HANDBOOK

ON

PIPES AND
FITTINGS FOR
DRINKING
WATER SUPPLY

BUREAU
MANAK

OF

BHAVAN,

INDIAN
9 BAHADUR

NEW

DELHI

STANDARDS
SHAH
110002

ZAFAR

MARG

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
First Published July 1993

0 BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS

1993

UDC 621.643.2:628.143:663.6
ISBN 81-7061-041-9

PRICE : Rs 280.00

Printed in India at Dee Kay Printers, 5/37A, Industrial Area, Kirti Nagar, New Delhi-110015
and Published by the Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi-l 10002

NIRMALA

34lamlmm

BlJCH

$lvwf$~m-110001

SECRETARY
GOVERNMENTOF INDIA

MINISTRYOF RUFMLDEVELOPMENT
KAISHI BHAVAN, NEW DEfLHl- 110 001

FORElXlRO

The standards and code of practices for various

materials and equipment used in the rural drinking water
supply are brought out by the Bureau of Indian Standards
regularly. The use and application of the same in the
implementation of the programme is. important to ensure the
safe supply of water to the rural population.
Pipes and fittings repres,ent a major investment in
the .water supply project. The judicious selection of the
same keeping in view the different aspects like durability,
life, -cost, installation and ease of maintenance would be
an important decision making in the successful implementation
and running of the system during its designed life period.
At the request of the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking
Water Mission, Bureau of Indian Standards has .brought out
a handbook by carefully pooling together all the relevant
standards and specifications already published by them, making
the job of professionals easy
to guide in selecting the
right type of pipe material to suit the field conditons and
also for proper handling, laying, jointing and testing of
the completed pipelines. This handbook should, therefore,
be an effective tool in the hands of the field engineers
to arrive at decision while designing water supply projects.

--

._--__

Lt

.----

-. _

Gen A. S. Bhullar,

PVSM.AVSM (Ret4

DIRECTOR GENERAL

m*

=vr,

9 T~r~?mrfj

. BUREAU

PREFACE
Manrk

The
National
in this

Bureau
Drinking
project.

has
been
associated
Water
Mission
and

wx

mi, ;rf fzefr

11()002

OF INDIAN

STANDARDS
Bhavan. 9 Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg. Nevv Delhi 110002

with
the
has lent
its

Rajiv
full

Gandhi
support

on
quality
in
the
cant ribut i on
f ocusses
The
Bureaus
operation
ma.t erial/product
s used,
construction/installation,
To meet
the
above
objectives
and maintenance
of
the
works.
BIS
prepares
National
Standards
by pooling
the
experience
of
save
time
experts
in
order
to
ensure
uniformity,
relevant
and resources
at
least
in repetitive
items.
It also
conducts
training
programmes
on :
Statistical
manufacturers,

i)
ii)

Sampling
organized
It

supply
interaction

Quality
and

and
testing
purchasers.

conducts
periodically
engineers
throughout
to get
feed
back.

Further
products,
conforming
and testing.

BIS
provides
which
helps
to
standards

A
strong
need
has
for
concise
handbooks
on
and
providing
Standards
subject
fully.

Con_trol

of

to

the

product

BIS

s/materials

awareness
programmes
for
the
count ry

third
party
the
users
in
thereby
avoiding

been
felt
some subjects
additional

licensed

to

for
water
effective

certification
for
choosing
products
further
inspection

the
interactions
during
on the basis
of
Indian
cover
the
material
to

This
handbook
on Pipes
and Fittings
for
Drinking
Water
Supply
is based,
on material
collected
and collated
from more
the
relevant
main
Standards;
a
list
of
2bO
Indian
than
standards
is given
in the Annex to the Handbook.
other
shortly
,
suPPlY:

in
the
handbooks
cover
tubewells/bore

series,
wells

will
be
issued
whi ch
and pumps used
in water

Use
of
this
handbook
and the
referred
standards
besidqs
the
relevant
marked
products,
would
go a long
way
in
LQI
enhancing
the quality
of pipe
installations
for
water
supply.
The resulting
feed
back
to ,BIS
would
ensure
improvement
of
the
related
standards
and the Handbook.

