new tourmalines, including a comparison to Cu- and Mn-bearing tourmalines from other localities, will be reported in a future article.
Ahmadjan Abduriyim ([email protected])
and Hiroshi Kitawaki
GAAJ, Tokyo

SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Lizard in amber? A private collector brought an impressive
sample of what appeared to be a well-preserved lizard in
yellow amber (figure 25) to the SSEF Swiss Gemmological
Institute for identification. The piece, which measured 15
8 2.5 cm and weighed 196 g, looked almost too good to
be true: The reptile was in excellent condition, and its
scales were still green and sharply defined. The top of the
sample was polished with a domed surface, while the bottom was rough and chipped.
The characterization of such an item requires identification of the resin and confirmation that the sample was
not assembled or otherwise created artificially. The rough
bottom surface made it easy to remove a minute amount
of the material for an FTIR powder spectrum (KBr pellet
method), which was performed by Dr. Stefan Graeser of
the Mineralogical-Petrographic Institute at Basel University. While the recorded spectrum was consistent with
a natural resin, unfortunately it did not allow discrimination between the three possibilities: amber, copal, and
kauri gum. When the sample was rubbed with a piece of
fabric, a strong aromatic smell was produced. This ruled
out amber, since the material clearly contained unevaporated volatiles. Further rubbing with a cotton swab dipped
in ether had no effect on the sample; this ruled out copal,
which would have dissolved slightly.
For comparison with a known specimen of lizard in
amber, we contacted the Natural History Museum of
Basel and were given permission to examine a well-known
Anolis lizard in Dominican amber (see E. J. Gbelin and J. I.
Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, ABC
Edition, Zurich, 1986, p. 227). This sample displayed clear
anomalous double refraction between crossed polarizers
(figure 26), whereas the clients piece showed no strain in
the material, around either the lizard or the numerous
bubbles. Magnification revealed that the feet of the museums reptile were dark brown and almost dissolved, while
delicate features in the feet of the clients lizard were still
intact (figure 27). X-radiography also produced some interesting results: While the Anolis lizard had only a weak
skeletal outline, the bones and even soft tissue of the
clients lizard were clear and sharp (figure 28). The latter

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL

Figure 25. This most unusual sample (15 8 2.5

cm) proved to consist of a modern lizard that was
artificially embedded in a natural resin. Photo by
H. A. Hnni; SSEF.

image also showed broken bones in both upper arms, as

well as the presence of fine shrinkage fissures in the resin
along the length of the lizard.
Because we still lacked sufficient information to make
a definitive identification, we decided to send some detailed
pictures to a specialist in the field, Dr. David Grimaldi of
the American Museum of Natural History in New York.
He concluded from the submitted information that the
sample was one of a number of specimens of lizards in kauri
gum from New Zealand that were known to have been

Figure 26. For comparison with the sample in figure 25,

we examined a well-known specimen (7.1 cm long) of
a lizard in amber from the Museum of Natural History
in Basel. Observation of this sample between crossed
polarizers revealed the strong anomalous double
refraction that is typically seen around inclusions in
true amber. This reaction was not present in the manufactured sample. Photo by H. A. Hnni; SSEF.

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Figure 27. Delicate features are preserved in the feet

of the lizard in the manufactured specimen. This
degree of preservation was not seen in the museums
reference specimen. Photo by H. A. Hnni; SSEF.

Figure 29. Though presenting a convincing appearance as a pebble of sapphire or tanzanite, this sample
(34 21 20 mm) proved to be manufactured from
cubic zirconia. Photo by Min Htut.

manufactured at the beginning of the 20th century and subsequently mounted for display by naturalists. The surface of
the sample had evidently aged enough so that no reaction
occurred when it was rubbed with a cotton swab dipped in
ether. We reported to the client that this was a modern
lizard artificially embedded in a recent natural resin.
HAH

The sample superficially resembled waterworn gem

rough. As can be seen in figure 29, its surface was covered
with pits and grooves that were filled with a yellowish
brown soil-like substance, making it appear very dark.
Only with transmitted light was the transparent blue
nature of the sample apparent. Because there was no polished surface, a refractive index could not be taken.
When the piece was exposed to long-wave UV radiation, we observed a strong green reaction, which excluded
both sapphire and tanzanite. In short-wave UV, the stone
displayed a weak chalky white fluorescence. The rough
surface made it difficult to look inside the sample for
inclusions, and only a few fractures could be seen.
Chemical analysis with EDXRF showed Zr and Y
with minor Hf, Fe, Cl, K, and Ca, but no Al or Si as would
be expected in a natural stone. A Raman spectrum confirmed that this unusual fake was manufactured from
cubic zirconia.
Lore Kiefert and Garry Du Toit
AGTA Gemological Testing Center, New York

Cubic ziconia as rough sapphire imitation. Recently, a

38.44 g dark blue pebble was submitted to the AGTA
laboratory for identification. It had been purchased in
Africa by missionaries, and the client wanted to know if it
was a sapphire or a tanzanite.

Figure 28. An X-radiograph of the manufactured sample produced a clear, sharp image of the lizards skeleton, as shown here. By comparison, the fossilized
lizard in the museums specimen showed only a
weak skeletal outline. Image by H. A. Hnni; SSEF.

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Barium-rich glass sold as diamond rough. Recently a parcel

of what was represented as octahedral diamond rough was
submitted to the GIA Gem Tech Lab for identification. All
of the material was pale yellow except for one colorless
piece. This 1.53 ct rounded octahedron also caught our
attention because of the condition of its edges, which had a
granular appearance (figure 30) unlike anything we had previously seen on diamond rough. No inclusions were visible
in this octahedron at 10 magnification or when it was
examined in immersion at higher magnification.
The octahedron showed strong blue fluorescence to
long-wave UV radiation (figure 31) and moderate blue fluorescence to short-wave UV. This reaction was similar to
that seen in some natural diamonds. However, when this
piece was examined between crossed polarizers, we
observed a cross-like strain pattern (figure 32), which is

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Figure 30. At first glance, this 1.53 ct rounded octahedron has the appearance of a rough diamond crystal.
The granular surfaces seen along its edges raised suspicions about its origin, and it proved to have been
manufactured from barium-rich glass. Photo by A.
Respinger; magnified 16.

typical for glass but very rare in diamond. The spot refractive index was approximately 1.53 and the specific gravity
(obtained hydrostatically) was 2.63, both of which ruled
out diamond. Testing with a Presidium gem tester showed
no reaction, indicating that the sample had very low thermal conductivity.
Qualitative chemical analysis by EDXRF revealed Ba,
K, Ca, and Si as major elements, with minor amounts of

Figure 32. When viewed between crossed polarizers, the

octahedron exhibited the cross-like strain pattern that is
typical of glass. Photo by A. Respinger; magnified 16.

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL

Figure 31. The barium-rich glass octahedron displayed strong blue fluorescence to long-wave UV
radiation, quite similar to the reaction shown by
some diamonds. Photo by A. Respinger.

Fe, Zn, Cl, and Al. Infrared spectroscopy (figure 33) showed
complete absorption below 2000 cm1, which is typical for
most silicates and oxides. In addition, there was some
resemblance to type IIa diamond in the three-phonon
range (40002500 cm1).
We concluded that this material was very likely a silicate, and the cross-like birefringence pattern, chemical composition, infrared spectroscopy, and lack of visible inclusions identified it as glass shaped to resemble diamond
rough. The overall appearance and similarity in fluorescence
behavior between this barium-rich glass and diamond made
the material a convincing rough diamond imitation.
Axel Respinger ([email protected])
GIA Gem Tech Lab
Geneva, Switzerland

Figure 33. The infrared spectrum of the barium-rich

glass showed complete absorption below 2000 cm 1.
Although quite different from diamond in that
region, the absorption of the glass did somewhat
resemble that of a natural type IIa diamond in the
40002500 cm1 region.

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363

Figure 34. A manufactured glass called Purple Zandrite was new to this years Tucson show. The material
shows a color change from violetish blue in some fluorescent light sources (left) to reddish purple in
incandescent light (right; a similar reaction is seen when the sample is viewed with a daylight-equivalent
fluorescent lamp). GIA Collection no. 31754; gift of Samuel Gullo. Photos by Maha Calderon.

Color-change glass update. In the Spring 2004 Gem

News International section (pp. 7374), one of us (EPQ)
reported on a glass imitation of alexandrite being sold as
Zandrite. New to the 2005 Tucson gem show was yet
another manufactured color-change glass, which had a
tanzanite-like appearance (violetish blue) in some sources
of fluorescent light and a reddish purple color in both
incandescent and daylight-equivalent 6,500 K fluorescent
light. Tsavo Gem Imports, Painted Post, New Yorkof
which House of Williams, the source of the alexandrite
imitation glass in the previous report, is a subsidiaryhad
this Purple Zandrite at the GJX show.
The 5.14 ct triangular modified brilliant in figure 34,
donated to GIAs collection by Samuel Gullo of Tsavo
Gem Imports, was examined for this report. The R.I. and
hydrostatic S.G. values (1.538 and 2.82, respectively) were
slightly higher than those recorded for the green-to-pink
material (1.521 and 2.66) reported last year. The blue-topurple sample showed weak anomalous double refraction
and a very weak orangy pink Chelsea filter reaction, and
was inert to both long- and short-wave UV radiation. This
material had a rare-earth spectrum that was similar to that
of the green-to-pink glass. A desk-model spectroscope
revealed moderate-to-strong lines and bands at 435, 475,
480, 510, 520535, 565595, and 670 nm, as well as weak
lines at 465 and 620 nm. EDXRF spectroscopy found Si as a
major constituent, and trace amounts of K, Cu, Zn, Zr, Ce,
and Nd. A UV-Vis spectrum, acquired with a Hitachi U4001 spectrometer, showed features that were very similar
to those of the alexandrite imitation. The only significant
differences were the lack of two relatively small overlapping absorption peaks at 439 and 444 nm, and a stronger
overall absorption in the Purple Zandrite.
Cu, Ce, and Nd are the only elements detected that
could be responsible for the color; however, the UV-Vis

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spectrum was consistent with Nd as the sole cause (see H.

Scholze, transl. by M. J. Larkin, Glass, Springer-Verlag,
New York, 1991, p. 239; and R. Tilley, Colour and the
Optical Properties of Materials, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 2000, p. 167). The stronger overall absorption in the
Purple Zandrite appears to be due to a higher concentration
of Nd, and this may also explain the different appearances
of the two glasses. As documented by Y. Liu et al. (Colour
hue change of a gem tourmaline from the Umba Valley,
Tanzania, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 26, No. 6, 1999,
pp. 386396), hue variations in materials have been
attributed to differences in overall colorant concentration.
The cause of the 439 and 444 nm peaks in the Zandrite is
unknown, but these peaks may also contribute to the differences in the colors shown by the two glasses, particularly in fluorescent light.
Although the Spring 2004 GNI entry described
Zandrite as an alexandrite imitation, this is actually not
the case with respect to the standard definition of colorchange phenomena (i.e., a material that changes hue from
daylight or daylight-equivalent light to incandescent light;
see also the erratum on p. 369 of this issue). That glass,
like the Purple Zandrite described here, only shifted color
slightly between daylight and incandescent sources, rather
than showing a distinct change in hue. Instead, a hue
change occurred in these materials when they were
viewed in some other, non-daylight-equivalent fluorescent
light sources and in incandescent light.
Fluorescent lamps are not broadband sources like sunlight or incandescent light. They produce a set of emission
bands in various parts of the visible spectrum. Daylightequivalent fluorescent tubes balance the emission bands to
simulate the color-temperature of true north daylight.
The fluorescent tubes GIA uses (which are manufactured by
Greytag-MacBeth) are balanced for 6,500 K, which is the

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standard used in many industries for color evaluation. Most

fluorescent light sources are not balanced in this fashion
and produce light that is weighted in one or more parts of
the spectrumand therefore is not truly white (i.e., it may
be slightly green, pink, or some other color). As mentioned
above, rare-earth elements such as Nd can produce numerous sharp absorption bands in many parts of the spectrum.
We propose that the combination of emission bands from
the different light sources with the numerous absorption
bands of the Nd-bearing glasses is causing the changes in
color we are observing. The exact nature of this interaction
would require further research. It is interesting to note that
the Zandrite turned different colors in at least two non-daylight-equivalent fluorescent light sources (i.e., brown-yellow
in 5,400 K and bluish green in 6,000 K, both manufactured
by Osram), whereas it was purplish pink in both natural
daylight and incandescent light. The Purple Zandrite did
not exhibit as many hue changes.
It is also interesting to note that there are fluorescent
lamps marketed as daylight sources that induce variable color changes in materials such as the glasses
described here. While these lamps fall into the color-temperature range of natural daylight (approximately 5,000 K
to 7,500 K), they are not balanced to produce a daylightequivalent source like the 6,500 K source GIA uses. As
evidenced here, light sources can clearly have very different effects on certain gem materials.
Elizabeth P. Quinn
GIA Gem Tech Lab
Geneva, Switzerland
Sam Muhlmeister
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad

CONFERENCE REPORTS
Diamond 2005. The 16th European Conference on
Diamond, Diamond-Like Materials, Carbon Nanotubes,
and Nitrides, was held September 1116 in Toulouse,
France. The conference consisted of more than 400 oral
and poster presentations related to growth techniques,
doping, superconductivity, optical characterization, and
biological applications of natural and synthetic diamond as
well as carbon-based materials. Topics of particular interest to the gemological community included growth of synthetic diamond crystals by chemical vapor deposition
(CVD), the classification of natural diamonds, and high
pressure/high temperature (HPHT) treatment.
Dr. Yogesh Vohra from the University of Alabama at
Birmingham presented an update on the rapid growth of
CVD synthetic diamond crystals. By modifying the hydrogen/methane/nitrogen concentrations in the growth chamber, he reported growth rates as high as 200 microns/hour.
Most of the CVD products shown were dark brown. Dr.
Jocelyn Achard from the Universit Paris 13, France, and
coauthors discussed the modification of CVD growth

