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Study Material For Oracle

The document discusses Oracle, a database management system. It describes Oracle as software that manages data on a server to allow multiple users to concurrently access and retrieve data. Oracle uses a relational model to store and manage data. The Oracle server receives SQL commands from users and executes them on the database. Client applications interact with users while the Oracle server, or back-end, manages the database.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

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Study Material For Oracle

Uploaded by

avinash

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Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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ORACLE

It is a DBMS, which manages a large amount of data in a multi user

environment so that many users concurrently access the data. It also
provides security and Recovery. It stores and manages data using relational
model.
Oracle is the name of database management system developed by Oracle
Corporation.
Oracle server manages data in the database. Users access Oracle server
using SQL commands. So Oracle server receives SQL commands from users
and executes them on the database.

ORACLE SERVER

Database

Oracles Role in Client / Server Computing

Client/Server computing is a method in which
Database is stored on the server in the network
A dedicated program, called back-end, runs on the server to manage
database, which is also stored on the server.
User access the data in database by running application, also called
as front-end from clients, that accesses back-end running on the
server.
Applications running on the clients interact with the user.
Back-end takes care of total database management.

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Client application and back-end run on different machines, which

may be of different types. For example, back-end may run on
mainframe and front-end may be on a PC.

Oracle is a database system that runs on the server, and used to manage
the data. The other name to database server is Back-End.
The latest version of the Oracle server is 9i.
Oracle server runs on different platforms. The following are some of the
platforms on which Oracle runs.
Windows NT.
Novel Netware
Unix

What is Personal Oracle?

Personal Oracle is one of the flavors of Oracle. In this Oracle server and
client both run on the same machine. This is unlike other flavors where
Oracle Server runs on Server and Front-end runs on Client.
It is possible to develop an application using Personal Oracle and deploy it in
a Client / Server environment. Personal Oracle can support up to 15
database connections.

Features of Oracle
The following are some of the important features of Oracle Server.

Large Database Support

Oracle supports largest database, potentially hundreds of pita bytes in size.
It also allows efficient usage of space by providing full control on space
management.

Data Concurrence
Oracle supports concurrent access to database by multiple users. It
automatically locks and unlocks rows to maintain integrity of the data.

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Data Files
Redo log files
Control files
These files automatically create when database is created.

Data Files
It contains the data of the database. Every table that is stored in the
database is a part of these files. Only Oracle Server can interpret these data
files.
Redo Log Files
Every database has a set of two or more Redo Log files. The set of redo log
files is known as databases redo log. Redo Log files are used in failure
recovery. All changes made to the database are written to redo log file.
(Filenames redo01.log)
Control Files
Contain information required to verify the integrity of the database,
including the names of the other files in the database (Extension of file is ctl)
Database Name
Names and locations of data files and redo log files.
Path We can use this Oracle\oradata\orcl path in the server to see all the
3 types of files

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Logical Structure
Logical Structure is independent of Physical structure. Each Oracle
database contains the following components.

Tablespaces
Segments
Extents
Blocks

Tablespace
Each Database is a collection of tablespaces. For example we can use a table
space called PAYROLL to store all the data related to payroll application.
Every database contains SYSTEM tablespace. This is automatically created
when a database is created. SYSTEM tablespace contains the data
dictionary tables.
It is possible to make tablespace temporarily unavailable by making it offline and makes it available again by changing it to on-line. By making a
tablespace off-line, DBA can take the backup.
Segments
Data into table spaces comes in the form of segments.
Example Table is a segment
An Oracle database requires up to 4 types of segments

Data segments
Index Segments
Rollback segments
Temporary segments

It is used to store data of tables

Used to store indexes
Undo information is stored
Oracle stores Temporary tables

Extents
The storage space is allocated to segments is in the form of Extents. Each
Tablespace contains 65536 data files N number of such Table spaces creates
a database. An extent is made with in a data file. N Number of continuous
db blocks makes up an Extent.

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Overall System Structure

A database system is partitioned into modules, which handles different
responsibilities of over all system.
The functional components of a database system are
Query processor Component
Storage manager component

Query Processor Component

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Query process

1 Parse
2 Execute
3 Fetch

3
Server
Proces
s

1
User
Process

2
Clie
nt

When User connects to the database, it automatically creates two different

processes called as User process and Server Process. The user process is the
application program that originates SQL statements. The server process
executes the statements sent from the user process.
There

are three main stages in the processing of a query:

Parse
Execute
Fetch

Parsing
During the parse stage, the SQL statement is passed from the user process
to the server process, and a parsed representation of the SQL statement is
loaded into a shared SQL area.
During the parse, the server process performs the following functions:
Searches for an existing copy of the SQL statement in the shared pool
validates the SQL statement by checking its syntax

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Performs data dictionary lookups to validate table and column

definitions

Execute

Execute: Identify rows selected

The steps to be taken when executing the statement
The optimizer is the function in the Oracle Server that determines the
optimal execution plan.

Fetch
Fetch: Return rows to user process. With each fetch process, it can fetch 20
records at a time.

DML Processing Steps

A data manipulation language (DML) statement requires only two phases of
processing:
Parse is the same as the parse phase used for processing a query
Execute requires additional processing to make data changes

DML Execute Phase

The server process records the before image to the rollback block and
updates the data block.
Both of these changes are done in the database buffer cache.
Any changed blocks in the buffer cache are marked as dirty buffers: that is,
buffers that are not the same as the corresponding blocks on the disk.
The processing of a DELETEor INSERTcommand uses similar steps. The
before image for a DELETEcontains the column values in the deleted row,
and the before image of an INSERTcontains the row location information.

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Because the changes made to the blocks are only recorded in memory
structures and are not written immediately to disk, a computer failure that
causes the loss of the SGA can also lose these changes.

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Oracle Versions
Oracle 6.0
Oracle 7.0
Oracle 7.1
Oracle 7.2
Oracle 7.3
Oracle 8.0
Oracle 8i
Oracle9i

1990
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001

Object based
ORDBMS
Internet based Application
Application server

Features & Benefits

Oracle

One Management
Interface

Scalability

Reliability

Internet

Single Dev
Model

Common Skill
Sets

Features

Oracle offers a comprehensive high performance infrastructure for ebusiness. It is called Oracle9i.It provides every thing needed to develop,
deploy and manage Internet applications.

Benefits
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Scalability from departments to enterprise e-business sites

Reliable, available and secure architecture
One development model, easy development options
Common skill sets including SQL, PL/SQL,JAVA and XML
One Management interface for all applications

9i Products
There are two products. They provide a complete and simple infrastructure
for Internet applications.

IAS

Database

Application Server

9i Application server runs all the applications and 9i database stores our
data.
Oracle 9i Application server runs
Portals or web sites
Java Transactional Applications
Provides integration between users, applications and data

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Oracle9i: ORDBMS
Oracle is the first object-capable database developed by Oracle Corporation.
It extends the data modeling capabilities of Oracle 8 to support a new object
relational database model. Oracle provides a new engine that brings objectoriented programming, complex data types, complex business objects, and
full compatibility with the relational world.
Oracle 9i supports
User-Defined data types and objects
Fully compatible with relational database (It supports all the CODD
rules)
Support of multimedia and Large objects
It also support client server and web based applications
Oracle 9i can scale tens of thousands of concurrent users and support up to
512 peta bytes
of data (One peta byte = 1000 tera bytes and One terabyte = 1000 GB).

Data Concurrency And Consistency

Data concurrency allows many users to access the same data at the same
time. One way of managing data concurrency is by making other users wait
until their turn comes, when a user is accessing the data. But the goal of
the database system is to reduce wait time so that it is negligible to each
user. At the same time data integrity should not be compromised.
Oracle uses locking mechanism and multiversioning to increase data
concurrency while maintaining data integrity.

Locking
Oracle uses Locks to control data concurrency. Locks are used to prevent
destructive interference. For instance, when user X is modifying a row, it is
locked so that other users cannot modify it until X completes modification.
However, it doesnt stop users querying the row. That means users reading
the data will not be interrupted by user modifying and vice-versa.
Note: it is the responsibility of the application developer to unlock rows that
are locked by committing or rolling back the transaction.

Read Consistency

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For a query, Oracle returns a timepoint-based version of data. That means,

the data retrieved is consistent with the time at which the query started. So
any changes made to database since query started will not be available.
Ready consistency is made possible In Oracle using Rollback segment.
Rollback segment keeps a copy of unchanged data. This data is substituted
for the data that has changed since query started, in the query result.
This ensures readers do not wait for writers and vice-versa. And ensures
that writers only wait for other writers, if they attempt to update identical
rows at the same time.

Character Datatypes
The character data types store character (alphanumeric) data in strings,
with byte values corresponding to the character.

CHAR datatype
Fixed length character data of length size in bytes.( Default size is 1 and
maximum size is 2000).
Padded on right with blanks to full length of size.

VARCHAR2 (size)
Variable length characters strings having a maximum size of 4000 bytes
(Default size is 1).
Truncates leftover blank spaces.

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NVARCHAR2(size)
Variable length characters strings having a maximum size of 4000 bytes
(Default size is 1)
Or characters, depending on the choice of national character set.
Truncates leftover blank spaces.

NUMBER(size,d)
For number column specified with d digits after the decimal point. For
example, NUMBER (5,2) could nothing larger than 999.99 without an error.

LONG
Character data of variable size up to 2GB in length. Only one LONG column
is allowed in a table.
Long column cannot be used in sub queries, functions, expressions, where
clause or indexes.

DATE
Valid date ranges from January 1,4712 BC to December 31,9999 AD.
(Default date format DD-MON-YY)

TIMESTAMP(precision)
Date plus time, where precision is the number of digits in the fractional part
of the seconds field (default is 6).

TIMESTAMP(precision) WITH TIME ZONE

Timestamp plus time zone displacement value.

TIMESTAMP(precision) WITHLOCAL TIME ZONE

TIMESTAMP, with normalized to local time zone.

RAW(size)
Raw binary date, size bytes long. Maximum size is 2000 bytes.

LONG RAW
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Raw binary data, otherwise the same as LONG.

These two data types allow storing pictures.

CLOB

Character Large object, up to 4GB in length.

BLOB
Binary large object, up to 4GB in length.

BFILE

Pointer to a binary operating system file.

Introduction to SQL
A Brief History of SQL
The history of SQL begins in an IBM laboratory in San Jose, California,
where SQL was developed in the late 1970s. The initials stand for Structured
Query Language, and the language itself is often referred to as "sequel." It
was originally developed for IBM's DB2 product (a relational database
management system, or RDBMS, that can still be bought today for various
platforms and environments). In fact, SQL makes an RDBMS possible. SQL
is a nonprocedural language, in contrast to the procedural or third
generation languages (3GLs) such as COBOL and C that had been created
up to that time.
NOTE: Nonprocedural means what rather than how. For example, SQL
describes what data to retrieve, delete, or insert, rather than how to perform
the operation.
The characteristic that differentiates a DBMS from an RDBMS is that the
RDBMS provides a set-oriented database language. For most RDBMS, this
set-oriented database language is SQL. Set oriented means that SQL
processes sets of data in groups.
Two standards organizations, the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO), currently
promote SQL standards to industry. The ANSI-92 standard is the standard
for the SQL used throughout this book. Although these standard-making
bodies prepare standards for database system designers to follow, all

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database products differ from the ANSI standard to some degree. In

technology in a single-user business application positions the application for
future growth.

An Overview of SQL
SQL is the standard language used to manipulate and retrieve data from
these relational databases. SQL enables a programmer or database
administrator to do the following:

Modify a database's structure

Change system security settings
Add user permissions on databases or tables
Query a database for information
Update the contents of a database

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SQL in Application Programming

SQL was originally made an ANSI standard in 1986. The ANSI 1989
standard (often called SQL-89) defines three types of interfacing to SQL
within an application program:
Module Language-- Uses procedures within programs. These procedures
can be called by the application program and can return values to the
program via parameter passing.

Embedded

SQL--Uses SQL statements embedded with actual program code.

This method often requires the use of a precompiler to process the SQL
statements. The standard defines statements for Pascal, FORTRAN, COBOL,
and PL/1.
Direct Invocation--Left up to the implementer.
Before the concept of dynamic SQL evolved, embedded SQL was the most
popular way to use SQL within a program. Embedded SQL, which is still
used, uses static SQLmeaning that the SQL statement is compiled into the
application and cannot be changed at runtime. The principle is much the
same as a compiler versus an interpreter. The performance for this type of
SQL is good; however, it is not flexible--and cannot always meet the needs of
today's changing business environments.

Structured Query Language

Oracle server supports ANSI standard SQL and contains extensions. Using
SQL, you can communicate with the Oracle server. SQL has the following
advantages

Efficient
Easy to learn and use
Functionally complete (With SQL, you can define, retrieve, and
manipulate data in the tables.)

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SQL Statements
SELECT
INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE
MERGE
CREATE
ALTER
DROP
RENAME
TRUNCATE
COMMIT
ROLLBACK
SAVEPOINT
GRANT
REVOKE

Data retrieval
Data manipulation language(DML)

Data definition language (DDL)

Transaction control

Data control language (DCL)

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Writing SQL Statements

SQL statements are not case sensitive.
SQL statements can be on one or more lines.
Keywords cannot be abbreviated or split across lines.
Clauses are usually placed on separate lines.
Indents are used to enhance readability.

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INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME = 'KING';

Which would yield only one record:

EMPNO ENAME
JOB
MGR HIREDATE
SAL
COMM
DEPTNO
------ ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7839 KING
PRESIDENT
17-NOV-81
5000
10

ANALYSIS:
This simple example shows how you can place a condition on the data that you
want to retrieve.

INPUT
SQL>SELECT * FROM BIKES WHERE ENAME != 'KING';
OR
SQL>SELECT * FROM BIKES WHERE ENAME <> 'KING';
OUTPUT

If you wanted a particular EMPLOYEE, you could type

EMPNO ENAME
JOB
MGR HIREDATE
SAL
COMM
DEPTNO
------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369 SMITH
CLERK
7902 17-DEC-80
800
20
7499 ALLEN
SALESMAN
7698 20-FEB-81
1600
300
30
7521 WARD
SALESMAN
7698 22-FEB-81
1250
500
30
7566 JONES
MANAGER
7839 02-APR-81
2975
20
7654 MARTIN
SALESMAN
7698 28-SEP-81
1250
1400
30
7698 BLAKE
MANAGER
7839 01-MAY-81
2850
30
7782 CLARK
MANAGER
7839 09-JUN-81
2450
10
7788 SCOTT
ANALYST
7566 09-DEC-82
3000
20
7844 TURNER
SALESMAN
7698 08-SEP-81
1500
0
30
7876 ADAMS
CLERK
7788 12-JAN-83
1100
20
7900 JAMES
CLERK
7698 03-DEC-81
950
30
7902 FORD
ANALYST
7566 03-DEC-81
3000
20
7934 MILLER
CLERK
7782 23-JAN-82
1300
10

ANALYSIS:
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Displays all the employees other than KING.

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Operators

Operators are the elements you use inside an expression to articulate how
you want specified conditions to retrieve data. Operators fall into six groups:
arithmetic, comparison, character, logical, set, and miscellaneous.

Arithmetic Operators
The arithmetic operators are plus (+), minus (-), divide (/), multiply (*).
The first four are self-explanatory. Modulo returns the integer remainder of a
division.

Comparison Operators
True to their name, comparison operators compare expressions and return
one of three values: TRUE, FALSE, or Unknown.

