Mechanical Engineering (ME) 4201

Machine Design Laboratory

Lab Manual

PART-I & II

Compiled/Prepared by:
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Louisiana State University

Fall - 2015

Table of Contents
Page Number
REPORT WRITING GUIDE ............................................................................................ 3

FIRST CYCLE LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

I.

Gyroscope Experiment #1..................................................................... 10

II.

Cam - Follower Experiment #2 .............................................................. 16

III.

Journal Bearing Lubrication Experiment #3 ........................................ 22

IV.

Static & Dynamic Balancing Experiment #4 ........................................ 31

V.

Vibration Experiment #5.35

VI.

Strain Gage Experiment # 6(a) Cantilever Beam Experiment ....41

Thin-walled Lab Pressure Vessels# 6(b)48

REPORT WRITING GUIDE

Introduction
The importance of good report writing and data presentation cannot be
overemphasized. No matters how good an experiment, or how brilliant a discovery; it is
worthless, unless the information is communicated to other people. As you complete
each laboratory report, you will be gaining experience in writing technical reports and will
be developing skills you will find invaluable throughout your career. There are a great
many books available on report writing. However, the purpose of this document is to
provide some basic pointers in the writing of laboratory reports. In particular, a major
objective of this work is to provide the format for laboratory report writing, and to provide
hints and tips to improve your reports. Each of these topics is discussed at length in the
appropriate sections that follow.
General Guidelines for Report Writing
All of the reports you submit during your career at Louisiana State University
should follow one of two basic formats. There may be small differences due to individual
preferences of the instructor, but for the most part, all of the components of the report will
be identical.
Style:
Third-person past tense is generally accepted as the most formal grammatical
style for technical reports. However, in some isolated instances, it may be most effective
to stress a point or to emphasize that a particular statement is primarily the opinion of the
writer. An example of each of these styles is shown below.
Third person: Equation (6) is recommended for the final calculation procedure as
a result of the limitations of the data as discussed above.
First-person: We recommend Eq. (6) for the final calculation procedure as a result
of the limitations of the data as discussed above.
As you can see, in the first-person statement, the writer is making the recommendation
on a much more personal basis than in the third-person statement. The selection of the
proper statement often depends on many factors, including the consideration of the
people who will eventually read the report. In most cases, the third-person statement will
be most preferable; however, if you have completed an engineering study for a particular
individual, the first-person usage may be more appropriate. As most of the work that you
will be completing will require a formal report, the third-person style is to be used.
Format:
All reports must be typed or near-letter-quality (NLQ) printed. All work should be
double- spaced, one side only. All pages must be trimmed or neatly folded to 8.5" - 11".
Reports should be bound, such that the back of a page is on left and the front of the page
is on the right (no binder, paper clips). Block format with separated side headings or an
indented format with center of side heading may be used. This is an individual choice for
the writer. Paragraphs may or may not be numbered, but all pages must be numbered.
3

All pages should have identical margins. A reasonable set of margins is 1.0 inch at the
top and the bottom, and 1.5 inches at the left, and 1.0 inch on the right. These margins
allow for ease of binding, as well as clarity of reading.
Rules for the Plotting of Data:
One of the more common tasks in completing engineering reports is plotting data.
This section contains some rules to follow when making graphs. Automated graphmaking programs such as Excel, Lotus, or SigmaPlot often take care of many of these
details for you, but you are responsible for checking that these guidelines are followed.
All axes must be drawn in a location on the page, which will allow the numbering,
and labeling of the scales to occur without entering the margin. Each axis must be labeled
and the proper units given. The lettering on the page must be oriented such that it is
readable from either the bottom or the right-hand side of the page. This becomes
important if the plot is drawn in landscape mode (i.e., sideways) on the page. The
independent variable is always plotted along the abscissa (x-axis), and the dependent
variable on the ordinate (y-axis).
Choose convenient scale factors for each of the scales, generally using multiples
of 1, 2 or 5. An axis, with divisions of 2.5 or 3.33, is very troublesome when it is desired
to read intermediate values from the curve, to say nothing of the difficulty you will
experience in plotting the data. The plotted data points should be clearly marked by
drawing a small circle about each point. These should be drawn with a template for
neatness and usually are not more than 3/32 of an inch in diameter. Normally, this
formality is automatically done when commercial computer graphing packages are used.
If points for more than one curve are to be plotted on a single graph, or the data of different
observers is to be indicated, a differentiation can be made by using small squares,
triangles or other symbols in addition to the circles. On the other hand, the calculated
points used in plotting a curve representing theoretical results should not be marked with
such symbols. Only the curve itself (and not the points used to plot it) should be shown.
In most cases you will be required to draw a best-fit curve (with a French curve,
not freehand!!) through the data points. It is not necessary that the curves intersect all
data points or even the first and last data points. It should, however, be a smooth curve
which best represents (in some average sense) the data. The curve should not be
allowed to pass through the circles or other symbols surrounding the points. The purpose
of this is to leave the points visible so they may be checked at any time. Calibration
curves and correction curves are drawn with small sections of straight line joining the
points. This is done because the errors are mostly random and do not conform to a
mathematical law.
Curves are drawn to as large a scale as is consistent with the precision with which
the measurements are made. That is, the scale should not be so large that the curve can
be read to a precision greater than that of the measured data, nor should the scale be so
small that the curve cannot be read to as great a precision as that to which the
measurements are made.
4

Do not place too many curves on one sheet of paper, particularly if the curves
cross one another. Typically, this leads to confusion and a cluttered appearance.
Prepare all plots on ruled graph paper however, for computer-generated plots this is not
necessary. Do not use quad paper or engineering paper. If more than one curve is
present, label each curve as close to the curve as possible. Do not use colors to
distinguish curves, as this distinction disappears upon reproduction. (Use full, dashed, or
dotted lines instead). Each curve should have a figure number and a descriptive title such
as Frequency Response of a R-C circuit. Non-descriptive titles such as Voltage versus
Frequency, which are evident from axes labels, should be avoided. In calibration
experiments, your name, the date on which the experiment was performed, the
instruments manufacturer, model number, and serial or identification number should
appear on the figure.
Full-page graphs in landscape mode (printed sideways on the page) must have
the top of the graph at the left-hand side of the page. As in the text, any bibliographical
references may be enclosed in brackets [xx].
Application of Probability and Statistics
Probability and statistics play an important role in experimental work, especially in
industry. When presented without consideration of probability and statistical analysis,
data can be misleading because measurement error prevents an engineer from
determining the true value of measured quantities at any given time. Engineering
measurements, repeatedly taken under seemingly identical conditions will normally show
variations in measured values. The use of statistics in mechanical measurements
provides a method of dealing with characteristics that have variability. Because the topic
of probability and statistical analysis is presented in standard engineering texts, it is not
necessary to present the full theory here. However, reports for this class may require
some of the following analysis techniques.
(1)

If more than one measurement is taken for a given value, your report should
include calculation of mean and standard deviation. This information should be
included whenever the data is reported. If data is reported in tabular form, one
column each should be devoted to mean and standard deviation. If data is
reported in a graph, error bars should be used to indicate the standard deviation
for each mean value.

(2)

If a curve-fit or regression is used, the correlation factor should be reported along

with the equation of the curve. In some cases, the two curves representing 95%
confidence intervals (or other specified intervals) may also be required to
demonstrate the goodness of fit.

(3)

When specified in the manual, uncertainty analysis should be performed to

account for the effects of measurement uncertainties on calculated values.
For this specific class, always conduct analysis (1) and (2) whenever applicable.
Conduct analysis (3) ONLY when specified in the individual experiment.
5

CONTENT
A good laboratory report answers the questions: What was done?, How was it
done?, and What were the results?. There are standard sections to each lab report which
help answer these questions, and allow the reader the opportunity to move right to the
section most appropriate to his or her interest. Basically, any formal lab report consists
of the following sections:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Title Page & Abstract

Table of Contents
Introduction
Background and Theory
Equipment
Procedure
Results and Analysis
Conclusions and Recommendations
Bibliography
Appendix/Appendices.
A short description of each of these topics follows.