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL

parameters, particularly increasing the plasma density, in

order to increase growth rate. Using pulsed discharge of the
microwave power, they were able to almost double the
growth rates of very pure, colorless CVD synthetic diamond (i.e., from 11 to 19 microns/hour) while maintaining
a very goodquality product. Dr. Wuyi Wang of the GIA
Laboratory in New York and coauthors presented several
characteristics that help distinguish high-purity CVD synthetic diamonds from natural colorless type IIa diamonds.
Key identification features of these CVD products are a
weak 737 nm luminescence peak related to trace silicon
impurities and irregular strain patterns that are controlled
by the substrate.
Dr. Emmanuel Fritsch of the University of Nantes,
France, and coauthors introduced a new classification of
natural brown diamonds. They proposed five groups: (1)
type I and II diamonds with brown graining and amber color
centers; (2) hydrogen-rich stones with no graining; (3) type
Ib, high-nitrogen diamonds; (4) CO2-rich diamonds; and (5)
lonsdaleite-bearing diamonds. Dr. Fritsch also presented evidence for diamond dissolution along planar features associated with plastic deformation (graining) in pink and brown
diamonds. Benjamin Rondeau from the Musum National
dHistoire Naturelle, Paris, addressed cubic diamond growth
morphology, describing four groups: cubic, cuboid, fibrous
pseudo-cubic, and re-entrant (figure 35). Dr. A. V. Ukhanov
and coauthors from the Vernadsky Institute in Moscow presented carbon isotope measurements of diamonds from
Russias Yakutia Province. Their data spanned most of the
isotopic range reported for natural diamond (13C from 34
to 0). However, many samples from kimberlite pipes
gave 13C values that were consistent with the mantle (9
to 2), and those from placer deposits gave isotopically
lighter values (18 to 25), suggesting alteration by
groundwater. This contributor and coauthors presented evidence for isolated zones of strong H3 green luminescence in
type Ib and cape natural diamonds. They correlated the H3
abundance with increasing intensity of color and graining to
describe a trend of natural heating of these diamonds.
Filip De Weerdt of the Diamond High Council (HRD) in
Antwerp described changes in the 3107 cm 1 hydrogen
defect in diamond following HPHT treatment. Depending
on the HPHT conditions and duration, the intensity of this
defect was shown to have increased, decreased, or done both
in successive treatments. Dr. Victor Vins of New Diamonds
of Siberia Ltd., Novosibirsk, Russia, presented a new system
for color grading Lucent Diamonds Imperial Red treatedcolor natural diamonds. These diamonds have undergone
HPHT and irradiation/annealing treatments to produce the
red color (see W. Wang et al., Treated-color pink-to-red diamonds from Lucent Diamonds Inc., Spring 2005 Gems &
Gemology, pp. 619). The proposed new color grading system involves comparison to Munsell color references rather
than natural master stones, which are not widely available
in pink and red. Elose Gaillou and coauthors from the
University of Nantes, France, discussed photoinduced

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365

absorptions in natural and treated diamonds. They indicated

that in a few rare yellow-to-orange treated diamonds, H1b
and H1c absorptions temporarily (for as long as 24 hours)
increased in intensity with exposure to UV radiation. In natural orangy brown diamonds, new photoinduced absorption
features ranging from 3040 to 4850 cm1 were described.
Branko Deljanin and coauthors from EGL-USA,
Vancouver, B.C., Canada, described a new organizational
structure for storing data collected from diamonds submitted to their laboratory. The fully searchable system, consisting of three levels of information incorporating gemological properties and various advanced testing results, is
intended for easy communication between labs.
Christopher M. Breeding ([email protected])
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
Geological Society of America 2005. The 117th Annual
Meeting of the Geological Society of America was held
October 1619 in Salt Lake City, Utah. This conference
included a few presentations related to gem materials,
diamond exploration, mineral databases, and gem localities; abstracts are available on the Internet at
http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2005AM/finalprogram.
Dr. Russell Hemley of the Geochemical Laboratory at
the Carnegie Institution of Washington, DC, and coauthors

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Figure 35. Shown here

are several types of cubic
diamond crystals. (A)
This scanning electron
microscope image of a
CVD synthetic diamond
film shows the cubic
morphology of the individual crystals. (B) This
25.11 ct natural cuboid
diamond shows wavy,
undulating growth surfaces. (C) This 2.5-mmwide fibrous pseudocubic diamond has granular surfaces that result
from the juxtaposition of
numerous crystal fibers.
(D) A re-entrant cube
(here, 3 mm wide) is
formed by a combination of cuboid and octahedral crystal habits,
and is sometimes erroneously referred to as a
hopper crystal. Courtesy
of LIMHP-CNRS, Universit Paris 13 (A),
Benjamin Rondeau (B
and C), and Emmanuel
Fritsch (D).

discussed new technological developments that allow rapid

growth of >10 mm thick single-crystal synthetic diamond
by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). He indicated that the
properties of these CVD synthetic diamonds can be easily
manipulated and that one-inch crystals are now possible.
One of these contributors (AHS) and coauthors
described a 5.04 ct gem diamond that contained solid CO2rich inclusions (see Summer 2005 Lab Notes, pp. 165166).
Another one of these contributors (CMB) and coauthors
characterized chameleon diamonds, which temporarily
change color from green to yellow in response to heating or
being left in darkness. The color transformation was shown
to be caused by the broadening of a 480 nm absorption
band during heating. Complex internal structures consisting of hydrogen-rich and hydrogen-poor zones were documented in the diamonds using photoluminescence spectroscopy and DiamondView imagery.
Dr. John Gurney of the University of Cape Town,
South Africa, and coauthors presented an overview of
worldwide diamond formation and distribution. He discussed metasomatic events at ~3.4 0.2 billion years ago
that created the earliest diamonds, as well as the formation
of much younger diamonds from CO2-rich fluids in the
earths crust. A detailed model of diamond development in
the Kaapvaal craton was also described. Brian Goldner of

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Gustavus Adolphus College, St. Peter, Minnesota, and

coauthors evaluated the possibility of distinguishing garnet
indicator minerals using color rather than chemistry.
While such a color correlation would increase efficiency in
diamond exploration, this approach was problematic for
some types of indicator garnets.
Ren Lu and Patrick Mooney of the University of
Arizona, Tucson, and coauthors introduced the RRUFF
mineral database project, which is a compilation of
Raman spectra, X-ray diffraction data, and electron-microprobe analyses for a large number of mineral specimens.
The database is publicly accessible on the Internet at
http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/rruff.
Michel Rakotondrazafy of the Universit dAntananarivo in Madagascar and coauthors discussed the geochemistry and fluid inclusions in gem corundum deposits
from two localities in Madagascar. Rubies from
Antanifotsy were magmatic in origin and associated with
alkali basalts, whereas sapphires from Andranondambo
were related to fluid movement during metamorphism and
occur in metasomatic pegmatites. Sharon Hull of the
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, and coauthors presented a method for determining the source locality for archeo-

Figure 36. A combination of Cu and H (deuterium)

isotope analyses of turquoise samples from archeologically important sources in the southwestern U.S. has
been used to evaluate alteration due to weathering,
and this has led to a breakthrough in determining the
geographic origin of turquoise from this region. The
circled areas correspond to unaltered turquoise from
three mining areas, whereas altered turquoise from
one of these mines clearly shows a different isotopic
signature. Courtesy of Mostafa Fayek, University of
Tennessee, Knoxville.

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL

logically important turquoise samples that had been used

by prehistoric Southwestern and Mesoamerican cultures.
Using a combination of copper and hydrogen isotopic analyses, they were able to successfully determine the source
and extent of alteration in the turquoise (figure 36). Dr.
Paul Bartos of the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, and
coauthors described the formation of exquisite gem-quality
crystals of rhodochrosite at the Sweet Home mine near
Alma, Colorado. The mineral deposit was part of a singlepulse, Si-rich, porphyry-molybdenum hydrothermal system
that was enriched in fluorine. Rhodochrosite mineralization was likely facilitated by the transport of Mn as fluorine complexes at elevated temperatures and salinities.
Christopher M. Breeding and Andy H. Shen
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
World Diamond Conference, Perth, Australia. Approximately 145 people attended this years conference,
which was held November 2122 in conjunction with the
Australian Diamond Conference. There were 25 presentations and a concluding panel discussion, with five presenters from outside Australia. The opening address was given
by Ewen Tyler, the grandfather of Australian diamond
exploration and chairman of North Australian Diamonds,
Perth, Western Australia (formerly Striker Resources), who
reviewed the history of diamond exploration and globalization. James Allan of James Allan and Associates, London,
addressed the current state of the diamond market. To promote sales, De Beers is targeting advertising to specific customer groups identified by gender, age, and income. Many
cutting centers are in debt and have to rely more than ever
on credit. He reiterated that by 2010 there will be a US$3
billion shortfall in the supply of rough, and therefore prices
will rise. This has greatly encouraged both major and junior
diamond exploration companies to increase their efforts
and has contributed to the general feeling of optimism in
the diamond exploration industry.
Peter Gillin of Tahera Diamond Corp., Toronto,
Canada, said that construction was on track for the opening of the new Jericho mine in mid-2006, with a planned
production of 500,000 carats annually over nine years. Lee
Spencer of BDI Diamond Corp., London, reported that the
Cempaka diamond mine near Banjarmasin in southeastern
Kalimantan (Borneo) began production in 2005 at a rate of
65,000 carats annually with a value of >US$300/ct. In addition, byproducts obtained from the fine fraction include
gold, platinum-group minerals, and good-quality small diamonds (~$80/ct). The Honorable Hencock Ya Kasita,
Deputy Minister of Mines and Energy of Namibia, stated
that although mining provides 10% of his nations gross
domestic product (GDP) and 40% of its export earnings,
Namibia was still comparatively underexplored. A new
mining act should encourage future exploration. Wolfgang
Sommer of Opsort, Schenefeld, Germany, summarized the
advantages of recovering diamonds by optical means (using
a strong light and a directed air blow). This method does

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

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367

not involve hazardous X-rays, can detect nonfluorescent

diamonds, can be applied to particles as small as 1 mm, and
needs virtually no water. Dr. Frieder Reichhardt of MSA
Geoservices, Johannesburg, gave an overview of the current
diamond exploration scene in Africa, with Angola and the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) being most
active. In a separate talk, he gave a case history of the
Marsfontein mine in South Africa. Though a small mine,
in its short life (from late 1998 to early 2001), Marsfontein
produced 1.9 Mct worth $246 million, including numerous
diamonds weighing more than 10.8 ct.
Other conference speakers, most of whom were locally based, reported on the latest results of their respective
companies. Miles Kennedy of Kimberley Diamond Co.,
Perth, reported on the Ellendale mine. From the commencement of mining in 2002 to June 30, 2005, the company has recovered over 236,000 carats (mainly from the
Ellendale 9 lamproite pipe) worth $50 million, for an average value of $212/ct. The diamonds are predominantly
gem and near-gem quality, and a significant proportion
are fancy yellow (sometimes informally called daffodil,
but designated by the company as Kimberley Yellow).
With the Ellendale 9 plant being upgraded, and the
Ellendale 4 plant commissioned to open in April 2006,
annual diamond production will increase to 700,000
carats in future years. The combined diamond resource
from these pipes now amounts to 68 million tonnes containing 5 Mct at a grade of 7.4 carats per hundred tonnes
(cpht) and a mine life of 10 years. Kimberley Diamonds
also owns 54% of Blina Diamonds (Perth, Western
Australia), which has the right to explore Kimberley
Diamonds lease and surrounding areas for alluvial diamonds. Gina Rockett of Blina Diamonds indicated that
among other projects, her company recovered over 7,280
carats from 36,346 tonnes taken from its Ellendale 9
north channel, with the largest stone weighing 9.92 ct.
Tom Reddicliffe of North Australian Diamonds discussed the reopening of the Merlin mine in Australias
Northern Territory. A recent study found that 19% of
Merlins diamonds have very low to no fluorescence to Xrays, and therefore these diamonds were not recovered by
the previous operator, Rio Tinto. The tailings are now
being processed by the optical sorting method (see above)
and are expected to yield 50,000 carats in the first of four
stages of activity at Merlin. Stage 2 is the processing of
remaining ore from stockpiles and the reshaping of existing small pits, which should yield 200,000 carats. Stage 3
will involve the reshaping of the neighboring Palomides
and Sacramore pits into one pit to allow mining of the
Palsac ore body, which is contiguous at deeper levels; this
is expected to yield another 380,000 carats. Stage 4 is the
potential underground mining of the Palsac and other
pipes, which have an estimated reserve of 10 million
tonnes containing 2.36 Mct. Merlin diamonds recovered
from the tailings have been classified as 35% colorless, 5%
yellow, 29% brown, and 31% mixed (mostly industrial

368

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL

and near-gem material), with an average value of $140/ct

(from Stages 1 and 2; a higher proportion of colorless and
brown diamonds will come from Stages 3 and 4, and be
worth $150/ct overall). Although the average weight is
0.10 ct, two large diamonds have been recovered by the
optical sorting method (14.21 and 10.27 ct), as well as an
additional 24 diamonds weighing more than 1 ct. With a
mine life of at least 10 years, the total resource is 19.1 million tonnes containing 3.3 Mct at a grade of 17.3 cpht,
worth an estimated $500+ million (at $150+/ct).
Dr. Kevin Wills of Flinders Diamonds, Adelaide, South
Australia, said that up to 50 kimberlite dikes and pipes
were sampled last year in the Flinders Ranges, and 20 contained diamonds. The very high proportion of diamondiferous kimberlites has encouraged the company to continue
exploration in this area. Good progress was also made in
the Hamersley Ranges project in Western Australia, where
promising indicator minerals and microdiamonds were
found, and an alliance with De Beers Australia Exploration
was formed. Ian Moody of Gravity Diamonds, Melbourne,
Victoria, described the discovery of the new Abner Range
pipe, a small diamondiferous kimberlite 45 km west of
Merlin. He also discussed exploration in the western Kasai
province of the DRC, located north of the border with
Angolas Lunda Norte Province. Regional stream sampling
and subsequent aeromagnetic surveying have generated
targets for detailed sampling and drilling.
Other speakers gave updates on their projects in
Australia, Namibia, and South Africa, but no other significant new developments were reported. The hoped-for
announcement that Rio Tinto would develop their
underground mine at Argyle was not on the agenda, and
Rio Tinto representatives did not attend. However, on
December 8 Rio Tinto did issue a statement confirming
that it would go forward with plans for a $US760 million underground mine at Argyle. The company stated
that the average annual production during underground
mining from 2007 to 2018 was expected to be around
60% of Argyles historic annual average of 34 Mct and of
similar quality.
A. J. A. Bram Janse ([email protected])
Archon Exploration Pty. Ltd.
Perth, Western Australia

ANNOUNCEMENTS
Conferences
Visit Gems & Gemology in Tucson. Meet the editors and
take advantage of special offers on subscriptions and back
issues at the G&G booth in the publicly accessible
Galleria section (middle floor) of the Tucson Convention
Center during the AGTA show, February 16, 2006.
GIA Educations traveling Extension classes will offer
hands-on training in Tucson with Diamond Grading
(January 30February 3). To enroll, call 800-421-7250, ext.
4001. Outside the U.S. and Canada, call 760-603-4001.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

The GIA Alumni Association will host a Dance Party

in Tucson on February 3, featuring a silent auction, an
industry awards presentation, and a live auction. To reserve
tickets, call 760-603-4204 or e-mail [email protected].
PDAC 2006. The Prospectors and Developers Association
of Canada convention will take place March 58 in
Toronto. Diamonds will be featured in a session called
Diamonds in Canada: Cratons to Carats, and also will be
included in other sessions. Visit www.pdac.ca/pdac/conv.
WJA in New York. The Womens Jewelry Association
Women In the Know business conference will be held
on March 10, 2006 at the Fashion Institute of Technology
in New York City. Topics will include leadership development, Internet business strategy, and customer service
management. Visit www.womensjewelry.org.
BASELWORLD 2006. The BASELWORLD show will be
held March 30April 6 in Basel, Switzerland. During the
show, Gems & Gemology editor-in-chief Alice Keller will
be available at the GIA Booth in Hall 2, Stand W23. Visit
www.baselshow.com, call 800-922-7359, or e-mail
[email protected].
Diamonds at Materials Congress 2006. A symposium
titled Diamonds: Materials Science and Applications
will take place on April 5 6 during the Materials
Congress 2006 conference in London. Topics will
include diamond growth and characterization, as well as
physical and optical properties of diamond. Visit
www.iom3.org/congress/images/diamondA4.pdf .
GAC-MAC 2006. The 2006 joint meeting of the Geological
Association of Canada and the Mineralogical Association
of Canada will take place May 1417 in Montreal.
Diamonds will be covered in some of the sessions. Visit
www.er.uqam.ca/nobel/gacmac/welcome.html.
ICNDST-11. The 11th International Conference of New
Diamond Science and Technology will be held at the
Embassy Suites Hotel in Research Triangle Park, RaleighDurham, North Carolina, May 1518, 2006. Among the
topics covered will be HPHT synthesis and processing
and the growth of CVD synthetic diamond. Visit
http://lucy.mrs.org/meetings/workshops/2006/icndst.
Bead Expo. The 2006 International Bead Expo will be held
in Charleston, South Carolina, May 1721. Over 60 workshops and educational lectures on bead jewelry design and
manufacture are scheduled. E-mail [email protected] or
visit www.beadexpo.com.
2006 GAA-NSW Conference. The 2006 conference of the
New South Wales Division of the Gemmological

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL

Association of Australia will be held May 1921, at the

Sydney Harbour Marriott Hotel. The event will also
include a jewelry design competition and a post-conference tour that will visit corundum and opal mines at
Barrington Tops, InverellGlen Innes, and Lightning
Ridge. Visit www.gem.org.au/conference.htm or e-mail
[email protected].