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL >= 2000;

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL >= 3000 AND SAL <= 4000;
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL BETWEEN 3000 AND 4000;
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL NOT BETWEEN 3000 AND 4000;
To understand how you could get an Unknown, you need to know a little
about the concept of NULL. In database terms NULL is the absence of data
in a field. It does not mean a column has a zero or a blank in it. A zero or a
blank is a value. NULL means nothing is in that field. If you make a
comparison like Field = 9 and the only value for Field is NULL, the
comparison will come back Unknown. Because Unknown is an
uncomfortable condition, most flavors of SQL change Unknown to FALSE
and provide a special operator, IS NULL, to test for a NULL condition.
Here's an example of NULL: Suppose an entry in the PRICE table does not
contain a value for WHOLESALE. The results of a query might look like
this:

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SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE COMM IS NULL;

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE COMM IS NOT NULL;

Character Operators
You can use character operators to manipulate the way character strings are
represented, both in the output of data and in the process of placing
conditions on data to be retrieved. This section describes two character
operators: the LIKE operator and the || operator, which conveys the concept
of character concatenation.

LIKE operator

What if you wanted to select parts of a database that fit a pattern but
weren't quite exact matches? You could use the equal sign and run through
all the possible cases, but that process would be time-consuming. Instead,
you could use LIKE.
Consider the following:

INPUT:

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE A%;

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees whose names begins with letter A

INPUT:

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME NOT LIKE A%;

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees whose names not beginning with letter A

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INPUT:

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE %A%;

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees whose names contains letter A (Any
number of As)
INPUT:

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE %A%A%;

ANALYSIS
Displays all the names whose name contains letter A more than one
time
INPUT:

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE HIREDATE LIKE %DEC%;

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees who joined in the month of December.
INPUT:

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE HIREDATE LIKE %81;

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees who joined in the year 81.
INPUT:

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL LIKE 4%;

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees whose salary begins with number 4.
(Implicit data conversion takes place).

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Underscore (_)
The underscore is the single-character wildcard.

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT EMPNO,ENAME FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE
_A%;
OUTPUT:
EMPNO
---------7521
7654
7900

ENAME
---------WARD
MARTIN
JAMES

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees whose second letter is A
INPUT:
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE __A%;
OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------BLAKE
CLARK
ADAMS

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees whose third letter is A
( Two underscores followed by A)
INPUT:
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE A%\_%
ESCAPE \;
OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------AVINASH_K
ANAND_VARDAN
ADAMS_P

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees with underscore (_). \ Escape character
Underscore is used to identify a position in the string. To treat _ as a
character we have to use Escape (\) character,
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Concatenation ( ||) operator

Used to combine two given strings

INPUT
SELECT ENAME || JOB FROM EMP;
OUTPUT

ENAME||JOB
------------------SMITHCLERK
ALLENSALESMAN
WARDSALESMAN
JONESMANAGER
MARTINSALESMAN
BLAKEMANAGER
CLARKMANAGER
SCOTTANALYST
KINGPRESIDENT
TURNERSALESMAN
ADAMSCLERK
JAMESCLERK
FORDANALYST
MILLERCLERK

ANALYSIS
Combines both name and designation as a single string.
INPUT
SQL>SELECT ENAME || , || JOB FROM EMP;
OUTPUT

ENAME||','||JOB
---------------------SMITH , CLERK
ALLEN , SALESMAN
WARD , SALESMAN
JONES , MANAGER
MARTIN , SALESMAN
BLAKE , MANAGER
CLARK , MANAGER
SCOTT , ANALYST
KING , PRESIDENT
TURNER , SALESMAN
ADAMS , CLERK
JAMES , CLERK
FORD , ANALYST
MILLER , CLERK

ANALYSIS
Combines both name and designation as a single string separated by,
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Logical Operators
INPUT:

SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE %A% and

ENAME NOT LIKE %A%A%
OUTPUT
ENAME
---------ALLEN
WARD
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
JAMES
ANALYSIS

Displays all the employees whose names contains letter A exactly one
time.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL >= 3000 AND SAL <= 4000;
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL BETWEEN 3000 AND 4000;
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL NOT BETWEEN 3000 AND
4000;
Miscellaneous Operators: IN, BETWEEN and DISTINCT
The two operators IN and BETWEEN provide shorthand for functions you
already know how to do. You could type the following:

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INPUT:
SQL>SELECT ENAME, JOB FROM EMP WHERE JOB= 'CLERK'
OR JOB =MANAGER OR JOB = 'SALESMAN';
OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
MILLER

JOB
--------CLERK
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
MANAGER
SALESMAN
MANAGER
MANAGER
SALESMAN
CLERK
CLERK
CLERK

ANALYSIS
Display employees with designations manager, clerk, and salesman,
The above statement takes more time to parse it, which reduces the
efficiency.

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE JOB
IN('CLERK','SALESMAN','MANAGER');
OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
MILLER

JOB
--------CLERK
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
MANAGER
SALESMAN
MANAGER
MANAGER
SALESMAN
CLERK
CLERK
CLERK

ANALYSIS
Display employees with designations manager, clerk, and salesman,

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INPUT:
SQL>SELECT ENAME,JOB FROM EMP
WHERE JOB NOT IN('CLERK','SALESMAN','MANAGER');
OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SCOTT
KING
FORD

JOB
--------ANALYST
PRESIDENT
ANALYST

ANALYSIS
Display designations other than manager, clerk, and salesman

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ENAME,HIREDATE
FROM EMP
WHERE HIREDATE IN (01-MAY-1981,09-DEC-1982);
OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------BLAKE
SCOTT

HIREDATE
--------01-MAY-81
09-DEC-82

ANALYSIS
Display employees who joined on two different dates.
DISTINCT OPERATOR
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT JOB FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
JOB
--------ANALYST
CLERK
MANAGER
PRESIDENT
SALESMAN

ANALYSIS
Distinct operator displays unique designations.
Distinct operator by default displays the information in ascending order.
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ORDER BY CLAUSE
Display the information in a particular order (Ascending or descending
order)

Syntax
SELECT <COLUMNS> FROM <TABLE> WHERE <CONDITION>
ORDER BY <COLUMN(S)>;
INPUT
SQL>SELECT ENAME FROM EMP ORDER BY ENAME;
OUTPUT
ENAME
---------ADAMS
ALLEN
BLAKE
CLARK
FORD
JAMES
JONES
KING
MARTIN
MILLER
SCOTT
SMITH
TURNER
WARD
ANALYSIS

Display employees in ascending order of names.

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INPUT
SQL>SELECT JOB,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP ORDER BY
JOB,ENAME;
OUTPUT
JOB
--------ANALYST
ANALYST
CLERK
CLERK
CLERK
CLERK
MANAGER
MANAGER
MANAGER
PRESIDENT
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
SALESMAN

ENAME
SAL
---------- ---------FORD
3000
SCOTT
3000
ADAMS
1100
JAMES
950
MILLER
1300
SMITH
800
BLAKE
2850
CLARK
2450
JONES
2975
KING
5000
ALLEN
1600
MARTIN
1250
TURNER
1500
WARD
1250

ANALYSIS

Display employees in ascending order of jobs. With each job it places the
information in ascending order of names.
INPUT
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY job, name desc;
OUTPUT:

Display employees in ascending order by jobs. With each job it places the
information in descending order of names.
INPUT
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY job desc, ename desc;
OUTPUT:

Display employees in descending order by jobs. With each job it places

the information in descending order of names.

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INPUT
SQL>SELECT *
FROM EMP where JOB != CLERK
ORDER BY JOB;
OUTPUT:

Display employees in ascending order of jobs other than clerks.

ANALYSIS
When we are executing the query, it is divided into two different parts.
1) SELECT *

FROM EMP where JOB != CLERK

2) ORDER BY JOB;

First part is going to execute first, and selects all the employees whose
designation is other than clerk and places them in a temporary table.
On the temporary table, order by clause is applied, places the information
in ascending order by jobs in the shadow page, from where end user can
able to see the output.

We can also use order by clause as

INPUT
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY 3;
ANALYSIS
It places the information in the order of third column in the table.

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Exercise
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.

_________ is the operator used to compare a column with null value.

_________is used to compare one value with a set of values.
The maximum number of character that can be stored in CHAR type is
Assume there is a table student(sname char(6), sname1 varchar2(6));
Assume that value place in both columns is RAVI.
What is the size of sname and sname1
How many LONG columns can a table contain?_______
SQL commands are to be terminated with ______________
Display list of employees that start with letter C
Display employees in ascending order of 5th column in the table

9. Examine the trace instance chart for employee table. You want to display each employee hiredate
from earliest to latest. Which SQL statement will you use?
(1) SELECT hiredate FROM emp;
(2) SELECT hiredate FROM emp ORDER BY hiredate;
(3) SELECT emp FROM emp ORDER by hiredate;
(4) SELECT hiredate FROM emp ORDER BY hiredate DESC;
10. Which data type should you use for interest rates with varying and unpredictabledecimal places
such as 1.234, 3.4, 5 and 1.23?
(1) LONG.
(2) NUMBER.
(3) NUMBER(p, s)
(4) None
11.Which SQL statement generates the alias Annual Salary for the calculated column SALARY*12?
(1) SELECT ename, salary*12 Annual SalaryFROM employees;
(2) SELECT ename, salary*12 Annual SalaryFROM employees;
(3) SELECT ename, salary*12 AS Annual SalaryFROM employees;
(4) SELECT ename, salary*12 AS INITCAP(ANNUAL SALARY)FROM employees

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12. The EMP table has these columns: ENAME VARCHAR2(35), SALARY
NUMBER(8,2)HIRE_DATE DATE. Management wants a list of names of employees who
have been with the company for more than five years; Which SQL statement displays the
required results?
(1) SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE SYSDATE-HIRE_DATE > 5;
(2) SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE HIRE_DATE-SYSDATE > 5;
(3) SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE (SYSDATE-HIRE_DATE)/365 > 5;
(4) SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE (SYSDATE-HIRE_DATE)* 365 > 5;

13. The employee table contains these columns.LAST_NAME VARCHAR2 (25), FIRST_NAME
VARCHAR2(25) DEPT_ID NUMBER(9) You need to display the names of the employees that
are not assigned to the department. Evaluate this SQL statement; SELECT last_name,
first_name FROM employee WHERE dept_id is NULL which change should you make to
achieve the desired result?
(1) Create an outer join.
(2) Change the column in the where condition.
(3) Query executes successfully
(4) Add a second condition to the where condition
14. Which statement about SQL is true?
(1) Null values are displayed last in the ascending sequences.
(2) Data values are displayed in descending order by default.
(3) You cannot specify a column alias in an ORDER BY clause.
(4) You cannot sort query results by a column that is not included in the SELECT list.

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FUNCTIONS
A function is a sub program, which executes whenever we call it and returns
a value to the calling place.
These functions are classified into two types
Predefined functions
User defined functions

Predefined functions
These functions are again classified into two types
Group or Aggregate Functions
Single row Functions

Aggregate Functions
These functions are also referred to as group functions. They return a value
based on the values in a column.

COUNT
The function COUNT returns the number of rows that satisfy the condition
in the WHERE clause.
Say you wanted to know how many employees are there.

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
COUNT(*)

ANALYSIS
It counts if row presents in the table
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To make the code more readable, try an alias :

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL>SELECT COUNT(*) NUM_OF_EMP FROM EMP;
NUM_OF_EMP
------------------14

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL>SELECT COUNT(COMM)
FROM EMP;
COUNT(*)

ANALYSIS
It counts only those when there is a value in comm. Column
Note: Count (*) faster than count(comm)
Count(*) count the row when a row present in the table where as
Count(comm) counts the row only when there is a value in the column.
INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL>SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE JOB =
MANAGER;
COUNT(*)

ANALYSIS
It counts only managers
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INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL>SELECT count (distinct job) FROM EMP;
COUNT(*)

ANALYSIS
It counts only distinct jobs
SUM

SUM does just that. It returns the sum of all values in a

column.

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT SUM(SAL) TOTAL_SALARY FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
TOTAL_SALARY

29025
ANALYSIS

Find the total salary drawn by all the employees

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL>SELECT SUM(SAL) TOTAL_SALARY, SUM(COMM)
TOTAL_COMM,
FROM EMP;
TOTAL_SALARYTOTAL_COMM

290252200
INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL>SQL>SELECT SUM(SAL) TOTAL_SALARY,
SUM(COMM) TOTAL_COMM,
FROM EMP WHERE JOB = SALESMAN;
TOTAL_SALARYTOTAL_COMM

56002200

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ADAMS

INPUT
SELECT SUM(SAL),AVG(SAL),MIN(SAL),MAX(SAL),COUNT(*) FROM
EMP;
OUTPUT
SUM(SAL) AVG(SAL) MIN(SAL) MAX(SAL) COUNT(*)
-------------- --------------- -------------- -------------- ------------29025
2073.21429
800
5000
14
ANALYSIS
All the aggregate functions can be used together in a single SQL statement

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SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS

These functions work on each and every row and return a value to the
calling places.
These functions are classified into different types

Arithmetic Functions
Character Functions
Date functions
Miscellaneous Functions

Arithmetic Functions
Many of the uses you have for the data you retrieve involve mathematics.
Most Implementations of SQL provide arithmetic functions similar to that of
operators covered here.

ABS
The ABS function returns the absolute value of the number you point to.
For example:

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT ABS(-10) ABSOLUTE_VALUE FROM dual;

OUTPUT
ABSOLUTE_VALUE
---------------------------10
ANALYSIS
ABS changes all the negative numbers to positive and leaves positive numbers

alone.
Dual is a system table or dummy table from where we can display system
information (i.e. system date and username etc) or we can make our own
calculations.

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CEIL and FLOOR

CEIL returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to its argument.
FLOOR does just the reverse, returning the largest integer equal to or less
than its argument.

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT CEIL(12.145) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

CEIL(12.145)
----------------13
INPUT:
SQL>SELECT CEIL(12.000) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

CEIL(12.000)
----------------12
ANALYSIS
Minimum we require one decimal place , to get the next higher integer number

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL>SELECT FLOOR(12.678) FLOOR DUAL;
OUTPUT:

FLOOR(12.678)
----------------12
INPUT:
SQL>SELECT FLOOR(12.000) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

FLOOR(12.000)
----------------12

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MOD

It returns remainder when we divide one value with another value

INPUT
SQL>SELECT MOD(5,2) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

MOD(5,2)
--------------1
INPUT
SQL>SELECT MOD(2,5) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

MOD(2,5)
--------------2
ANALYSIS
When numerator value less than denominator, it returns
numerator value as remainder.

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POWER

To raise one number to the power of another, use POWER. In this function
the first argument is raised to the power of the second:

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT POWER(5,3) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
125
SIGN

SIGN returns -1 if its argument is less than 0, 0 if its argument is equal to

0, and 1 if its argument is greater than 0,

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT SIGN(-10), SIGN(10),SIGN(0) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
SIGN(10)SIGN(10)SIGN(0)

110
SQRT
The function SQRT returns the square root of an argument. Because the
square root of a negative number is undefined, you cannot use SQRT on
negative numbers.

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL>SELECT SQRT(4) FROM DUAL;

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Character Functions
Many implementations of SQL provide functions to manipulate characters
and strings of characters.

CHR
CHR returns the character equivalent of the number it uses as an
argument. The character it returns depends on the character set of the
database. For this example the database is set to ASCII.

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT CHR(65) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
A

CONCAT
It is similar to that of concatenate operator ( | | )

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT CONCAT(KRISHNA, KANTH) FROM
DUAL;

OUTPUT
KRISHNA KANTH

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INITCAP

INITCAP capitalizes the first letter of a word and makes all other characters
lowercase.