Title Page & Abstract:

This is one of the most important sections of your report, and will probably be the
most carefully scrutinized section of any report you write. Basically, this section tells a
short story about your lab, and very concisely answers the three questions posed above:
What was done?, How was it done?, and What were the results?. The abstract is included
as part of the title page, so that anyone reading the report can very quickly see who wrote
the report, the subject of, and the procedure followed for the lab, and what results were
obtained. This section should probably be the last section written, and will summarize all
of the work done for the lab. A common mistake is to write this section first, and then
force the rest of the report to fit with the abstract.
Table of Contents:
Obviously, the table of contents is nothing more than a listing of headings with the
page numbers. However, the table of contents is often a good indicator of the
organization of the report, and can be a good tool for the development of the lab report.
When figures and tables are used in the report, an independent List of Figures and List
of Tables is also required.
Introduction:
An introduction sets the context of the experiment, and gives the relevant
background to the experiment. This section is very important for the individual who
wishes to read the entire report. The introduction should include a concise description of
what you were trying to discover, as well as describe what is going to follow in the
remainder of the report. It is not appropriate to include results in this section; rather, you
are trying to set the stage for what follows in the rest of the report.
Background and Theory:
6

This section is used to lay the technical and theoretical groundwork for the process
being studied. It is in this section that the technical basis for the work that you did is
explained. In other words, why are the results that you obtained valid? Discuss the
technical fundamentals, which lie behind the experiment. This includes describing (and
laying the technical groundwork for) the analysis process for the data. This section does
not have to be a masters level thesis, but should demonstrate your understanding of the
process and the sources of error in measuring it. A well-written background section
greatly simplifies discussion of the results.
Equipment:
This segment of the report, along with the section that immediately follows (the
procedure section), allows the reader to duplicate your experiment should the need arise.
Any equipment used in the experiment should be listed along with identifying marks (serial
numbers, model numbers, etc...). Any particular settings of the instruments should be
denoted in the procedure section. It is especially useful in this segment to include a
sketch of the experimental setup. This sketch is especially helpful to avoid any
ambiguities that might exist when the experiment is re-run, or when attempts are made
to duplicate your results.
Procedure:
A procedure section simply lists what was done in the lab, and the order in which
it was done. As previously mentioned, it is this section, along with the equipment section,
that allows the reader to reconstruct your experiment, if necessary. This section is most
effective if it is written in the form of a list, following a chronological order as shown below.
1. A beaker was filled with 500 ml of water, and placed on a hot plate.
2. A thermocouple was placed in the beaker, and the temperature of the water
sampled once every 8 seconds.
3. The recording ...
Elements in the list are either all complete sentences, or all short phrases but not
both. Overhanging paragraph format is good for lists. The procedure section is also the
appropriate place to discuss any deviations from the intended procedure. For example,
if you originally intended to monitor the temperature of two beakers of water, you might
note that only one thermometer was available, and that this was not possible.
Results and Analysis:
This section may be the most crucial for your report. The results and the analysis
to obtain these results should be presented here. This section is most effective if written
in the past tense. The data were taken ...; the curve was generated... However, it is
appropriate to say such things as the data are well represented by a second order
polynomial since this is a fact that extends into present. Additionally, estimate the error
in measuring whatever your objective was to measure. Be particularly careful when
referring to human or round-off errors that these errors are significant in terms of the
discrepancies observed.

Plots and figures tend to be the most effective ways to present data. It is extremely
useful to include figures in the text at the point where they are being discussed (a helpful
tool is to use the graphic import feature available with many word processors to import
figures right into the text).
When graphs or tables will present the ideas clearly, use them, but also include a
concise discussion of the graphs and tables focusing the readers attention on the salient
features of data. Do not simply recite numbers or parameters that should be obvious
upon simple inspection of the figures. Moreover, never forget to indicate units. The
location of figures and tables should be included in the List of Figures/Tables in the Table
of Contents section of the report.
Probability and statistical analysis should be included with your calculations in this
section, if applicable. Please follow the requirements given above.
Conclusions and Recommendations:
By the time the reader reaches this section of the report, most of the conclusions
regarding the work should have already been presented. The object of the conclusion
section is to gather all of the important results and interpretations in clear summary form.
Recommend cost-effective feasible ways to improve the performance of the laboratory.
Also remember, there will be many readers who focus only on the conclusion and abstract
sections, so it is especially important that they be well written.
Bibliography:
This section should include all references (including the lab manual), which were
cited in the report. Citations should include all information that is not developed by the
authors. A standard format should be used such as
... Smith [1] discusses the effects of temperature... which would refer to the
following citation in the bibliography.
1.
Smith, R., Turbulent Natural Convection for a Vertical Plane Surface,
Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol.76, p.234, 1979.
Your work will often require you to reference other contributions, not only in this
particular course, but in others as well. Learn to do so.
Appendices:
A laboratory report should be a complete, concise, self-contained document
without appendices. These sections contain information not appropriate to any other
section. For example, raw data, sample calculations, detailed derivations, etc. may be
included in the appendices. This is the most free space in the report. For example, you
might include a sketch of an improved way to complete the experiment, or to present the
data. An appendix can be a very valuable addition to the report.
Hints to Writing
Before You Begin:
8

It is very difficult to write good lab reports if you dont understand what you were
doing when you carried out the experiment. Therefore, before coming into the laboratory,
you are urged to carefully read both the experiment sheet and the partially completed
laboratory report for that weeks experiment. Take advantage of opportunities to discuss
with your instructor any questions you may have regarding the experiment. The
experiment tends to run a little smoother if you designate one member of your group as
the data taker. He or she is responsible for recording information pertinent to any device
calibrated during the experiment. At the end of the lab, each member of the group should
then copy this information directly onto their data sheets. It is this type of information,
which should appear in your appendices.
Writing the Report:
It is important to write your report as soon as possible after the experiment is
completed. This will save you time since the experiment is still fresh in your mind.
Remember, as always, that each section of the report should answer one of the three
basic questions: What did you do? How did you do it?, or What did you find out?
In terms of these, think carefully about what you did in the experiment. Think about
what figures you want to include that help clarify the information. Decide the flow of
information before actually sitting down to write. As you write, keep in mind the common
rules of English grammar and punctuation. Proofread your report, and keep in mind that
your report speaks for you. Does your report give the impression that you would want to
make if you were in person?
Write a sketchy outline itemizing the basic sections of the report and listing the
primary points to be made in each section. With the available text processors this should
be relatively straightforward. The outline will help organize the report, help establish the
flow of information, and can help indicate where figures and graphs are needed.
Once the content of the report is established with a multilevel of detail outline, it is
much easier to begin writing. It should be much simpler to concentrate on rules of
grammar and punctuation when not having to think about what to say also.
After Getting Back Your Report:
After your report has been graded and returned to you, take the time to read and
understand the comments that have been made. Consider these comments when writing
your next lab report. Work with the instructor to improve the quality of your lab reports,
and always keep in mind that the ability to write a good lab report is an excellent talent,
that will be extremely useful throughout your educational and professional careers.

GYROSCOPE EXPERIMENT #1
Introduction
The study of gyroscopic action is particularly important in the field of vehicle
engineering. The gyroscopic couple produced by rotating components can often lead to
undesirable effects, which affect the stability of vehicles. For example, when a road
vehicle travels around a bend, the gyroscopic couple produced by turning the axis of the
wheels tends to overturn the vehicle. In the case of an aircraft changing direction, the
gyroscopic couple due to the rotating components of the engine causes the aircraft to
pitch up or down. Gyroscopic effects can also be used to ones advantage, as in the case
of gyrostabilizers and gyroscopic instruments. If mounted in a suitable position, a
gyroscope consisting of a rotating disc can be used to resist undesirable motion and so
provide a means of stabilization. Gyroscopic action occurs whenever the axis of a
spinning body rotates. The axis of rotation remains in the same direction so long as no
external couple acts on the system. However, if a turning couple is applied to the axis, a
torque reaction is produced which tends to turn the axis in a plane at right angles to the
plane in which the applied couple acts. This torque reaction, or gyroscopic couple as it
is called, results from attempting to alter the direction of angular momentum of the body.
If we have a stationary fly wheel, of moment of inertia I, on a shaft mounted in a
trunnion frame such that it is supported but free to rotate about any axis, then the couple
applied to the system will cause the shaft to move in the plane of application of the couple.
Now consider Figure 1, where the flywheel disk is spinning with angular velocity r (or we
may call , and the axis of spin is simultaneously rotating in the horizontal plane XOZ
with angular velocity p. Then:
Active Gyroscopic Couple = I r x p -----------------------------Eq. 1.
A torque is applied, to balance the active gyroscopic couple, by adding a mass (m)
to keep the axis of the disc from rotating in the horizontal plane. Therefore, the applied
torque is a reactive gyroscopic couple or:
In order to investigate the validity of equation (1) it is necessary to determine the
moment of inertia of the gyroscope rotor. In the experiment, this is done by suspending
the rotor and disk on two wires as shown in Figure 2 and observing its torsional oscillation.
This represents simple harmonic motion in which the periodic time (for
mgL = p x I r

------------------------------------------------------- Eq. 2

small oscillation angle such that sin is essentially equal to is given by:

= 2

4Il
2
M rd g d

10

Eq. 3

Where, Mrd is the mass of the rotor-disk (1100 gm.) combination, d is diameter of the disk
(or the distance between the suspended strings), I is the mass moment of inertia about
the centroidal axis of the rotor and disk, l is the length of the suspended string, and g is
the acceleration constant due to gravity (9.81 m/sec2 or 386.4 in/sec2).

Active
Gyroscopic
Couple

Figurer 1. Fly Wheel Disk Spinning About

About Disk Axis and Precessing
About Y-Axis

11

Figure 2. Experiment Used to

determine Rotor-Disk Period
and Moment of Inertia

Balancing
Couple

Balancing
Couple

Figure 3.

