TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

SAGARMATHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

A MAJOR PROJECT MID-TERM REPORT ON

ROBOTIC ARM

By
BHAWAK POKHREL (068/BEX/11)
NIPESH PRASAI (068/BEX/27)
PRATIK GHIMIRE (068/BEX/31)
SUDEEP SHARMA (068/BEX/47)

LALITPUR, NEPAL

AUGUST, 2015

Acknowledgements
First and foremost, we would like to express sincerest gratitude to our supervisor Mr.
Kunal Kundanam for his invaluable and insightful suggestions for the project. We are
always thankful for his encouragement, support and assist in every way possible with the
development of this project.
We express our special thanks with gratitude to our Head of Department, Mr. Toshak Raj
Uprety for his valuable and constructive suggestions during the planning of this project
work. His willingness to give his time so generously has been very much appreciated.
Furthermore, we would like to thank all teaching members of our department for their
support. We cant say thank you enough for their tremendous support and help. We feel
motivated and encouraged every time with our teachers. Also, we like to thank our
seniors and friends, who have willingly shared their precious time, invaluable
suggestions, advices and encouragement during the planning of our project.
Bhawak Pokhrel
Nipesh Prasai
Pratik Ghimire
Sudeep Sharma

4th August 2015

ii

Abstract
The robotics has made huge leaps forwards largely due to the rapid advancements in the
engineering and technology making it the one of the most promising aspect of the modern
world. This aspect of the modern world has become industry standard worldwide in the
field of material handling to the bomb defusing.
The main purpose of this project is to develop a fully automated mechanical arm having
four degree of freedom. The arm will be able to identify the object and its shape to ensure
proper handling of the object. The robotic arm is fully automatic with camera mounted on
board to extract the information about the object, which will ensure the wide variety of
materials be handled without any modifications. The arm will have the grip to hold
almost every type of material that it can come across in the material handling. The
information about the object will be extracted from the image and image processing
generates the necessary control signals. The generated signals are sent to the AVR
ATmega microcontroller board via serial communication, which then processes and
manipulates the signals to perform the necessary alignment and motion through the
actuators.

iii

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. ii
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... iii
Chapter 1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Problem Statement ...................................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Objectives ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter 2. Literature Review ............................................................................................... 5
Chapter 3. System Overview ................................................................................................ 7
3.1. System Block Diagram ................................................................................................................ 7
3.2. Operational Description ............................................................................................................. 7
3.3. System Flow Diagram ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4. Component Description .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.1. Resistor ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.2. LEDs ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.3. Electrolytic Capacitor ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.4. Diode .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.5. Gripper ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.6. Power Regulator ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.7. Power Supply .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.8. Servo Motor ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.9. Stepper Motor ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.10. AVR Atmega32 ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter 4. Work Progress ..................................................................................................... 8
4.1. Work Accomplished .................................................................................................................... 8
4.1.1. Motors And Motion Control ............................................................................................................. 8
4.1.2. Arm .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
4.1.3. Torque calculations of Joints .......................................................................................................... 14
4.1.4. Power Unit ............................................................................................................................................ 15
4.1.5. Firmware ................................................................................................................................................ 16
4.2. Work in Progress ...................................................................................................................... 17
4.2.1. System Integration .............................................................................................................................. 17
4.2.2. Image Processing ................................................................................................................................ 17
4.2.3. Serial Communication ....................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 18