Tolephorle

3317991

Telegrams

MANAKSANSTHA

Gen A.S.

4
Telex 031-66870

Bhullar

Fax + 91

i1

3314062

-_-.- _--I....

: 1993

SP 57 (QAWSM)

coJuTENTs
Page
Chapter 1

General Criteria for Selection of Pipes

.. .

.. .

.. .

Chapter 2

Properties of Pipes

.. .

.. .

.. .

Chapter 3

Transportation, Handling, Storage and Inspection

.. .

.. .

.. .

15

Chapter 4

Pipe Fittings and Valves

.. .

.. .

.. .

19

Chapter 5

Installation of Pipe-Line

...

.. .

.. .

33

Chapter 6

Testing and Disinfection

.. .

.. .

.. .

75

Chapter 7

Maintenance and Repairs of Pipe-Line

.. .

.. .

.. .

83

Chapter 8

Pipe-Line Corrosion and Incrustation

.. .

.. .

.. .

86

AnnexA

List of Referred and Other Relevant Indian Standards

.. .

.. .

88

SP 57
0 INTRODUCTION
Pipes have been used for many centuries for
transporting fluids especially drinking water. The
Chinese first used bamboo pipes thousands of years
ago and lead pipes were unearthed at Pompeii. In later
centuries wood stave pipes were used in Rngland. It
was only with the advent of cast iron that pressure
pipes were manufactured. Cast iron was extensively
used in 19th Century and is still used. Steel pipes were
first introduced towards the end of the last century,
facilitating small and large bore pipe-lines. The
increasing use of high grade steels and large rolling
mills has enabled production of pipe-lines with larger
diameters and higher working pressures. Pipe-lines
are also made in reinforced cement concrete,
prestressed concrete, asbestos cement, plastics and
clayware, to suit varying conditions. Reliable flow
formulae became available for the design of pipelines during this century, thereby promoting
economical use of pipes.

: 1993

installation, operation and maintenance of the system,

etc. The optimum and practical solution should take
the above factors into account and wherever possible
Ihe standardized design for similar set up should be
used. The areas with special features shall be studied
in detail and the relevant features considered for
selection of the right type of pipe material.
Pipe-lines are major investments in water supply
projects and as such constitute a major part of the
assets of water authorities. Therefore, pipe material
shall be judiciously selected from the point of view
of durability, life and overall cost which includes besides the pipe cost, the installation and maintenance
cost necessary to ensure the required function and
performance of the pipe-line throughout the designed life time.

Protected water supply in rural areas is essential in

improving the environment and health of the community, and piped water supply is one of the methods
adopted for protected water supply, when the source
of water is located at a distance from the area of consumption.

Bureau of Indian Standards has published a number

of Indian Standards for various types of pipes and
fittings and codes of practice for laying and jointing
of pipes. This hand book has been prepared mostly
based on them with an intention to guide the field
engineer in selecting the right type of pipe material
to suit the field conditions and requirements of the
project and to give a guidance in proper handling,
laying and jointing and testing of completed pipeline.

The selection of appropriate type of pipe material

for vastly varied rural community set up in India
will involve many factors and no single solution can
be found. The varied factors include different patterns of settlement and areas of rural community,
economic level, availability of finance, quantum of
potable water, skill and experience of local people in

Although an attempt has been made to summarize the

requirements given in the relevant Indian Standards
in this r-hand book i, a reference may invariably be
made to those Indian standards, a list of which is
given in Annex A for exhaustive study. Further, the
terminology used in this; hand book -is as given in
IS 2065 : 1983 and IS 10446 : 1983.

w-

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._.

.._

. _.__

_..

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.____-.-

.._.

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL CRITERIA FOR
SELECTION OF PIPES
1 FACTORS
SELECTION

TO BE CONSIDERED

IN

withstand external loads while empty or in partial

vacuum is very poor due to their low thickness. In
such cases, pipes must be guarded by limiting the
superimposed loads or by surrounding (embedding)
pipes in, concrete. The cast iron and asbestos cement
pressure pipes are good for moderate external loads.
RCC pipes can withstand high external loads.