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT ENAME BEFORE,INITCAP(ENAME)
AFTERFROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
BEFORE
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD

AFTER
---------Smith
Allen
Ward
Jones
Martin
Blake
Clark
Scott
King
Turner
Adams
James
Ford

LOWER and UPPER

As you might expect, LOWER changes all the characters to lowercase;
UPPER does just the changes all the characters to uppercase.
SQL>SELECT ENAME,UPPER(ENAME)

UPPER_CASE,LOWER(ENAME)

LOWER_CASE FROM EMP;

ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

UPPER_CASE
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

LOWER_CASE
---------smith
allen
ward
jones
martin
blake
clark
scott
king
turner
adams
james
ford
miller

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LPAD and RPAD

LPAD and RPAD take a minimum of two and a maximum of three
arguments. The first argument is the character string to be operated on. The
second is the number of characters to pad it with, and the optional third
argument is the character to pad it with. The third argument defaults to a
blank, or it can be a single character or a character string.
The following statement adds five pad characters, assuming that the field
LASTNAME is defined as a 15-character field:

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT LPAD(ENAME,15,*) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
LPAD(ENAME,15,'
--------------**********SMITH
**********ALLEN
***********WARD
**********JONES
*********MARTIN
**********BLAKE
**********CLARK
**********SCOTT
***********KING
*********TURNER
**********ADAMS
**********JAMES
***********FORD
*********MILLER

ANALYSIS:
15 locations allocated to display ename, out of that, name is occupying some
space and in the remaining space to the left side of the name pads with *.
INPUT
SQL>SELECT RPAD(5000,10,*) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
5000******

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LTRIM and RTRIM

LTRIM and RTRIM take at least one and at most two arguments. The first
argument, like LPAD and RPAD, is a character string. The optional second
element is either a character or character string or defaults to a blank. If you
use a second argument that is not a blank, these trim functions will trim
that character the same way they trim the blanks in the following examples.

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT ENAME, RTRIM(ENAME,R) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

RTRIM(ENAM
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNE
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLE

ANALYSIS
Removes the rightmost character

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REPLACE
REPLACE does just that. Of its three arguments, the first is the string to be
searched. The second is the search key. The last is the optional replacement
string. If the third argument is left out or NULL, each occurrence of the
search key on the string to be searched is removed and is not replaced with
anything.

SYNTAX :
REPLACE(STRING,SEARCH_STRING,REPLACE_STRING)

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT REPLACE (RAMANA,MA, VI) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT
RAVINA
INPUT
SQL> SELECT REPLACE(RAMANA,MA) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT
RANA
ANALYSIS
When the replace string is missing, search string removed from the given
string

INPUT
SQL> SELECT REPLACE (RAMANA,MA, NULL) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT
RANA

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Conversion Functions
These functions provide a handy way of converting one type of data to
another. They are mainly useful for changing date formats and number
formats.

TO_CHAR
The primary use of TO_CHAR is to convert a number into a character.
Different Implementations may also use it to convert other data types, like
Date, into a character, or to include different formatting arguments.
The following example illustrates the primary use of TO_CHAR:

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT SAL, TO_CHAR(SAL) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
SAL
---------800
1600
1250
2975
1250
2850
2450
3000
5000
1500
1100
950
3000
1300

TO_CHAR(SAL)
---------------------------------------800
1600
1250
2975
1250
2850
2450
3000
5000
1500
1100
950
3000
1300

ANALYSIS
After conversion, Converted information is left aligned. So we can say that
it is a string.

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The main usage of this function is, to change the date formats and number
formats

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DD/MM/YYYY)
FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
SYSDATE
--------24-MAR-07

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD/MM/YYYY')
-----------------------------24/03/2007

ANALYSIS
Convert the default date format to DD/MM/YYYY format
INPUT:
SQL>SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DD-MON-YY) FROM
DUAL;
OUTPUT:
SYSDATE
--------24-MAR-07

SLC

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE(10-SEP-2005),Q) FROM
DUAL;
OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('10-SEP-2005'),'Q')
---------------------------------------3
ANALYSIS:
To_date is data conversion function, which converts given string into date type
INPUT:
SQL>SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,W) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
SYSDATE
--------24-MAR-07

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,W)
-----------------------------4

ANALYSIS:
Gives the week number in the current month ( In which week given date falls in the
current month)

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,WW) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
SYSDATE TO_CHAR(SYSDATE)
-----------------------------------24-MAR-07 12
ANALYSIS:
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Returns no. of weeks worked during the year.

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INPUT:
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,HH:MI:SS AM) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(SYS
----------08:40:17 PM
ANALYSIS:
HH returns Hours
}
MI returns Minutes } Returns time from current date
SS returns Seconds }
AM returns AM / PM depends on Time

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,HH24:MI:SS) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(
-------20:43:12
ANALYSIS:
HH24 returns Hours in 24 hour format
MI returns Minutes
SS returns Seconds

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}
} Returns time from current date
}

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INPUT:
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(12567,99,999.99) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(12567,'99,999.99')
----------------------------12,567.00
ANALYSIS:
Converts the given number into comma format with two decimal places

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(12567,L99,999.99) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(12567,'L99,999.99')
----------------------------$12,567.00
ANALYSIS:
Display the local currency symbol

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(-12567,L99,999.99PR) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(-12567,'L99,999.99PR')
----------------------------------<$12,567.00>
ANALYSIS:
PR Parenthesis negative number

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TO_NUMBER
TO_NUMBER is the companion function to TO_CHAR, and of course, it converts a
string into a number.

For example:
INPUT:
SQL>SELECT SAL, TO_NUMBER((TO_CHAR(SAL)) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
SAL TO_NUMBER(TO_CHAR(SAL))
---------- ----------------------800
800
1600
1600
1250
1250
2975
2975
1250
1250
2850
2850
2450
2450
3000
3000
5000
5000
1500
1500
1100
1100
950
950
3000
3000
1300
1300

ANALYSIS
After conversion, Converted information is right aligned. So we can say
that it is a number.

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Date and Time Functions

We live in a civilization governed by times and dates, and most major

implementations of SQL have functions to cope with these concepts.
It demonstrates the time and date functions.

ADD_MONTHS

This function adds a number of months to a specified date.

For example, say a customer deposited some amount on a particular date for a
period of 6 months. To find the maturity date of the deposit

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT ADD_MONTHS (SYSDATE, 6) MATURITY_DATE
FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

MATURITY_DATE
-------------------24-SEP-07
ANALYSIS
It adds 6 months to the system date

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT HIREDATE, ADD_MONTHS(HIREDATE,33*12)
RETIRE_DATE FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
HIREDATE
--------17-DEC-80
20-FEB-81
22-FEB-81
02-APR-81
28-SEP-81
01-MAY-81
09-JUN-81
09-DEC-82
17-NOV-81
08-SEP-81
12-JAN-83
03-DEC-81
03-DEC-81
23-JAN-82

RETIRE_DATE
--------------17-DEC-13
20-FEB-14
22-FEB-14
02-APR-14
28-SEP-14
01-MAY-14
09-JUN-14
09-DEC-15
17-NOV-14
08-SEP-14
12-JAN-16
03-DEC-14
03-DEC-14
23-JAN-15

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ANALYSIS

Find the retirement date of an employee

Assume, 33 years of service from date of join is retirement date

SLC

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT HIREDATE,
TO_CHAR(ADD_MONTHS(HIREDATE,33*12),DD/MM/YYYY)
RETIRE_DATE FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
HIREDATE
--------17-DEC-80
20-FEB-81
22-FEB-81
02-APR-81
28-SEP-81
01-MAY-81
09-JUN-81
09-DEC-82
17-NOV-81
08-SEP-81
12-JAN-83
03-DEC-81
03-DEC-81
23-JAN-82

RETIRE_DATE
--------------17/12/2013
20/02/2014
22/02/2014
02/04/2014
28/09/2014
01/05/2014
09/06/2014
09/12/2015
17/11/2014
08/09/2014
12/01/2016
03/12/2014
03/12/2014
23/01/2015

ANALYSIS

Displaying the retirement date with century.

LAST_DAY
LAST_DAY returns the last day of a specified month.
For example, you need to know what the last day of the month

MONTHS_BETWEEN

Used to find the number of months between two given months

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

LAST_DAY(SYSDATE)
------------------------31-MAR-07
ANALYSIS
Find
the lastServices
date ofLtd
the month
Satyam
Computer

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INPUT:
SQL>SELECT
ENAME,MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIREDATE)/12
EXPERIENCE FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

EXPERIENCE
---------26.2713494
26.0966182
26.0912419
25.9783387
25.4917795
25.8976935
25.7928548
24.2928548
25.3546827
25.545543
24.2014569
25.3089838
25.3089838
25.171887

Allows you to define an interval of time in terms of days, hours, minutes
and seconds (including fractional seconds).

Example
select (sysdate - to_date('10-jan-2004')) year to month from dual
OUTPUT
+000000003-10
Analysis
Returns the difference. No of years and months between both the dates.

Example
Select (sysdate - to_date('10-NOV-2007')) day to second from dual
OUTPUT
+000000009 11:04:07
Analysis
Find the difference with days and time. For sysdate it takes 0.00 hrs as starting
time

Note :- We can also change the default format for a given session using the ALTER
SESSION command
SQL> ALTER SESSION SET NLS_DATE_FORMAT = DD/MM/YYYY;

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SQL> SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL:

Interpreting Two-digit Years

Oracle provides the RR format element to interpret two-digit years.
If the Current year is in the first half of the century ( years 0 through 49), then:

If you enter a date in the first half of the century (i.e. from 0 through 49), RR
returns the current century.

If you enter a date in the latter half of the century (i.e. from 50
through 99), RR returns the previous century.

For example
select to_char(sysdate,'dd/mm/yyyy') "current date",
to_char(to_date('14-oct-88','dd-mon-rr'),'yyyy') "Year 88",
to_char(to_date('14-oct-18','dd-mon-rr'),'yyyy') "year 18" from dual
OUTPUT
current date
Year 88
year 18
------------------------- -------------------- -------------------19/11/2007
1988
2018

When we reach the year 2050, RR will interpret the same dates
differently

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current date
Year 88
year 18
------------------------- -------------------- -------------------19/11/2050
2088
2118

Going from Numbers to Intervals

The NUMTOYMINTERVAL and NUMTODSINTERVAL functions allow you
to convert a single numeric value to one of the interval data types.

The function NUMTOYMINTERVAL (pronounced num to Y M interval)

converts a numeric value an interval of type INTERVAL YEAR TO
MONTH.
SQL> select numtoyminterval (10.5,'year') from dual;

NUMTOYMINTERVAL (10.5,'YEAR')
--------------------------------------------------------------------------+000000010-06
SQL> select numtoyminterval (10.3,'year') from dual;
NUMTOYMINTERVAL (10.3,'YEAR')
--------------------------------------------------------------------------Satyam Computer Services Ltd

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+000000010-03

Try the following formats

Name
YEAR

SELECT NUMTOYMINTERVAL(10.5,MONTH) FROM DUAL;

SELECT NUMTOYMINTERVAL(10.5,DAY) FROM DUAL;
Description

MONTH
DAY
HOUR
MINUTE
SECOND

Some
Some
Some
Some
Some

number
number
number
number
number

of
of
of
of
of

years ranging from 1 through 999,999,999

months ranging from 0 through 11
days ranging from 0 through 999,999,999
hours ranging from 0 through 23
minutes ranging from 0 through 59

Some number of seconds ranging from 0 through 59.999999999

NUMTODSINTERVAL
This function allows to convert a single numeric value to one of the
interval data types.
This function ( pronounced num to D S interval) likewise converts a
numeric value to an interval of type INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND.
Example
SQL> select NUMTODSINTERVAL(1440,minute) from dual;
OUTPUT
+01 00:00.00.000000
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ANALYSIS
Oracle automatically taken care of normalizing the input value of
1440 minutes to an interval value of 1 day.

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Miscellaneous Functions

Here are three miscellaneous functions you may find useful.

GREATEST and LEAST

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT GREATEST(10,1,83,2,9,67) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

GREATEST
--------83
ANALYSIS
Displays the greatest of the given set of values
Difference between GREATEST AND MAX IS
1) GREATEST IS SINGLE ROW FUNCTION, MAX IS A GROUP
FUNCTION
2) GREATEST TAKES VALUES FROM DIFFERENT COLUMNS
FROM EACH ROW, WHERE AS MAX TAKES VALUES FROM
DIFFERENT ROWS FROM A COLUMN.

Assume there is a student table

ROLLNO
1
2
3
4

STUDENT
SUB1
SUB2
55
22
78
55
55
22
44
55

NAME
RAVI
KRIS
BABU
ANU

SUB3
86
65
44
66

SUB4
45
12
77
88

To find the greatest and Least Marks

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT NAME,SUB1,SUB2,SUB3, SUB4,
GREATEST(SUB1,SUB2,SUB3,SUB4) GREATEST_MARK,
LEAST(SUB1,SUB2,SUB3,SUB4) LEAST_MARK FROM STUDENT

OUTPUT:
ROLLNO NAME

SUB1

1
RAVI
55
2 Computer
KRIS
Satyam
Services78
Ltd
3
BABU 55
4
ANU
44

SUB2

SUB3

SUB4

22
55
22
55

86
65
87
44
66

45
12
77
88

GREATEST
MARK
86
78
77
88

LEAST
MARK
22
12 SLC
22
44

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USER
USER returns the character name of the current user of the database.

JOB
SAL
NEW_SAL
--------- ---------- ---------CLERK
800
880
SALESMAN
1600
1920
SALESMAN
1250
1500
MANAGER
2975
3867.5
SALESMAN
1250
1500
MANAGER
2850
3705
MANAGER
2450
3185
ANALYST
3000
3750
PRESIDENT
5000
5000
SALESMAN
1500
1800
CLERK
1100
1210
CLERK
950
1045
ANALYST
3000
3750
CLERK
1300
1430

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NVL
If the value is NULL, this function is equal to substitute. If the value is not NULL,
this function is equal to value. Substitute can be a literal number, another column,
or a computation.
NVL is not restricted to numbers, it can be used with CHAR, VARCHAR2, DATE,
and other data types, but the value and substitute must be the same data type.

SYNTAX

NVL(value, substitute)

INPUT
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,SAL,COMM, SAL + COMM TOTAL FROM EMP;
OUTPUT
EMPNO
SAL
COMM
TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369
800
7499
1600
300
1900
7521
1250
500
1750
7566
2975
7654
1250
1400
2650
7698
2850
7782
2450
7788
3000
7839
5000
7844
1500
0
1500
7876
1100
7900
950
7902
3000
7934
1300

ANALYSIS
Arithmetic operation is possible only when value is there in both columns

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INPUT
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,SAL,COMM, SAL + NVL(COMM,0) TOTAL FROM
EMP;
OUTPUT
EMPNO
SAL
COMM
TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369
800
800
7499
1600
300
1900
7521
1250
500
1750
7566
2975
2975
7654
1250
1400
2650
7698
2850
2850
7782
2450
2450
7788
3000
3000
7839
5000
5000
7844
1500
0
1500
7876
1100
1100
7900
950
950
7902
3000
3000
7934
1300
1300

ANALYSIS
Using NVL, we are substituting 0 if COMM is NULL.

INPUT
SQL>SELECT DEPTNO,SUM(SAL),RATIO_TO_REPORT(SUM(SAL))
OVER() FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO;
OUTPUT

DEPTNO
SUM(SAL) RATIO_TO_REPORT(SUM(SAL))OVER()
---------- ---------- ------------------------------10
8750
.301464255
20
10875
.374677003
30
9400
.323858742
ANALYSIS
RATIO_TO_REPORT FUNCTION FINDS THE SALARY RATIO OF THAT DEPARTMENT
OVER THE TOTAL SALARY OF ALL THE EMPLOYEES.