Exhibits
Pearl Exhibit in Tokyo. Pearls: A Natural History will
be on display until January 22, 2006, at the National
Science Museum, Tokyo. Visit www.kahaku.go.jp/english.
Cameos at the Met. Cameo Appearances, a display of
more than 160 examples of the art of gem carving from
Greco-Roman antiquity to the 19th century, will be on
display until January 29, 2006, at the Metropolitan
Museum of Art in New York City. Also on display at the
Met (through February 12, 2006) is The Bishop Jades, a
selection of fine Chinese and Mughal Indian jades from
the collection of Heber R. Bishop that was donated to the
museum in 1902. Visit www.metmuseum.org or call
212-535-7710.
King Tut Returns. Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of
the Pharaohs, an exhibition of more than 130 artifacts
from the tomb of King Tut and other royal tombs in
Egypts Valley of the Kings, will be on display until April
23, 2006, at the Museum of Art in Fort Lauderdale,
Florida. Only a few of the artifacts in this exhibit were
part of the famed 1977 exhibition, and many have never
traveled outside Egypt. The exhibit will move to the Field
Museum in Chicago May 26, 2006 through January 1,
2007. Visit www.kingtut.org.

ERRATUM
In the Spring 2004 Gem News International section (pp.
7374), we reported on a glass imitation of alexandrite
being sold as Zandrite. This glass was said to exhibit an
alexandrite-like color-change from slightly bluish green in
sunlight or daylight-equivalent fluorescent light to purplish pink in incandescent light. Although the material did
change color in different light sources, it did not change
between the two light sources that define a true colorchange (natural daylight or daylight-equivalent fluorescent
light vs. incandescent). Instead this material actually
changed from bluish green in some non-daylight-equivalent fluorescent light sources to purplish pink in both
incandescent and daylight sources. This reaction is most
likely due to the interaction of Nd (a rare-earth element) in
the glass with the emission bands that create the white
light produced by typical fluorescent lamps. See also the
report on a similar manufactured glass in the Gem News
International section of this issue (pp. 364365).

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369

Book REVIEWS

2005
Crystals: Growth, Morphology
and Perfection
By Ichiro Sunagawa, 295 pp., illus.,
publ. by Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom,
2005. US$95.00
In this book, intended for crystallography students and specialists alike,
Prof. Ichiro Sunagawa clearly explains
the processes that control crystallography. In the first part of the book,
physical processes are described from
a theoretical point of view, though
always illustrated by photos of natural crystals (often taken by the author)
and by readily understood diagrams.
The processes of crystal nucleation,
crystal growth, selection of a growth
type (e.g., dendritic, massive, or
spherulitic), intergrowth, and polycrystalline aggregation are addressed
from a thermodynamic point of view.
Equilibrium, kinetics, driving force,
heat and mass transfer, role of defects,
and the like are often invoked to
explain the magic of crystal morphology. Microtopography is also used to
understand the influence of dislocations (spiral, circular, or polygonal)
and dissolution on crystal morphology. The section on homogeneity
explains how growth zonation,
growth sectors, and dislocations are
responsible for complex features in
crystals.
In the second part, special cases
are examined, often from the authors
experience during his long career as a
crystallographer.
Diamond is described in detail,
including its structure, physical
properties, growth features, and
morphology. Nevertheless, one

370

BOOK REVIEWS

EDITORS
Susan B. Johnson
Jana E. Miyahira-Smith
Stuart Overlin

could say that the vocabulary used

to describe crystals of nearly cubic
shape is sometimes confusing.
Quartz is the second well-studied
example. Described are various
forms of silica, crystal morphologies, prism striations, Japan and
Brazil twins, curved vs. flat crystals,
agate formation, and polycrystalline
aggregates.
Calcite and pyrite are also extensively described, with the author highlighting the role of formation conditions on the crystal morphologies.
The last chapters describe the
growth conditions of crystals
formed by vapor growth (pegmatitic
and post-volcanic deposits) and by
metasomatism and metamorphism
(kaolin minerals and trapiche crystals), as well as crystals formed
through biological activity (e.g., in
bones, teeth, and carapace).
In this reviewers opinion, this is
the most comprehensive book currently available on crystal growth and
morphology.
BENJAMIN RONDEAU
Musum National dHistoire Naturelle
Paris

The Gem Merchant: How to

Be One, How to Deal with One,
2nd Edition
By David Stanley Epstein, 158 pp.,
illus., publ. by Gem Market
Publications, Piermont, NY, 2003,
US$20.00*
Gem merchant David Epstein accurately covers many of the details
involved in the daily practice of his

profession. Every retail jeweler, manufacturer, and gemologist should read

this book in order to better understand the responsibilities and risks
gem merchants assume when pursuing loose stones for their clients.
Although there is valuable advice for
anyone considering a career in gemstone trading, Epstein aptly states
that this book was written more for
jewelers and manufacturers.
The book is divided into four
major sections: buying, marketing,
cutting, and general information. The
discussion assumes a basic knowledge of gemstones and the industry,
and the authors warnings and advice
should deter those who are not willing to take the necessary risks. This
is, after all, an industry that rewards
the very few who have the endurance
and patience to accept the learning
curve that comes only with time and
experience.
The books first section focuses on
buying and the need for product education and experience to accurately
determine quality and value. Epstein
also mentions the importance of keeping track of all purchases and expenses. Principles of gemstone trading and
valuation are addressed, with tips on
assessing such factors as cut, color,
size, and pricing. The illustrations are
accurate and easy to understand. This
section also teaches the buyer to

*This book is available for purchase

through the GIA Bookstore, 5345
Armada Drive, Carlsbad, CA 92008.
Telephone: 800-421-8161; outside
the U.S. 760-603-4200. Fax: 760603-4266. E-mail: [email protected]

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

beware of supply and demand factors

that dictate price and to always
remember that gem supplies are finite.
In one of the most important features
of this chapter, Epstein gives sound
advice on how to travel safely, stay
incognito, keep goods close, use local
assistants or contacts, and be aware of
local trade customs.
The second section contains
many useful strategies for successful
marketing and sales. The first and
most important step is to develop and
write out a marketing plan. He
explains the five steps of closing a sale
by including excellent examples of
evaluating and developing a customers attention, interest, conviction, [and] desire, and then closing
the sale. The section devoted to purchase control sheets and order forms
seems to focus more on Epsteins personal methods of inventory control
and management than on the general
idea of record keeping and good
accounting practices. Epstein also
gives sound advice on how to properly
use the Internet as a communication
and sales tool.
Section three, titled Cutting
(Manufacturing), starts out with a
strong warning to the uninitiated:
Successfully buying and cutting rough
takes practice, experience, and time.
This section continues with valuable
information on how to grade and
value rough gems properly. Once
again, the focus is on experience and
exercising caution when venturing
into the evaluation of rough. He
addresses many of the basic tips that
wholesalers apply by providing some
useful examples and illustrations.
This section ends with recutting
(poorly cut, damaged, or worn gems)
and contract cutting. In my opinion,
however, these topics should have
been featured at the beginning, since
they are skills that one should acquire
before cutting from rough.
The final section addresses general
topics and is full of excellent advice.
One of the best is the suggestion that
one rely on comparison stones when
buying gems for which subtle differences in color are important. Since

BOOK REVIEWS

even highly trained graders have lapses in color memory, comparison

stones can help the gem dealer avoid
costly mistakes. Epstein also
describes the ideal color range of
some of the most commonly traded
gems. This section continues with
illuminating examples of shams,
scams, and rip-offs, as well as what
one should look for in a reliable and
trustworthy gem merchant. The
major international gem trading centers are also briefly described and put
into context by tracing their historical
development and significance.
My favorite part in this final section, however, is the authors historical analysis of the gem trade. In it, he
addresses the conflicting views associated with gemstone grading, past and
present economic trends, the fragmentation of the colored stone industry, advances in shipping and transportation, exploration breakthroughs,
and gem prices and profit margins.
Epstein concludes by predicting that,
because of greater competition, the
gem industry will become more specialized as gem merchants are forced
to focus on particular areas of expertise. These merchants will have to
take advantage of innovations and use
them to their advantage to compete
in the rapidly changing marketplace.
EDWARD BOEHM
JOEB Enterprises
Solana Beach, California

Arts and Crafts to Art Deco:

The Jewellery and Silver of
H. G. Murphy
By Paul Atterbury and John
Benjamin, 183 pp., illus., publ. by
Antique Collectors Club, Suffolk,
United Kingdom, 2005. US$69.50*
Too often, the masters of our time are
admired for great works during their
lives, only to be quickly forgotten
after their demise. Occasionally,
though, definitive works find their
rightful path back into the limelight
to be appreciated by new eyes. Harry
Murphy is such an artist deserving

our attention: His work from the

early part of the 20th century has a
distinct look, is outstanding in quality, and features a range of styles from
Arts and Crafts to Art Deco with a
modernist flair.
Published as a companion to a
recent Goldsmiths Hall exhibition of
items from Murphys Falcon Studio
workshop, this book can also stand
alone as a reference for the aspiring
artist. For the designer, silversmith,
and goldsmith, studying Harry
Murphys work is a lesson in mastery
of gold, silver, enameling, niello (black
alloy used as inlay), and engraving.
An Englishman, Harry Murphy
had a brush with greatness while still
a child, when his artistic talent was
recognized by William Morris, the
famous British craftsman and designer. With that encouragement, Murphy
pursued his talent and apprenticed
with the prominent Arts and Crafts
master of his time, Henry Wilson.
There he learned the intricacies of
enameling and niello, which he perfected to the point where it was sometimes difficult to tell the two artists
work apart. Later, Murphy studied
briefly with the renowned German
jeweler and silversmith, Emil Lettr.
But Harry Murphy was not a
copycat. As he perfected each classic
art form, he often married it with
modernism, making his work fascinating and unusual. Many of his
pieces featured the tree of life, signs of
the zodiac, or elaborate finials. He
kept pace with changing art trends as
tastes moved from Arts and Crafts to
the more modern Art Deco. Yet in
other works, he was completely practical and tailored his designs to meet
the needs of his commercial and
ecclesiastical clients. Murphy always
struggled to keep his studio profitable,
so he recognized the importance of
building business through civil and
corporate works. The range of pieces
he tackled is notable and evidence of
his true talent as a craftsman.
This book serves as a valuable
showplace for his works. Featured are
various examples of the artists jewelry
and domestic silver, many of which

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

371

are amazing and intricate examples of

enameling. There is a comprehensive
biography, numerous color and blackand-white photos of works in silver
and gold (many gem-encrusted), civil
and corporate work, trophies, works
for the church, studio memorabilia,
fascinating illustrations and brainstorm sketches by the artist himself,
and extracts from Murphys writings
on related subjects. The book is divided into six sections. While the storytelling meanders a bit, with some
redundancy, overall this is a fascinating documentation of Harry Murphys
work. The reader gets a comprehensive
picture of this talented mans life and
creative output, drawing inspiration
from it. I found myself saying Wow!
aloud several times as I looked at this
work, and I suspect any bench jeweler,
enamel artist, or designer will, too.
MARY MATHEWS
Gemological Institute of America
Carlsbad, California

Daniel Swarovski:
A World of Beauty
Text by Vivienne Becker, produced
under the direction of Markus
Langes-Swarovski, 139 pp., illus.,
publ. by Thames & Hudson, New
York, 2005. US$75.00*
In 1895, a Bohemian craftsman named
Daniel Swarovski (18621956) moved
to the small Austrian village of
Wattens to set up a factory specializing in the manufacture of cut crystals.
Swarovski, a technical virtuoso who
had already invented the first precision machines for cutting and polishing crystal, dreamed of unlocking the
glamour of the material. The company
he built became a renowned leader in
the fashion and jewelry industries during the 20th century, and today it produces billions of cut crystals annually.
The Daniel Swarovski collection,
launched in 1989 as the companys
couture signature, has continued the

founders spirit with an assortment of

innovative jewelry, watches, fashion
accessories, and design objects.
Daniel Swarovski: A World of
Beauty is a salute to the collections
15th anniversary. At 10 13 in. (25.4
33 cm), the book is replete with large,
radiant photos of creations from the
eponymous collection. The lean text,
written by jewelry historian Vivienne
Becker (Art Nouveau Jewelry, Fabulous Fakes, and Swarovski: The Magic
of Crystal), begins with the remarkable
story of Daniel Swarovski. Subsequent
chapters eloquently pay homage to the
allure of glass crystal while offering a
behind-the-scenes glimpse of the companys creative process today.
This exquisitely illustrated volume is sure to be treasured by connoisseurs of crystal jewelry and
accessories.
STUART OVERLIN
Gemological Institute of America
Carlsbad, California

Simply tell us which three 2005 articles you found most

valuable, and you could win a three-year subscription to
GEMS & GEMOLOGYboth the print and new on-line
versions. Mark the articles in order of preference on the
enclosed ballot card. Then mail the card to arrive no later
than March 10, 2006 and it will be entered in a drawing
for the grand prize.