The following factors shall be taken into account in

the selection of pipes.
l.lThe

Strength

of the Pipe

1.2 Water Carrying

This is the ability of the pipe to withstand internal

pressure and external loads.

Pipe-lines are expected to resist a number of forces
individually- or in combination as mentioned below :

Internal water pressure equal to full head of

water;

Surge pressure or water hammer due to

sudden opening and closing of valves, and in
pipes connected to pumps;

External loads in the form of back-fill and

traffic; and

Expansion and contraction of pipes with

change in temperature.

Reinforced cement concrete pipes cater to the internal working pressure up to 0.3 h4Pa (3.0 kgUcm2)
whereas cast iron and steel pipes cater to internal
working pressure up to 2.4 MPa (24 kgf/cm2).
Prestressed concrete pipes and asbestos cement
pressure pipe cater to intermediate pressure range for
which the metallic pipes are expensive and RCC
pipes would not be suitable. Similarly plastic pipes
cater to internal working pressures up to 1.0 MPa
(10 kg4cm2).
Though steel pipes are capable of resisting high
internal pressures, the ability of large steel pipes to

Capacity

The water carrying capacity of a pipe-line mainly

depends on relative roughness of pipe, friction
factor, and Reynolds Number of the flow. Rational
formulae should preferably be used [see IS 2951
(Part 1) : 1965 for details]. However still in practice,
empirical formulae are widely used; of these HazenWilliams formula is most popular. For example in
Hazen-Williams formula coefficient C varries for
different conduit materials and their relative
deterioration in service. It also varies with size and
shape and laying of pipes. The loss of capacity during
service depends on the quality of water carried and
characteristics of the pipe material. The loss of water
carrying capacity is relatively more rapid for smaller
diameter pipes than the larger diameter pipes. In cast
iron and steel pipes, it is due to the interference of
rust and deposits due to incrustation of pipes that
restrict the water way and increase the roughness of
pipe walls. In cement lined pipes and asbestos cement
pipes the smooth surface of the walls is destroyed by
erosion. The losses in water carrying capacity is more
in distribution lines than that in supply lines. It is due
to losses in valves, fittings and other appurtenances
that are far greater in number in distribution lines.
These losses can be reduced to some extent by well
designed bends and tees, etc. The values of HazenWillams coefficient C for new conduits and
recommended values to be adopted for design purpose,
for various pipe materials is given in Table 1.

Table 1 Hazen-Williams

Coefficient

(Clause 1.2)
SL

prpcMDtelial

No.
(1)
i)
ii)
iii)
w

v)
vi)

Recommended

New Pipes

C Values for

Design Purpose

(2)

(3)

cast iron
Galvanized iron greaterthan 50 mm dia
Galvanized iron SOmm dir and
below for service coMcction
Steel pipes welded-lined with ament or
bitumenous enamel

130
120
120

100
100
55

140

110

conaets
Aabc3ta6CeaWnt

140
1Sl
150

110
120
120

~*piP=

I_,.

.--

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
1.3lk

Life and Durability

of Pipe

b) Storage, handling and transportation cost This includes the cost of storage, handling
and transportation of pipe-line from the point
of purchase to the place where it is to be laid.

lt is determined by the resistance of cast iron and steel

pipes to corrosion; concrete and asbestos cement pipes

to erosion and disintegration, and plastic pipes to
cracking, etc.

4 Laying cost - The labour cost to be incurred

in digging of trenches, laying of pipe-line
jointing and closing of trenches.

1.4 Transportation

d) Life of project - The life of pipe-line of

Most often the pipe-lines are to be constructed in

rugged and normally inaccessible locations. In such
cases mass of the pipes becomes an important criterion. Cast iron pipes are heavy in bigger sizes. Steel
pipes are relatively lighter though bulky because of
longer section ordinarily employed. Plastic pipes are
much lighter when compared to cast iron or asbestos
cement pipes. RCC and asbestos cement pipes are not
only heavy but also call for careful handling.

various materials will vary and no realistic

estimate can be made for the same. This will
have to be assesed by the project incharge
depending upon the conditions prevailing in
the area to be covered by the pipe-line.