Balancing
Couple

Balancing
Couple

Examples of the Balancing Couples needed for Different Rotor-Disk

Rotation ( or r) and Precession (p) Combinations

Objective
The purpose of this experiment is to:

Study the direction of gyroscopic couple, angular velocity of the rotor (), and the
precession velocity (p).

Determine the mass moment of inertia of the rotor-disk experimentally by use of

Eq. (3), which is based on small oscillation theory.

Investigate the validity of the gyroscopic couple relation, Eq. (1), by comparing the
I value based on Eqs. (1) and (3).

Necessary Equipment and Materials

Stop watch (determines precession speed)

E64 electronic tachometer (determines rotor speed)

Additional gyroscope rotor and armature assembly

Fold-out bifilar suspension arm mount to base of gyroscope apparatus

Gyroscope apparatus (see Figure- 4)

12

Small variable speed motor (B) carried in a gimbal frame (this frame
not shown in Figure 4).
Rotor disc (A) mounted on motor (B)s shaft.
Second variable speed motor housed inside apparatus base (not
shown in Figure 4).
Torque arm (G) carrying a mass (D) at its end to balance the motor
and rotor disc.
Retaining plate (E) fitted over the torque arm to limit the angular
movement of the motor assembly.
Additional masses (F) attached to the end of the torque arm to
balance the gyroscopic couple (add mass as directed in Procedure).
Removable electrically interlocked transparent safety cover (or
dome) fitting completely over rotating assembly (cover not shown in
Figure 4). (Note: Removing this cover automatically stops both
motors.)
Slip ring at the base of the gimbal frame supplying power to rotor
motor (B).
E66 Mains Transformer Unit.
TecQuipment E91 dual speed control units for both motors.

Figure 4. Gyroscope Apparatus

Procedure
1.
Make sure the following connections are completed before operating the
gyroscope apparatus.
a.
The 12V input terminals on the E91 Dual speed control unit to the 12V D.C.
power supply.
b.
One pair of the output terminals on the E91 unit to the rotor input terminals
on the apparatus, and the other pair to the precession input terminals.
c.
The E64 tachometer input to the output socket on the apparatus using the
signal lead provided.
13

d.

If all of the preceding connections are made, the apparatus is ready for
operation. Switch on all the units.

2.

Check that the gyroscope rotor assembly is adjusted so that with no weight added,
the line scribed on the end of the torque arm lies in the plane of the line scribed
around the safety cover. If the arm does not lie in the plane, slacken the screws
holding the rotor on the motor shaft, then adjust the rotor position until the rotor
assembly balances. Replace the cover, check the alignment and when
satisfactory, re-tighten the screws to clamp the rotor in position.

3.

Check that the cover is correctly in position, then set the rotor and precession
motors running. Note the direction of rotation of the rotor, the direction of
precession of the gyroscope and whether the torque arm rises of falls. By
interchanging the motor input connection on the front panel, determine the
direction of the gyroscope couple for each combination of rotor and precession
directions.

4.

Screw a 150 g mass onto the end of the torque arm and replace the safety dome.
Connect the rotor and precession motors supplies so that the gyroscopic couple
will raise the torque arm.

5.

Set the rotor speed to approximately 1000 RPM using the speed control unit. Vary
the precession velocity until the torque arm rises to a level at which the scribed line
lies in the same plane as the line on the safety cover. This is the point of balance
at which the gyroscopic couple is just equal to the moment produced by the mass
on the torque arm.

6.

At this point, measure the precession speed by timing a suitable number of

revolutions of the assembly using a stopwatch. The number of revolutions you will
need to time depends on the test conditions. To obtain high accuracy always use
a time period of at least 1 minute.

7.

Decrease the rotor speed in order to get 4 more measurement points (for example,
1500 RPM, 2000 RPM, 2500 RPM.) and determine the precession speed at the
balance point for each different rotor speed.

8.

Add additional masses to the torque arm and obtain similar sets of results for each
value of mass as for the 150g mass. Use 150g, 200g, 250g, and 300g masses.
(Please look in to the NOTE for the required weights and speeds to be carried out
for the experiment)

9.

Calculate the moment using T = mgL, where: L = Torque arm = 15 cm, m = mass
added, and g = 9.81 m/s2

10.

Plot the reciprocal of the precession velocity (1/p) against the rotor velocity for
each mass. Obtain the linear regression and indicate its coefficient of correlation.
Find the moment of inertia (I) using the slope of each graph.
14

11.

The second method to obtain the moment of inertia, I, is based on vibration theory
as described in the manual. Measure the vibration period, , for at least five times
using various sampling time. Obtain the average and its standard deviation.
Calculate the moment of inertia using Eq. (3).

12.

Compare the moment of inertia obtained through steps #10 and 11. Discuss the
results.

Note : Carry out the Experiments for the following weights and speed combination
Speed (rpm) 150 (gm) 200(gm) 250 (gm) 300 (gm)
1000
1500
2000
2500

15

CAM-FOLLOWER EXPERIMENT # 2
Introduction
A cam-follower system (sometimes referred to as a direct contact mechanism) is
one of the simplest mechanisms used for control and conversion of one type of motion to
another. However, the accuracy of output, which is generally the motion of follower,
depends on the cam and follower being in contact at all times.

P = W cos + F s +

W 2 d2 Z
c
Equation 1
g
d2

The forces acting on a follower may be shown to consist of:

where,
W

=
=

c
Fs
Z

=
=
=
=

Weight of the follower, retainer and applied weight (lb or N),

Angle between the line of motion of the follower and the vertical
(direction of gravitational acceleration),
Angular velocity of the cam (rad/s),
Spring force behind the follower (lb or N),
Vertical displacement of the follower (in or mm),
Angular displacement of the cam (radians)

The spring force behind may be broken up into two components where:
F s = F so + kZ
F so = k[Initial (free length)-Final (Compressed length)] . Equation 2

where:

Fso

Spring force behind the follower when the follower is at its

closest position the center of rotation of the cam (lb or N),
Spring constant (lb/in or N/mm).

In Eq. (1), P must always be positive in order for the follower to remain in contact
with the cam. The combination of the first two terms is always positive, however a large
negative d2Z/d2 term may cause P to be negative. For a given cam profile, the RPM of
the camshaft that results in separation of the follower from the cam may be calculated
from Eqs. (1) and (2) as:

RPM

60 - W cos
=

2
W g

+ F
2

d Z2
d

so

+ kZ

1/2

Equation 3

where, d2Z/d2 is the maximum negative value. Note that in Equation 3, = 0 since the
follower and cam are in line.
16

Obviously, the RPM at which the follower separates from the cam is a function of
the weight of the follower, the spring force behind the follower, as well as the cam profile.
Furthermore, if the cam-follower separation is going to take place, it will occur first at the
point where d2Z/d2 has its maximum negative value during the cycle. Once the follower
loses contact with the cam, in reestablishing contact a fairly large impact force is
generated which may eventually result in fatigue failure of the surfaces of the cam as well
as the follower.
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to:

Observe the follower behavior and determine the effect of weight of the follower
on the critical speed Ncr of the cam shaft (i.e., the speed at which the follower and
cam temporarily lose contact),

Determine the effect of spring force on the critical speed of the camshaft.
Necessary Equipment and Material

Cams with different profiles

A roller and flat follower

Springs with different stiffness values

Variable speed drive motor

Necessary instrumentation and recording devices

Experimental apparatus frame and assembly

(see Fig. 1)

17

Equipment Specifications
See the following tables:
Cam-Follower Experiment Spring Dimensions
Spring
Weight
(lb)

Nomina
l
Stiffnes
s
(lb/in)

Retaine
r
Weight
(lb)

Color

Dimensions

Red

1.12" MD* x 1/8' Dia. x 2.99"

Long

0.138

31.4

0.156

White

1.85" MD* x 1/8" Dia. x 3.02"

Long

0.294

22.5

0.300

Black

1.37" MD* x 1/8" Dia. x 2.95"

Long

0.156

19.7

0.144#

_______________________
#
: Steel retainer
Cams
Quantity

Profile

2
1
1

Convex
Concave
Tangent

Followers
Quantity

Type

1
1

Roller
Flat Face

* = Mean Diameter

18

Miscellaneous
Weight of
attachment

roller

follower

and 3.78 lb (excluding spring, spring

retainers, and additional weights).

Weight of
attachments

flat

follower

and 4.30 lb (excluding spring, spring

retainers, and additional weights)

Diameter of roller follower

1-1/8" Dia.

Diameter of paper recording drum

3.673" Dia.

Procedure
1.
Select the direction of rotation of the cam by turning the switch provided for this
purpose. Do not change the direction of rotation while the motor is running.
2.

Select a cam and obtain a trace of its profile on paper and then assemble it on the
camshaft. (The cam you select may depend upon the discretion of your instructor.)

3.

Select one of the followers and assemble that also on the machine (note that if the
cam has any concave section the follower must be a roller follower).

4.

Select one of the springs and place it in the machine with some preload (if
desired).