iv

Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1. Background
In the modern world, robotics has become popular, useful, and has achieved great
successes in several fields of humanity. Robotics has become very useful in medicine,
education, military, research and mostly, in the world of manufacturing. It is a term that
has since been used to refer to a machine that performs work to assist people or work that
humans find difficult or undesirable. Robots, which could be destructive or nondestructive, perform tasks that would have been very tedious for human beings to
perform. They are capable of performing repetitive tasks more quickly, cheaply, and
accurately than humans. Robotics involves the integration of many different disciplines,
among them kinematics, signal analysis, information theory, artificial intelligence, and
probability theory. These disciplines when applied suitably, lead to the design of a very
successful robot.
Robot is an integral part in automating the flexible manufacturing system that one greatly
in demand these days. Robots are now more than a machine, as robots have become the
solution of the future because of the rising cost of labor wages and customers demand.
Even though the cost of acquiring robotic system is quite expensive, todays rapid
development and a very high demand in quality with standards and humans being no
longer capable of fulfilling such demands robotics has started to minimize human
workforce on the industry scale. Research and development of future robots is moving at
a very rapid pace due to the constantly improving technologies and upgrading the quality
standards of products.
As the electronics and communication field has taken huge leaps and jumps over these
recent years largely due to technological advancement, the robotics field has been on rise.
As an integral part of the field, robotic arm has seen its fair share of achievements and
developments too. There are different types of robotic arms, which can be divided into
several categories like Cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, SCARA, articulated and many
more. As a part of automation, robotic arm has sufficient intelligence to sense its
surrounding and perform the programmed task efficiently. A robotic arm is computercontrolled machine that is programmed to manipulate objects and accomplish works

while interacting with the sensors and actuators mounted on the arm itself to accomplish
desired operations.
Different types of robotic arms are now being used in growing variety of applications
than ever before. Where they were once used only for mechanical applications, today they
are now being used as a limb for human body, they are being used in almost all
production and manufacturing lines in industries.
The robot arm for this final project is the revolute type that closely resembles the human
arm. The arms rotating base is powered by a single large scale servo that rotates the rest
of the arm. Mounted to the base is an elevation joint or shoulder that can move the arm
through 180 degrees, from horizontal to vertical on each side. The shoulder uses
necessary number of servos to provide the torque needed to lift the rest of the arm as
well as any object that it may be grasping. Attached to the shoulder piece is an elbow that
can move, also powered by a large-scale servo. The wrist is also designed to move
thorough 180 degrees as well as rotating the gripper clockwise and counterclockwise.
Attached to the wrist is a 2-finger gripper that utilizes a unique design built around a
single standard servo. The revolute geometry allows the arm to reach any point within a
half sphere, having the shape of an inverted bowl. The radius of the half-sphere should be
the length of the arm when its shoulder, elbow, and wrist are straightened out.
The robotic arm is controlled by a controller circuit board. The controller circuit board is
based on AVR microcontroller and receives servo position command from serial
connection. The system uses a camera to take snapshots of object placed on the pickup
point, sends the clip to the system PC and the image processing is done using MATLAB.
After the analysis of the edge and width of the object the PC sends control and command
signal to the microcontroller and hence, the servos are controlled. The controller board
will be connected to the serial port on a PC running the Microsoft Windows Operating
system.

1.2. Problem Statement

Robots are the largest growing technological devices in the world. The development of
robotic arms is growing vigorously in todays world. Robotic arms are becoming more

and more for certain work functions, unlike humans, they never get tired; they can endure
physical difficulties that are uncomfortable for a human or even dangerous and most
importantly, their performance do not degrade by repetition.
The main intension of this project is to design and implement a 4 degree of freedom
(DoF) revolute type robotic arm that is capable to grasp and carry objects. The intent of
this project is to successfully engineer and construct a pick and place type of robotic arm.
The arm must be able to sense the object place in the pickup point, identify the
dimensions and geography of the object, pick the object with right amount of pressure
and place the object into the drop point in proper manner and safely.
Several problems on this project have been defined to simplify the development process.
The problems we analyzed till now for the development of this project are:
Material Selection and Considerations
The most suitable material to fabricate the structure of the arm has to be light and
strong. In choosing the fabrication materials, the aspects of the materials, the overall
cost and the flexibility to be shaped, should be taken in to consideration. Thus among
all the consideration, among aluminum, wood and other options, Fiber is the most
ideal material to be chosen.
Design and Fabrication of Circuit Board
The main problem in this part is on how to attach the servo motor onto the joint to
achieve the turning degree level. Besides, the way on how to combine the arm
component should also be considered in order to achieve the intended degree of
freedom. A minor deviation on mechanical design causes the major problem in
fabrication of the arm.
Robot Software and Interfacing with the Robot Arm
The electronic part is used to control the movement of the arm component. For this
purpose, AVR microcontroller is used. The AVR must be programmed to enable it to
control the arm movement and interface the software to control the arm. Problem
occurs in order to program the microcontroller according to the degree of freedom and
efficient interfacing between the hardware components to the microcontroller and PC.