See card between pages 372 & 373 for ballot

372

BOOK REVIEWS

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

Gemological ABSTRACTS

2005
EDITOR
A. A. Levinson*
University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta, Canada

REVIEW BOARD
Christopher M. Breeding
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
Maha Calderon
Carlsbad, California
Jo Ellen Cole
Vista, California
Eric Fritz
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
R. A. Howie
Royal Holloway, University of London
Alethea Inns
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
Paul X. Johnson
GIA Laboratory, New York
David M. Kondo
GIA Laboratory, New York
Taijin Lu
GIA Research, Carlsbad
Wendi M. Mayerson
GIA Laboratory, New York
Kyaw Soe Moe
GIA Laboratory, New York
Keith A. Mychaluk
Calgary, Alberta, Canada

COLORED STONES AND

ORGANIC MATERIALS
Coconut pearls: A reevaluation of authenticity. W. Armstrong,
Ornament, Vol. 28, No. 2, 2004, pp. 4649.
An encounter with the Maharajah coconut pearl on display
at the prestigious Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Coral
Gables, Florida, prompted the author, a college botany teacher,
to investigate the authenticity of these controversial objects. In
some parts of the world, such as Malaysia, these pearls
(which allegedly formed in coconuts) are thought to have magical properties, are highly valued (prices as high as $60,000 are
mentioned), and are set as talismans in jewelry.
Coconut pearls are described as a hoax in several reputable
botany textbooks. In 1939, Dutch zoologist A. Reyne, chief of
the Coconut Research Station at Menado, Celebes, Indonesia,
studied numerous examples found in public and private collections, and concluded that many of the more famous ones were
actually concretions from giant clams of the genus Tridacna and
could not possibly have formed inside a coconut. In 1982, however, Professor Abraham Krikorian, at the State University of
New York at Stony Brook, published a detailed review of the literature on the coconut concretions, and some of the references
he cited suggest that they may actually exist.
Fraudulent claims with respect to the occurrence and origin
of coconut pearls are widespread, particularly in Malaysia,
where many of the artifacts are reportedly found. There is no
plausible explanation for how a calcareous substance, with concentric aragonite layers characteristic of pearls from mollusks,
could possibly originate inside a coconut. Further, no reputable
scientist has ever seen, firsthand, a concretion in its original
coconut. Hence, the only logical conclusion is that concretions
from other sources have been fraudulently transplanted into

James E. Shigley
GIA Research, Carlsbad
Boris M. Shmakin
Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
Russell Shor
GIA, Carlsbad
Rolf Tatje
Duisburg University, Germany
Sharon Wakefield
Northwest Gem Lab, Boise, Idaho

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS

This section is designed to provide as complete a record as practical of the recent literature on gems and gemology. Articles are
selected for abstracting solely at the discretion of the section editor and his reviewers, and space limitations may require that we
include only those articles that we feel will be of greatest interest
to our readership.
Requests for reprints of articles abstracted must be addressed to
the author or publisher of the original material.
The reviewer of each article is identified by his or her initials at the
end of each abstract. Guest reviewers are identified by their full
names. Opinions expressed in an abstract belong to the abstracter and in no way reflect the position of Gems & Gemology or GIA.
2005 Gemological Institute of America

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373

coconuts. The author, once a believer, concludes that the

existence of coconut pearls seems to be based on faith
rather than objective scientific evidence.
JEC
The Kasumigaura pearl. B. Dillenburger [info@perlenyukie.
de], Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 22, No. 4, 2004,
pp. 156161.
Kasumigaura (or Kasumiga) cultured pearls are naturally
colored, bead nucleated, and mostly off-round, and are cultivated in and around Japans second largest lake,
Kasumiga Ura. This pearl is cultured in a hybrid between
the Japanese ikecho-gai mussel (Hyriopsis schlegeli) and
the Chinese triangle mussel (H. cumingi).
Commercial farming of freshwater cultured pearls in
Japan began in Lake Biwa in 1945, using the ikecho-gai
mussel. Experiments that began about 1925 resulted in the
eventual successful relocation of the ikecho-gai mussel to
Lake Kasumiga, where commercial production began in
1962. The original intent was to use Lake Kasumiga as a
backup for the Lake Biwa nursery and to provide production balance. However, with the increased pollution of
Lake Biwa, the industry was later reestablished at Lake
Kasumiga. After 1983, Lake Kasumiga also experienced
environmental problems, adversely affecting the nursery.
In response, pioneer cultivator Kazuhisa Yanase started
using a new hybrid Japanese-Chinese mussel that proved
resilient to environmental challenges. The result was the
large Kasumiga cultured pearl, which is produced in sizes
> 8 mm, with an average diameter of 1314 mm. The
shape varies from round to baroque (only 2%, in the smallest sizes, are perfectly round), and several colors are available: off-white, peach to orange, pink, lavender to violet,
and a rare golden green. Production is modest; only 25
kg were produced in 2003.
HyeJin Jang-Green

DIAMONDS
Alkaline ultrabasic rocks in the Arkhangelsk diamond
province: Present state of knowledge and prospects
for studies. K. V. Garanin, Moscow University Geology Bulletin, Vol. 59, No. 1, 2004, pp. 3545.
The Arkhangelsk diamond province is located in the northern part of European Russia, along the Arctic coast. The
first diamond-bearing kimberlite sills were found in the
late 1970s and are located along the Mela River.
Throughout more than two decades of geologic exploration, more than 60 kimberlite bodies have been identified
within the diamond province. However, only two were
bedrock deposits with commercial diamond potential. Data
collected during extensive geologic studies in the early
1990s suggest that emplacement occurred in a relatively
narrow time interval of 340370 million years ago. The
igneous bodies are confined to Paleozoic faults or grabens
associated with rift zones. The diamondiferous kimberlites
contain extremely low concentrations of rare elements.

374

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS

The Arkhangelsk diamond crystals tend to be rounded

dodecahedrons and rhombododecahedrons.
EF
Geophysical methods for kimberlite exploration in northern Canada. M. Power [[email protected]], G.
Belcourt, and E. Rockel, The Leading Edge, Vol. 23,
No. 11, 2004, pp. 11241129.
Kimberlite is a volatile-rich ultrabasic igneous rock that is
mainly composed of olivine, clinopyroxene, micas, carbonates, and serpentine. Although diamondiferous kimberlites are found all over the world, only 1% are economic (profitable for mining). Such deposits were first discovered in Canada (Northwest Territories) in 1991. All the
Canadian deposits are located in the Archean Slave
Craton. Most of these kimberlite pipes intrude granitoid
host rocks generally trending NNW in this craton and are
Cretaceous or Eocene in age. Most contain primarily
crater-facies kimberlite (i.e., the upper part of a pipe that
is composed of pyroclastic kimberlites, clays, and country
rock fragments, including xenoliths). As a result of differential glacial erosion, most are found under or adjacent to
lakes.
Kimberlite exploration in the Slave craton normally
consists of geochemical sampling to define a large potential area, followed by geophysical surveys to locate the
actual pipes. In geochemical sampling, the presence and
concentration of heavy minerals such as pyrope garnet,
chrome diopside, and Mg-ilmenite (picroilmenite) are
assessed to determine the possible presence of kimberlite. These minerals can be found in both glacial till and
glaciofluvial deposits. Diamond potential can be calculated based on the Ca and Cr concentrations in pyrope
garnets.
Geophysical surveys look for the contrast in physical
properties between kimberlite and the surrounding host
rocks. First, magnetic and electromagnetic surveys are
performed by airborne methods over a large potential
area. These are followed by ground geophysics, such as
gravity, ground-penetrating radar (GPR), and seismic surveys. Finally, the most promising targets are tested by
drilling or bulk sampling.
Strong remnant magnetism that is characteristic of
kimberlite can be detected by magnetic surveying, which
can also identify regional structures in the host rocks and
their intersections that have potential for kimberlite
intrusions. Crater-facies kimberlite shows lower electrical
resistivity than the host rocks due to serpentinization and
clay alteration, and this can be detected by electromagnetic surveying. Gravity measurements can detect the relatively low density of kimberlite. GPR surveying can identify differences in a kimberlite pipes electromagnetic (i.e.,
dielectric) characteristics compared to its host rocks; it is
also useful for locating kimberlite dikes. Seismic surveying can help delineate between a kimberlite and its host
rocks, though it has not been widely used in Slave Craton
exploration.
KSM

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Raman spectroscopy of diamond and doped diamond. S.

Prawer [[email protected]] and R. J.
Nemanich, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Series A, Vol. 362, No. 1824,
2004, pp. 25372565.
Raman spectroscopy is an essential nondestructive technique in research on diamonds and chemical vapor
deposited (CVD) synthetic diamond films. The typical
Raman spectrum excited by a visible laser (20001000 cm1
region) contains information on the phase purity and crystalline perfection of the diamond sample, while surfaceenhanced Raman spectroscopy can show new and unexpected structures on diamond surfaces. Raman spectra can also
be used to map stress and strain in crystallites on the
micrometer scale; remotely monitor the surface temperature
of diamond; and monitor defects, annealing, and doping
(with, e.g., B, S, P, or Li). The Raman spectrum is sensitive to
the interaction of dopants with the electronic continuum,
and it is the carrier concentration rather than the dopant
concentration to which the technique is most sensitive.
RAH
Xenolithsa diamonds nest. M. Anand [m.anand@
rhm.ac.uk] and L. Taylor, Rough Diamond Review,
No. 5, 2004, pp. 1214.
Pieces of diamond-bearing mantle host rock that are transported to the earths surface in kimberlite pipes are known
as xenoliths. These rocks provide valuable opportunities to
study diamond growth conditions and the interrelationship between diamonds, inclusions, and host minerals. A
three-dimensional reconstruction of a xenoliths mineral
constituents can be generated using high-resolution X-ray
computed tomography (HRXCT). These 3-D models clearly reveal the spatial relationships between diamonds and
surrounding minerals (sulfides, silicates, etc.).
HRXCT imaging of a xenolith from Yakutia, Siberia,
showed that diamonds and sulfides were evenly distributed throughout the sample, and were not spatially associated with one another. Instead, diamonds were associated
with areas of secondary mineralization or alteration
zones, suggesting they did not form at the same time as
the xenolith host rock. The study also showed that the
diamonds were always separated from the primary silicate
minerals by these alteration zones.
Diamonds extracted from an unspecified number of
Yakutian xenoliths ranged from 0.03 to 5 ct and for the
most part were near colorless. They had well-defined
faces (as expected from their lack of contact with corrosive kimberlitic magma), and most formed perfect octahedra; also present were cuboctahedra, macle twins, and a
few polycrystalline aggregates.
Growth patterns were revealed using cathodoluminescence of sawn diamonds that had been extracted from the
xenoliths. Electron-microprobe analysis and secondary
ion mass spectrometry also were performed on diamonds
and their inclusions. The inclusions provided information

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS

about diamond formation conditions during various

stages of their growth. The chemical compositions of the
diamonds, diamond inclusions, and other minerals in an
eclogitic xenolith showed variabilities that reflect the
ambiguous nature of diamond genesis.
DMK

GEM LOCALITIES
African blue lace agate: Namibias blue quartz gem is one
of natures finest. B. L. Cross, Rock & Gem, Vol. 35,
No. 5, 2005, pp. 8890.
Blue lace agate is found in a remote area of southern
Namibia, about 43 miles (69 km) southwest of the town of
Grunau, and less than 80 miles (129 km) from the countrys coastal diamond deposits. The material is hosted by a
hard, fine-grained dolerite that is about 1.1 billion years
old. The agate is estimated to be about 54 million years
old, and is found as two separate vein systems of varying
thickness with no other mineralization.
The deposit was discovered in 1962, and the veins
were mined intermittently until 1976 in narrow, handdug trenches reaching approximately 50 feet (15 m) deep.
Mechanized mining commenced in 1977. The ore zone is
broken by selective blasting and pneumatic hammers.
Approximately 100150 pounds (4568 kg) of host rock
must be removed to yield one pound of agate.
Some hand cobbing is done at the mine site, and the
rough material is then transferred to Springbok, South
Africa, for final cobbing. The material is then washed and
graded according to vein thickness and color intensity. In
general, the color of the agate tends to improve with
depth in the vein. Large, straight, thick specimens with
good color are the most prized. Mining the deposit is
expensive in many ways, with large taxes placed on vehicles, equipment, and agate rough crossing the Namibia/
South Africa border in either direction.
JEC
Elemental analysis of Australian amorphous banded opals
by laser-ablation ICP-MS. L. D. Brown [leslie.brown@
uts.edu.au], A. S. Ray, and P. S. Thomas, Neues Jahrbuch fr Mineralogie, Monatshefte, Vol. 9, 2004,
pp. 411424.
Several banded Australian opal-AG (amorphous gel-like)
samples were found to contain darker-colored black or gray
bands adjacent to lighter-colored white or clear bands. A
study of the distribution of trace elements between these
bands showed that the darker bands contained significantly
higher concentrations of trace elements (Ti, Co, V, Ni, Cu,
Zn, Y, La, and Ce) than the lighter bands. A solution depletion model, involving the charge neutralization of silica colloids by highly charged transition metal cations, is proposed
to explain these results. Irrespective of the origin of the opal,
the distribution of the trace elements in white, translucent,
and play-of-color opal bands was shown to be similar, which
is consistent with the proposed model.
RAH

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375

Laspidolite fluore: Rle des vaporites dans la gense du

rubis des marbres de Nangimali (Azad-Kashmir,
Pakistan) [Fluorine-rich aspidolite: The role of evaporites in the genesis of ruby in marbles at Nangimali
(Azad-Kashmir, Pakistan)]. V. Garnier, D. Ohnenstetter [[email protected]], and G. Giuliani,
Comptes Rendus (C.R.) Geoscience, Vol. 336, No.
14, 2004, pp. 12451253 [in French with English
abstract].
Aspidolite (NaMg3AlSi3O10[OH,F]2) is a sodium-rich mica
that is an analogue to potassium-rich phlogopite. It occurs
with other micas (phlogopite, phengite, and paragonite) at
the Nangimali ruby deposit. Electron-microprobe analyses
revealed that both the aspidolite and phlogopite are
enriched in fluorine (up to 3.23 wt.% F). According to
these authors, when combined with the occurrence of salt
inclusions in certain minerals and the existence of anhydrite in the deposit, the presence of these F-rich micas
implies that evaporation of an ancient body of water
played a role in the genesis of gem ruby at marble-hosted
occurrences such as Nangimali.
JES
Opals from Java. H. Sujatmiko, H. C. Einfalt, and U. Henn,
Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 22, No. 6, 2005, pp.
254259.
Since the early 1970s, opal has been mined in the Rangkasbitung area of western Java from a highly altered
pumice layer in a late Tertiary volcaniclastic sequence.
The varieties range from common opal to hyalite, fire opal,
and play-of-color material (with a white or black bodycolor) displaying flashes of red, orange, and green. The refractive indices of these opals are in the range of 1.435 to
1.468, with specific gravity values of 1.98 to 2.06; the
lower values of both properties corresponded to the colorless and transparent opals.
RAH

INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

Krss refractometerER 6010. T. Linton, R. Beatie, and
K. Hughes, Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 22, No.
2, 2005, pp. 260262.
This report evaluates the features and performance of the
Krss ER 6010 refractometer, a relatively inexpensive,
quality gemological instrument. The design is based on a
hemicylinder of high-index glass with a spherical exit face.
The instrument will measure refractive indices in the 1.30
to 1.83 range. The refractometer has a removable cover
with a height of 32 mm to allow ring-mounted stones to
be safely positioned on the surface of the hemicylinder.
RAH
Using SIMS to diagnose color changes in heat treated gem
sapphires. S. W. Novak [[email protected]], C.
W. Magee, T. Moses, and W. Wang, Applied Surface
Science, Vol. 231232, 2004, pp. 917920.