5.

Wrap a piece of Teledeltos paper around the recording drum and secure its ends
with scotch tape. Obtain, with the motor off, a trace of displacement of the follower
and then remove the paper from the drum.

6.

Increase the speed of the motor slowly until you detect the tapping noise, indicating
the impact between cam and follower. Decrease and then increase the speed
several times to make sure that you are detecting the tapping noise the very
moment that it starts. Read the speed of the camshaft on the tachometer and
record it. This is the experimental value of the speed, Ncr, at which P in Eq. (1)
becomes zero. Because the collection of data is dependent on each individuals
hearing sensitivity, each person needs to obtain his/her own data and record them
without getting influence from others.

7.

Repeat step 6 five times, each time adding a weight of 400 grams to the follower.

8.

Change the spring force Fs by either a) replacing the spring or b) increasing the
initial compression. Then repeat steps 6 and 7 for one other level of spring force.

9.

Calculate the critical speed (Ncr) analytically by differentiating twice, the Z- curve
and plotting dZ/d and d2Z/d2 verses , obtaining the maximum negative value of
d2Z/d2 from the plot and substituting this maximum negative value into Eq. (3).
19

Because a curve-fit is required to approximate the cam surface in this step, 95%
confidence intervals should also be shown on the Z- plot.
10.

Plot the variation of Ncr versus the weight of the follower as well as the spring force
(either Fso or k if the spring was replaced). Be sure to indicate the mean and
standard deviation of each data point on graphs containing measured values.

11.

Compare the theoretical Ncr with the experimental Ncr values obtained and
comment on the results.
Cam-Follower Experiment
Name:
Section:
Group:
Date:
Cam Profile:
Spring(s) Used:

Critical Speeds (RPM)

Data Sheet (Preload #1)
Extra Weight
(grams)

Person#1

Person # 2

0
400
800
1200
1600
2000

Critical Speeds (RPM)

Data Sheet (Preload #2)
20

Person #3

Extra Weight
(grams)

Person#1

0
400
800
1200
1600
2000

21

Person # 2

Person #3

JOURNAL BEARING LUBRICATION EXPERIMENT #3

Introduction
The major objective of lubrication of journal bearings is to induce and maintain a
film of lubricant between the journal and the bearing. The purpose of this film of lubricant
is to keep the two surfaces separate at all times and thus prevent metal to metal or dry
contact which otherwise will create bearing failure.
Hydrodynamic lubrication is the most
common method of lubrication of journal
bearings. In this method, as the shaft
rotates it will, due to the load applied to it
(as well as its own weight), take a slightly
eccentric position relative to the bearing.
The eccentric rotation of the shaft in the
bearing, as shown in Fig. 1, acts some-what
like a rotary pump and generates a
relatively high hydrodynamic pressure in
the con-verging zone. The hydrodynamic
pressure for a properly designed bearing is
responsible for supporting the shaft without
allowing it to come in contact with the
bearing.
It can be shown, analytically, that the
hydrodynamic pressure distribution around the bearing is related to other parameters by:
and that

12 r 2 N (2 + cos ) sin
(P - P0 ) = (2 + 2 ) (1 + cos 2 ..
2
)
c

(2 + cos 1) sin 1
(P - P0 )max = (- K)
.. Eq. 2
2

(1
+
cos
)

where,

22

Eq. 1

12 r 2 N
K= 2
2
c (2 + )

.. Eq. 3

The remaining terms in the above equations are defined as,

r
c

1
N
P0
P

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Journal radius, (in)

Radial clearance, (in)
Oil viscosity at operating temperature, (reyn)
Eccentricity ratio (= e/c)
Location of maximum film pressure
Journal speed (RPS)1
Ambient or oil supply pressure (psi)
Hydrodynamic pressure at position

A dimensionless number called the Sommerfeld Number or Characteristic

Number defined by relates the bearing performance to the design parameters:
2

r N
S =
Eq. 4
c P

and

P=

W
Eq. 5
2rL

where,
P =
L =
W=

Load per projected area of the bearing (psi),

Bearing length (in),
Load carried by the bearing (lb).

Other relationships that can be obtained analytically are as follows:

1 RPS denotes revolutions per second or rev/sec

23

cos 1 =

- 3
2+2

Eq. 6

and

h0
= 1 - . Eq. 7
c
Where, cos1 is the location of maximum pressure relative to the line of centers and h0 is
the minimum oil film thickness. The h0/c ratio and the friction coefficient are plotted vs.
the Sommerfeld No. in Figs. 2 and 3.
Objective
The purpose of this experiment is to:

Measure hydrodynamic pressure variation in a journal bearing at different speeds,

Calculate load carrying capacity of the journal bearing and compare it with theory;
Measure the location of maximum film pressure,
Measure the friction loss in the bearing and compare it with theory.

Necessary Equipment and Material

Journal bearing with adjustable speed journal

Instrumentation to measure the pressure around the bearings

(manometer tube equipment)

Instrumentation to measure journal RPM (stroboscope)

Dead weights to adjust the load on the bearing

Equipment Specifications

Bearing diameter = 2.166 in

Journal diameter = 1.984 in

Effective bearing length = 2.766 in

Bearing weight with attachments = 1.43 lb

Weight of each movable load = 0.22 lb

Lubricant = SAE 15 W 50

Lubricants density = 0.0282 lb/in3

Procedure
24

1.

Select the direction of rotation of the motor by turning the switch provided for this
purpose. Do not change the direction of rotation while the motor is running.

2.

Start the motor and let it run for about half an hour for the temperature and the oil
viscosity to reach the steady state condition.

3.

Apply about a one-pound load on the bearing, using the dead weights.

4.

Increase the shaft speed gradually until you observe instability and vibration of the
bearing. Measure the speed of rotation of the shaft. Observe and comment
about the pressure distribution around the bearing.

5.

Using the strobe light set the journal speed to 1200 RPM. (Make sure to
periodically check this speed as it may increase during the course of the
experiment.) Allow enough time for the oil to level in the barometer tubes to
stabilize (about 3 min.)

6.

Read the pressures for locations 1 through 16 and convert the readings to psi.

7.

Change the shaft speed to 1400 and 1600 and repeat steps 5 through 7 for the
new RPMs.

For Each RPM Setting

8.

Plot the variation of pressure along the bearing axis (pressure taps 1 through 5)
and obtain the average pressure along the axis as well as the ratio (R) of average
pressure to the maximum pressure along the axis (pressure tap No. 3).

9.

Multiply the reading of pressure tap 3 by the ratio R obtained in Step 8 to obtain
the axially averaged pressure. Repeat the same multiplication procedure for the
readings of pressure taps 6 through 16. Plot the axially averaged pressure vs.
theta in Cartesian as well as polar coordinates.

10.

Find 2 points A and B on the experimental pressure curve that are 180o apart but
having equal pressure. Note that for any pressure curve there will be only one
such pair of points possible. These two points, A and B, form the axis P - P0 = 0
for the Sommerfeld curve.

11.

Of these two points choose as the origin the point with a larger thickness of oil film
and take the axis = 0 to pass through this point.

12.

From your pressure distribution graph determine the location (1) of maximum
pressure and then from Eq. (6) find the eccentricity ratio.
Using Eq. (2) to calculate the constant K, and then plot the Sommerfeld curve
(theoretical pressure distribution), using Eq. (1). A typical curve is shown in Fig.
4.

13.

25

14.

Calculate the load carrying capacity of the bearing from:

Ld
W =
P - P0 i cos i
i=1 12
12

Where, (P-P0)i is the pressure at the midpoint between any two consecutive
pressure tap points and i is the angle between that mid-point and the line of action
of load (pressure tap point no. 3). Compare this load with the actual load on the
bearing.
15.

Calculate the Sommerfeld number from:

r N K 2 + 2
S = =
12P
c P
2

and then the friction coefficient from Fig. 3.

16.

Calculate and plot theoretical HP lost in the bearing based on the friction coefficient
obtained in the previous step.

17.

Discuss your results and comment on them.

26

Figure 2. Variation of ho/c with Sommerfeld No.

Figure 3. Variation of (r/c)f with Sommerfeld No.

27

Figure 4. Comparison of Theoretical & Experimental Pressure Curves.

28

Figure 5. Polar Pressure Diagram.