1.3. Objectives
The objective of this project is the development of autonomous robotic arm equipped
with camera. The Robotic Arm involves the object detection, pick up and drop without
any human intervention. The main objectives of the project are listed below
To optimize the production rate by minimizing the human effort
To imitate one of the natural motion of a human arm

Chapter 2. Literature Review

For the successful design of any project, the successful integration of software and
hardware is very important. There are many types of microcontroller and motors available
in market. Therefore, a literature review was done to choose suitable components and
ways for the development of our system. A lot of articles and sample projects related to
Robotic Arm were referred to in the course of preparation of the project.
The group of students in Korea began trying imitating human movements by designing
the robotic arm that could lift weight, classify colors. Another group of engineers at USA
also developed the mechanical design of the robotic arm with a robotic manipulator that
could perform similar function to the human arm with eight degrees of freedom. The
robot was able to grasp many objects with a lot of shapes from a pen to ball and also
simulating the human hand [1]. The experts think that the robotics arm can not only be of
higher quality but also perform accurately, repeatability and cost effectively.
The mechanical design of a robotic arm is based on a robot manipulator that basically
performs as a human arm [2-4]. Joints allowing rotational motion connect the links of
such a manipulator and the links of the manipulator is considered to form a kinematic
chain. The business end of the kinematic chain of the manipulator is called the end
effector or end-of-arm-tooling and it is analogous to the human hand.
Productions of robotic arms have been developed massively in these days basically
controlled with the help of programmable microcontrollers, image processing systems,
gesture controlled systems which can be programmed to be used in various fields like
bomb diffusion, production areas etc.
In this particular project, the workspace of the robot has been limited to four degree of
freedom realizing the cost and complexity if the robot.
Since our robot arm is based in an electric system, we may choose electric basis of end
effector. Besides, the main application of our system is handling, accordingly, the
recommended type of our end effector is a gripper. Please note that the end effector is

controlled by a servomotor and, in turn, the total servo motors used for our robot arm will
be 4 motors that move the structure.
As per the load calculation, we referred to the data that was already calculated [5]. These
results were obtained using different weights; a bag of corn was used with a scale to
determine bag weight. Results carried out by using the robot arm to pick up the bag and
move it to specific positions. It was seen that the robot can move without problems at
loads lower than 50 grams. At loads 60 grams, the robot arm will start having difficulties
and after passing 80 grams severe condition would occur where irreversible damage
could be happened in motors.

Chapter 3. System Overview

3.1. System Block Diagram

Servo Motor

Load
Interrupt
s

Atmega32

Overload

Servo Motor

Servo Motor

Motor
Driver

PC

Camera

Stepper
Motor

3.2. Operational Description

As the robotic arm is designed to pick up a certain amount of load from pre designated
point and drop the load to a pre designated point, the working of the arm starts when the
system senses weight of the load in the pickup point. The arm remains idle if the load is
overweight.
When the system senses the load, camera takes snapshots of the object placed in the
pickup point and send it to a PC connected to microcontroller via RS-232 interface. In the
PC, the image processing is achieved using MATLAB. Now the PC sends the dimensions
of the load placed to the microcontroller.
Preprogrammed Atmega32 now processes the signals provided by PC through serial
communication interface and send necessary control signals to drive 4 motors in various
joints sequentially according to the necessity.
As a result of these various processes the arm picks up the load and drops it carefully into
the drop point.

Chapter 4. Work Progress

The work breakdown structure of the project is shown below. The project is basically
divided into three groups for the easier understanding of the project and modular work is
easier to study, manipulate, test and debug. The project is largely going on the modular
fashion, the work accomplished and works in progress are discussed below.