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LENGTH

Finds the length of the given information

SQL> SELECT ENAME,LENGTH(ENAME) FROM EMP;

SQL> SELECT LENGTH(SYSDATE) FROM EMP;
SQL> SELECT SAL,LENGTH(SAL) FROM EMP;

ASCII

Finds the ASCII value of the given character

SQL> SELECT ASCII(A) FROM DUAL;

CAST
Converts one type of information into another type
SQL> SELECT 50 numb, cast(50 as varchar2(2) value from dual;
Exercise
_____________ function performs one to one character substitution.
_____________ format option is used to get complete year spelled out in
TO_CHAR function.
___________ symbol is used to combine tow given strings
What happens if replace string is not given for REPLACE function
Can a number be converted to DATE?
Convert the value of name in the EMP table to lower case letters
Display the names of the employees who have more than 4 characters in the
name.
Print *s as number of thousands are there in the number
Display the ename, comm. If the commission is NULL, print as NO COMM
Add number of days to the given date
Display the first and last two characters from a given name and combine
them as a single string (Use only functions)
Find the difference between two given dates
Display all the names which contain underscore
subtract number of months from given date

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GROUP BY CLAUSE
Group by statement groups all the rows with the same column value.
Use to generate summary output from the available data.
Whenever we use a group function in the SQL statement, we have to use a group
by clause.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB, COUNT (*) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;
OUTPUT
JOB
COUNT(*)
--------- ---------ANALYST
2
CLERK
4
MANAGER
3
PRESIDENT
1
SALESMAN
4

ANALYSIS
Counts number of employees under each and every job.
When we are grouping on job, initially jobs are placed in ascending
order in a temporary segment.
On the temporary segment, group by clause is applied, so that on each
similar job count function applied.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB, SUM (SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;
OUTPUT
JOB
SUM(SAL)
--------- ---------ANALYST
6000
CLERK
4150
MANAGER
8275
PRESIDENT
5000
SALESMAN
5600

ANALYSIS
With each job, it finds the total salary

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ERROR with GROUP BY Clause

Note :
Only grouped columns allowed in the group by clause
When ever we are using a group function in the SQL statement, we have to
use group by clause.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB,COUNT(*) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT
SELECT JOB, COUNT (*) FROM EMP
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00937: not a single-group group function
ANALYSIS
This result occurs because the group functions, such as SUM and
COUNT, are designated to tell you something about a group or rows,
not the individual rows of the table. This error is avoided by using
JOB in the group by clause, which forces the COUNT to count all the
rows grouped within each job.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB,ENAME,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;
OUTPUT
SELECT JOB,ENAME,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00979: not a GROUP BY expression
ANALYSIS
In the above query, JOB is only the grouped column where as ENAME
column is not a grouped column.
What ever the columns we are grouping, the same column is allowed to
display.

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INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB, MIN(SAL),MAX(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;
OUTPUT
JOB
MIN(SAL)
MAX(SAL)
--------- ---------- ---------ANALYST
3000
3000
CLERK
800
1300
MANAGER
2450
2975
PRESIDENT
5000
5000
SALESMAN
1250
1600

ANALYSIS
With each job, it finds the MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM SALARY

For displaying Total summary information from the table.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB, SUM(SAL),AVG(SAL),MIN(SAL),MAX(SAL) ,COUNT(*)
FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;
OUTPUT
JOB
SUM(SAL)
AVG(SAL)
MIN(SAL)
MAX(SAL)
COUNT(*)
--------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------ANALYST
6000
3000
3000
3000
2
CLERK
4150
1037.5
800
1300
4
MANAGER
8275 2758.33333
2450
2975
3
PRESIDENT
5000
5000
5000
5000
1
SALESMAN
5600
1400
1250
1600
4

ANALYSIS
With each job, finds the total summary information.

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To display the output Designation wise, Department wise total salaries

With a matrix style report.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB,SUM(DECODE(DEPTNO,10,SAL)) DEPT10,
SUM(DECODE(DEPTNO,20,SAL)) DEPT20,
SUM(DECODE(DEPTNO,30,SAL)) DEPT30,
SUM(SAL) TOTAL FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;
OUTPUT
JOB
DEPT10
DEPT20
DEPT30
TOTAL
--------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------ANALYST
6000
6000
CLERK
1300
1900
950
4150
MANAGER
2450
2975
2850
8275
PRESIDENT
5000
5000
SALESMAN
5600
5600

ANALYSIS
When we apply group by, initially all the designations are placed in ascending order of
designations.
Then group by clause groups similar designations, then DECODE function (Single
row function) applies on each and every row of that group and checks the DEPTNO. If
DEPTNO=10, it passes corresponding salary as an argument to SUM() .
INPUT
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO,JOB,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY
DEPTNO,JOB;
OUTPUT
DEPTNO JOB
COUNT(*)
---------- --------- ---------10 CLERK
1
10 MANAGER
1
10 PRESIDENT
1
20 CLERK
2
20 ANALYST
2
20 MANAGER
1
30 CLERK
1
30 MANAGER
1
30
SALESMAN
4
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To display the DEPTNO only one time

INPUT
SQL> BREAK ON DEPTNO SKIP 1
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO,JOB,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO,JOB;
OUTPUT
DEPTNO JOB
COUNT(*)
---------- --------- ---------10 CLERK
1
MANAGER
1
PRESIDENT
1
20 CLERK
ANALYST
MANAGER

2
2
1

30 CLERK
MANAGER
SALESMAN

1
1
4

ANALYSIS
Break is Environment command , which breaks the information on repetitive
column and displays them only once.
SKIP 1 used with BREAK to leave one blank line after completion of each
Deptno.

To remove the given break , we have to use an Environment command

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SQL> CLEAR BREAK;

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Group by with ROLLUP and CUBE

Operators
Use

Rollup or CUBE with Group by to produce super

aggregate rows by cross-referencing columns.

ROLLUP grouping produces a result set containing the

regular grouped rows and the subtotal values.
CUBE grouping produces a result set containing the rows
from ROLLUP and cross-tabulation rows
The ROLLUP and CUBE operators are available only in Oracle8i and later releases.

Syntax
SELECT[column,]group_function(column)...
FROMtable
[WHEREcondition]
[GROUPBY[CUBE]group_by_expression]
[HAVINGhaving_expression]
[ORDERBYcolumn];

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CUBE function
We can use CUBE function to generate subtotals for all combinations of the values
in the group by clause.( CUBE and ROLLUP are available only from 9i)

INPUT
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO,JOB,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY
CUBE(DEPTNO,JOB);
OUTPUT

DEPTNO JOB
COUNT(*)
---------- --------- ---------14
CLERK
4
ANALYST
2
MANAGER
3
SALESMAN
4
PRESIDENT
1
10
3
10 CLERK
1
10 MANAGER
1
10 PRESIDENT
1
20
5
20 CLERK
2
20 ANALYST
2
20 MANAGER
1
30
6
30 CLERK
1
30 MANAGER
1
DEPTNO JOB
COUNT(*)
---------- --------- ---------30 SALESMAN
4
ANALYSIS

Cube displays the out with all the permutation and combination of all the columns
given a CUBE function.

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ROLLUP FUNCTION
It is similar to that of CUBE function

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POINTS TO REMEMBER
WHERE clause can be used to check for conditions based on
values of columns and expressions but not the result of GROUP
functions.
HAVING clause is specially designed to evaluate the conditions
that are based on group functions such as SUM , COUNT etc.
HAVING clause can be used only when GROUP BY clause is
used.

ORDER OF EXECUTION
Here are the rules ORCALE uses to execute different clauses given in SELECT
command
Selects rows based on Where clause
Groups rows based on GROUP BY clause
Calculates results for each group
Eliminate
groups
based on HAVING
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Then ORDER BY is used to order the results

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Example
INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB,SUM (SAL) FROM EMP WHERE JOB != CLERK
GROUP BY JOB HAVING SUM(SAL) > 5000 ORDER BY JOB DESC;

EXERCISE
ANNEXURE A

QUERY 2

Nested Sub queries

Nesting is the act of embedding a sub query within another sub query.
SYNTAX

Select*FROMSOMETHINGWHERE(SUBQUERY(SUBQUERY
(SUBQUERY)));

Whenever particular information is not accessible through a single query, then we

have to write different queries one included in another.
Sub queries can be nested as deeply as your implementation of SQL allows.
We can write different types sub queries
Single row sub queries
Multi row sub queries
Multi column sub queries
Correlated sub queries.

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SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE COMM =

(SELECT MAX(COMM) FROM EMP);

Query
Display all the employees from department 30 whose salary is less than maximum
salary of department 20.

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=30

AND SAL < (SELECT MAX (SAL) FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 20);

Multi row Sub queries

A sub query, which returns more than one value.

INPUT
SQL>SELECT ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL IN(SELECT
SAL FROM EMP GROUP BY SAL HAVING COUNT(*)> 1);
OUTPUT
ENAME
---------- WARD
MARTIN
SCOTT
FORD

SAL
--------1250
1250
3000
3000

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees who are drawing similar salaries
When child query returns more than one value, we have to use IN operator for
comparison.

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Multi Column Sub Queries

When sub queries returns values from different columns.

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,DEPTNO,SAL FROM EMP WHERE (DEPTNO,SAL)

IN (SELECT DEPTNO,MAX(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO);
OUTPUT
EMPNO
---------7839
7788
7902
7698

ENAME
DEPTNO
SAL
---------- ---------- ---------KING
10
5000
SCOTT
20
3000
FORD
20
3000
BLAKE
30
2850

ANALYSIS
Display all the employees who are drawing maximum salaries in each department

DML STATEMENTS IN SUB QUERIES

INPUT
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP X WHERE &N =
(SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT SAL) FROM EMP WHERE SAL >=X.SAL);
OUTPUT
EMPNO
---------7788
7902

ENAME
SAL
---------- ---------SCOTT
3000
FORD
3000

ANALYSIS
It selects each row from emp table from parent query and finds the distinct count for
each salary whose salary >= the salary returned by main query.

Least Efficient ( 156 Mill Sec)

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INPUT
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL <ALL(3000,2000,4000);
OUTPUT
EMPNO
---------7369
7499
7521
7654
7844
7876
7900
7934

ENAME
SAL
---------- ---------SMITH
800
ALLEN
1600
WARD
1250
MARTIN
1250
TURNER
1500
ADAMS
1100
JAMES
950
MILLER
1300

ANALYSIS
Less than minimum of List

EXISTS And NOT EXISTS Operators

These two operators are exclusively used in correlated sub query. EXISTS checks
whether any row is existing in the sub query, and NOT EXISTS does the opposite.
INPUT

EXISTS
different from other operators
IN , ANY
etc, because it
doesnt
SQL>
SELECTis EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,MGR
FROM EMPlike
X WHERE
EXISTS(SELECT
MGR
FROM EMP
WHERE
X.MGR
=
EMPNO);
compare values of columns, instead. It checks any row is retrieved from sub query

or not. If any row is retrieved from sub query the EXISTS returns true otherwise it
OUTPUT
returns
False.
EMPNO
ENAME
SAL
MGR
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369 SMITH
800
7902
7499 ALLEN
1600
7698
7521 WARD
1250
7698
7566 JONES
2975
7839
7654 MARTIN
1250
7698
7698 BLAKE
2850
7839
7782 CLARK
2450
7839
7788 SCOTT
3000
7566
7844 TURNER
1500
7698
7876 ADAMS
1100
7788
7900 JAMES
950
7698
7902
FORD
3000
7566
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7934 MILLER
1300
7782

Note :Use EXISTS in place of IN for Base Tables to improve the performance.

Remember
The following important points to be remembered while dealing with sub queries
Sub query can not use ORDER BY clause. Because ORDER BY clause must be the
last clause of SELECT
BETWEEN AND operator can not be used with Sub queries

Exercise
In department 20, one employee is drawing minimum salary and is having
some designation. Display the employees from other departments whose
designation is matching with the designation of the above employee.
Display all the employees whose salary is within 1000 from the average
salary of all the employees.
Display the employees who reported to KING

Constraint. It may refer to more than one column of the table.

A typical example is PRIMARY KEY constraint that is used to define composite

primary key.

Column Constraint A constraint given at the column level is called as Column

constraint. It defines a rule for a single column. It cannot refer to column other
than the column, at which it is defined,
A typical example is PRIMARY KEY constraint when a single column is the primary
key of the table.
Various types of Integrity constraints

PRIMARY KEY
UNIQUE
NOT NULL
CHECK

PRIMARY KEY It is used to uniquely identify rows in a table. There can be only
one primary key in a table. It may consist of more than one column, if so, it is

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called as composite primary key. ( It maintains uniqueness in the data and null
values are not acceptable).
i.e. UNIQUE + NOT NULL = PRIMARY KEY
Automatically creates unique index to enforce uniqueness.

UNIQUE

Maintains unique and NULL values are acceptable.

Oracle automatically creates a unique index for the column.

Example : EmailID

A UNIQUE key integrity constraint requires that every value in a column or

set of columns (key) be unique- that is, no two rows of table can
have duplicate values in a specified column or set of columns.
The column (or set of columns) included in the definition of the
UNIQUE key constraint is called the unique key. If the UNIQUE
constraint comprises more than one column, the group of
columns is called a composite unique key.
NOT NULL Uniqueness not maintained and null values are not acceptable.
Note: The NOT NULL constraint can be specified only at the column level, not at the
table level.

CHECK

Defines the condition that should be satisfied before insertion

and updating is done.

Defines a condition that each row must satisfy

The following expressions are not allowed
- References to CURRVAL, NEXTVAL and ROWNUM pseudocolumns
- Calls to SYSDATE,UID,USER functions
- Queries that refer to other values in other rows

Note: - Pseudocolumns are not actual columns in a table but they behave like
columns. For example, you can select values from pseudocolumns. However, you
cannot insert into, update, or delete from a pseudocolumn.

Guidelines for Primary Keys and Foreign Keys

You cannot use duplicate values in a primary key.

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Primary keys generally cannot be changed.

Foreign keys are based on data values and are purely logical, not physical,
pointers.
A foreign key value must match an existing primary key value or unique key
value, or else be null.
A foreign key must reference either a primary key or unique key column.

DDL ( Data Definition language)

Create, Alter, Drop

DDL STATEMENTS COMMITS AUTOMATICALLY. There is

no need to save explicitly.

Create Table
CREATE TABLE <TABLE-NAME> (COLUMN
DEFINITION1, COLUMN DEFINITION2);

Syntax :Column Def :

<Name> Data type [Default Value] [constraint <name> constraint type]

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Note: = Min. Column in a table = 1

Max. Columns in a table = 1000

Rules: 1. A table or a column name must never start a number but they can contain
numbers in them
2. They cant consist of any special characters other than $, #, -
i.e. $,# are used mainly for system tables.