29

Journal Bearing Lubrication Experiment

Name:

Date:

Section:

Group:

h0:
Rotation Speed ()
of Shaft when Oil
Whirl
Instability RPM
Occurs:
Tap Pressure1 (lb/in2)
Tap Number

RPM

RPM

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Computation of the tap pressure in psi: P = (h - h0)

30

RPM

RPM

STATIC AND DYNAMIC BALANCING EXPERIMENT #4

Objective
The purpose of this experiment is to understand the principles of static and dynamic
balancing of rotating machinery.
Necessary Equipmentand V43 relative rms velocity of channel 4 with respect to channel
3. For V21 set 1=accel 1 as reference and 2 = accel2 as channel in signal
processing window. Similarly for V43 change reference to 3 = accel 3 and 4 = accel4
as channel.
1. To measure the rms (root mean square) velocity at a given frequency (Hz), use
the markers 1 or 2 to reach the set frequency of the rotor. Use only one Marker
i.e., M1=15 Hz. By looking at the window of M1 or M2 at the given frequency (Hz),
the velocity is noted. This gives the base data of vibration without any unbalance.
2. Add weight of say 10 g on the any one of the holes at the outer radius (r =
69.91mm). Note down the values of V21 (rms velocity of 2 w.r.t. 1) and V43 (rms
velocity of 4 w.r.t. 3). By looking at the data one can make out that there is an
unbalance in the rotor.
3. To nullify the effect of the unbalance we need to add a counter weight of 10 g at
the same radius and at an angle of 1800 apart. Now note down V21 and V43.
Remove both the weights.
4. To see the effect of radius, add weight of say 10 g on the any one of the holes at
inner radius (r = 57.21mm). Note down the values of V21 and V43. Again add the
counter weight of same mass on same radius at an angle 1800 apart to balance
the rotor. Note down the values of V21 and V43.
5. Repeat the steps 5-10 for speeds 30 Hz and 45 Hz.
Part 2
1. Set the motor speed to 25 Hz. Remove all the weights from the system.
2. Run the motor and note down the values of V21 and V43. This would be the base
data.
3. Add a weight of 10 g at 300 from reference and 10 g at 1300 from the reference.
Run the motor and note down the values of V21 and V43. This would give the results
for the unbalance.
4. To balance the rotor, we need to add counter weight, where mass and position has
to be calculated. The procedure is given at the end of the section.
5. Add the calculated mass at the position determined in step 4.
6. Run the motor and note down the values of V21 and V43, this would give the results
for balanced rotor.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 with weights of 9.37 g @ 2100 and 10 g @ 1700

31

The magnitude and direction of the balancing mass may be obtained analytically and
graphically as discussed below.
Analytical method
1. Find out the centrifugal force (Product of the mass and its radius of rotation) x 2
(where is thew angular velocity) exerted by each mass on the rotating shaft, Fc
= mr 2.
2. Resolve the centrifugal forces horizontally and vertically and find their sums, i.e.
H and V.
H = [m1 r1 cos1 + m2 r2 cos2 + .] 2
V = [m1 r1 sin1 + m2 r2 sin2 + .] 2
3. Magnitude of the resultant centrifugal force, FC =

V 2

4. If is the angle, the resultant force makes with the horizontal or the reference,
then,
Tan = V / H. (From Tan calculation we could have two angles, and +1800).
5. The balancing force is then equal to the resultant force but in opposite direction,
hence add 180 to the obtained.
6. Now find the magnitude of the balancing mass, such that
FC = m r 2
Where m = Balancing mass, r = radius of rotation (57.21 mm or 69.91 mm,
depending on the location), is the angular velocity.
7. Knowing FC, r, determine m, the magnitude of the balancing mass.
8. Verify the above results using Graphical method.

Tabular column
Part 1
R = 69.91 mm
32

R = 57.21 mm

Base
Data
15 Hz

30 Hz

45 Hz

Unbalance Balanced

Unbalance Balanced

V21 in/s
V43 in/s
V21 in/s
V43 in/s
V21 in/s
V43 in/s

Part 2
Speed = 25 Hz
Case 1,

m1 = 10 g , 1 = 300 , m2 = 10 g , 2 = 1300 , m = .., =

Case 2,

m1 = 9.37 g , 1 = 2100 , m2 = 10 g , 2 = 1700 , m = ., =

Base Data

Case 1
Unbalance

Case 2
Balanced

V21 in/s
V43 in/s

33

Unbalance

Balanced

VIBRATION EXPERIMENT# 5
Objective
The purpose of this experiment is to use the measured oscillations from a coupled
oscillator to mathematically derive the values of the physical components used.
Necessary Equipment
Model 210a Rectilinear Dynamic System.
High stiffness, Medium stiffness and Low stiffness springs.
Brass masses.
Allen wrenches.
Computer with data acquisition board for recording and plot generation of the
Rectilinear Dynamic System.
Flash drive.
Procedure for Dynamic Parameter Identification
1. With computer powered up, enter the Driving Function box via the Set-Up menu
and select Force (Torque), then select Setup Driving Function, then Ok (from
within the Force (Torque) dialog box), then Enable Driving Function, and finally
Ok again to return the background screen.
2. Enter the Command menu, go to Input Shape and select Step Input. Input a Step
size of 0 (zero), duration of 3000 ms and 1 repetition. Exit to background screen
by consecutively selecting Ok. This puts the controller board in a mode for
acquiring 6 seconds of data on command but without actually introducing drive
force (via the drive motor).
3. Go to Data Menu - Setup Data Acquisition in the Data menu and select Encoder
# 1 and Encoder # 2 as data to acquire and specify data sampling every 2 (two)
servo cycles, i.e., every 2 Ts s. Select Ok to exit.
CASE1
4. Clamp the carriage # 2 using a in. threaded nut between the stop tab and the
stop bumper so as not to engage the limit switch. See to that the centerline mark
of the carriage #1 coincides with the 0 of the scale provided along the
carriage #1. Move and fix the limit switches for the carriage # 1 at its extreme
positions. Fix the medium stiffness spring between the carriage # 1 and carriage #
2.
5. Secure four 500g masses on the carriage # 1.
6. In the Utility menu select the Zero position to zero set the initial readings.
7. Select Execute from the Command menu. Prepare to manually displace the
carriage # 1 approximately 2.5 cm. Exercise caution in displacing the carriage so
34

as not to engage the limit switch. With the first mass held at 2.5 cm from the initial
position, select Run from the Execute box and then release the mass
approximately 1 second later. The mass will oscillate and attenuate while encoder
data is collected to record this response. Select Ok after data is uploaded.
Note: If at any time during this procedure a limit switch is engaged, you must return
to the Driving Function box and Enable Driving Function before proceeding.
8. Select Set-up Plot from the Plotting menu and choose Encoder # 1 position.
Then select Plot data from the Plotting menu. You will see the first mass time
response.
9. In the Data menu, select import raw data and save the data in a .txt format in the
a:\ drive.
3
2.5

Encoder Position (cm)

2
1.5

Steady State
Error

1
0.5
0
-0.5

X0

-1

Xn

-1.5
-2

t0

tn

-2.5
0

0.5

1.5

Time (s)

Fig: Typical Step Response

10. Plot the above saved data for encoder position #1 vs. time (2266 counts = 1 cm).
Divide the number of cycles by the time taken to complete them being sure to take
beginning and end times from the same phase (e.g. the local amplitude peak) of
the respective cycles. Convert the resulting frequency in Hz to radian/sec. This
damped frequency d approximates the natural frequency n according to:

m 11

m 11

2
nm 11

dm 11
35

(1)

(For small m1 )
Where the nm11 subscript denotes mass #1, trial #1.
11. Calculate

m 11

, i.e., natural frequency of mass 1 and trial 1.

CASE 2
1. Remove mass from the first carriage.
2. In the Utility menu, zero set the carriage position.
3. Repeat steps 7, 8 and 9 of the previous case.
4. Plot the saved data.
5. Measure the initial cycle amplitude X0 and the last cycle amplitude Xn for the n
cycles measured. Using relationships associated with the logarithmic decrement:

X
X
m12
1
1

ln 0 m12
ln 0
2 n X n
1 m12 2 n X n

(2)

for small m12

Find the damping ratio m12 and show that for this small value the approximations
of the previous equation are valid.
6.

Calculate nm12, i.e., natural frequency of mass 1 and trial 2.

CASE 3
1. Unclamp the carriage # 2 and clamp the carriage # 1 using a in. threaded nut
between the stop tab and the stop bumper so as not to engage the limit switch.
See to that the centerline mark of the carriage #2 coincides with the 0 of the scale
provided along the carriage #2. Move and fix the limit switches for the carriage # 2
at its extreme positions.
2. Disconnect the dashpot from carriage # 2.
3. Retain the medium stiffness spring between carriage # 1 and carriage # 2.
4. Secure four 500g masses on carriage # 2.
5. In the Utility menu select Zero position to zero set the initial readings.
36

6. Select Execute from the Command menu. Prepare to manually displace the
carriage # 2 approximately 2.5 cm. Exercise caution in displacing the carriage so
as not to engage the limit switch. With the first mass held at 2.5 cm from the initial
position, select Run from the Execute box and then release the mass
approximately 1 second later. The mass will oscillate and attenuate while encoder
data is collected to record this response. Select Ok after data is uploaded.
7. Select Set-up Plot from the Plotting menu and remove Encoder # 1 position and
add Encoder # 2 position to the left axis and then select Plot data from the
Plotting menu. You will see the second mass time response.
8. In the Data menu, select upload raw data and save the data in a .txt format in the
a:\ drive.
9. Repeat step # 10 and 11 of Case 1 to obtain nm21.
CASE 4
1. Remove the mass from carriage # 2.
2. Repeat steps 5 to 8 from the previous case 3, to get nm22, i.e., natural frequency
of mass 2 and trial 2.
3. Using equation 2 determine the damping ratio m22.
CASE 5
1. Connect dashpot to carriage # 2.
2. The damping adjustment knob is set to fully closed position, i.e., when it first begins
to resist tightening. Do not over tighten. At this position make a reference mark
on the knob.
3. Open the damping adjustment knob 2 turns from its fully closed position.
4. Add four 500 g mass to carriage # 2.
5. Repeat steps 5 to 8 of case 3.
6. You should subtract the steady state error from each measured amplitude if it is
greater than 0.05 cm to calculate d.
7. Using equation 1 determine the damping ratio d.
CASE 6
1. Remove the dashpot and replace medium stiffness spring by high stiffness spring
between carriage #1 and carriage #2.
37

2. Repeat CASE 4, i.e., without mass. Determine nm23 for spring of high stiffness.
CASE 7
1. Replace high stiffness spring by low stiffness spring.
2. Repeat CASE 4, i.e., without mass. Determine nm24 for spring of low stiffness.