376

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS

Responding to the influx of orange sapphires in the gem

trade in 2002, the authors used secondary ion mass spectroscopy to identify beryllium diffusion as the origin of
color in these specimens. Subsequent experiments verified
that Be diffusion can produce a broad variety of color modifications in sapphire. Routine measurements with SIMS
are now employed to simultaneously detect Be and 13
other trace elements in gem sapphires. The authors discuss test protocols for faceted gems and present measurement precision data.
SW

JEWELRY HISTORY
A compositional study of a museum jewelry collection
(7th1st BC) by means of a portable XRF spectrometer. A. G. Karydas [[email protected]], D.
Kotzamani, R. Bernard, J. N. Barrandon, and Ch.
Zarkadas, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in
Physics Research B, Vol. 226, 2004, pp. 1528.
Thirty-four gold and four silver jewels belonging to the
Benaki Museum (Athens, Greece) collection were chemically analyzed on site using a custom-made portable X-ray
fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer. Limitations of the modified XRF instrument are discussed, along with the standard problems associated with the application of the XRF
technique to museum artifacts.
One of the primary objectives was to identify if the
metal was used as-mined (from primary or placer deposits)
or was refined. Two groups were identified: One group had
a relatively high Au percentage (96.8 1.8%), while the
other contained significant amounts of Ag. The Cu content of the first group, along with its high Au percentage,
indicated that most of the metal items had undergone
some refining. In the second group, the presence of Ag, as
well as iron in Cu-Fe admixtures, is normal for native
gold, and this group probably originated directly from
unrefined gold that most likely was taken from placer
deposits.
From the minor elements detected in the silver jewels,
especially Au, the source for the silver was likely the
Lavreion mine in Attik, Greece.
PXJ
Identification of pigments and gemstones on the Tours
Gospel: The early 9th century Carolingian palette.
R. J. H. Clark [[email protected]] and J. van der
Weerd, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, Vol. 35,
2004, pp. 279283.
Raman microscopy was used to analyze the 12 gems set into
the cover of a 9th century illuminated manuscript known as
the Evangelia Quatuor or the Tours Gospel, so named
due to its probable origin in Tours, France. According to a
letter attached to the gospel, which now resides in the
British Library in London, the original stones were replaced
in 1828 by gems specified to be cats-eye, emerald, carbuncle, sapphire, amethyst, and oriental topaz.

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Raman/fluorescence spectra of the gems taken at 632.8

nm excitation provided the following information:
Two stones were identified as quartz (cats-eye, amethyst)
Three stones showed a photoluminescence spectrum
characteristic of emerald; however, confirmation of
this identification was not available in this study
Three stones were identified as iron (almandine) garnet, Fe 3Al 2(SiO4) 3
Three stones were identified as sapphire
One stone could not be identified
The pigments used to illuminate the manuscript
pages were also analyzed with Raman spectroscopy and
found to have been produced with a palette including carbon black, indigo, lead white (lead carbonate), minium
(lead oxide, also known as red lead), orpiment (arsenic sulfide), vermillion (mercuric sulfide), and gold.
SW

JEWELRY RETAILING
Its all in the numbers. K. Gassman, AJM, May 2005, pp.
5155.
This article predicts that jewelry sales will increase by an
average of 5.6% per year between 2000 and 2010. One reason is that more than 80 million people were born in the
U.S. between 1978 and 1998, forming a generation called
the Millennials. Unlike the more financially conservative
Generation X, this group loves to shop and buyand
jewelry is a priority on their list. In addition, the percentage of affluent households will increase greatly, from 14%
in 2003 to 18% by 2010, which will drive the average ticket price higher, as well as cause higher unit sales. The article also notes that the number of marriagesand opportunities for engagement rings and bridal jewelryis rising
strongly, along with demand from various ethnic groups,
particularly Hispanics.
RS

PRECIOUS METALS
Investigation and development of the karat gold alloys for
jewelries (1): Colored and white karat gold alloys;
(2) Metallurgical features and strengthening mechanism of the karat gold alloys for jewelries. Y. Zhang
and G. Li, Precious Metal, Part 1. Vol. 25, No.1,
2004, pp. 4754; Part 2. Vol. 25, No. 2, 2004, pp.
4147 [in Chinese with English abstracts].
Gold and karat-gold alloys have been employed for jewelry
use throughout recorded history. Recently, however, new
gold alloys have come into use. To help jewelers and consumers better understand the properties of these gold
alloys, the authors of this article systematically review the
classification and basic properties of colored and white

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS

gold alloys (part 1) and their metallurgical features and

strengthening mechanisms (part 2).
The use of green gold can be traced to 862 BC, when
the Lydians (a people in ancient Turkey) adopted it for
coinage; this alloy had a composition of 73% Au and 27%
Ag. [Editors note: Most numismatic authorities place the
date of the first Lydian coinage around 650600 BC.]
Red gold can be traced to ~1300 BC; the Chim people
of Peru used a composition of 70% Cu and 30% Au to
fashion ornamental objects. The appearance of these colors can be explained by band theory, since Au and Cu are
the only two colored metallic elements.
Metallurgically, colored gold alloys can be divided into
three categories: (1) the Au-Ag-Cu alloy system, (2) intermetallic compounds, and (3) surface oxidized layers.
Intermetallic compounds include purple gold, which is
mainly a Au-Al alloy, and blue gold, which is mainly a
AuIn2 or AuGa2 alloy. These alloys are relatively brittle.
The 18K Spangold alloy (so-called because of the spangled, multicolored appearance of its surface) invented in
1993 is a Au-Cu-Al compound. The altered crystal structure causing the surface appearance is created by a special
annealing process. Surface oxidized layers are usually created by heat treatment in an oxidizing atmosphere, with the
addition of elements such as Fe, Ti, Cr, Ag, Cu, Ni, and Co.
The physical properties of these alloys can be changed,
sometimes dramatically, by the addition of certain impurities or by alterations in treatment processes. The socalled pure gold (990 gold) is one successful example in
recent years. In white gold alloys, Ni, Pd (palladium), and
Ag are the major additives causing the white color.
About 76% of white gold jewelry on the market is made
from Ni alloys; Pd alloys make up about 15%.
Metallurgical properties such as hardness, ductility,
and strength are strongly related to composition, structure,
and grain size, as well as to specific treatment processes.
Strength is usually inversely proportional to grain size.
Manufacturing techniques such as those employing the
Happ-Petch effect (to control grain size), cold-work hardening, solid-solution hardening, and various heat-treatment
processes are used for strengthening, and examples of
these methods with the Au-Ag-Cu alloy system are
reviewed. Phase diagrams as well as tables listing the metallurgical properties are also given.
TL

SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Characterization of nitrogen doped chemical vapor
deposited single crystal diamond before and after
high pressure, high temperature annealing. S. J.
Charles, J. E. Butler [[email protected]], B. N.
Feygelson, M. E. Newton, D. L. Carroll, J. W. Steeds,
H. Darwish, C.-S. Yan, H. K. Mao, and R. J. Hemley,
Physica Status Solidi (A), Vol. 201, No. 11, 2004, pp.
24732485.

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A nitrogen-containing (~1.5 ppm total N), 820 micronthick

synthetic diamond layer, grown epitaxially on a type Ib
synthetic diamond seed by the microwave plasma CVD
method, was characterized by five spectroscopic techniques (photoluminescence, UV-Vis, IR, cathodoluminescence, and electron paramagnetic resonance) both before
and after high pressure/high temperature (HPHT) annealing. The color of the as-grown material was dark brown to
black. Annealing of one portion of the sample at 6.5 GPa
and 1,900C for one hour resulted in a change to light
gray/blue. Treatment of other portions at 7 GPa and
2,200C for one hour and 10 hours, respectively, resulted
in a change from dark brown to colorless. The decolorization occurred when structural defects causing the dark coloration were healed during HPHT annealing.
In the as-grown portion, spectral features indicated the
presence of nitrogen vacancyrelated centers (NV, NV ,
NVH ); these disappeared or were transformed by the
annealing into more complex centers (H3 and N3, believed
to be the N-V-N and N-N-N-V centers, respectively). The
portion annealed at the lower temperature showed evidence of NV-center dissociation and vacancy diffusion, but
little evidence of nitrogen diffusion in the lattice. The two
portions annealed at the higher temperature displayed evidence of nitrogen diffusion to form N-Nrelated centers.
Details of the observed changes in the spectra of the
before- and after-annealing portions are discussed.
Although apparently similar changes in color are now
obtained commercially during the HPHT decolorization
treatment of brown type IIa natural diamonds, it is unclear
if the details of the processes used for the natural and CVD
synthetic diamonds are the same.
JES
Study on mineralogy of synthetic jadeite jade stone. R.
Wei, B. Zhang, and C. Shen, Journal of Gems and
Gemmology, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2004, pp. 79 [in
Chinese with English abstract].
Mineralogical and other properties of four specimens of
synthetic jadeite (source not given) were determined by
microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR), electron-microprobe analysis (EMPA),
and Raman spectroscopy. All of the samples were a dull
green color, contained both transparent and translucent-toopaque areas that were separated by a gradual transition
zone, and also had both glassy and crystalline phases. The
results were compared to those obtained from natural
jadeite samples.
The crystalline phases were composed of small (35
mm) crystals with well-developed prismatic forms that
were characteristic of the translucent-to-opaque regions;
glassy material with an R.I. of 1.541 was characteristic of
the transparent regions. Dark inclusions were observed
mainly along fractures. XRD data from the crystalline synthetic areas were close to those of natural jadeite. Raman
spectra from the crystallized areas showed prominent
peaks at 1036, 698, and 373 cm1, which closely matched

378

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS

those of natural jadeite at 1038, 699, and 374 cm1, but the
intensities of the former were weaker due to the strong
fluorescence of the synthetic samples. However, FTIR
spectra from the crystallized synthetic regions contained a
band at 494 cm1 that was not seen in the natural samples;
small shifts in some major peaks were also observed
between synthetic and natural materials. EMPA results
from the crystallized materials contained areas with
chemical compositions similar to that of natural jadeite
(NaAlSi2O6) but with lower contents of Na 2O and CaO,
and higher contents of K2O, TiO 2 , MnO, and NiO; the
glassy areas had higher contents of Al2O3 and SiO2, and
much lower contents of Na2O compared to natural jadeite.
The textures of the synthetic jadeite samples were simpler
than those of natural jadeite.
TL
Ultrahard diamond single crystals from chemical vapor
deposition. C-S. Yan [[email protected]], H.-K. Mao,
W. Li, J. Qian, Y. Zhao, and R. J. Hemley, Physica
Status Solidi (A), Vol. 201, No. 4, 2004, pp. R25R27.
Recent advances in chemical vapor deposition (CVD) single-crystal diamond growth techniques have resulted in
increasingly larger samples and faster growth rates. These
new materials exhibit notable mechanical properties,
including high fracture toughness and high intrinsic hardness caused by work hardening as a result of post-growth
high pressure/high temperature (HPHT) annealing. Singlecrystal synthetic diamonds up to 4.5 mm thick were epitaxially grown by microwave plasma CVD on type Ib synthetic diamond plates using the following conditions:
N 2/CH 4 = 0.25.0%, CH 4/H 2 = 12 20%, pressure =
120220 torr, temperature = 9001500C. Vickers hardness was measured at 50110 GPa and fracture toughness
at 618 MPa/m on the brown, as-grown CVD samples.
After annealing at 2,000C and 57 GPa for 10 minutes in
a belt-type HPHT apparatus, the CVD synthetic diamonds
turned colorless and became ultra hard (>160 GPa Vickers
hardness). This measurement exceeds all known hardness
data for synthetic and natural type Ib, Ia, and IIa diamonds,
and the true value is probably higher, as some annealed
CVD material damaged the indenters during hardness testing. The indented surfaces showed square crack patterns
along softer <110> and <111> directions, but no cross-like
crack lines along <100> as seen in annealed type IIa natural diamonds.
CMB

TREATMENTS
Disruption of B1 nitrogen defects in 1aB natural diamonds by plastic deformation and behavior of the
defects created on the PT treatment. V. A. Nadolinnyi [[email protected]], O. P. Yureva, A. P. Yelisseyev, N. P. Pokhilenko, and A. A. Chepurov,
Doklady Earth Sciences, Vol. 399A, No. 9, 2004,
pp. 12681272.

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Most natural diamonds contain nitrogen impurities and

dislocations. However, the interaction between nitrogen
centers, particularly B-aggregates, and dislocations is not
well understood. Sixty-three inclusion-free, greenish to
brown colored, type IaB diamond crystals with traces of
plastic deformation from the Udachnaya pipe in Russia and
the Snap Lake deposit in Canada were examined. Each was
analyzed by photoluminescence (PL) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) before and after HPHT treatment.
Two-stage annealing was performed from 1,850 to 2,000C
at 7 GPa for 12 hours using a split-sphere apparatus.
Before annealing, the PL spectra (collected at 77 K)
were dominated by an intense N3 (415 nm) system; afterward, the 415 nm line was more intense, but an H3 (503.2
nm) system had also appeared and was responsible for a
more greenish color. The EPR spectra before treatment
showed only a broad P2 center at 300 K (room temperature), which disappeared with cooling to 77 K. Photoexcitation (< 380 nm) restored the P2 feature and also produced a P1 EPR feature. After annealing, intense P1 and
P2 centers were both present at 300 K without photoexcitation. These changes were attributed to plastic deformation features. Before treatment, charge transfer between
P2 centers and dislocations generated the changes caused
by cooling and photoexcitation. After treatment, the dislocations, as well as the charge transfer, had been
removed, causing both P1 and P2 centers to be visible
without excitation. The migration of dislocations through
the crystals during the annealing of plastic deformation
features disrupted complex nitrogen defects (A and B centers) and created the simpler forms of nitrogen (P1, P2,
H3) observed using EPR and PL following the treatment.
These results indicate that plastic deformation features
play an important role in the HPHT treatment of type IaB
diamonds to change their color.
CMB

The polycrystalline exteriors of several translucent natural

coated diamonds of various colors were found to turn
black after annealing for several hours in a vacuum at temperatures above 1,000C. Detailed optical examination
revealed that the transparent inner cores of these coated
crystals remained essentially unchanged after the annealing, whereas the coatings themselves darkened as a result
of the formation of numerous small cracks and black inclusions. Spectra recorded before and after annealing showed a
broadening, but no change in position, of the 1330 cm1
first-order diamond Raman line. A broad Raman peak at
1600 cm1 was observed to have an inverse relationship in
peak intensity with the 1330 cm1 line, with increasing
annealing temperatures and times (the former increased,
whereas the latter decreased, in intensity after sample heating for 6 hours at 1,500C). The authors attribute the 1600
cm1 band, along with the bands at 1585 and 1350 cm1, to
various nondiamond carbon phases (such as graphite, amorphous carbon, and disordered glassy carbon). Electron
diffraction and transmission electron microscopy demonstrated that these phases were created during the annealing
as tiny inclusions, and along crack and grain boundaries.
Formation of these nondiamond alteration products along
with other dislocations was responsible for the observed
darkening of these polycrystalline coated diamonds during
high-temperature annealing.
JES

MISCELLANEOUS

The identification of impregnated nephrite. J. Li

[[email protected]], Australian Gemmologist, Vol.
22, No. 3, 2005, pp. 310317.
The much-treasured white nephrite from Hetian, Xinjiang
Province, China, is becoming increasingly scarce. This has
resulted in large amounts of lower-quality white nephrite
from Russia and Qinghai Province, China, coming into the
market. Some of this material is bleached and impregnated
to imitate Hetian white nephrite. The author argues that
this is an unacceptable treatment that must be disclosed.
It is shown that these treated nephrites can be positively
identified using IR spectrometry, with diagnostic absorption bands between 2560 and 2460 cm1; treatment with
epoxy resin can be detected by the presence of absorption
peaks from 3060 to 2850 cm1.
RAH

After the mines. H. T. Schupak, JCK, Vol. 176, No. 1, 2005,

pp. 9296.
The article explains the measures that De Beers is taking
to develop projects in communities near its mines to
ensure the communities sustainability after the diamonds
are depleted. The Masete Primary School, established near
the Venetia mine in South Africa, houses 1,600 students,
and is supported jointly by the government and De Beers.
De Beers has ongoing projects to equip classrooms and
improve facilities. The company has also established an
AIDS awareness program and farming projects in nearby
villages in the province, one of the countrys poorest.
De Beers is also developing environmental programs. It
has established the 80,300 acre Venetia-Limpopo Nature
Reserve near Venetia and set aside an additional 469,300
acres as conservation land. It has reintroduced wildlife
species into the area, including wild dogs, African elephants,
and black rhinoceroses, and also established a conservation
research center. The company has partnered with the South
African government on many of these initiatives.
RS

Why does polycrystalline natural diamond turn black

after annealing? B. Willems [[email protected]],
K. De Corte, and G. Van Tendeloo, Physica Status
Solidi (A), Vol. 201, No. 11, 2004, pp. 24862491.