Example :
SQL>CREATE TABLE EMPL47473 (EMPNO NUMBER (3) CONSTRAINT
PK_EMPL47473_EMPNO PRIMARY KEY, ENAME VARCHAR2 (10)
NOT NULL, GENDER CHAR(1) CONSTRAINT
CHK_EMPL47473_GENDER CHECK(UPPER (GENDER) IN
(M,F)), EMAIL_ID VARCHAR2 (30) UNIQUE, DESIGNATION
VARCHAR2 (15), SALARY NUMBER (7,2) CHECK (SALARY
BETWEEN 10000 AND 70000));

Note :

Constraint name is useful for manipulating the given constraint

When the constraint name is not given at the time of defining constraints,
system creates a constraint with the name SYS_Cn.
Constraints defined on a particular table are store in a data dictionary table
USER_CONSTRAINTS, USER_CONS_COLUMNS.
Tables defined by a user are stored in a data dictionary table USER_TABLES

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SQL> DESCRIBE USER_CONSTRAINTS

SQL> SELECT CONSTRAINT_NAME, CONSTRAINT_TYPE,
SEARCH_CONDITION FROM USER_CONSTRAINTS
WHERE TABLE_NAME = 'EMPL47473';
OUTPUT
CONSTRAINT_NAME
------------------------------ SYS_C003018

CONSTRAINTTYPE
SEARCH_CONDITION
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------C
"ENAME" IS NOT NULL

CHK_EMPL47473_GENDER

UPPER (GENDER) IN ('M','F')

SYS_C003020

SALARY BETWEEN 10000 AND 70000

PK_EMPL47473_EMPNO

SYS_C003022

ANALYSIS
Describe displays structure of the data dictionary table.
Select statement is used to view the constraints defined on the table

SQL> DESCRIBE USER_CONS_COLUMNS

SQL> SELECT CONSTRAINT_NAME,COLUMN_NAME FROM
USER_CONS_COLUMNS WHERE TABLE_NAME =
'EMPL47473';
OUTPUT
CONSTRAINT_NAME
-----------------------------CHK_EMPL47473_GENDER

COLUMN_NAME
- -------------------------------GENDER

PK_EMPL47473_EMPNO

EMPNO

SYS_C003018

ENAME

SYS_C003020

SALARY

SYS_C003022

EMAIL_ID

ANALYSIS
Describe displays structure of the data dictionary table.
Select statement is used to view the constraints defined on the column
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VALUES(105,KIRAN,M,
[email protected],5000,10-JAN-2001);
SQL> SAVEPOINT A

SQL> INSERT INTO EMPL47473

VALUES(106,LATHA,F,
[email protected],5000,15-JAN-2002);
SQL> SAVEPOINT B
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SQL> INSERT INTO EMPL47473

VALUES(107,RADHA,F,
[email protected],15000,15-JAN-2002);
When we SELECT data from the table
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPL47473;
EMPNO
---------105
106
107

EMPNAME
---------KIRAN
LATHA
RADHA

G
M
F
F

EMAIL_ID
SALARY DOJ
------------------ ---------- [email protected]
5000 10-JAN-01
[email protected]
5000 15-JAN-02
[email protected]
15000 15-JAN-02

The output shows the three new records weve added . Now roll back just the last
insert:

SQL> ROLLBACK TO B;
IMPLICIT COMMIT
The actions that will force a commit to occur, even without your instructing it to, or
quit, exit (the equivalent to exit), any DDL command forces a commit.

AUTO ROLLBACK
If youve completed a series of inserts, updates or deletes, but not yet explicitly or
implicitly committed them, and you experience serious difficulties, such as a
computer failure, Oracle automatically roll back any uncommitted work. If the
machine or database goes down, it does this as cleanup work the next time the
database is brought back up.

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Note :
Rollback works only on uncommitted data
A DDL transaction after a DML transaction, automatically commits.
We can use an Environment command SET VERIFY OFF to remove the old
and new messages while inserting data.

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ISSUE Frequent commit statements

Whenever possible, issue frequent COMMIT statements in all your programs. By
issuing frequent COMMIT statements, the performance of the program is
enhanced & its resource requirements are minimized as COMMIT frees up the
following resources:
Information held in the rollback segments to undo the transaction if
necessary.
All locks acquired during statement processing

Space in the redo log buffer cache

Overhead associated with any internal Oracle mechanisms to manage the
resources in the previous three items.

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CREATING A TABLE FROM ANOTHER TABLE

SYNTAX
CREATE TABLE <TABLENAME> AS SELECT <COLUMNS>
FROM
<EXISTING TABLE> [WHERE <CONDITION>];

Example
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP47473 AS SELECT
EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,JOB
FROM EMP;

To add a new column in the table

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP47473 ADD(SEX CHAR(1));
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP47473;

UPDATING ROWS
This command is used to change the data of the table

SYNTAX
UPDATE <TABLENAME> SET column1 = expression, column2 =
expression WHERE <condition>;

SQL> UPDATE EMP47473 SET SAL = SAL*1.1;

SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;
ANALYSIS
To give uniform increments to all the employees

SQL> UPDATE EMP47473 SET SAL = DECODE (JOB,CLERK,SAL*1.1,

SALESMAN,SAL*1.2,SAL*1.15);

SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;

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SQL> UPDATE EMP47473 SET SEX = M WHERE ENAME IN

(KING,MILLER,BLAKE);
SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP47473;

SQL> UPDATE EMP47473 SET SEX = F WHERE SEX IS

NULL;
SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP47473 ;

SQL> UPDATE EMP47473 SET ENAME =

DECODE(SEX,M,Mr.||ENAME,Ms.||ENAME);
SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;
ANALYSIS
ADD Mr. or Ms. Before the existing name as per the SEX value

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DELETING ROWS
-

SYNTAX
DELETE FROM <TABLENAME> WHERE <CONDITION>;

SQL> DELETE FROM EMP47473 WHERE SEX = M;

SQL> COMMIT | ROLLBACK;

TRUNCATING A TABLE
SYNTAX
TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLENAME>
Note : Removes all the rows from table. Deleting
specified rows is
Not possible. Once the table is truncated, it automatically
commits. It is a DDL statement

Droping a table

SYNTAX
DROP TABLE <TABLENAME>
Note : Table is dropped permanently. It is a DDL statement.
It removes the data along with table definitions and the table.

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Adding comments to a table

You can add comments up to 2000 bytes about a column, table, view by
using the COMMENT statement. The comment is stored in the data
dictionary and can be viewed in one of the following data dictionary views in
the COMMENTS column:

ALL_COL_COMMENTS

USER_COL_COMMENTS

ALL_TAB_COMMENTS

USER_TAB_COMMENTS

Syntax
COMMENT ON TABLE table | COLUMN table.column IS text ;

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REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS

This constraint is useful for maintaining relation with other table.
Various referential integrity constraints we can use in Oracle are

Foreign Key
References
On delete cascade
On Delete Set NULL

Foreign Key: Defines the column in the child table at the table constraint level

References

Identifies the table and column in the parent table

Reference key accepts NULL and duplicate values.

On delete cascade Deletes the dependent rows in the child table when a row in
the parent table is deleted.

On Delete Set NULL Converts dependent foreign key values to null.

Example
Department47473 (Deptno , dname)
Employee47473 (Empno, ename, salary, dno)
Deptno of Department47473 is a primary key
Empno of Employee47473 is a primary key
Dno
of Employee47473 is a reference key

Solution

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SQL>Create table department47473 (deptno number(3) primary key, dname

varchar2(20) Not null);
SQL>Create table employee47473(empno number(3) primary key, ename
varchar2(10)
Not null, salary number(7,2) check(salary > 0), dno number(3) references
department47473(deptno) on delete cascade);

Assume the case where supermarket selling various items and customers order the
items.

SQL>Create table itemmaster (itemno number (3) primary key, itemname

varchar2 (10), stock number (3) check (stock > 0));
SQL>Create table itemtran (trnno number (3), itemno number (3) references
itemmaster (itemno), trndate date, trntype char (1) check (upper (trntype) in
(R,I)), quantity number (3) check (stock > 0), primary key (trnno, itemno));

Itemmaster
itemname
stock
Itemtran
itemno trndate
trntype

Itemno
Trnno

quantity

Assume the case where with each transaction

customer orders more than one item.

DROP TABLE <TABLENAME> CASCADE CONSTRAINTS

ANALYSIS
ALTER TABLE <tablename> DROP PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;
Dropping the table along with constraints
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ANALYSIS
Removing the primary key along with Reference key

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ALTER TABLE <TABLENAME> DISABLE PRIMARY KEY

ALTER TABLE <tablename> DISABLE PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;
Note : It is not possible to enable using cascade

Exercise

Consider a training institute conducting different courses, into which the

students are joining for various courses ( Also, assume the case where
same student can join in more than one course)
The students may pay the fee in installments

Identify the tables, attributes and define them with relations

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JOINS
Objectives

Join will enable you to gather and manipulate data across several tables. By
One of the most powerful features of SQL is its capability to gather and
manipulate data from across several tables. Without this feature you would
have to store all the data elements necessary for each application in one
table. Without common tables you would need to store the same data in
several tables.

Objectives
After completing this lesion, you should be
able to do the following.
Write SELECT statements to access data
from more than one table using equality and
nonequality join.
View Data that generally does not meet
a join condition by using outer joins
Join a table itself by using self join

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TYPES OF JOINS

Oracle Proprietary
Joins(8i and prior)

SQL:1999
Compliant Joins:

EquiJoin

Cross Joins

Non-equi join

Natural Joins

Outer join

Using caluse

SelfJoin
joins

Full or two sided outer

Arbitrary join conditions for
Outer joins

Types of Joins
The Oracle 9i database offers join syntax that is SQL: 1999 compliant. Prior
to 9i release, the join syntax was different from the ANSI standards. The new
SQL: 1999 compliant join syntax does not offer any performance benefits
over the Oracle proprietary join syntax that existed in prior releases.

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Joining tables using Oracle Syntax

Use a join to query data from more than one table

SELECT

Table1.column1, table2.column2

FROM table1,table2
WHERE table1.column1 = table2.column2;

Write the join condition in the WHERE clause.

Prefix the column name with table name when the same column name
appears in more than one table.

Guidelines

When writing a SELECT statement that joins tables, precede the common
column name with the table name for clarify and to enhance database
access.

If the same column name appears in more than one table, the column name
must be prefixed with the table name.

To join n tables together, you need a minimum of n-1 join conditions. This rule
many not apply if your table has a concatenated primary key, in which case
more than one column is required to uniquely identify each row.

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What is An Equi Join?

Departments

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Equi join
Extracting the information from more than one table by comparing ( = ) the
common information.
Note : Equi Joins are also called as simple joins or Inner Joins

To display common column information

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL,DNAME FROM EMP,DEPT

WHERE EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO;
OUTPUT
EMPNO
---------7782
7839
7934
7369
7876
7902
7788
7566
7499
7698
7654
7900
7844
7521

ENAME
---------CLARK
KING
MILLER
SMITH
ADAMS
FORD
SCOTT
JONES
ALLEN
BLAKE
MARTIN
JAMES
TURNER
WARD

JOB
SAL DNAME
--------- ---------- -------------MANAGER
2450 ACCOUNTING
PRESIDENT
5000 ACCOUNTING
CLERK
1300 ACCOUNTING
CLERK
800 RESEARCH
CLERK
1100 RESEARCH
ANALYST
3000 RESEARCH
ANALYST
3000 RESEARCH
MANAGER
2975 RESEARCH
SALESMAN
1600 SALES
MANAGER
2850 SALES
SALESMAN
1250 SALES
CLERK
950 SALES
SALESMAN
1500 SALES
SALESMAN
1250 SALES

ANALYSIS
Efficiency is more when we compare the information from lower data
table(master table) to Higher data table( child table).
When Oracle processes multiple tables, it uses an internal sort/merge
procedure to join those tables. First, it scans & sorts the first table
(the one specified last in FROM clause). Next, it scans the second table
(the one prior to the last in the FROM clause) and merges all of the
retrieved from the second table with those retrieved from the first
table. It takes around 0.96 seconds

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SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL,DNAME FROM DEPT,EMP

WHERE EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO;
ANALYSIS
Here driving table is EMP. It takes around 26.09 seconds
So, Efficiency is less.

Non-Equi joins
Getting the information from more than one table without using comparison
(=) operator.

INPUT
SQL> select empno,ename,sal,grade,losal,hisal from salgrade g,emp e

where e.sal between g.losal and g.hisal

/
ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees whose salary lies between any pair of low and high salary ranges.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT * FROM DEPT WHERE DEPTNO NOT IN
(SELECT DISTINCT DEPTNO FROM EMP);
OUTPUT
DEPTNO DNAME
LOC
---------- -------------- ------------40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
ANALYSIS
Displays the details of the department where there are no employees

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We can also get above output using relational algebra operators.

OUTPUT

EMPNO
---------7782
7839
7934
7369
7876
7902
7788
7566
7499
7698
7654
7900
7844
7521

ENAME
---------CLARK
KING
MILLER
SMITH
ADAMS
FORD
SCOTT
JONES
ALLEN
BLAKE
MARTIN
JAMES
TURNER
WARD

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LEFT, RIGHT AND FULL OUTER JOIN

As of Oracle 9i, you can use the ANSI SQL standard syntax for outer joins.
In the FROM clause, you can tell Oracle to perform a LEFT, RIGHT or FULL
OUTER join.
SQL>

SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPT.DEPTNO, DNAME FROM EMP

LEFT OUTER JOIN DEPT ON DEPT.DEPTNO = EMP.DEPTNO;

EMPNO
---------7934
7839
7782
7902
7876
7788
7566
7369
7900
7844
7698
7654
7521
7499

ENAME
---------MILLER
KING
CLARK
FORD
ADAMS
SCOTT
JONES
SMITH
JAMES
TURNER
BLAKE
MARTIN
WARD
ALLEN

JOB
DEPTNO DNAME
--------- ---------- -------------CLERK
10 ACCOUNTING
PRESIDENT
10 ACCOUNTING
MANAGER
10 ACCOUNTING
ANALYST
20 RESEARCH
CLERK
20 RESEARCH
ANALYST
20 RESEARCH
MANAGER
20 RESEARCH
CLERK
20 RESEARCH
CLERK
30 SALES
SALESMAN
30 SALES
MANAGER
30 SALES
SALESMAN
30 SALES
SALESMAN
30 SALES
SALESMAN
30 SALES

ANALYSIS
Gets the common information, and forcibly joins from left side table to right side
table.

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SQL> SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPT.DEPTNO, DNAME FROM DEPT

LEFT OUTER JOIN EMP ON DEPT.DEPTNO = EMP.DEPTNO;

OUTPUT
EMPNO
---------7369
7499
7521
7566
7654
7698
7782
7788
7839
7844
7876
7900
7902
7934

ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

JOB
DEPTNO DNAME
--------- ---------- -------------CLERK
20 RESEARCH
SALESMAN
30 SALES
SALESMAN
30 SALES
MANAGER
20 RESEARCH
SALESMAN
30 SALES
MANAGER
30 SALES
MANAGER
10 ACCOUNTING
ANALYST
20 RESEARCH
PRESIDENT
10 ACCOUNTING
SALESMAN
30 SALES
CLERK
20 RESEARCH
CLERK
30 SALES
ANALYST
20 RESEARCH
CLERK
10 ACCOUNTING
40 OPERATIONS

ANALYSIS
Gets the common information from both tables, then forcibly joins from dept table to
emp table.
SQL> SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPT.DEPTNO, DNAME FROM DEPT

RIGHT OUTER JOIN EMP ON DEPT.DEPTNO = EMP.DEPTNO;

OUTPUT
EMPNO
---------7369
7499
7521
7566
7654
7698
7782
7788
7839
7844
7876
7900
7902
7934

ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

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ANALYSIS
Gets the common information from both tables, and then forcibly joins from dept table
to emp table.

SQL> SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPT.DEPTNO, DNAME FROM EMP

RIGHT OUTER JOIN DEPT ON DEPT.DEPTNO = EMP.DEPTNO;

OUTPUT
EMPNO
---------7369
7499
7521
7566
7654
7698
7782
7788
7839
7844
7876
7900
7902
7934

ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

ANALYSIS
Gets the common information from both tables, then forcibly joins from dept table to
emp table.