Calculations and Tabulation

m :- 4* 500 = 2000 g
mc1 :- Mass of carriage # 1
mc2 :- Mass of carriage # 2
kh :- Stiffness of high stiffness spring
km :- Stiffness of medium stiffness spring
kl :- Stiffness of low stiffness spring
cm1 :- Damping coefficient of carriage 1
cm2 :- Damping coefficient of carriage 2
cd :- Damping co efficient of dash pot
For Medium Stiffness Spring and mass 1 (measure and calculate from time response of
case 1 and 2):
nm11 :- .. rad/s
nm12 :- .. rad/s
38

m12 :- ..
For Medium Stiffness Spring and mass 2 (measure and calculate from time response of
case 3 and 4):
nm21 :- .. rad/s
nm22 :- .. rad/s
m22 :- ..

For Medium Stiffness Spring and mass 2 attached to dashpot (measure and calculate
from time response of case 5):
d :- ..
d :- .. rad/s (measured from time response)
n :- rad/s (calculated from eqn # 1)
The spring stiffness (kl, km, kh), mass of carriages (mc1 and mc2) and the damping
coefficients (cm1, cm2 and cd) are found by equating the coefficients of same order in the
following general equation:

s 2 2 n s n2 s 2 c m s k m (5)
i.e.,

k
2
n
m
c
2 n
m

(6)

(7)

Note: Equations (5), (6) & (7) are general equations. For finding above said parameters,
their respective natural frequency, mass, and damping ratio have to be considered.
e.g.,
For solving the unloaded carriage mass mc1 and spring constant k, the following two
equations are solved:

39

k
nm 12
mw mc 2
2
k
nm 22
mc 2

And for finding, the damping coefficient, the following equation is used:

cm 2 2 m 22 nm 22 mc 2
And, similarly for other masses and damping coefficients.

STRAIN GAGE EXPERIMENT # 6(a)

INTRODUCTION

40

The design of the systems that involve components with complicated geometry,
complicated loading and perhaps points of stress concentration, are often verified by
actual measurement of strains, from which the actual stresses can be calculated. A
common technique used in practice is the application of strain gages. The utilization of
strain gage is comparatively easier and less expensive than photo elasticity. It measures
the strain only at the surface of the object. In order to find the three unknowns x, y, and
xy at any point on a plane, it is necessary to use three gages oriented in three arbitrary
directions. However, if the direction of principal stresses is known, only two gages would
be sufficient in that, they can be installed parallel to the principal axes along which the
shearing stress and strain are zero. These principal stress directions can be easily
determined by using the stress coat application method. The stress coat is a brittle
lacquer that is applied on the surface in liquid form (normally by spraying). When dried,
in about 3-4 hours, it will become brittle. The coating will crack perpendicular to the
direction of tensile principal stresses if the member is subjected to stress and if the strain
on the surface is above the coatings threshold strain. Observing the cracks, one can
determine the direction of principal stresses. Even though the stress coat method will not
be investigated in this experiment, it is still good to have a familiarity of its existence and
usage.
Principle of Strain Gage:
The strain gage principle is based on change of electrical resistance of a
conductor. Consider the wire, shown below, cemented to the surface of a specimen.

Any strain applied to the specimen is directly transmitted to the wire. The electrical
resistance of the wire before applying any strain is given by

R=

L
A

where is resistivity, L is length and A is the cross sectional area of the wire. When a
strain is applied to the surface, the length of the wire will change as well as its cross
sectional area (due to Poisons effect). This change can be written as
R =

L
A
- L 2
A
A

or

R L A
L
=f
=
L
A
L
R

41

Here L/L is the strain on the surface. This equation leads to

L
R / R
= =
L
f

where f is the gage factor provided by the manufacturer. Normally to obtain a measurable
amount of resistance change, the length of conductor is to be on the order of several
inches. However, the strain may not really represent the strain at a point. For this reason,
the conductor is instead formed or stamped out of a thin metal foil in the configuration
shown below.

Figure 2. Typical Strain Gages

Configurations

The semi-circular loops formed will cause the gage to read, also, some strain in
directions other than that of the gage axis. This can be corrected by a factor called cross
sensitivity given by the gage manufacturer. The foil gages have relatively large cross
sectional area at the loops, therefore their cross sensitivity will be very small and the error
is negligible if no correction is made for cross sensitivity. Commercial gages are available
in different lengths L and widths W. Depending on the application, sometimes gages are
needed to be smaller than 1/64 of an inch in length and width.

A strain gage may contain only one gage, which is called single element gage, or
it may contain two or three independent gages set at certain angle relative to one another.
The three-element gage is called delta rosette or rectangular rosette depending on the
angle of gages.

42

A Wheatstone bridge as showed in

Fig. 3 measures the change of electrical
resistance in the gage due to strain. The
instrument that does this is called strain
indicator. Once the gage is mounted on a
surface, it is connected to the bridge and the
circuit is balanced (zero potential between B
and D) before the member is loaded. This is
accomplished by changing the resistance of
other legs until the indicator reads zero.
When the strain is
applied the bridge will have to be rebalanced.
The rebalancing is done automatically or manually, depending on the strain indicator.
The gage factor f is set on the instrument and the reading of instrument is directly in terms
of micro inches per inch of strain (i.e., in/in).
In many situations more than one gage will be involved. In such cases to save
time, a switch and balance unit is used to which as many as ten gages can be connected
and balanced simultaneously. The switch and balance unit will connect one gage at a
time to the strain indicator.

Determining Experimental & Theoretical Stress in a Round Beam

The stress distribution in a round beam subjected to a bending moment and torsion
can be determined using three strain gages mounted on top of the beam as shown below:

43

where P is the weight of the load, M is the moment along the beam axis due to P
considered at the end of the beam, and T is the torque is the product of the load times
the arm length.
The strains obtained from a strain indicator can be used to compute the strains in
the longitudinal and tangential directions of the round beam. Equation (5) gives the strain
in any direction on a plane tangent to the beam as a function of the longitudinal, tangential,
and shear strains,

l + t + l - t cos (2 ) + lt sin (2 )
2
2
2

Substituting the strain readings from the three strain gauges, we will obtain three
equations and three unknowns (l, t, lt). The principal strains (l and 2) can now be
calculated using Eq (6),

1,2 =

l +t

l - t 2 + lt2

The principal stresses, 1 and 2, and their direction, , can be found from the following

1=

E
1 + 2
1 - 2

equations:
44

Where, E is the modulus of elasticity, and is Poissons ratio.

2=

E
2 + 1
1 - 2

tan (2 ) =

lt
l - t

The theoretical principal stresses are calculated from the bending moment acting
along the beams axis and the torsional stress acting perpendicular to the beam:

1,2 =

x + y
2

tan (2 ) =

x - y

+ 2xy
2

2 xy
x - y

and,

x=

My
Tr
, y = 0 , and xy =
I
J

where, I is the area moment of inertia of the section, and J is the polar moment of inertia
of the beam section, y is the vertical distance from the neutral axis to the point of where
the strain is measured, and r is the radius of the beam.
Objective
The purpose of this experiment is to:

Learn how to mount the strain gage and how to use the associated instruments to
measure the strain.