A cost-benefit analysis of projects implemented to assist

the black pearl industry in Manihiki Lagoon, Cook
Islands. E. McKenzie, SPC Fisheries Newsletter,
No. 110, 2004, pp. 3740.

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

379

In November 2000, black pearl aquaculture in Manihiki

Lagoon, Cook Islands, was severely affected by an oyster
disease. The causes were determined to be overstocking,
poor handling of pearl oysters, and adverse environmental
conditions. In response, the Cook Islands Ministry of
Marine Resources and other organizations sponsored certain projects intended to study and promote sustainable
farming of black cultured pearls in this lagoon. This article
describes some of these projects and their benefits to pearl
farming.
The physical projects in place at Manihiki Lagoon
revolve around monitoring the oysters and the lagoon conditions. Buoys provide data on parameters such as water
temperature and dissolved oxygen; bathymetry (underwater mapping) aids farm layouts; and oyster-health surveys
and censuses monitor potential threats and ensure sustainable oyster populations. In addition to these tools, the
study considered other endeavors, such as training courses
for seeding technicians that would lessen the industrys
dependence on foreign labor. The study also recommended
that good management structure be adopted, project data
arrive promptly, and farmers be trained to properly interpret the data. A pearl farming management plan that will
provide a system of rules and regulations to effectively
manage the lagoons use is already in draft stage.
DMK
Guanxi and regulation in networks: The Yunnanese jade
trade between Burma and Thailand, 196288. W.-C.
Chang [[email protected]], Journal of
Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 35, No. 3, 2004, pp.
479501.
Northern Myanmar (Burma) borders the Chinese province
of Yunnan. Over the centuries, and especially after the
1949 revolution, many ethnic Chinese settled in this area.
This article is a review of the effects that Yunnanese
migrants and their social networks (guanxi) have had on
the jadeite trade between Burma and Thailand.
The famed Burmese jadeite deposits are located in
Kachin State. Though local use is thought to have started
centuries earlier, wide-scale jadeite mining did not begin
until large numbers of Yunnanese miners and traders
came to Burma in the second half of the 18th century.
Most of the jade leaving Burma passed through Yunnan
until the border with China was closed in 1949. The
replacement routesouth through Rangoon and thence to
Hong Kong by sea or airwas itself shut down after the
1962 military coup nationalized the Burmese economy.
However, because the jadeite mining regions were controlled by Burmese rebel groups and Kuomintang (Chinese
Nationalist) militias who had fled Yunnan in 1949, illicit
jadeite trade continued, this time through Thailand (frequently alongside the opium trade). Although mining was
controlled by various ethnic groups, it was the Yunnanese
who controlled the jadeite trading because of their wellorganized guanxi networks of relatives or close friends

380

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS

throughout the area. Mae Sai, a Thai border town, became

the major jade trading market, and Yunnanese on the Thai
side of the border helped legalize and ship the jadeite once
it was in Thailand. From the 1960s to the 1980s, four
major jade companies in Mae Sai and Chiang Mai (another
town in northern Thailand), all established by ethnic
Chinese, dominated the jadeite trade. Though marred by
some conflict, this trade was governed by strict though
unofficial regulations that the author again ties to the
guanxi networks.
The author traces the strength of the guanxi networks
to the topography of Yunnan province, which is composed of high mountains separating one village from
another. This has led to close affiliations among
Yunnanese migrants from the same county or village.
Although these affiliations provided an incentive to create
the trading networks, the jade trade was also based on
trust (xinyong) and familism. However, trust and ties
alone were not sufficient to establish a long-term business, not only because of the complicated nature of jade
trading but also because of human fallibilities, such as
cheating. Only with the additional regulation discussed
above could the trade thrive.
KSM
Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds: Airline liability for
checked-in jewelry. E. C. Rodriguez-Dod, Journal of
Air Law and Commerce, Vol. 69, No. 4, 2004, pp.
743768.
This article reviews various legal developments concerning the rights of airline passengers to collect compensation
from carriers for jewelry lost or stolen from luggage on
both domestic and international flights. On domestic
flights, once-rigid liability limits have, since deregulation
in the late 1970s, gradually given way to allow passengers
to collect higher compensation for lost or stolen jewelry
where airline negligence is involved or the airline has not
followed its own stated procedures for handling valuable
items. For international flights, a 2003 treaty, the
Montreal Convention, has eased some requirements of the
old Warsaw Convention that had governed international
travel since 1947. A significant change has been to remove
airline liability based on the weight of the lost or pilfered
bag, instead replacing it with a fixed limit (~$1,350). The
Montreal Convention allows passengers to be compensated over the liability limit stated on the ticket if the loss
was caused by an act or omission of the air carrier that
was intentional or reckless.
However, increased security measures after September
11, 2001, have complicated issues. Theft from luggage has
skyrocketed, and neither domestic laws nor the Montreal
Convention address liability when bags are inspected by
the Transportation Safety Administration. Although both
the TSA and the airlines suggest placing valuables in
carry-on bags, TSA screeners could deem some jewelry
items too sharp to be carried on board a plane.
RS

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

VOLUME 41

INDEX

NUMBERS 14

SUBJECT INDEX
This index gives the first author (in parentheses), issue, and inclusive pages of the article in which the subject occurs.
For the Gem News International (GNI), Lab Notes (LN), and Letters (Let) sections, inclusive pages are given for the
item. The Author Index (p. 387) provides the full title and coauthors (if any) of the articles cited.

A
Afghanistan
faceted pezzottaite from Nuristan
(GNI)Sp05:6162
tenebrescent scapolite from
Badakhshan (GNI)F05:269271
Alexandrite, synthetic
with natural-appearing inclusions
(LN)F05:256257
Amazonite
green orthoclase from Vietnam, sold
as (GNI)W05:354355
Amber simulant
lizard embedded in a recent resin
(GNI)W05:361362
Amethyst
from Arizona, color zoned
(Let)Sp05:2
from Georgia (GNI)Sp05:5354
from northwestern Namibia
(GNI)Sp05:5455
Andradite
demantoid from northern Pakistan
(GNI)Su05:176177
Angola
diamond sources, mining, production,
and sales (Shor)F05:202233
Aquamarine
from Colorado (GNI)Sp05:55
glass imitation of crystal
(GNI)F05:272
saturated blue, from Nigeria
(GNI)Sp05:56
with spiral inclusions
(GNI)Sp05:6465
Arizona, see United States
Assembled gem materials
opal triplet, resembling an eye
(GNI)W05:353354
Auctions
of diamonds (Shor)F05:202233
Australia
diamond sources, mining, production,
and sales (Shor)F05:202233
rhodonite from Broken Hill
(Millsteed)F05:246254
Axinite, see Magnesioaxinite

ANNUAL INDEX

B
Benitoite
closure of Benitoite Gem mine
(GNI)F05:276
Beryl
bicolored carving from Brazil
(GNI)Sp05:52
see also Aquamarine; Emerald
Blueschist, see Rocks
Bolivia
obsidian with spessartine inclusions
from (GNI)Su05:179180
Book reviews
Arts and Crafts to Art Deco: The
Jewellery and Silver of H. G.
Murphy (Atterbury and
Benjamin)W05:371372
Collecting Fluorescent Minerals
(Schneider)Sp05:77
Crystals: Growth, Morphology and
Perfection (Sunagawa)W05:370
Daniel Swarovski: A World of Beauty
(Becker)W05:372
Exploration Criteria for Coloured
Gemstone Deposits in the Yukon
(Walton)F05:282283
50-Year History of the Tucson Show
(Jones)Sp05:77
The Gem Merchant: How to Be One,
How to Deal with One, 2nd ed.
(Epstein)W05:370371
Gemstones: Quality and Value, Vol. 1
(Suwa)F05:283
The Grandmasters of Mineral
Photography (Mineralogical
Almanac)Sp05:77
The History of Beads:
From 30,000 B.C. to the Present
(Dubin)F05:281282
Identification of Gemstones
(ODonoghue and Joyner)
Su05:189190
Masterpieces of the Mineral World:
Treasures from the Houston
Museum of Natural Science
(Wilson and Bartsch)Su05:191
Minerals and Their Localities
(Bernard and Hyrsl)Su05:190191
101 Bench Tips for Jewelers

(Revere)Su05:189
The Pegmatite Mines Known as
Palermo (Whitmore and
Lawrence)F05:283
Shinde Jewels (Keswani)F05:281
Tone Vigeland: Jewellery + Sculpture
Movements in Silver
(Brundtland)Sp05:77
Totems to Turquoise: Native North
American Jewelry Arts of the
Northwest and Southwest (Chalker,
Dubin, and Whiteley)F05:282
The Tourmaline: A Monograph
(Benesch and Whrmann)Sp05:77
Tourmalines of Malkhan (Zagorsky,
Peretyazhko, and Kushnaryov)F05:283
Understanding Jewellery, 3rd ed.
(Bennett and Mascetti)Sp05:76
Botswana
diamond sources, mining, production,
and sales (Shor)F05:202233
Branding
of diamond (Shor)F05:202233
Brazil
bicolored beryl carving from Minas
Gerais (GNI)Sp05:52
fuchsite-corundum rock from Bahia
(GNI)F05:266267
iolite from Rio Grande do Norte State
(GNI)Sp05:5859
kyanite from Minas Gerais
(GNI)Sp05:5960; with staurolite
inclusions (GNI)Su05:178179
pink fire quartz from
(LN)Sp05:4748
quartzwith fake inclusions from
(GNI)F05:272273; with gilalite
inclusions from Paraba
(GNI)F05:271272
sphene from (LN)Sp05:50
Burma, see Myanmar

C
California, see United States
Canada
diamond sources, mining, production,
and sales (Shor)F05:202233
10.53 ct rough diamond from Fort la

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381

Corne, Saskatchewan (GNI)Sp05:64

Cathodoluminescence
of jadeite from Guatemala
(GNI)F05:274276
Chalcedony
carved chain (GNI)Sp05:5657
Challenge, see Gems & Gemology
Chameleon diamonds, see Diamond,
colored
Chemical composition, see Electronmicroprobe analysis; Elemental mapping; Scanning electron microscopy;
specific gem materials
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), see
Diamond, synthetic
China
emeralds from Xinjiang Province
(GNI)Sp05:5657
spinel and clinohumite from Jinping
(GNI)W05:357
Citrine
heated crystal clusters showing adularescence (GNI)Su05:183
from northwestern Namibia
(GNI)Sp05:5455
Clinohumite
reddish orange, in spinel parcel from
China (GNI)W05:357
Coating
on pearl, orient-like (GNI)F05:272273
phosphorescent, to create a night
glowing pearl (LN)Sp05:4647
pink, of diamond (Evans)Sp05:3641
Colombia
emerald phantom crystal from Muzo
(GNI)W05:351352
Color, cause of
in brown and black diamond
(GNI)Su05:185
in color-change Cu-bearing tourmaline from Mozambique
(LN)Su05:173175
in yellow diamonds
(King)Su05:88115
Color change
in Cu-bearing tourmaline from
Mozambique (LN)Su05:173175
in Purple Zandrite glass
(GNI)W05:364365
in Zandrite glass (erratum)W05:369
see also Tenebrescence
Color grading
of 21.42 ct yellow eagles head diamond, uneven (LN)W05:344345
of yellow diamonds
(King)Su05:88115
Color zoning
in amethyst from Four Peaks, Arizona
(Let)Sp05:2
in a chameleon diamond
(Hainschwang)Sp05:2035
in emerald from Zambia
(Zwaan)Su05:116148
in orange treated diamonds
(LN)W05:340341

382

ANNUAL INDEX

in pink-to-red treated diamonds

(Shigley)Sp05:619
see also Growth structure
Colorado, see United States
Conference reports
Applied Diamond Conference 2005
(GNI)F05:274275
Diamond 2005 (GNI)W05:365366
GemmoBasel 2005
(GNI)Su05:185187
Geological Society of America 2005
(GNI)W05:366367
Goldschmidt05 (GNI)F05:275276
International Geological Congress
(GNI)Sp05:6769
World Diamond Conference
(GNI)Sp05:70, W05:367368
Conflict diamonds
in Angola, Sierra Leone, and the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
(Shor)F05:202233
Corundum, see Fuchsite-corundum;
Ruby; Sapphire
Country of origin, see Geographic origin
Crystal morphology
of cubic diamond (GNI)W05:365366
Cubic zirconia
as rough sapphire imitation
(GNI)W05:362
yellow, imitating cape diamonds
(LN)W05:340341
see also Yttrium zirconium oxide
Cultured pearl, see Pearl, cultured
Cuts and cutting
of emerald from Zambia
(Zwaan)Su05:116148
see also Diamond, cuts and cutting of
CVD-grown synthetic diamond, see
Diamond, synthetic
Czech Republic
Malossi synthetic emerald grown in
(Adamo)W05:328338

D
De Beers
Supplier of Choice (Shor)F05:202233
Demantoid, see Andradite
Democratic Republic of the Congo
diamond sources, mining, production,
and sales (Shor)F05:202233
plagioclase: actually from Tibet?
(GNI)W05:356357
Diamond
demand for, in U.S. and Asia
(Shor)F05:202233
economic review of, 1990s and 2000s
(Boyajian)F05:201,
(Shor)F05:202233
manufacturing, distribution, marketing, and economics of
(Shor)F05:202233
morphology of cubic crystals
(GNI)W05:365366
production of rough worldwide,
19912003 (Shor)F05:202233