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Position of Joins in where clause

Table joins should be written first before any condition of WHERE clause. And the
conditions which filter out the maximum records should be placed at the end after the
joins as the parsing is done from BOTTOM to TOP
For ex;
Least Efficient (Total CPU = 153.6 Sec)
SELECT ENAME,JOB,MGR FROM EMP E WHERE SAL > 50000 AND
JOB = MANAGER
AND 25 < (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE MGR = E.EMPNO);
Most Efficient (Total CPU time = 10.6 sec)
SELECT ENAME,JOB,MGR FROM EMP E WHERE 25 <
(SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE MGR = E.EMPNO)
AND SAL > 5000 AND JOB = MANAGER;

SELF JOIN

Joining the table from itself is called as self join.

SQL> SELECT WORKER.ENAME || ' IS WORKING UNDER ' ||

MANAGER.ENAME FROM EMP WORKER, EMP MANAGER
WHERE WORKER.MGR = MANAGER.EMPNO;
OUTPUT
WORKER.ENAME||'ISWORKINGUNDER'||MANAGE
-------------------------------------SCOTT IS WORKING UNDER JONES
FORD IS WORKING UNDER JONES
ALLEN IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
WARD IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
JAMES IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
TURNER IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
MARTIN IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
MILLER IS WORKING UNDER CLARK
ADAMS IS WORKING UNDER SCOTT
JONES IS WORKING UNDER KING
CLARK IS WORKING UNDER KING
BLAKE IS WORKING UNDER KING
SMITH IS WORKING UNDER FORD
ANALYSIS
It displays who is working under whom.
MGR number appearing against employee is the employee number of
manager

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NATURAL AND INNER JOINS (Introduced in 9i)

We can use natural keyword to indicate that a join should be performed
based on all columns that have the same name in the two tables being
joined.

Creating Natural Joins

The Natural join clause is based on all columns in the two tables
that have the same name,
It selects rows from the two tables that have equal values in all
matched columns.
If the columns having the same names have different data types,
an error is returned.

For example, To get the common information from two tables ,

INPUT
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,DEPTNO,DNAME FROM DEPT
2 NATURAL JOIN EMP;
OUTPUT
EMPNO
---------7782
7839
7934
7369
7876
7902
7788
7566
7499
7698
7654
7900
7844
7521

ENAME
---------CLARK
KING
MILLER
SMITH
ADAMS
FORD
SCOTT
JONES
ALLEN
BLAKE
MARTIN
JAMES
TURNER
WARD

JOB
DEPTNO DNAME
--------- ---------- -------------MANAGER
10 ACCOUNTING
PRESIDENT
10 ACCOUNTING
CLERK
10 ACCOUNTING
CLERK
20 RESEARCH
CLERK
20 RESEARCH
ANALYST
20 RESEARCH
ANALYST
20 RESEARCH
MANAGER
20 RESEARCH
SALESMAN
30 SALES
MANAGER
30 SALES
SALESMAN
30 SALES
CLERK
30 SALES
SALESMAN
30 SALES
SALESMAN
30 SALES

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Creating Joins with Using Caluse

If several columns have the same names but the data types do
not match, the NATURAL JOIN clause can be modified with USING
clause to specify the columns that should be used for an equijoin.
use the USING clause to match only one column when more than
one column matches.
Do not use a tablename or alias in the referenced columns
The NATURAL JOIN and USING clauses are mutually exclusive.

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INNER JOIN
Support for INNER join syntax was introduced in Oracle9i, inner joins are
the default they return the rows the two tables have in common, and are
the alternative to outer joins. Note that they support ON clause, so that you
can specify join criteria.

SQL>SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPT.DEPTNO, DNAME FROM EMP

INNER JOIN DEPT ON EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO;

CROSS JOIN (CARTESIAN PRODUCT)

Joining tables without giving proper join condition.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT * FROM DEPT,EMP;
OR
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP CROSS JOIN DEPT;
ANALYSIS
It multiplies the rows from both tables and displays the output
i.e. 14 rows (emp table) X 4 rows(dept table) = 56 rows.

EXERCISE
ANNEXURE

QUERY III

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OTHER OBJECTS
SEQUENCE OBJECT
Used to generate sequence(Unique) Integers for use of primary keys.

SYNTAX
CREATESEQUENCEsequence
[INCREMENTBYn]
[STARTWITHn]
[{MAXVALUEn|NOMAXVALUE}]
[{MINVALUEn|NOMINVALUE}]
[{CYCLE|NOCYCLE}]
[{CACHEn|NOCACHE}];
Sequenceis the name of the sequence generator
INCREMENTBYnspecifies the interval between sequence numbers where n
is an
integer (If this clause is omitted, the sequence
increments by 1.)
STARTWITHnspecifies the first sequence number to be generated (If this
clause is
omitted, the sequence starts with 1.)
MAXVALUEnspecifies the maximum value the sequence can generate
NOMAXVALUEspecifies a maximum value of 10^27 for an ascending
sequence and
1 for a descending sequence (This is the default
option.)
MINVALUEnspecifies the minimum sequence value
NOMINVALUEspecifies a minimum value of 1 for an ascending sequence
and
(10^26) for a descending sequence (This is the default
option.)

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CYCLE|NOCYCLEspecifies whether the sequence continues to generate

values after reaching its maximum or minimum value (NOCYCLEis the
default Option.)
CACHEn|NOCACHEspecifies how many values the Oracle server
preallocates and keep in memory (By default, the Oracle server caches 20
values.) The value set must be less than MAXVALUE minus

Example
CREATE SEQUENCE SQNO47473
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MAXVALUE 10;
CREATE SEQUENCE SQNO47473
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MAVALUE 10
CACHE 3
CYCLE;
Note: - These sequences are stored in a data dictionary table
USER_SEQUENCES.
This sequence object provides two public member functions

NEXTVAL

and CURRVAL

NEXTVAL is a function which generate next value from sequence object

CURRVAL is a function, which gives the current value of the sequence object
Assume there is a table

EMPNO

SAMPLE47473
ENAME

SAL

To insert the values into the table

SQL> INSERT INTO SAMPLE47473 VALUES(SQNO47473.NEXTVAL,
&ENAME, &SAL);
TO MODIFY THE SEQUNECE OBJECT
SQL> ALTER SEQUENCE SQNO47473
INCREMENT BY 2
MAXVALUE 40;
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To remove the sequence object

SQL> DROP SEQUENCE <SEQUENCE_NAME>;

VIEWS
A view is an object, which is a logical representation of a table
A view contains no data on its own
It is derived from tables
Changes made in tables are automatically reflected in views
As a view does not store any data the redundancy problem does not
arise.+ Critical data in the base table is safeguarded as access to such data
can be controlled.
It is used to reduce the complexity of the query

In Oracle Oracle we can create different types of views

SIMPLE

COMPLEX

INLINE

SIMPLE view is a view, which is created using only one base table.
COMPLEX view is a view, which is created using more than one table or
using group functions
INLINE view is a view, which is created using sub query (it is not a schema
object. It is a named sub query in the FROMclause of the main query. Generally
used in TOP N Analysis.

SYNTAX

CREATE OR REPLACE [FORCE] VIEW <VIEWNAME> AS SELECT

<COLUMNS> FROM <TABLE > [ WITH READ ONLY];
The table on which a view is based is called as base table
FORCE option allows view to be created even if the base table doesnt exist.
However, the base table should exist before the view is used.

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Changing Base Table through view

A view can also be used to change the data of base table
A view can be used to delete, insert and update rows in the base table.
However for each operation certain conditions are to be satisfied.

Rules for deleting row

The following should NOT be used in the query.

More than one table

GROUP BY clause
GROUP Function
DISTINCT clause
Pseudo column ROWNUM

Rules for updating rows

The following are the rules that are to be satisfied to update base table
through view.
All the rules of Delete are applicable
The column being updated should not be derived from an expression.

Rules for insertion of rows

All the rules of UPDATE
Al NOT NULL columns should be included in the view.

Example

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW TESTVIEW47473 AS SELECT

EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP47473;
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Note: - These views are stored in a data dictionary table USER_VIEWS

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW TESTVIEW47473 AS

SELECT
EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP47473 WITH READ ONLY;
ANALYSIS
View becomes a read only view

WITH CHECK OPTION

This option is used to prevent any changes to base table through view.
Insertion and updation is not allowed into base table through view.

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW CHKVIEW AS SELECT * FROM EMP

WHERE DEPTNO = 20 WITH CHECK OPTION;
It doesnt allow you to update the condition column as well as it doesnt
allow you to insert the details of employees with DEPTNO other than 20.

We can also create a view using group functions. Such views are called as
INLINE views. They are by default read only.

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW SIMPLEVIEW47473 AS

SELECT
SUBSTR(HIREDATE,-2) YEAR, COUNT(*) NUMB FROM EMP47473
GROUP BY JOB;

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PSEUDO COLUMN
A pseudo-column is a column that yields a value when selected but which is
not an actual column of the table.
Example
ROWID

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ROWNUM
SYADATE
NEXTVAL
CURRVAL
NULL
LEVEL
Are called as Pseudo-columns.

SELECT ROWNUM, EMPNO, ENAME FROM EMP;

TO DISPLAY 3 HIGHEST PAID EMPLOYEES

SQL> SELECT ROWNUM,EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM (SELECT EMPNO,
ENAME,SAL FROM EMP ORDER BY SAL DESC)
WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;

Exercise
1) Display the string SATYAM in the format
S
A
T
Y
A
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2)
3)
4)
5)

M
Display only even rows from the table
Display one year calendar
Display how many as are there in the given string
Remove duplicate rows from the given table
Empno ename
1
x
2
y
3
z
1
x
3
z

6)Find out how many columns are there in a given table(Use the
data dictionary table USER_TAB_COLUMNS)

ADVANCED QUERIES
ANALYTICAL QUERIES
Analytical functions are used mainly for the analysis of data as required by
decision-making managers.

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Oracle has embedded analytical functions in SQL statement to cater to most

of the requirements of data mining.

These functions are listed below

Ranking For calculating ranks, percentiles, and n-tiles of the values in a
result set.
For example, to find out top three salaried employees
SQL> SELECT RANK() OVER(ORDER BY SAL DESC) DEFAULT_RANK, SAL FROM EMP;
DEFAULT_RANK

SAL

------------ ---------1

855945.6

641959.2

196867.32

184563.24

153802.68

129461.88

111807.6

66870.77

10000

6810.91

ANALYSIS
When different employees salary is same, they get the same rank. There is a gap between ranks.
DENSE_RANK
In the example, see the ranks between 1 and 4.
The main difference between RANK () and DENSE_RANK () is that in the
DENSE_RANK () there is no gap between ranks.

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SQL> SELECT DENSE_RANK() OVER(ORDER BY SAL DESC) DEFAULT_RANK, SAL FROM EMP;
DEFAULT_RANK
SAL
------------ ---------1
855945.6
1
855945.6
1
855945.6
2
641959.2
3 196867.32
4 184563.24
5 153802.68
5 153802.68
6 129461.88
7
111807.6
8
66870.77
9
10000
10
6810.91

ROW_NUMBER

The function row number assigns unique rank to each row even if they are
having the same value of order by expression. The rows will get the same
rank if their order by expression has the same value.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT RANK() OVER(ORDER BY SAL) DEFAULT_RANK, ROW_NUMBER() OVER(ORDER
BY SAL) RW_NUM,SAL FROM EMP
OUTPUT
DEFAULT_RANK
RW_NUM
SAL
------------ ---------- ---------1
1
6810.91
2
2
10000
3
3
66870.77
4
4
111807.6
5
5 129461.88
6
6 153802.68
6
7 153802.68
8
8 184563.24
9
9 196867.32
10
10
641959.2
11
11
855945.6
11
12
855945.6
11
13
855945.6

NULLIF FUNCTION
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This function produces NULL value if the expression has a specified value.
It produces NULL value if the expression has a specified value. This is like a
complement of the NVL function.
INPUT
SQL> SELECT ENAME,JOB,COMM,NULLIF(JOB,'MANAGER') FROM EMP;
OUTPUT
ENAME
--------------ss ss
allen
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
phani

JOB
COMM NULLIF(JO
--------- ---------- --------CLERK
1234 CLERK
SALESMAN
746.5 SALESMAN
SALESMAN
1244.16 SALESMAN
MANAGER
SALESMAN
3483.65 SALESMAN
MANAGER
MANAGER
ANALYST
ANALYST
SALESMAN
0 SALESMAN
CLERK
CLERK
CLERK
CLERK
ANALYST
ANALYST
se
20000 se

ANALYSIS
It is just opposite to NVL(). NVL() substitute value, if its is NULL.
Where as NULLIF produces NULL, if value matches.

NVL2 Function
It is an extended form of NVL.

Syntax
NVL2(expr1,expr2,expr3)
In NVL2, expr1 can never be returned; either expr2 or expr3 will be
returned.

If expr1 is not NULL, NVL2 returns expr2,

If expr1 is NULL , NVL2 returns expr3.

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The expr1 can have any data type. The arguments expr2 and expr3 can have
any datatype except LONG.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT COMM,NVL2(COMM,COMM,0) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT
COMM NVL2(COMM,COMM,0)
---------- ----------------0
300
300
500
500
0
1400
1400
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Coalesce Function

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This function takes n arguments and produces first argument, which is

having the first NOT NULL value.
SQL> SELECT ENAME, COMM, SAL, DEPTNO, MGR, COALESCE (COMM, SAL, DEPTNO, MGR)
COAL FROM EMP;
ENAME
COMM
SAL
DEPTNO
MGR
COAL
--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------ss ss
1234
6810.91
20
7902
1234
allen
746.5 196867.32
30
7698
746.5
WARD
1244.16 153802.68
30
7698
1244.16
JONES
855945.6
20
7839
855945.6
MARTIN
3483.65 153802.68
30
7698
3483.65
BLAKE
855945.6
30
7839
855945.6
CLARK
855945.6
10
7839
855945.6
SCOTT
641959.2
20
7566
641959.2
TURNER
0 184563.24
30
7698
0
ADAMS
129461.88
20
7788 129461.88
JAMES
111807.6
30
7698
111807.6
FORD
66870.77
20
7566
66870.77
phani
0
67980.76
30
7822
111890.2
REDDY
20000
10000
90
9822
20000

Multiple Insert and Merge statements

Oracle 9i provides enhanced facility of loading data in the table using select
statement.
Using this facility you
Load data in multiple tables in single insert statement
Load multiple rows in the same table in single insert statement
Load data conditionally in the table.

Multiple insert statement

There are four types of multiple inert statements

Unconditional insert statement

Pivoting insert statement
Conditional insert statement
Insert first statement

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Unconditional Insert Statement

This statement enables to you insert data in multiple tables using a single
insert statement.
To understand this query consider the three tables from Annexure

To insert the data into two tables

Example1(pname,title,salary)
Example2(pname,course,cost)
Insert all
Into example1 values(pname,title,salary)
Into example2 values(pname,course,cost)
Select p.pname,title,course,cost,salary from programmer p,software s,
studies st
Where p.pname = s.pname and s.pname = st.pname;

Conditional Insert statement

It inserts the data into the table only when condition is satisfied.
Assume there are three tables with structure (table1,table2,table3)

Empno.ename,job,sal,deptno

We can load the data conditionally into three tables by using following
statement
SQL> insert all
When deptno = 10 then
Insert into table1 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
When deptno = 20 then
Insert into table2 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
When deptno = 30 then
Insert into table3 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
Select empno,ename,sal,deptno from emp

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Insert First statement

Insert first
When deptno = 10 then
Insert into table1 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
When deptno = 20 then
Insert into table2 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
When deptno = 30 then
Insert into table3 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
Select empno,ename,sal,deptno from emp;

The difference between Insert First and Insert All is that in the formar at the
most one row is inserted into the table while latter rows may be inserted into
multiple tables.