Measure the strain on a simple specimen, calculate the stress and compare the
results with theory.
Necessary Equipment and Tools

Aluminum bar specimen

Strain gages

Switch and balance unit

Strain indicator

Ohmmeter (i.e., Multimeter)

45

Means to apply load to the specimen

Specimen Load (weights)

Procedure
1.
Select the aluminum bar specimen. Carefully examine the construction of the
gauge as well as the manner in which each gauge is mounted to the specimen.
Please handle the specimen with care so that no gage is damaged!
2.
Make sure there is a good connection between the wire leads and the strain gauge
by measuring the resistance across each gage with the ohmmeter.
3.
Connect the gages to the strain indicator through a switch and balance unit and
balance them. Please follow carefully the instructions provided inside the strain
indicator.
4.
Apply load to the specimen in ten steps from 2 lbs to 20 lbs.
5.
Record the load and the strains at each step.
6.
Repeat steps 4 and 5 for obtaining two additional sets of data.
7.
Provide a linear regression for the data load vs. strain for = +45, 0, and -45.
Show the error bar of each load based on max/min measurements.
8.
Using load = 15 lbs and the curve-fitted data from step 7, first calculate l, t, and
lt, then 1 and 2, and finally 1 and 2. Also calculate the principal direction
using Eq. (9).
9.
For load = 15 lbs, calculate 1 and 2 using Eq. (10). Also calculate the principal
direction using Eq. (11).
10.
Compare the results between the two methods shown in Steps 8 and 9.
11.
Provide additional discussion including the maximum load Pmax that the Aluminum
bar can safely support.

Strain Gage Experiment

Name:
Section:
Group:
Date:
Specimen Used:

46

Specimen dimensions:
Gage factor: 2.0
Strain gage resistance:
Micro-Strain
Data Sheet
Load P
(lb)

Strain (in/in)
Channel # ____

Strain (in/in)
Channel # ____

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20

47

Strain (in/in)
Channel # ____

Running ANSYS 15.0 on LSU Virtual Lab (VLab)

1. Open vlab2.lsu.edu in web browser, and install VMware View Client.
2. Open VMware View Client on your desktop or perform a search.

3. Use address: vlab2.lsu.edu and click Connect.

4. Type in your myLSU ID and password and click Login. (Domain: LSU)

5. Select Engineering Desktop and click Connect.

6. After VLab session opens, go to Start > All Programs > ANSYS 15.0 > Mechanical APDL
Product Launcher.

7. Enter Working Directory and Job Name, and click Run to start ANSYS.

ME 4201

VI(b)

VI(b). Thin-Walled Pressure Vessel

Experiment
Introduction
When a design involves stress concentrations or is comprised of a complex
geometry, theoretical calculations alone may not be sufficient for engineering
analysis. The time necessary to complete hand calculations may be impractical,
especially when multiple points of interest exist. In these instances strain
measurement tools and mathematical modeling can be used as alternatives to
determine the stresses present under various loading conditions. Common
techniques include: Strain gages, Photoelastics, and FEA modeling.
The application of strain gages is often easier and less expensive than
implementing photo elastics. However, photoelastics can provide measurable data
over a large region simultaneously, while strain gages only provide readings
directly at the application site. Similarly, FEA modeling can provide data at any
point on the model and at unlimited loading conditions, but building and meshing
an accurate model with proper boundary conditions can be quite difficult. This lab
aims to explore strain measurement using all three of these techniques to highlight
the pros and cons of each method.
The sample used in this experiment is a commonly found thin walled
pressure vessel with uniform internal pressure. For a symmetrical cylindrical thin
walled pressure vessel the hoop stress (X-axis) and longitudinal stress (Y-axis)
can be easily calculated at the center of the cylindrical body. However, near the
non-symmetrical end caps this does not hold true. When exploring these regions
the aforementioned techniques are much more effective.

Principle of Pressure Vessels

A pressure vessel is any container designed to hold a liquid or fluid at a
pressure considerably larger than the ambient temperature. In order for a pressure
vessel to be thin-walled it must have a radius of at least 10 times the thickness.
There are two main stresses induced on thin-walled pressure vessels, the first
being the hoop stress ( ) or stress in the circumferential direction. And the
second being the longitudinal stress ( ) or stress in the longitudinal direction. The
figures below show give a visual representation of how the stresses act.

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Figure 1: Hoop Stress

Figure 2: Longitudinal Stress

For a thin walled pressure vessel with hemispherical end caps the hoop and
longitudinal stresses can be calculated using the following equations, given that
is the internal pressure, is the radius of the inner portion, and is the wall
thickness.
1
2

Note: that these equations give you the stress on the inner portion of the pressure
vessel; it must be assumed that the stress acts uniformly across the thickness in
order to calculate the theoretical stresses at locations of interest for this
experiment. Also the pressure vessel does not have hemispherical however these
equations are still valid at the center of the pressure vessel.
and
The hoop stress can also be written as the first principle stress (
likewise the longitudinal as the second . There cannot be a negative stress
induced because the system is only in tension therefore the third stress ( ) is 0.
Knowing this the maximum shear stress can be calculated from the following
equation.
2

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Principle of Strain Gages

Basic Concept
The principal of strain gages is an important concept that can be used in a
variety of different engineering applications. If you recall from instrumentations
strain gages were used on a cantilever beam in order to measure the system
response and the oscillation of the beam was modeled as a second order system.
In this experiment you will use strain gages in different configurations in order to
calculate principal stresses and direction in thin-walled pressure vessels.
The theory is based on the change in electrical resistance of a conductor.
The electrical resistance, , of the wire can be found before any strain is applied
by the following equation:
4
is the resistivity of the conductor, is its length, and is the cross sectional area
of the wire. After a strain is applied, the length of the wire changes as well as the
cross sectional area, due to Poissons effect. The change can be found by either
of the following two equations:

5 & 6

is known as the gage factor of the strain gage, the manufacturer provides this.
It can also be found by manipulating the following equation:

is the strain on the surface of the wire. The length of the conductor needs to
be several inches in order to obtain a measureable resistance change, Figure 3
below shows the common configuration for a strain gage

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Figure 3: Typical Strain Gage Configuration

The Wheatstone bridge is device used to measure the resistance in the

gage due to the strain. The configuration for the Wheatstone bridge is shown in
Figure 4 below. The strain DAQ for this experiment is set up in the quarter bridge
configuration. This configuration is only capable of measuring tension. The
strains obtained from the DAQ system can be used to compute the longitudinal,
tangential, and shear strains for the tee and rectangular rosette configurations.

Tee Rosette

Figure 4: Wheatstone bridge Configuration

The Tee rosette configuration is set up with two mutually perpendicular

grids; this can be seen in the figure below.

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Figure 5: Tee Rosette Configuration

This configuration should only be used when the principal strain directions are
know, for example in this experiment we know the principal directions are known
at the center of the pressure vessel, this is why there were tee gages there. If
there is uncertainty about the principal directions, a three rosette system in
preferred.
Knowing the principal directions for the configuration in can be concluded
that at the tee rosette the strains measured are the principal strains. Therefore
8
9
The principal stresses ( , ) and direction
must then be calculated
using Hookes Law. The stresses can be determined using the following equations
where is the modulus of elasticity and is Poissons ratio.

10

11

Rectangular Rosette
The rectangular rosette configuration consists of three grids, with the
second and third grids angularly displaced from the first grid by 45 and
90respectively. The figure below shows the rectangular setup.

Figure 6: Rectangular Rosette Configuration

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Once the strains have been measured using the DAQ system the tangential
longitudinal and shear strains must then be calculated. The equation below is the
general form of strain at any given direction on the plane tangent to the bottle
.
based on the tangential ( ), longitudinal , and shear strains

cos 2

sin 2

12

The equations below have modified form the general form and been
adapted for rectangular rosettes in this experiment. The strains and directions at
each of the three locations for each rosette strain gage is known; thus this
information can then be used to calculate the tangential, longitudinal, and shear
strains given that there are 3 equations and 3 unknowns.
13
14
15

Knowing the given directions (0, 45, 90) the equations can be simplified into
much plainer terms. The three equations below are the reduced forms of the
original equations for the rectangular rosette configuration.
16
17

18

Once the tangential, longitudinal and shear strains are known the principal strains
can then be calculated the principal strains must then be calculated by substituting
them into the equation below.




19
,
2
2
The principal stresses ( , ) and direction
can then be calculated knowing
the principal strains using Hookes Law, using the same equations from the Tee
Rosette section (# and #). The principal direction can be calculated using the
equation below.
tan 2

20

Principles of Photoelasticity
Photoelasticity is another technique that can be very useful for visually

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determining stress concentrations on an object. It is the method of coating an

object using photoelastic materials in order to take advantage of their unique
material properties to analyze stresses. A photoelastic material is one that
exhibits the property of Birefringence or contains dual-refraction indices. These
materials may be applied in the form of an adhesive and liquid coating. This
process leads to the surface of the object showing a high number or degree of
contours. In the presence of a polarized light these materials will produce a
colorful or black and white fringe of light, the magnitude of which is directly
proportional to the stress at that point. In areas of stress concentrations, a
polariscope can then be used in order to measure these fringes for the
magnitude and direction of stresses.

Finite Element Analysis

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is an invaluable tool for engineers to
simulate real world physical effects on an object including heat transfer, stress
analysis, fluid flow, and vibration. It utilizes the Finite Element Method, which is a
numerical tool to approximate solutions to boundary value problems. FEA
software has the potential to be extremely accurate but is only as good as the
engineer operating the software. Objects can be extremely difficult to mesh and
any mistakes or oversight can lead to inaccurate results. It often takes a
seasoned professional to produce an accurate simulation and it can take a very
long time to correctly design your simulation. In this experiment the FEA
software used will be ANSYS.