10.53 ct rough from Saskatchewan,

Canada (GNI)Sp05:64
see also Diamond, colored; Diamond,
cuts and cutting of; Diamond, inclusions in; Diamond simulant;
Diamond, synthetic; Diamond
treatment
Diamond, colored
bluestrongly colored type IIb
(LN)F05:258259; with type IIb and
IIa zones (LN)Su05:167168
brown and black, cause of color in
(GNI)Su05:185
chameleon, characterization of
(Hainschwang)Sp05:2035
coated to appear pink
(Evans)Sp05:3641
demand for (Shor)F05:202233
green, with radiation stains and 3H
defect (LN)Sp05:4243
in mosaic artwork (GNI)F05:264
orange, treated by multiple processes
(LN)W05:341342
pink, with a temporary color change
(LN)W05:342344
pink to red, treated by multiple methods (Shigley)Sp05:619
pink-brown, type Ib with high N
(LN)Su05:168170
yellowcharacterization and grading
of (King)Su05:88115; CZ imitation of (LN)W05:340341; HPHTtreated type IIa (LN)Sp05:4345;
irradiated and fracture-filled
(LN)Su05:164165; 21.42 ct, cut as
eagles head (LN)W05:344345;
with zones of H3 absorption
(LN)Sp05:4546
see also Diamond, synthetic;
Diamond treatment
Diamond, cuts and cutting of
developments in the 1990s and 2000s
(Shor)F05:202233
yellow(King)Su05:88115; 21.42 ct,
resembling eagles head
(LN)W05:344345
Diamond, inclusions in
of carbonates and solid CO2 in large
diamond (LN)Su05:165167
in pink-to-red treated diamonds
(Shigley)Sp05:619
in yellow diamonds
(King)Su05:88115
Diamond simulant
barium-rich glass, imitating rough
(GNI)W05:362363
CZ imitating cape diamonds
(LN)W05:340341
Diamond, synthetic
CVDcubic morphology
(GNI)W05:365366; gem-quality,
from France (Wang)F05:234244
effect on market (Shor)F05:202233
facts about (Overlin)Sp05:86
orange-yellow melee, submitted for
lab reports (LN)W05:345346

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

Diamond treatment
coated pink (Evans)Sp05:3641
dyed rough (LN)F05:257258
effect on market (Shor)F05:202233
HPHT processin combination with
other methods to produce a pink-tored color (Shigley)Sp05:619; of type
IIa yellow (LN)Sp05:4345
irradiation and fracture fillingof a
bluish green diamond (LN)Sp05:46;
of a yellow diamond
(LN)Su05:164165
laser drilling, with unusual holes
(LN)Su05:170
multiple processesto produce orange
(LN)W05:340341; to produce pink
to red (Shigley)Sp05:619
DiamondView instrument
and graining in diamond with carbonate and CO2 inclusions
(LN)Su05:165167
and growth structure of pink-to-red
treated diamonds
(Shigley)Sp05:619
and H3 zoning in a natural yellow diamond (LN)Sp05:4546
images of orange-yellow synthetic
diamond melee (LN)W05:345346
and luminescence and dislocation
networks in CVD synthetic diamonds from France (Wang)
F05:234244
and red phosphorescence in dark blue
type IIb diamonds (LN)F05:258259
and temporary color change in pink
diamonds (LN)W05:342344
and unusual pattern in type Ib pinkbrown diamond, with high N
(LN)Su05:168170
and zoned phosphorescence in a light
blue diamond with type IIb and IIa
zones (LN)Su05:167168
Diaspore
vein in sapphire (LN)W05:346347
Dyeing
of fibrolite to imitate ruby
(GNI)F05:274

E
Editorials
The Experts behind Gems &
Gemology: Our Editorial Review
Board (Keller)Su05:87
In Memory of Dr. Edward J.
Gbelin (Keller)Sp05:1
One Hundred Issues and Counting. . .
(Keller)W05:295
Shifting Tides in the Diamond
Industry (Boyajian)F05:201
Electron-microprobe analysis
of color-change Cu-bearing tourmaline from Mozambique
(LN)Su05:173175
of emerald from Zambia
(Zwaan)Su05:116148
of faceted pezzottaite from

ANNUAL INDEX

Afghanistan (GNI)Sp05:6162
of Malossi synthetic emerald
(Adamo)W05:328338
of tourmaline from Mt. Mica, Maine
(Simmons)Su05:150163
of yellowish orange magnesioaxinite
from Tanzania (LN)Su05:170171
Elemental mapping
of a pink coated diamond
(Evans)Sp05:3641
Emerald
phantom crystal from Colombia
(GNI)W05:351352
with synthetic-appearing inclusions
(GNI)F05:265266
trapiche earrings (GNI)W05:352
from Xinjiang, China
(GNI)Sp05:5657
from Zambia (Zwaan)Su05:116148
Emerald, synthetic
Malossi hydrothermal
(Adamo)W05:328338
Enhancement, see Coating; Diamond
treatment; Dyeing; Treatment; specific gem materials
Errata
to Coated pink diamond
(Evans)Sp05:3641spectra transposed (GNI)Su05:187
to Color-change alexandrite imitation (GNI)Sp04:7374not a true
color change (GNI)W05:369
to Triplite from Pakistan
(GNI)W04:346347from Braldu
Valley, not Shigar Valley
(GNI)F05:277
Ethiopia
pyrope-almandine from Hagare
Mariam (GNI)Su05:177

F
Faceting, see Cuts and cutting;
Diamond, cuts and cutting of;
Lapidary arts
Fakes, see Simulants; specific gem materials simulated
Feldspar
albitic moonstone from Tanzania
(GNI)Sp05:6061
green, from Myanmar
(GNI)W05:354355
green orthoclase from Vietnam
(GNI)W05:354355
moonstone with bamboo-like etch
tubes (GNI)Sp05:6465
plagioclase from Tibet
(GNI)W05:356357
see also Sunstone
Fibrolite, see Sillimanite
Filling, fracture or cavity
and irradiationof a bluish green diamond (LN)Sp05:46; of yellow diamonds (LN)Su05:164165
of ruby with lead glass, seen in
Bahrain (GNI)Su05:184185

Fluorescence, ultraviolet
of Ba-rich glass imitating diamond
rough (GNI)W05:362363
of dyed golden freshwater cultured
pearls (LN)Su05:172173
of yellow diamonds
(King)Su05:88115
see also DiamondView instrument
Fracture filling, see Filling, fracture or
cavity
France
CVD synthetic diamonds from
LIMHP-CNRS (Wang)F05:234244
Fuchsite-corundum
rock from Brazil (GNI)F05:266267

G
Garnet, see Andradite; Grossular; Pyropealmandine
Gems & Gemology
ChallengeSp05:7475; winners
and answers F05:279
Editorial Review Board members
(Keller)Su05:87
Edward J. Gbelin Most Valuable
Article AwardSp05:23; history of
(Kane)W05:298327
19341980 back issues online
(Overlin)W05:388
Geographic origin
of emerald (Zwaan)Su05:116148
of turquoise from U.S.
(GNI)W05:366367
use of inclusions to determine
(Kane)W05:298327
Georgia, see United States
Glass
barium-rich, imitating diamond rough
(GNI)W05:362363
color-change, sold as Purple Zandrite
(GNI)W05:364365
imitation aquamarine crystal
(GNI)F05:272
see also Obsidian
Gold
in quartzmanufactured
(GNI)Sp05:63; from Mariposa
County, California (GNI)Sp05:5859
Grading
of yellow diamonds
(King)Su05:88115
Graining
in diamond with carbonate and CO2
inclusions (LN)Su05:165167
Grossular
68.55 ct greenish yellow, from East
Africa (GNI)W05:352353
Growth structure
in CVD synthetic diamonds from
France (Wang)F05:234244
in Nigerian aquamarine (GNI)Sp05:56
in pink-to-red treated diamonds
(Shigley)Sp05:619
Gbelin, Edward J.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

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383

memorial to (Keller)Sp05:1
profile of (Kane)W05:298327
(Edward J.) Gbelin Gem Collection
scope of (Kane)W05:298327
Gbelin Gem Lab
and E. J. Gbelin (Kane)W05:298327

H
High pressure/high temperature (HPHT)
treatment, see Diamond treatment
Hurlbut C.S.
obituary (GNI)F05:277

I
Idaho, see United States
Imitations, see specific gem materials
imitated
Inclusions
bamboo-like filled etch tubes in
moonstone (GNI)Sp05:6465
of bismuthinite in rose quartz
(GNI)Su05:181182
bread crumbs in yellow hydrothermal synthetic sapphire
(GNI)Su05:182
of carbonates and solid CO2 in diamond (LN)Su05:165167
classification of, by E. J. Gbelin
(Kane)W05:298327
of covellite in pink fire quartz
(LN)Sp05:4748
in CVD synthetic diamonds from
France (Wang)F05:234244
of diaspore in sapphire
(LN)W05:346347
in emerald from Zambia
(Zwaan)Su05:116148
fake, in quartz from Brazil
(GNI)F05:272273
of fluorite in quartz
(GNI)Su05:180181
of gilalite in quartz
(GNI)F05:271272
of hematite in sunstone from Orissa
(GNI)Su05:178
of lizard in a recent resin
(GNI)W05:361362
in Malossi synthetic emerald
(Adamo)W05:328338
of pezzottaite in quartz
(GNI)Sp05:6566
in pink-to-red treated diamonds
(Shigley)Sp05:619
in rhodonite from Australia
(Millsteed)F05:246254
in sapphire from Tamil Nadu, India
(GNI)F05:268269
of spessartine in obsidian
(GNI)Su05:179180
spiral, in aquamarine from Pakistan
(GNI)Sp05:6465
of staurolite in kyanite from Brazil
(GNI)Su05:178179

384

ANNUAL INDEX

study of, by E. J. Gbelin

(Kane)W05:298327
in synthetic alexandrite
(LN)F05:256257
synthetic-appearing, in emerald
(GNI)F05:265266
in tenebrescent scapolite from
Afghanistan (GNI)F05:269271
in tourmaline from Mt. Mica, Maine
(Simmons)Su05:150163
in yellow diamonds
(King)Su05:88115
see also Diamond, inclusions in
India
diamond manufacturing in
(Shor)F05:202233
faceted orange and brown sunstone
from Orissa (GNI)Su05:178
sapphire from Tamil Nadu
(GNI)F05:268269
Infrared spectroscopy, see Spectroscopy,
infrared
Instruments
developed by E. J. Gbelin
(Kane)W05:298327
see also DiamondView instrument
International Gemmological Conference
as co-founded by E. J. Gbelin
(Kane)W05:298327
Internet
and diamond retailing
(Shor)F05:202233
Iolite
from northeastern Brazil
(GNI)Sp05:5859
Irradiation
in combination with other methods to
treat pink-to-red diamonds
(Shigley)Sp05:619
and fracture fillingof a bluish green
diamond (LN)Sp05:46; of yellow
diamonds (LN)Su05:164165
Isotopic composition
of emerald from Zambia
(Zwaan)Su05:116148
of turquoise from the U.S.
(GNI)W05:366367
Italy
blueschist from the Aosta Valley
(GNI)W05:350351
Malossi synthetic emerald
(Adamo)W05:328338

J
Jadeite
cathodoluminescence of, from
Guatemala (GNI)F05:274276

K
Kenya
ruby and sapphire from Lake Baringo
area (GNI)Su05:177178
Kimberley Process
to eliminate illicit diamonds from the

world market (Shor)F05:202233

Kyanite
from Brazil and Nepal (GNI)Sp05:5960
with staurolite inclusions, from Brazil
(GNI)Su05:178179

L
Lapidary arts
carved chalcedony chain
(GNI)Sp05:5657
Elements collection
(GNI)Sp05:5253
facets representing eagles feathers
(LN)W05:344345
kyanite beads (GNI)Sp05:5960
see also Diamond, cuts and cutting of;
Mosaic
Laser drilling
of diamond, unusual holes in
(LN)Su05:170
Letters
amethyst from Four Peaks, Arizona,
color zoned (Let)Sp05:2
spectroscopy of yellow diamonds
(Let)W05:297
Leviev, Lev
and diamond mining/manufacturing
(Shor)F05:202233
Levinson, Alfred A.
obituary (Let)W05:297
Lucent Diamonds
pink-to-red treated diamonds from
(Shigley)Sp05:619
Luminescence
of chameleon diamonds
(Hainschwang)Sp05:2035
of pink-to-red treated diamonds
(Shigley)Sp05:619
see also Cathodoluminescence;
DiamondView instrument;
Fluorescence, ultraviolet;
Phosphorescence

M
Madagascar
pezzottaite in quartz from
(GNI)Sp05:6566
quartz with fluorite inclusions from
Fianarantsoa (GNI)Su05:180 181
rose quartz with bismuthinite inclusions from Mahaiza
(GNI)Su05:181182
Magnesioaxinite
yellowish orange (LN)Su05:170171
Maine, see United States
Mexico
pen shell pearls from Baja California
(GNI)F05:267
Microprobe, see Electron-microprobe
analysis
Mining and exploration
for emeralds from Zambia
(Zwaan)Su05:116148
for tourmaline from Mt. Mica,

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

Maine(Simmons)Su05:150163;
(GNI)W05:357360
Montana, see United States
Moonstone, see Feldspar
Mosaic
artwork fashioned from faceted colored diamonds (GNI)F05:264
Mozambique
Cu-bearing tourmaline fromblue
and blue-green (GNI)W05:360361;
color-change (LN)Su05:173175
Myanmar
bamboo moonstone from Mogok
(GNI)Sp05:6465
E. J. Gbelin travels to
(Kane)W05:298327
green feldspar from Mogok
(GNI)W05:354355
painite from Namya (GNI)W05:356
U.S. import ban of gemstones from
(GNI)Sp05:71

N
Namibia
amethyst and citrine from Skeleton
Coast Park (GNI)Sp05:5455
Nepal
kyanite beads from (GNI)Sp05:5960
Nigeria
saturated blue aquamarine from
(GNI)Sp05:56
Night glowing pearl
talc-serpentine rock with a phosphorescent coating (LN)Sp05:4647

Pearl
grayish greenish yellow, from South
America (LN)W05:347
large freshwater, from Texas
(LN)F05:259260
with orient-like coating
(GNI)F05:272273
pen shell, from Mexico (GNI)F05:267
with a round core (LN)F05:260261
Pearl, cultured
black, unusually small
(LN)W05:347348
chocolate Tahitian
(GNI)Su05:183184
with cultured-pearl nucleus
(LN)Su05:171172
dyed golden freshwater
(LN)Su05:172173
golden, large baroque from South
Seas (LN)Su05:261
Pezzottaite
faceted, from Afghanistan
(GNI)Sp05:6162
inclusions in quartz from Madagascar
(GNI)Sp05:6566
Phosphorescence
of coated night glowing pearl
(LN)Sp05:4647
of light blue diamond with type IIb
and IIa zones (LN)Su05:167168
see also DiamondView instrument
Photomicrography
of inclusions, by E. J. Gbelin
(Kane)W05:298327
Plagioclase, see Feldspar
Pyrope-almandine
from Ethiopia (GNI)Su05:177

O
Obituary
Gbelin, Edward J. (Keller)Sp05:1
Hurlbut, C.S. (GNI)F05:277
Levinson, Alfred A. (Let)W05:297
Obsidian
with spessartine inclusions
(GNI)Su05:179180
Opal
triplet, resembling an eye
(GNI)W05:353354
Orthoclase, see Feldspar

P
Painite
new discoveries, from Myanmar
(GNI)W05:356
Pakistan
aquamarine with spiral inclusions,
from Baltistan (GNI)Sp05:6465
demantoid from Kaghan Valley
(GNI)Su05:176177
treated-color orange topaz from
(GNI)Sp05:6667
PATRIOT Act
antimoney laundering legislation
(Shor)F05:202233