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LOCKING MECHANISMS
To ensure data integrity oracle uses locks. Locks are used to prevent
destructive interaction between processes accessing the same resource.

Oracle uses two locking types

DML locks - used to protect data. Can be either table or row level.
Dictionary locks used to protect the database structure
Locks may be explicit or implicit. A process or user instigates explicit locks.
Implicit locks are undertaken by Oracle. Oracle will lock any resource when
it detects a valid attempt to update the resource. Dictionary locks are always
implicit. DML locks may be implicit or explicit.

There are five locking modes. They are

EXCLUSIVE(X)
SHARE(S)
ROW SHARE(RS)
ROW
(RX)

LOCK ALLOWS QUERIES BUT NOTHING ELSE

Lock allows queries but not updates
Lock allows concurrent process access to table. Resource may not
be locked exclusively.
EXCLUSIVE Same as row share but no share mode locking. Updates. Deletes and
inserts use this lock mode.

Locks are held until either a transaction is committed / rolled back.

Locking using SELECT for UPDATE

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO = 7521 FOR UPDATE OF SAL

NOWAIT;
With this SELECT we lock all the rows in the result set for later update. The
FOR UPDATE tells Oracle to lock each row as it processes it.
The OF keyword prefixes the column identification area which specifies
which columns are going to be updated by us at a later date.
The NOWAIT keyword specifies that we dont want the statement to wait
until, and current locks on the table are removed.

Assume that there are tow users

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SCOTT AND X
In the Scott user there is one table with the name EMP.
Scott has given some privileges on EMP table to X user.

If X wants to lock the EMP table, then he has to issue a command

LOCK TABLE SCOTT.EMP IN EXCLUSIVE MODE NOWAIT;
Now from SCOTT user , if he tries to the lock the table, which is already
locked by X
LOCK TABLE EMP IN EXCLUSIVE MODE;
It results an error
LOCK TABLE EMP IN EXCLUSIVE MODE NOWAIT
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00054: resource busy and acquire with NOWAIT specified

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SECURITY
What is a privilege
A privilege is a right to access an object such as a table, view etc., or to
execute a particular type of SQL command such as CREATE TABLE.
Privileges are classified into two categories depending upon what type of
right they give to the user.
Object Privileges
System privileges

Object privilege
An object privilege is a right to perform a particular operation on an object.
An object is a table, view, sequence, procedure, function or package.

System privilege
A system privilege is a right to perform certain operation in the system. For
example, the privilege to create a table is a system privilege.

Object Privileges
User owns the object that he/she creates. Unless otherwise specified, only
the owner and DBA can access the object.
But, if user wants to share his object with other users, he has to grant
privileges on the object to other users.

The following are the list of object privileges available in Oracle

ALTER, DELETE EXECUTE,INDEX,INSERT,SELECT,UPDATE
These privileges are given on various objects, such as
TABLE, VIEW, SEQUENCE, PROCEDURE,FUNCTION, PACKAGE AND
OBJECT TYPE

SYNTAX
GRANT <PRIVILEGES> | ALL [(COLUMN1,COLUMN2)] ON <OBJECT>
TO (USER | PUBLIC | ROLE) [ WITH GRANT OPTION];
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Privileges --- any object privileges

ALL
-- to grant all privileges
PUBLIC
-- to grant privilege to all the users of the system.

Example
GRANT SELECT,UPDATE ON EMP TO X;
Note :- X is a user

Now from X user, he can select as well as update the information in EMP
table.
SELECT * FROM SCOTT.EMP;
UPDATE SCOTT.EMP SET SAL = 11000 WHERE EMPNO = 7521;

Restricting privilege to certain columns

GRANT UPDATE(SAL) ON EMP TO X;
So, X user can modify only sal value in the EMP table.

REVOKE OBJECT PRIVILEGES

To remove the given privileges, we can use REVOKE command

REVOKE <PRIVILEGES> ON <OBJECT> FROM <USER>;

Using Synonyms

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To simplify accessing tables owned by other busers, create a SYNONYM. A

synonym is another name(alias) to a table or view. By creating a synonym
you can avoid giving the owner name while accessing table of other users.
We can create two types of synonyms

Private Synonyms
Public Synonyms

Any user can create private synonym, where as public synonym is created by
only DBA using a keyword called public.

Creating private synonym.

CREATE SYNONYM EMPL FOR SCOTT.EMP;
Now we can access EMP table which is there in SCOTT user using synonym
EMPL as
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPL;

Public Synonym
Public synonym is available for all the users.

SQL>CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM EMPL FOR SCOTT.EMP;

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What is SQL*Loader?
SQL*Loader is Oracles utility program for loading data into an Oracle table.
Most often, SQL*Loader takes two input files a control file and a data file and loads the
data into a single Oracle table. The data file contains data, and the control file contains
information about the data -- where to load it, what to do if something goes wrong, etc.
SQL*Loader has lots and lots of options which can be used to handle various types of data
and levels of complexity. SQL*Loader is fully described in the Oracle Server Utilities Users
Guide. This document is just about getting started. SQL*Loader runs on Unix, mainframes,
and PCs. This document is just about running it from a Windows PC.

Why Use SQL*Loader From Your PC?

If you need to transfer quite a lot of data from your machine to an Oracle database table, you
might want to use SQL*Loader. If you already have the data in some other format, it may
be worthwhile to use SQL*Loader. If you need to transfer local data to a remote database on
some recurring basis, it may be preferable to use SQL*Loader rather than something like
FTP. At the end of this document, there is a brief comparison of FTP versus SQL*Loader.

Getting Started, an Example

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Say, for example, that youve got an Excel spreadsheet with State data already in it. Youve
got 50 rows of data each containing the State Abbreviation, State Name, an [optional]
unofficial State Slogan, and the number of State Residents Who Drink Bottled Water.
(Is 50 rows of data really sufficient to justify this exercise? Thats debatable, but lets say
youve thought it over and you DO want to SQL*load your data into a 4-column Oracle table
at UW-Stevens Point. The remote table is called sp.mystates.)
Heres what you do:
1) Create your data file. This is easy. Save your Excel spreadsheet data AS a CommaSeparated-Variable (*.csv) file. This will automatically put commas between each of the four
data elements. In addition, if any of the data elements already contain a comma, the Save AS
*.csv step will optionally and automatically enclose that data in double quotes.
So, after your Save AS command, you might have a file named C:\MyStates.csv that
contains data like this:
AR,Arkansas,We are sure proud of Bill,0
CO,Colorado,,3000
WI,Wisconsin,Rose Bowl Champions Again!,5
CA,California,"Dude? You want, like, another hit of Oxygen?",90203049

2) Create your control file. Using any text editor, create a file (say, C:\mystates.ctl)
containing these lines:
LOAD DATA
INFILE 'C:\EMPLOYEE.csv'
REPLACE
INTO TABLE EMPL
FIELDS TERMINATED BY ',' OPTIONALLY ENCLOSED BY '"'
TRAILING NULLCOLS
(EMPNO,
ENAME
INTEGER EXTERNAL)
The REPLACE keyword says, "remove any existing rows before starting the load." There's
also an INSERT [into empty table] and APPEND [to existing rows] option.
State_Abbrev, State_Name, State_Slogan, and Nbr_Residents_WDBW

are the actual

column names defined in the sp.mystates table.

Because the first three items are of character datatype, it was not necessary to further
describe them character is the default. The fourth column is numeric data it totals the
number of state residents who drink bottled water. The INTEGER EXTERNAL describes
the datatype in the C:\mystates.csv input file.
Notice there is some missing data in the data file -- Colorado has no state slogan. The
TRAILING NULLCOLS statement handles the missing data; it tells SQL*Loader to load any
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missing data as NULL values. There are, as we said earlier, lots of available options
described in the Utilities Users Guide.
3) Create a table with the name referred in ctl file with required columns
4) Run SQL*Loader.
Prerequisites:

You must have SQL*Loader and SQL*Net installed on your machine. The
SQL*Loader program may have a version number included as part of its name,
something like sqlldr73.exe or sqlldr80.exe. Or maybe it will be just
sqlldr.exe. You can look for it in your ORAWIN95 or ORANT \BIN directory. If
it's not installed, you can get the Oracle Client Software installation CD and install
"UTILITIES".

You must have the target database (say, its called ELTP) configured as SQL*Net
service in your local tnsnames.ora file. This is pretty standard stuff; its probably
already there.

You must have authorization to modify the sp.mystates table (INSERT, or DELETE
and INSERT if you're using the REPLACE option in the control file. In the example
below we assume that user SCOTT with password TIGER has appropriate
authorization.

At an MS-DOS prompt (or the Start, Run menu) , execute SQL*Loader as follows:
sqlldr scott/tiger@ELTP control=C:\mystates.ctl

When the load completes, look in the file C:\mystates.log. This log file will
contain information about how many rows were loaded, how many rows -- if
any -- were NOT loaded, and other information that may be useful to reassure
or
debug.

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How to convert Excel Sheet into CSV(Comma separated variable) file

This article describes how to convert a single column of addresses in a Microsoft Excel worksheet into
a comma-separated value (CSV) file that you can import into another program (for example, Microsoft
Word).
Note For the address example in this article, the Excel worksheet contains the following address
information:
A
B
1

ravi

kris

babu

1. On the File menu, click Save As.

Note In Excel 2007, click the Microsoft Office Button, and then click Save As.
2. In the Save As dialog box:
a. In the Save as type box, click CSV (Comma delimited) (*.csv).
b. In the File name box, type a name for your CSV file (for example, Address.csv), and then click
Save.
c. Click OK when you receive the following message:

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The selected file type does not support workbooks that contain multiple sheets.
To save only the active sheet, click OK.
To save all sheets, save them individually using a different file name for each, or select a file type
that supports multiple sheets.
d. Click Yes when you receive the following message:
Address.csv may contain features that are incompatible with CSV (comma delimited). Do you want
to keep the workbook in this format?
To keep this format, which leaves out any incompatible features, click Yes.
To preserve the features, click No. Then save a copy in the latest Excel format.
To see what might be lost, click Help.
3. On the File menu, click Close, and then exit Microsoft Excel.
Note In Excel 2007, click the Microsoft Office Button, click Close, and then click Exit Excel.
Note You may be prompted to save the file again. When you are prompted, you can click Yes, repeat
steps c and d, and then exit Excel.

Edit the CSV File in Microsoft Word

1. Start Microsoft Word.
2.
On the File menu, click Open.

Note In Word 2007, click the Microsoft Office Button, and then click Open.
In the Files of type box, click All Files (*.*).
Click the CSV file that you saved in step 4 of the "Edit the Excel Worksheet" section, and then click
Open.
On the Tools menu, click Options.

Note In Word 2007, skip this step.

On the View tab, click to select the All check box, and then click OK.

3.
4.

Note In Word 2007, follow these steps:

a. Click the Microsoft Office Button, and then click Word Options.
b. Click Display.
c. Click Paragraph marks under the Always show these formatting marks on the screen.

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ANNEXURE
Table : Studies
NAME
(PNAME)
SPLACE
COURSE

NULL
NOT NULL
NOT NULL
NOT NULL

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VARCHAR2(20)
VARCHAR2(20)
VARCHAR2(20)

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NAME
STUDIED PLACE
COURSE STUDIED

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TABLE : SOFTWARE
NAME
(PNAME)
TITLE

NULL ?
NOT NULL
NOT NULL

TYPE
VARCHAR2(20)
VARCHAR2(20)

DEV_IN

NOT NULL

VARCHAR2(10)

SCOST
DCOST

NUMBER(7,2)
NUMBER(7,2)

SOLD

NUMBER(4)

NAME
DEVELOPED
PROJECT NAME
LANGUAGE
DEVELOPED
SOFTWARE COST
DEVELOPMENT
COST
NO OF SOFTWARE
SOLD

Data in Table : STUDIES

PNAME
ANAND
ALTAF
JULIANA
KAMALA
MARY
NELSON
PATRICK
QADIR
RAMESH
REBECCA
REMITHA
REVATHI
VIJAYA

SPLACE
SABHARI
COIT
BITS
PRAGATHI
SABHARI
PRAGATHI
SABHARI
APPLE
SABHARI
BPILLANI
BDPS
SABHARI
BDPS

COURSE
PGDCA
DCA
MCA
DCP
PGDCA
DAP
DCA
HDCP
PGDCA
DCA
DCS
DAP
DCA

COST
45000
7200
22000
5000
4600
6200
5200
14000
4500
11000
6000
5000
48000

TABLE : SOFTWARE
PNAME
ANAND
ANAND
JULIANA

TITLE
PARACHUTES
VIDEO TITLING PACK
INVENTORY CONTROL

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DEV_IN
BASIC
PASCAL
COBOL
194

SCOST

DCOST

SOLD

399
7500
3000

6000
16000
3500

43
9
0
SLC

KAMALA
MARY
PATRICK
QADIR
QADIR
QADIR
RAMESH
RAMESH
REMITHA
REMITHA
REVATHI
REVATHI
VIJAYA

PAYROLL PACKAGE
FINANCIAL ACC.S/W
CODE GENERATION
READ ME
BOMBS AWAY
VACCINES
HOTEL MANAGEMENT
DEAD LEE
PC UTILITIES
TSR HELP PACKAGE
HOSPITAL
MANAGEMENT
QUIZ MASTER
ISR EDITION

DBASE
ORACLE
COBOL
C++
ASSEMBLY
C
DBASE
PASCAL
C
ASSEMBLY
PASCAL

9000
18000
4500
300
750
1900
12000
599
725
2500
1100

20000
85000
20000
1200
5000
3400
3500
4500
5000
6000
75000

7
4
23
84
11
21
4
73
51
6
2

BASIC
C

3200
900

2100
700

15
6

Data in Table : PROGRAMMER

PNAME

DOB

DOJ

ANAND
ALTAF
JULIANA
KAMALA
MARY
NELSON
PATRICK
QADIR
RAMESH
REBECCA
REMITHA
REVATHI
VIJAYA

21-APR-66
02-JUL-64
31-JAN-68
30-OCT-68
24-JUN-70
11-SEP-85
10-NOV-65
31-AUG-65
03-MAY-67
01-JAN-67
19-APR-70
02-DEC-69
14-DEC-65

21-APR-92
13-NOV-90
21-APR-90
02-JAN-92
01-FEB-91
11-OCT-89
21-APR-90
21-APR-91
28-FEB-91
01-DEC-90
20-APR-93
02-JAN-92
02-MAY-92

S
E
X
M
M
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
F
F
F
F

PROF1

PROF2

SALARY

PASCAL
CLIPPER
COBOL
C
C++
COBOL
PASCAL
ASSEMBLY
PASCAL
BASIC
C
PASCAL
FOXPRO

BASIC
COBOL
DBASE
DBASE
ORACLE
DBASE
CLIPPER
C
DBASE
COBOL
ASSEMBLY
BASIC
C

3200
2800
3000
2900
4500
2500
2800
3000
3200
2500
3600
3700
3500

QUERY I
Find out the selling cost average for packages developed in pascal.