Robotic
Arm

Hardware
Power
Unit

Control
Circuit

Software
Framework

Image
Processing

Serial
Communication

Firmware

4.1. Work Accomplished

4.1.1. Motors And Motion Control
The two types of motors that we employed in the control of the robot arm include stepper
and dc motors. The motion control was achieved using both the open loop and closed
loop method of motion control. Below is a brief look at the two types of motors.
4.1.1.1. Stepper motor
A stepper motor is a transducer that converts electrical pulses into mechanical shaft
rotation. The number of pulses input to the motor determines the amount of motor shaft
movement. Each pulse moves the motor a given amount (step). A stepper motor consists
of a rotor (a rotating permanent magnet) and a stator (stationary electromagnet coils). The
rotor is made of ferromagnetic material, which has been magnetized into a series of
alternating north and south poles.

In a typical stepper motor, electric power is applied to the stator in order to alternate its
magnetic polarity. Interaction between the rotor and the stator causes the rotor to move
one step per stator coil winding polarity change. The stepper motor schematic is shown in
fig 2.1
Rotor

Stator1

C

4

+Vdc


3

D
Stator
2

2
1

+Vdc


B
A

Fig. 2.1: Stepper Motor Schematic

Specifications
Step Angle:

3.75 degrees

Drive Sequence:

Bipolar

Rated Current/ Winding

0.6 Amp

Winding Resistance

5.5 ohms

Holding Torque

0.064/0.074 Nm (Ferrite/Neodymium)

Inductance

7.4/6.3 mH

Rotor Inertia

0.015 kg-cm^3

Detent Torque

0.007/0.01 Nm

Weight

140 grams

(Ferrite/Neodymium)

(Ferrite/Neodymium)

4.1.1.1.1. Stepper motor drive method

Three common methods of driving a stepper motor are wave drive, step drive and half
step drive.

Wave drive - Here only one power switch (or phase) is active during each step of
the motor. Since only one phase is on, the torque will be reduced. The advantage
of wave drive is increased efficiency, while the disadvantage is decreased step
accuracy.

Step drive - Step drive occurs when two power switches are activated for each
step moved. Torque is higher with step drive than with wave drive.

Half-step drive - Half-step drive occurs when both wave drive and step drive are
employed alternately to activate the coils. When only one coil is activated, a weak
step is produced; when two coils are activated, a strong step is produced.

4.1.1.1.2. Control of Stepper Motors

The circuitry is as shown below
Controlling stepper motors using a microcontroller simply involves instructing the
microcontroller to send the appropriate bit pattern to the stepper motor in the correct
order. From the diagram, the supply voltage to the stepper motor is 12V. Therefore, in
order to magnetize any coil, 0V should be sent to the coil for current to flow through it.
Since the output of the microcontroller is digital (0V or 5V) and the supply voltage of the
stepper motor is 12V, npn transistors are used to amplify the outputs of the
microcontroller. To rotate the motor, the pattern sent from the microcontroller determines
which coils are energized and the direction in which the rotor rotates.
uC
D
C
B

12V

12V

12V

12V

12V

+88.8

Fig: Interfacing a Stepper Motor to a Microcontroller

4.1.1.2. Servo Motors
Servo refers to an error sensing feedback control which is used to correct the performance
of a system. Servo or RC Servo Motors are DC motors equipped with a servo mechanism

10

for precise control of angular position. The RC servo motors usually have a rotation limit
from 90 to 180. But servos do not rotate continually. Their rotation is restricted in
between the fixed angles.
The Servos are used for precision positioning. They are used in robotic arms and legs,
sensor scanners and in RC toys like RC helicopter, airplanes and cars.
4.1.1.2.1. Servo Motor wiring and plugs
The Servo Motors come with three wires or leads. Two of these wires are to provide
ground and positive supply to the servo DC motor. The third wire is for the control signal.
These wires of a servo motor are colour coded. The red wire is the DC supply lead and
must be connected to a DC voltage supply in the range of 4.8 V to 6V. The black wire is
to provide ground. The colour for the third wire (to provide control signal) varies for
different manufacturers. It can be yellow (in case of Hitec), white (in case of Futaba),
brown etc.