ANNUAL INDEX

Q
Quartz
covellite in (pink fire quartz)
(LN)Sp05:4748
with fake inclusions
(GNI)F05:272273
with fluorite inclusions
(GNI)Su05:180181
with gilalite inclusions
(GNI)F05:271272
gold-in-, from Mariposa County,
California (GNI)Sp05:5859
manufactured gold-/silver-in
(GNI)Sp05:63
pezzottaite in (GNI)Sp05:6566
rock crystal, with unusual surface texture (LN)Sp05:4950
rose, with bismuthinite inclusions
(GNI)Su05:181182
see also Amethyst; Citrine

R
Rhodonite
inclusions in (Millsteed)F05:246254
Rocks
blueschist from Italy

(GNI)W05:350351
talc-serpentine, with phosphorescent
coating (LN)Sp05:4647
see also Fuchsite-corundum
Rose quartz, see Quartz
Ruby
from Lake Baringo, Kenya
(GNI)Su05:177178
lead glassfilled, seen in Bahrain
(GNI)Su05:184185
Ruby simulant
dyed fibrolite (GNI)F05:274
Russia
diamond sources, mining, production,
and sales (Shor)F05:202233

S
Sapphire
closure of Vortex mine in Yogo Gulch,
Montana (GNI)F05:276
CZ imitating rough (GNI)W05:362
diaspore vein in (LN)W05:346347
pink, from Lake Baringo, Kenya
(GNI)Su05:177178
from Tamil Nadu, India
(GNI)F05:268269
Sapphire, synthetic
hydrothermal yellow, seen in India
(GNI)Su05:182
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
of emerald from Zambia
(Zwaan)Su05:116148
of a pink coated diamond
(Evans)Sp05:3641
Scapolite
tenebrescent, from Afghanistan
(GNI)F05:269271
Sierra Leone
diamond sources, mining, production,
and sales (Shor)F05:202233
Sillimanite
fibrolite, dyed to imitate ruby
(GNI)F05:274
Silver
in quartz, manufactured (GNI)Sp05:63
Simulants
manufactured gold-/silver-in-quartz
(GNI)Sp05:63
see also Glass; specific gem materials
simulated
South Africa
diamond sources, mining, production,
and sales (Shor)F05:202233
South America
grayish greenish yellow pearl from
(LN)W05:347
South Sea cultured pearl, see Pearl, cultured
Spectroscopy, diffuse reflectance infrared
to identify turquoise
(LN)W05:348349
Spectroscopy, infrared
of Ba-rich glass imitating diamond
rough (GNI)W05:362363
of brown and black diamonds

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

385

(GNI)Su05:185
of chameleon diamonds
(Hainschwang)Sp05:2035
of CVD synthetic diamonds from
France (Wang)F05:234244
of dark blue type IIb diamonds
(LN)F05:258259
of a diamond with carbonate and CO2
inclusions (LN)Su05:165167
of an emerald with synthetic-appearing inclusions (GNI)F05:265266
of emerald from Zambia
(Zwaan)Su05:116148
of green orthoclase from Vietnam
(GNI)W05:354355
of a light blue diamond with type IIb
and IIa zones (LN)Su05:167168
of Malossi synthetic emerald
(Adamo)W05:328338
of a pink coated diamond
(Evans)Sp05:3641
of a pink-brown diamond, type Ib with
high N (LN)Su05:168170
of pink-to-red treated diamonds
(Shigley)Sp05:619
of yellow diamonds
(King)Su05:88115
of yttrium zirconium oxide
(LN)F05:262263
Spectroscopy, photoluminescence
of chameleon diamonds
(Hainschwang)Sp05:2035
of CVD synthetic diamonds from
France (Wang)F05:234244
of dark blue type IIb diamonds
(LN)F05:258259
of a diamond with carbonate and CO2
inclusions (LN)Su05:165167
of pink-to-red treated diamonds
(Shigley)Sp05:619
of a yellow diamond with H3 absorption (LN)Sp05:4546
Spectroscopy, Raman
of diaspore in sapphire
(LN)W05:346347
of inclusions in rhodonite from
Australia (Millsteed)F05:246254
Spectroscopy, UV-Vis-NIR
of chameleon diamonds
(Hainschwang)Sp05:2035
of color-change Cu-bearing tourmaline from Mozambique
(LN)Su05:173175
of CVD synthetic diamonds from
France (Wang)F05:234244
of emerald from Zambia
(Zwaan)Su05:116148
of a green diamond with a 3H defect
(LN)Sp05:4243
of green orthoclase from Vietnam
(GNI)W05:354355
of greenish yellow grossular from East
Africa (GNI)W05:352353
of a light blue diamond with type IIb
and IIa zones (LN)Su05:167168
of Malossi synthetic emerald
(Adamo)W05:328338

386

ANNUAL INDEX

of a pink coated diamond

(Evans)Sp05:3641
of pink diamonds with a temporary
color change (LN)W05:342344
of a pink-brown diamond, type Ib with
high N (LN)Su05:168170
of pink-to-red treated diamonds
(Shigley)Sp05:619
of yellow diamonds(King)
Su05:88115; HPHT-treated type IIa
(LN)Sp05:4345
Spectroscopy, visible
of pink diamonds with a temporary
color change (LN)W05:342344
of yellow CZ and irradiated/annealed
diamond (LN)W05:340341
Sphene (titanite)
with unusual surface (LN)Sp05:50
Spinel
from China (GNI)W05:357
Sunstone
faceted orange and brown oligoclase
from India (GNI)Su05:178
Surface coating, see Coating
Swiss Gemmological Society
as co-founded by E. J. Gbelin
(Kane)W05:298327
Synthetics, see specific gem materials

T
Tanzania
albitic moonstone from Morogoro
(GNI)Sp05:6061
yellowish orange magnesioaxinite
from (LN)Su05:170171
see also Tanzanite
Tanzanite
CZ imitating rough (GNI)W05:362
marketing by TanzaniteOne
(GNI)Sp05:63
Tenebrescence
in scapolite from Afghanistan
(GNI)F05:269271
Texas, see United States
Tibet
plagioclase reportedly from Nyima
(GNI)W05:356357
Topaz
treated-color orange, from Pakistan
(GNI)Sp05:6667
Tourmaline
Cu-bearing, from Mozambiqueblue
and blue-green (GNI)W05:360361;
color-change (LN)Su05:173175
from Mt. Mica, Maine
(Simmons)Su05:150163; update on
(GNI)W05:357360
Treatment
to produce orange color in topaz
(GNI)Sp05:6667
see also Coating; Dyeing; Diamond
treatment; Filling, fracture or cavity; HPHT treatment; Irradiation;
Laser drilling
Triplet, see Assembled gem materials

Turquoise
identification of, with diffuse
reflectance IR spectroscopy
(LN)W05:348349
isotopic composition of
(GNI)W05:366367
synthetic beads in necklace
(LN)F05:261262

U
United States
amethystcolor zoned, from Four
Peaks, Arizona (Let)Sp05:2; from
Wilks County, Georgia
(GNI)Sp05:5354
aquamarine from Mt. Antero,
Colorado (GNI)Sp05:55
Benitoite Gem mine in California,
closure of (GNI)F05:276
gold-in-quartz from Mariposa County,
California (GNI)Sp05:5859
import ban on Burmese gemstones
(GNI)Sp05:71
large freshwater pearl from Texas
(LN)F05:259260
opal triplet resembling an eye, from
Idaho (GNI)W05:353354
tourmaline from Mt. Mica, Maine
(Simmons)Su05:150163; update on
(GNI)W05:357360
Vortex Sapphire mine in Yogo Gulch,
Montana, closure of (GNI)F05:276

V
Van Pelt, Harold and Erica
profile of (Overlin)Su05:200
Vietnam
green orthoclase from Luc Yen
(GNI)W05:354355

X
X-radiography
of a cultured pearl with cultured-pearl
nucleus (LN)Su05:171172
of a lizard embedded in a recent resin
(GNI)W05:361362
of a natural pearl with a round core
(LN)F05:260261

Y
Yttrium zirconium oxide
Greenish blue, resembling zircon
(LN)F05:262263

Z
Zaire, see Democratic Republic of the
Congo
Zambia
emerald from Kafubu and Musakashi
(Zwaan)Su05:116148
Zircon
yttrium zirconium oxide imitation of
(LN)F05:262263

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

AUTHOR INDEX
This index lists, in alphabetical order, the authors of all articles that appeared in the four issues of Volume 41 of GEMS
& GEMOLOGY, together with the full title and inclusive page numbers of each article and the issue (in parentheses). Full
citation is given under the first author only, with reference made from joint authors.

A
Achard J., see Wang W.
Adamo I., Pavese A., Prosperi L., Diella
V., Merlini M., Gemmi M., Aj D.:
Characterization of the new Malossi
hydrothermal synthetic emerald,
328338 (Winter)
Aj D., see Adamo I.
Anckar B., see Zwaan J.C.

B
Boehm E.W., see Kane R.E.
Boyajian W.E.: Shifting tides in the diamond industry, 201 (Fall)
Breeding C.M., see Wang W.

C
Creagh D.C., see Millsteed P.W.

D
Deljanin B., see Hainschwang T.
DelRe N., see Hainschwang T.
Diella V., see Adamo I.
Dirlam D.M., see Kane R.E.

E
Evans D.J.F., Fisher D., Kelly C.J.: Coated
pink diamondA cautionary tale,
3641 (Spring)

F
Falster A.U., see Simmons W.B.,
Zwaan J.C.
Fisher D., see Evans D.J.F.
Fritsch E., see Hainschwang T.

G
Garcia-Guillerminet H., see Zwaan J.C.
Gelb T.H., see King J.M.
Gemmi M., see Adamo I.
Gicquel A., see Wang W.
Guhin S.S., see King J.M.

H
Hainschwang T., Simic D., Fritsch E.,
Deljanin B., Woodring S., DelRe N.: A

ANNUAL INDEX

gemological study of a collection of

chameleon diamonds, 2035 (Spring)
Hall M., see King J.M., Wang W.

Overlin S., see also Kane R.E.

P
Pavese A., see Adamo I.
Prosperi L., see Adamo I.

K
Kane R.E., Boehm E.W., Overlin S.,
Dirlam D.M., Koivula J.I., Smith C.P.:
A gemological pioneer: Dr. Edward J.
Gbelin, 298327 (Winter)
Keller A.S.:
The experts behind Gems &
Gemology: Our editorial review
board, 87 (Summer)
In memory of Dr. Edward J. Gbelin, 1
(Spring)
One hundred issues and counting. . .,
295 (Winter)
Kelly C.J., see Evans D.J.F.
King J.M., Shigley J.E., Gelb T.H.,
Guhin S.S., Hall M., Wang W.:
Characterization and grading of natural-color yellow diamonds, 88115
(Summer)
Koivula J.I., see Kane R.E., Simmons
W.B., Zwaan J.C.

S
Seifert A.V., see Zwaan J.C.
Shigley J.E., see King J.M.
Shor R.: A review of the political and economic forces shaping todays diamond
industry, 202233 (Fall)
Simic D., see Hainschwang T.
Simmons W.B., Laurs B.M., Falster A.U.,
Koivula J.I., Webber K.L.: Mt. Mica: A
renaissance in Maines gem tourmaline
production, 150163 (Summer)
Simmons W.B., see also Zwaan J.C.
Smith C.P., see Kane R.E., Wang W.
Sussmann R.S., see Wang W.

T
Tallaire A., see Wang W.

Laurs B.M., see Simmons W.B., Zwaan J.C.

Lustenhouwer W.J., see Zwaan J.C.

Vrna S., see Zwaan J.C.

M
Merlini M., see Adamo I.
Mernagh T.P., see Millsteed P.W.
Millsteed P.W., Mernagh T.P., OtienoAlego V., Creagh D.C.: Inclusions in
transparent gem rhodonite from Broken
Hill, New South Wales, Australia,
246254 (Fall)
Moses T.M., see Wang W.
Muhlmeister S., see Zwaan J.C.

O
Otieno-Alego V., see Millsteed P.W.
Overlin S.:
Fast facts about synthetic diamonds,
86 (Spring)
The G&G digital archives,
19341980, 388 (Winter)
The other side of the lens, 200
(Summer)

Wang W., Smith C.P., Hall M., Breeding

C.M., Moses T.M.: Treated-color pinkto-red diamonds from Lucent
Diamonds Inc., 619 (Spring)
Wang W., Tallaire A., Hall M., Moses
T.M., Achard J., Sussmann R.S.,
Gicquel A.: Experimental CVD synthetic diamonds from LIMHP-CNRS,
France, 234244 (Fall)
Wang W., see also King J.M.
Webber K.L., see Simmons W.B.
Woodring S., see Hainschwang T.

Z
Zwaan J.C., Seifert A.V., Vrna S., Laurs
B.M., Anckar B., Simmons W.B., Falster
A.U., Lustenhouwer W.J., Muhlmeister
S., Koivula J.I., Garcia-Guillerminet H.:
Emeralds from the Kafubu area,
Zambia, 116148 (Summer)

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

387

The

LAST Page

The

G&G

Digital Archives
19341980

Yet the modest appearance of these early

issues belies the value of their content. While
the first few issues were a reflection of the
nascent gemological movement, featuring lighter pieces
such as selling tips for jewelers and the lore of famous
gems, G&G quickly matured into a forum for groundbreaking research. Within a few years, seminal articles
on identification techniques, new gem localities, and
detecting the synthetics and imitations of the day had
become the cornerstone of the journals coverage.
Among the regular contributors to G&G during this era
were some of the worlds most influential gemologists,
including Basil W. Anderson, Sydney Ball, Edward J.
Gbelin, Edward Kraus, Karl Schlossmacher, and Robert
Webster, as well as GIAs own Richard T. Liddicoat and
G. Robert Crowningshield.
On the eve of the Institutes 75th anniversary, we are
pleased to offer free, unlimited electronic access to these
early issues on our website. Visit www.gia.edu/
gemsandgemology and click on the 19341980 Back
Issues button to find links to PDF files of all 192 issues
(for those doing the math, G&G was published bimonthly during its first two years). To view and download the
complete contents, you simply need to have Adobe

388

THE LAST PAGE

Photo by Karen Myers

n addition to GIAs educational, laboratory,

and instrument services, Institute founder
Robert M. Shipley envisioned a technical
journal dedicated to serving the needs of the
professional jeweler. Three years after GIA
opened its doors, Shipleys dream was realized in January 1934 with the first issue of
Gems & Gemology. The look of that inaugural
issueblack-and-white, a small 5 1 2 8 12
inch format, and a slender 32 pages
remained essentially unchanged until 1981.

Reader installed on your computer; this free software can

be downloaded easily at www.adobe.com/products/
acrobat/readstep2.html.
To help users retrieve the information they need, the
19341980 Back Issues page also contains searchable
subject and author indexes for every issue through 1968
(the final 12 years are still in the works). These indexes
were compiled over the last two years by a pair of distinguished academics, Dr. Richard V. Dietrich of Central
Michigan University and the late Dr. Alfred A. Levinson
of the University of Calgary (see p. 297). Our heartfelt
thanks go to Drs. Dietrich and Levinson for volunteering
their time to create this immensely useful guide to the
journals first 35 years.
So visit our website and explore the wealth of information
in the 19341980 back issue archives. We hope this will
be a useful and interesting resource for gemologists everywhere. If you have thoughts on the archives or the index,
please send us an e-mail at [email protected].
Stuart Overlin
Associate Editor

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

WINTER 2005

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