Objective

Investigate various types of strain gages

Preliminary exposure to ANSYS
Introduction to thin-walled pressure vessel theory
Measure stress concentrations in thin-walled pressure vessels using strain
gages, photoelastic coatings with polariscope, and ANSYS
Compare the results obtained from the various methods

Necessary Equipment and Instrumentation

NI cDAQ-9174, CompactDAQ chassis

NI 9235, 120ohm, 8-Ch, 24-Bit, 1/4 Bridge Input Module
NI 9269 4ch voltage output, 10V, ch-ch ISO
Laptop with LabVIew and ANSYS Software
Pressure source capable of 50 psi
Tee and Rectangular Rosette strain gages
Omega General Purpose Electropnumatic Transducer
Alumi-Tek 16oz Bottles
Photoelastic coating
Polariscope

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Procedure
Remote Operation: TeamViewer
1. Run TeamViewer (Click Sign Up to create a free account if you have not
done so yet) and sign in within the TeamViewer program.
2. Note the values next to Your ID and Password and provide them to
whomever you wish to operate this computer remotely.
3. On remote computer make sure you have TeamViewer downloaded
(Available here:
http://download.teamviewer.com/download/TeamViewerQS_en.exe) and
enter the information from the host computer to take over.
4. Open teamviewer and record your id and password
System Preparation:
1. Safety glasses must be worn when running this experiment.
2. Ensure the air compressor is connected via the quick disconnect
3. Pressurize the main reservoir to around 100 psi (check that reservoir drain on
back is closed)
4. Open the line pressure till it reaches 50 psi. To do so turn the red knob on the
front clockwise slowly. Ensure that the pressure remains constant throughout all
of testing (PSV will engage at around 58 psi)
5. Run LabVIEW program below.
6. Release the line pressure by turning the red knob on the front of the compressor
counter clockwise all the way
7. Release air in the main reservoir via the valve on the back of the compressor

LabVIEW:
1. Open NI Max from the NI Launcher on the taskbar.
2. On the left sidebar expand Devices and Interfaces and then NI cDAQ9174 cDaq1
3. Click 1: NI 9235 cDAQMod1 and then on the top option toolbar select
Create Task
4. Expand Acquire Signals then Analog Input and select Strain
5. Highlight all channels (ai0 through ai7) and click next.
6. Enter GROUP#_StrainTask and select finish
7. For each channel enter the gage factor as listed in the table below:
Strain_0
Strain_1
Strain_2
Strain_3
Strain_4
Strain_5
Strain_6

55

2.06
2.02
2.04
2.05
2.04
2.04
2.05

ME 4201

VI(b)

Strain_7 2.04
8. Hold Ctrl and click each channel in order making sure all 8 channels are
highlighted and then click the devices tab under Strain Setup and click
Strain Calibration
9. Make sure Enable Offset Nulling and Enable Shunt Calibration are ticked
and enter 50k under the Shunt Resistor Value then click next
10. Once the measurements are collected click Calibrate and then Finish
11. Under Timing Settings make sure the Acquisition Mode is N Samples
with Samples to read and Rate set to 5k.
12. On the left sidebar select NI 9269 cDaq1Mod2 and select Test Panels
from the top menu.
13. Under Test Panels input .5 for the Output Value (V) and select Update.
Close out and return to the Task you created under Ni-DAQmx Tasks
14. Record the pressure and under the charter area select Table for Display
type.
15. Select Run at the top of the table and record your measurements.
16. Repeat steps 13-15 for output values of .5-2 V in increments of .5 V. (DO
NOT EXCEED 2 VOLTS WILL DAMAGE REGULATOR)

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ME 4201

ANSYS Procedure:
Step 1: Open the PV-ME4201-1 file on the Desktop. To view the model in
Element form, click on PlotElements

Figure 1: Nodal model

Figure 2: Element model

Applying Loads on Model
Step 2: Click on Preprocessor LoadsDefine
LoadsApplyStructuralPressureOn Areas

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ME 4201

Figure 3
Step 3: Apply Pressure on the bottle by selecting the Pick All button

Figure 4

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VI(b)

Step 4: Type in the values of pressure obtained in the lab in the box that is
circled red and then click OK. (Ex: if given 10 psi in lab, type in -10 in ANSYS)
(Make sure that it is set to Constant value and Load key is set to 1)

Figure 5
Step 5: Click SolutionSolveCurrent LS

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Figure 6
Step 6: Click OK to begin Solution of Current Load Step. (If there are any
Warnings that pop up in the VERIFY box, click OK to continue the Solution
process)

Figure 7
Step 7: Once the model is solved, click Close in the window as shown in Figure 8
and X out of the /STATUS Command window

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ME 4201

Figure 8
Step 8: Click on General PostprocResult Viewer

Figure 9

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Step 9: Click on the scroll down arrow where Choose a result item is located.
Click on Nodal SolutionStress1st Principal stress (Hoop Stress) as
shown in Figure 10 below.

Figure 10
Step 10: Click on the Plot Results icon circled in red shown in Figure 11 below.
The model will now be defined with various colors signifying the various stress
concentration areas on the bottle.

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Figure 11
Step 11: Click on the Front View Icon as shown in Figure 12 below.

Figure 12
Step 12: Click on the Query Results icon as shown in Figure 13 below.

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Figure 13
Find Stresses at 3 identified locations on the model
Step 12: To find the stresses at the top, middle and bottom of the model, left
click, hold and drag cursor to designated nodes.
Top: node 1076
Middle: node 1593
Bottom: node 15739

Top

Middle

Bottom Rosette

Figure 14
Because of curvatures at the top and bottom of the model, multiple elements may
be found. For top node 4 elements may be found (1078, 1076, 1074, 1072).
These numbers will be shown in the Query Subgrid Results box shown in
Figure 14. Once you reach one of these 4 element (Node Nos.) click next in the

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Multiple_Entities window shown below in Figure 15, UNTIL designated nodes

mentioned in Step 12 are reached.
For middle node 4 elements may be found (1593, 15233, 48192, 15234)
For bottom node 4 elements may be found (15740, 1639, 15739, 48326)

Figure 15
Step 13: Record the 1st Principal Stresses for the Top, Middle, and Bottom
locations on the model
Step 14: Click on the scroll down arrow where Choose a result item is located.
Click on Nodal SolutionStress2st Principal stress (Longitudinal Stress)
as shown in Figure 16 below.

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Figure 16
Step 15: Repeat Steps 10-13 for the 2nd Principal Stresses (Longitudinal
Stresses)
Step 16: Repeat steps 1-15 for 3 other pressures given in the Lab manual (10,
23.5, 35, 47.5 PSI)
Step 17: Repeat steps 1-15 for 200 psi which is the rupture pressure.

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Stress Concentration Experiment

Names: ____________________________________________

____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Section: ____________________________________________
Group: _____________________________________________
Date: _______________________________________________
Pressure Vessel #: __________________________________
Given:
3104 H19 Aluminum properties
10000 ksi
0.34
0 .0075 in
2.6 in

Theoretical Hoop and Longitudinal Stresses (using Eq. 1

& 2)
Pressure (psi)

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Experimental Data and Results

Tee Rosette

Strain Gage
Ru
n#

Channel
Excitati
on (V)

Strain_0

Top Rosette

Strain_1

Strain_
2

Pressu
re (psi)

Bottom Rosette

Strain_
3

Strain_
4

Strain_
5

Strain_
6

Strain_
7

Average of 3 runs
Strain Gage
Channel
Excitation Pressure
(V)
(psi)

Tee Rosette

Strain_0

Strain_1

Top Rosette

Bottom Rosette

Strain_2 Strain_3 Strain_4 Strain_5 Strain_6 Strain_7

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ME 4201

Tee rosette
Pressure (psi)

Top rosette
Pressure (psi)

Bottom rosette
Pressure (psi)

69

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ANSYS Results
ANSYS
Pressure (PSI)

T (stress psi)
Top Rosette (stress psi)Bottom Rosette (stress ps
Hoop
Longitudinal
1
2
1
2

Report Requirements

Obtain strain gage readings from the aluminum can experiment

Calculate theoretical hoop and longitudinal stresses at the Tee-gage using
Eq. 1 & 2, i.e. assuming thin-walled cylindrical vessel with hemispherical
end-caps
Calculate principal stresses from strain gages (experimental)
Analyze ANSYS model for different pressures and obtain principal stresses
at the three strain gage locations
Compare results as graphs
o Hoop stress at Tee-gage v pressure (theoretical , experimental,
ANSYS)
o Longitudinal stress at Tee-gage v pressure (theoretical,
experimental, ANSYS)
o Max. stress (S1) at top rosette v pressure (experimental, ANSYS)
o Max. stress (S1) at bottom rosette v pressure (experimental, ANSYS)

Note:
You may notice discrepancies between experimental and theoretical/ANSYS
stress results due to incorrect orientation of the Tee-rosette

70