4.1.1.2.2. Servo Control

A servo motor mainly consists of a DC motor, gear system, a position sensor which is
mostly a potentiometer, and control electronics. The DC motor is connected with a gear
mechanism which provides feedback to a position sensor which is mostly a
potentiometer. From the gear box, the output of the motor is delivered via servo spline to
the servo arm. The potentiometer changes position corresponding to the current position
of the motor. So the change in resistance produces an equivalent change in voltage from
the potentiometer. A pulse width modulated signal is fed through the control wire. The
pulse width is converted into an equivalent voltage that is compared with that of signal
from the potentiometer in an error amplifier.
The servo motor can be moved to a desired angular position by sending PWM (pulse
width modulated) signals on the control wire. The servo understands the language of
pulse position modulation. A pulse of width varying from 1 millisecond to 2 milliseconds
in a repeated time frame is sent to the servo for around 50 times in a second. The width of
the pulse determines the angular position.
For example, a pulse of 1 millisecond moves the servo towards 0, while a 2 milliseconds
wide pulse would take it to 180. The pulse width for in between angular positions can be

11

interpolated accordingly. Thus a pulse of width 1.5 milliseconds will shift the servo to
90.
It must be noted that these values are only the approximations. The actual behavior of the
servos differs based on their manufacturer.
A sequence of such pulses (50 in one second) is required to be passed to the servo to
sustain a particular angular position. When the servo receives a pulse, it can retain the
corresponding angular position for next 20 milliseconds. So a pulse in every 20
millisecond time frame must be fed to the servo.
Futuba 3003
Modulation

Analog

Torque

4.8V: 3.17 kg-cm

6.0V: 4.10 kg-cm

Speed

4.8V: 0.23 sec/60

6.0V: 0.19 sec/60

Weight

37 grams

Rotational Range

60

Pulse Cycle

30ms

Pulse Width

500-3000 s

Hextronix HX5010

Modulation

Analog/Digital

Torque

4.8V: 6.91 kg-cm

Speed

4.8V: 0.16 sec/60

Weight

39.1 grams

Rotational Range

60

Dead Bandwidth

4us

12

4.1.2. Arm
The arm portion is divided into 4 part with four degree of freedom as below
4.1.2.1. Arm Base (AB)
This is the lowest stepper on the robotic arm. It swivels the base of the robot up to 195.
It is a rotating part which rotates on it own axis.
4.1.2.2. Arm Shoulder (AS)
This is the next servo above the arm base on the robotic arm and rotates the shoulder
forwards or backwards. This servo can rotate up to 120.
4.1.2.3. Arm Hand (AH)
This is the next joint above the arm frame and acts as the wrist of the robotic arm. It can
swivel forwards or backwards, however it is unable to swivel side to side. This servo can
rotate up to 190.
4.1.2.4. Arm Gripper (AG)
This is the top most joint of the robot arm and controls how wide or far apart the opposite
sides of the gripper are from each other. This servo can rotate up to 110.

13

Calculation
Calculations of torque and moment of inertia
4.1.2.5. Theory
Torque is the representation of the force required to rotate a mass around an axis. The
torque T is given in formula by:
T=r*f ,
in which r is the distance from the axis and F the force on that point.
The formula is angle dependent, which means that the angle between the distance vector
and the force vector is proportional to the total torque.
Therefore the equation can also be written as:
T=r*f*sin(a),
Where, a the angle between the vectors.
In the calculations the assumed point of calculating is the centre of gravity of each object,
with the robot arm completely stretched. This results in a maximum torque for all joints
with the distance and force perpendicular.
The inertia is only relevant for the parts that rotate in the plane parallel to the axis of the
motor. In the robot arms case the lowest motor for the base and the first motor for the
wrist have an inertia calculation.
The moment of inertia is defined as the summation of all mass elements multiplied by the
square of their distance to the rotation axis. In formula form this gives:

I = mi R2i
with m the mass and R the distance from the rotation axis.

4.1.3. Torque calculations of Joints

The point of doing torque calculations is for motor selection. We must make sure that the
motor we choose can not only support the weight of the robot arm, but also what the robot
arm will carry .The first step is to label your FBD, with the robot arm stretched out to its
maximum length.Torque calculated here is torque at rest robotic arm(not in motion) .So
rating of torque in servo motor is greater than calculated value.