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Display the names and ages of all the programmers

Display the names of those who have done the DAP course
What is the highest number of copies sold by a package
Display the names and date of birth of all programmers born in
January
Display the lowest course fee
How many programmers have done the PGDCA course
How much revenue has been earned through sale of packages
developed in C
Display the softwares developed by Ramesh
How many programmers studied at Sabhari?
Display the details of the packages whose sales crossed 2000 mark.
Find out the number of copies which should be sold in order to
recover the development cost of each package.
Display the details of packages for which development cost have been
recovered.
What is the price of the costliest software developed in BASIC
How many packages were developed in DBASE?
How many programmers studied at Pragathi?
How many programmers paid 5000 to 10000 for their course?
What is the average course fee?
Display the details of programmers knowing C
How many programmers know either COBOL or PASCAL?
How many programmers dont know PASCAL and C?
How old is the oldest male programmer?
What is the average age of female programmers?
Calculate the experience in years for each programmer and display
along with the names, in descending order.
Who are the programmers who celebrate their birthdays during the
current month?
How many female programmers are there?
What are the languages known by the male programmers
What is the average salary
How many people draw 2000 to 4000?
Display the details of those who dont know Clipper, COBOL or Pascal
Display the details of those who will be completing 2 years of services
this year?
Calculate the amount to be recovered for those packages whose
development cost has not yet been recovered?
List the packages, which have not been sold so far?
Find out the cost of the software developed by Mary?
Display the institute names from the studies table without the
duplicates

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OCP SAMPLE QUESTIONS

Question: 1
Which SELECT statement should you use if you want to display unique
combinations of the POSITION and MANAGER values from the EMPLOYEE
table?
1.
2.
3.
4.

SELECT
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT

DISTINCT position, manager FROM employee;

position, manager DISTINCT FROM employee;
position, manager FROM employee;
position, DISTINCT manager FROM employee;

Question: 2

You need to produce a report for mailing labels for all customers. The
mailing label must have only the customer name and address. The
CUSTOMERS table has these columns:
CUST_ID
CUST_NAME
CUST_ADDRESS
CUST_PHONE

NUMBER(4)
NOT NULL
VARCHAR2(100)
VARCHAR2(150)
VARCHAR2(20)

Which SELECT statement accomplishes this task?

1. SELECT* FROM customers;
2. SELECT name, address FROM customers;
3. SELECT id, name, address, phone FROM customers;
4. SELECT cust_name, cust_address FROM customers;
5. SELECT cust_id, cust_name, cust_address, cust_phone FROM
customers;.

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Question: 3
Evaluate this SQL statement:
SELECT e.EMPLOYEE_ID,e.LAST_NAME,e.DEPARTMENT_ID,
d.DEPARTMENT_NAME.
FROM EMP e, DEPARTMENT d
WHERE e.DEPARTMENT_ID = d.DEPARTMENT_ID;
In the statement, which capabilities of a SELECT statement are performed?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Selection, projection, join

Difference, projection, join
Selection, intersection, join
Intersection, projection, join
Difference, projection, product

Question: 4
Which two statements are true regarding the ORDER BY clause?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The
The
The
The
The
The

sort is in ascending by order by default.

sort is in descending order by default.
ORDER BY clause must precede the WHERE clause.
ORDER BY clause is executed on the client side.
ORDER BY clause comes last in the SELECT statement.
ORDER BY clause is executed first in the query execution.

Question: 5
From SQL*Plus, you issue this SELECT statement:
SELECT * From orders;
You use this statement to retrieve data from a data table for __________.
1. Updating
2. Viewing
3. Deleting
4. Inserting
5. Truncating

Question: 6
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Which SQL SELECT statement performs a projection, a selection, and join

when executed?
1. SELECT p.id_number, m.manufacturer_id, m.city
FROM product p, manufacturer m
WHERE p.manufacturer_id = m.manufacturer_id AND m.manufacturer_id =
'NF10032';
2. SELECT id_number, manufacturer_id FROM product
ORDER BY manufacturer_id, id_number;
3. SELECT id_number, manufacturer_id
FROM product
WHERE manufacturer_id = 'NF10032';
4. SELECT manufacturer_id, city
FROM manufacturer
AND manufacturer_id = 'NF10032'
ORDER BY city;

Question: 7
The CUSTOMERS table has these columns:
CUSTOMER_ID
NUMBER(4)
NOT NULL
CUSTOMER_NAME
VARCHAR2(100)
NOT NULL
STREET_ADDRESS
VARCHAR2(150)
CITY_ADDRESS
VARCHAR2(50)
STATE_ADDRESS VARCHAR2(50)
PROVINCE_ADDRESS
VARCHAR2(50)
COUNTRY_ADDRESS
VARCHAR2(50)
POSTAL_CODE
VARCHAR2(12)
CUSTOMER_PHONE
VARCHAR2(20)
Which statement finds the rows in the CUSTOMERS table that do not have a
postal code?
1. SELECT customer_id, customer_name
FROM customers
WHERE postal_code CONTAINS NULL;

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2. SELECT customer_id, customer_name

FROM customers
WHERE postal_code = '________';
3. SELECT customer_id, customer_name
FROM customers
WHERE postal_code IS NULL;
4. SELECT customer_id, customer_name
FROM customers
WHERE postal code IS NVL;
5. SELECT customer_id, customer_name
FROM customers
WHERE postal_code = NULL;

Question: 8
Evaluate these two SQL statements:
SELECT last_name, salary , hire_date
FROM EMPLOYEES
ORDER BY salary DESC;
SELECT last_name, salary, hire_date
FROM EMPLOYEES
ORDER BY 2 DESC;
What is true about them?
1. The two statements produce identical results.
2. The second statement returns a syntax error.
3. There is no need to specify DESC because the results are sorted in
descending order by
default.
4. The two statements can be made to produce identical results by adding a
column alias for the
salary column in the second SQL statement.

Question: 9
Evaluate the set of SQL statements:
CREATE TABLE dept
(deptno NUMBER(2),

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dname VARCNAR2(14),
loc VARCNAR2(13));
ROLLBACK;
DESCRIBE DEPT
What is true about the set?
1. The DESCRIBE DEPT statement displays the structure of the DEPT table.
2. The ROLLBACK statement frees the storage space occupies by the DEPT
table.
3. The DESCRIBE DEPT statement returns an error ORA-04043: object
DEPT does not exist.
4. The DESCRIBE DEPT statement displays the structure of the DEPT table
only if the COMMIT statement introduced before the ROLLBACK statement..

Question: 10
Examine the data of the EMPLOYEES table.
EMPLOYEES (EMPLOYEE_ID is the primary key. MGR_ID is the ID of
managers and refers to
the EMPLOYEE_ID)
EMPLOYEE_ID EMP_NAME
101
Smith
102
Martin
103
Chris
104
John
105
Diana
106
Bryan
108
Jennifer
110
Bob
120
Ravi

DEPT_ID
20
10
20
30
30
40
30
40
20

MGR_ID
120
105
120
108
108
110
110
110

JOB_ID
SA_REP
CLERK
IT_ADMIN
HR_CLERK
HR_MGR
AD_ASST
HR_DIR
EX_DIR
SA_DIR

SALARY
4000
2500
4200
2500
5000
3000
6500
8000
6500

Evaluate this SQL statement:

SELECT e.employee_id "Emp_id", e.emp_name "Employee",
e.salary, m.employee_id "Mgr_id", m.emp_name "Manager"
FROM employees e, employees m
WHERE e.mgr_id = m.employee_id AND e.salary > 4000;
What is its output?
1.
EMP_id EMPLOYEE

Satyam Computer Services Ltd

SALARY

206

Mgr_id

Manager

SLC

------110
120
108
103
105

---------- --------- ------------- -------------Bob

Question: 17
Examine the data of the EMPLOYEES table.
EMPLOYEES (EMPLOYEE_ID is the primary key. MGR_ID is the ID of
managers and refers to
the EMPLOYEE_ID)
EMPLOYEE_ID
101
102
103
104
105
106
108
110
120

EMP_NAME
Smith
Martin
Chris
John
Diana
Bryan
Jennifer
Bob
Ravi

DEPT_ID
20
10
20
30
30
40
30
40
20

MGR_ID
120
105
120
108
108
110
110
110

JOB_ID
SA_REP
CLERK
IT_ADMIN
HR_CLERK
HR_MGR
AD_ASST
HR_DIR
EX_DIR
SA_DIR

SALARY
4000
2500
4200
2500
5000
3000
6500
8000
6500

Which statement lists the ID, name, and salary of the employee, and the ID
and name of the employee's manager, for all the employees who have a
manager and earn more than 4000?
1. SELECT employee_id "Emp_id", emp_name "Employee",
salary, employee_id "Mgr_id", emp_name "Manager"
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 4000;
2. SELECT e.employee_id "Emp_id", e.emp_name "Employee",
e.salary, m.employee_id "Mgr_id", m.emp_name "Manager"

Satyam Computer Services Ltd

210

SLC

FROM employees e, employees m

WHERE e.mgr_id = m.mgr_id AND e.salary > 4000;
3. SELECT e.employee_id "Emp_id", e.emp_name "Employee",
e.salary, m.employee_id "Mgr_id", m.emp_name "Manager"
FROM employees e, employees m
WHERE e.mgr_id = m.employee_id AND e.salary > 4000;
4. SELECT e.employee_id "Emp_id", e.emp_name "Employee",
e.salary, m.mgr_id "Mgr_id", m.emp_name "manager"
FROM employees e, employees m
WHERE e.mgr_id = m.employee_id AND e.salary > 4000;
5. SELECT e.employee_id "Emp_id", e.emp_name "Employee",
e.salary, m.mgr_id "Mgr_id", m.emp_name "Manager"
FROM employees e, employees m
WHERE e.employee_id = m.employee_id
AND e.salary > 4000;.

Question: 18

You need to display the last names of those employees who have the letter
A as the second
character in their names.
Which SQL statement displays the required results?
1. SELECT last_name FROM EMP WHERE last_name LIKE _A%;
2. SELECT last_name FROM EMP WHERE last name =*A%
3. SELECT last_name FROM EMP WHERE last name =_A%;
4. SELECT last_name FROM EMP WHERE last name LIKE *A%

Question: 19
In which scenario would TOP N analysis be the best solution?
1. You want to identify the most senior employee in the company.
2. You want to find the manager supervising the largest number of
employees.
3. You want to identify the person who makes the highest salary for all
employees.
4. You want to rank the top three sales representatives who have sold the
maximum number of
products.

Question: 20
Satyam Computer Services Ltd

211

you use to achieve the
required results?
1. SELECT product_id
FROM product
WHERE qty_per_unit >= 500
ORDER BY supplier_id, product_id;
2. SELECT product_id
FROM product
WHERE qty_per_unit >= 500
SORT BY supplier_id, product_id;
3. SELECT product_id
FROM product
WHERE qty_per_unit >= 500
ORDER BY supplier_id, product_id DESC;
4. SELECT product_id
FROM product
WHERE qty_per_unit > 500
SORT BY supplier_id, product_id;

Question: 26

Examine the data in TEACHER table.

ID
LAST_NAME FIRST_NAME
SUBJECT_ID
88
Tsu
Ming
HST_AMER
70
Smith
Ellen
HST_INDIA
56
Jones
Karen
HST_REVOL
58
Hann
Jeff
HST_CURR
63
Hopewell
Mary Elizabetn
HST_RELIG
Which query should you use to return the following values from the
TEACHER table?
Name
Subject
------------------------------------- ------------------Jones, Karen
HST_REVOL
Hopewell, Mary Elizabeth HST_RELIG
1. SELECT last_name||', '||first_name "Name", subject_id "Subject"
FROM teacher
WHERE subject_id LIKE 'HST\_%' ESCAPE '\';

Satyam Computer Services Ltd

215

SLC

2. SELECT last_name||', '||first_name "Name", subject_id "Subject"

FROM teacher
WHERE subject_id = 'HST\_R%';
3. SELECT last_name||', '||first_name "Name", subject_id "Subject"
FROM teacher
WHERE subject_id LIKE '%HST\_R%' ESC '\ ';
4. SELECT last_name||', '||first_name "Name", subject_id "Subject"
FROM teacher
WHERE subject_id LIKE 'HST_%';

Question: 27
You query the database with this SQL statement:
SELECT bonus
FROM salary
WHERE bonus BETWEEN 1 AND 250 OR (bonus IN(190, 500, 600)
AND bonus BETWEEN 250 AND 500);
Which value could the statement return?
1.
2.
3.
4.

100
260
400
600

Question: 28

Examine the structure of the STUDENTS table:

STUDENT_ID
NUMBER
Primary Key
STUDENT_NAME VARCHAR2(30)
COURSE_ID
VARCHAR2(10)
NOT NULL
MARKS
NUMBER
START_DATE
DATE
FINISH_DATE
DATE
You need to create a report of the 10 students who achieved the highest
ranking in the course
INT SQL and who completed the course in the year 1999.
Which SQL statement accomplishes this task?

Satyam Computer Services Ltd

216

SLC

1. SELECT student_ id, marks, ROWNUM "Rank"

FROM students
WHERE ROWNUM <= 10
AND finish_date BETWEEN '01-JAN-99' AND '31-DEC-99'
AND course_id = 'INT_SQL'
ORDER BY marks DESC;
2. SELECT student_id, marks, ROWID "Rank"
FROM students
WHERE ROWID <= 10
AND finish_date BETWEEN '01-JAN-99' AND '31-DEC-99'
AND course_id = 'INT_SQL'
ORDER BY marks;
3. SELECT student_id, marks, ROWNUM "Rank"
FROM (SELECT student_id, marks
FROM students
WHERE ROWNUM <= 10
AND finish_date BETWEEN '01-JAN-99' AND
'31-DEC-99'
AND course_id = 'INT_SQL'
ORDER BY marks DESC);
4. SELECT student_id, marks, ROWNUM "Rank
FROM (SELECT student_id, marks
FROM students
ORDER BY marks DESC)
WHERE ROWNUM <= 10
AND finish_date BETWEEN '01-JAN-99' AND '31-DEC-99'
AND course_id = 'INT_SQL';

Question: 29

Examine the structure of the LINE_ITEM table.

LINE_ITEM_ID
NUMBER(9),
ORDER_ID
NUMBER(9) NOT NULL,
PRODUCT_ID NUMBER(9) NOT_NULL,
QUANTITY NUMBER(9),
Constraint primary key (LINE_ITEM_ID, ORDER_ID),
Constraint foreign key ORDER_ID REFERENCES
CURR_ORDER(ORDER_ID),
Constraint foreign key PRODUCT_ID REFERENCES
PRODUCT(PRODUCT_ID));

Satyam Computer Services Ltd

Question: 35
The ACCOUNT table contains these columns:

Satyam Computer Services Ltd

220

TO_DATE(SYSDATE, 'FMDAY, DD Month, YYYY') FROM dual;

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'FMDD, DY Month, 'YYY') FROM dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'FMDay, DD Month, YYYY') FROM dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'FMDY, DDD Month, YYYY')
TO_DATE(SYSDATE, 'FMDY, DDD Month, YYYY') FROM dual;

Question: 41

Evaluate the SQL statement:

Satyam Computer Services Ltd

223

SLC

227

SLC

Question: 49
In a SELECT statement that includes a WHERE clause, where is the GROUP
BY clause placed
in the SELECT statement?
1. Immediately after the SELECT clause
2. Before the WHERE clause
3. Before the FROM clause
4. After the ORDER BY clause
5. After the WHERE clause

Question: 50

Which two are character manipulation functions?

1. TRIM
2. REPLACE
3. TRUNC
4. TO_DATE
5. MOD
6. CASE

Satyam Computer Services Ltd

228

SLC

Satyam Computer Services Ltd

229

SLC

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