14

Torque of each Servo and stepper Used (from torque calculator):

3.

Minimum Necessary

Use

(kg-cm)

(kg-cm)

1.

Base

4.0

6.5

2.

Shoulder

19.2

20

Elbow

12.2

14.5

4.1.4. Power Unit

Almost every electronic system needs a dc supply for its smooth operation and they need
to be operated within certain power limits. This required dc voltage or dc supply is
derived from single phase ac mains. A regulated power supply can convert unregulated ac
to a constant dc. A regulated power supply is used to ensure that the output remains
constant even if input changes. A regulated DC power supply is also called as a linear
power supply, it is an embedded circuit and consists of various blocks. The regulated
power supply will accept an ac input and give a constant dc output.

15

The 12-0-12 transformer has been used of 2Ampere current rating.

!

Vmax = 2 Vrms
For maximum voltage of 24, the rms voltage is 16.98 17V, so the capacitor of 25V is
used to prevent capacitor from burning out when there is fluctuation in the input voltage.
A led is connected in parallel to give an indication of the power in the circuit. The resistor
in series with the led is calculated by

Vmax Vled
24 3
=
= 1.4 1.5

1.5 10!!

the output is then fed to the power regulator, 7805 which gives the regulated voltage of
5V .

The 220 VAC supply is fed to a 12-0-12 V center tapped transformer.

The output is the rectified using full wave rectifier and then filtered using
smoothing capacitor.

Aluminum electrolytic capacitor of 25V and 1000 F is used for smoothing

IN5408 diode is used in the full wave rectifier.

LM7805 is used to regulate the output voltage from the power supply to constant
5V.

4.1.5. Firmware
The firmware is the piece of information stored on the control circuit, which controls the overall
robotic arm. The information from sensor is processed by the firmware and necessary information
generated by the processing is relayed to the actuators for the necessary output adjustments. The
firmware also receives the information from the pc about the shape of the object and takes the
necessary steps while picking up the object.

16

4.2. Work in Progress

4.2.1. System Integration
The system is built on the modular process. The different components of the system
are modularly built, run and tested. The whole integration of the system is a gradual
process for building the project. Few system are already brought together, run and
are being tested. The actuators are controlled by the microcontroller, the power unit
giving power to the actuators. The overall integration of hardware, firmware and
software is remaining.

4.2.2. Image Processing

The image processing deals with the processing of image for extraction of the desired
information. The image processing deals with the mathematical logics to generate the information
from the image. The image processing is done in Matlab in pc and the necessary signals generated
are relayed to the control unit through the serial communication with RS-232.

4.2.3. Serial Communication

Serial communication in robotic arm is done through the RS-232 cable. The generated signal from
the image processing in Matlab needs to be passed to the control circuit. Though the parallel data
transfer is easy and quick, the need for more wires and less information needed to transfer makes
the serial communication best choice. The serial connection is done between the pc and the
ATmega microcontroller.

17

Chapter 5. Conclusion
As per outline on proposal we have worked on the time schedule. The time schedule
outlined on proposal had to be rescheduled due to the limited time and resources
availability.
The information, techniques, ideas required for initializing the project was gathered
during the analysis phase of project. Our team members have completely devoted
themselves on the research and possible modifications to be made so that the project
objectives can be met keeping the time, resources and changing environment constraints
into considerations.
This project helped us to understand the way electronics equipment works in a detailed
manner, their properties and how different components can be integrated so that a single
robust system is designed at the end of the day. It also has taught us to work as a team and
maintain co-ordination.

18

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[15] http://www.robosoftsystems.co.in/roboshop/media/catalog/product/pdf/Minebea
%2016PU-M202%20Bipolar%20Motor.pdf
[16] http://www.engineersgarage.com/electronic-componenets/atmega32-avrmicrocontroller
[17] http://www.engineersgarage.com/sites/default/files/Atmega32.pdf

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APPENDIX I
Pin Configurations

Pin configuration 7805

Pin configuration ATmega32

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APPENDIX II
Stepper motor Load Characteristics and Pin Configuration

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