1.5 Safety

Because of suddenness and extensiveness of failure,

breaks in cast iron pipes are often quite destructive.
Steel pipes fail slowly, mainly due to corrosion, which
results in small leaks at scattered points and repairs
are simpler. Collapse of steel pipes under vacuum
while the line is being drained is possible but is a rare
occurence. Asbestos cement pipes fail much like castiron pipes. RCC and asbestos cement pipes should not
be laid over/in soil containing sulphates.
1.6AvaiIabiIity

Recurring/maintenance cost - The cost effectiveness as a long term measure should

also take care of recurring/maintenance cost
likely in the form of replacing defective pipe
and lahour cost in the same.

l3) Chances of leakage

- The chances of leakage should be kept in mind while choosing

a particular material depending upon
availability of water.

of Skilled Labour

Skill is particularly required for making joints in the

pipe-line. Welded and poured joints require more
skilled lahour than mechanical joints.
1.7 Maintenance

h) Pilferage factor - The chances of pilferage

of pipe material, must also be kept in mind
while deciding about the particular material
for the pipes.

and Repairs

The requirements of maintenance and repairs, losses

of water due to leakage and other characters of pipe
behaviour and ability shall be considered in selection
of material.
1.8 Cost Effectiveness

CommunityJindividualsupply connections The cost of pipe-line and choice of pipe

material will also depend on whether community water connections or individual water
connections are being provided in a particular area.

j)

of Various Pipe Materials

1.8.1 Factors to be Considered for Cost

Effectiveness

Sentice conditions - The weather and surrounding environment which the pipe-line is
likely to encounter during its life time should
he assessed before finalizing the pipe materials.

k) Contamination of water -

The contamination of waterdue to any reason should he

assessed and the more suitable pipe material
should be chosen to ensure potable water
supply to the consumers.

Cost effectiveness of various pipe materials is dependent on many factors and some of them are
summarised below for guidance.

4 Type of soil - The soil type will have lot of

a) Initial cost -

The initial cost of the pipe-line

includes the cost of pipe, fittings, and laying
material. This will also include increase in
the cost due to breaking of pipes at any stage
in laying of pipe-line.

bearing on the pipe material suitable for a

particular location. The chances of corrosion
of metallic pipes should be assesed in the
particular soil before using it.
2

k......-.

-._.__

__I__._---

..~___~_

_.

_._

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SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
n) Loss of head - The energy loss is experienced in all pipes but it is higher in
rougher materials and will also be dependent
on the fittings in the layout of a pipe-line.
Tknforc, suitable pipe material should be
chosen for the head available in a particular

location.
P) cnxrsirtgs- The cmsinep like railway, canal,
mad, etc, should be studied before finalizing
the choice of a pipe material in a particular
project.

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

CHAPTER 2

PROPERTIES OF PIPES

1 Material selection is probably one of the methods

that could solve most corrosion and erosion problems,
but due to economic considerations it is not always
used.
Considerable literature is available about the corrosion and erosion aspects of materials. But while
selecting pipe material other factors like economics,
use of less expensive material, influence of factors
like availability of skilled personnel and proper pipe
handling techniques also must be considered.
In this chapter, advantages and disadvantages of various pipe materials are discussed, in brief, to guide the
user to select the proper material. For the sake of
convenience the pipes are classified into 3 groups as
given below, keeping in view the material used for
manufacture:
a) Metallic pipes,
b) Cement pipes, and
c) Plastic pipes.
82 METALLIC

PIPES

Cast iron pipes (both sand cast and spun cast), ductile
iron pipes, welded steel pipes and spiral welded steel
pipes come in the categery of metallic pipes. Because
of ease in production and jointing cast iron (CI) pipes
are very extensively used for water supply purpose.
In our country CI pipes are in use for more than a
century. The development of steel pipes imparted a
great significance in pipe laying, because of its light
weight when compared to CI pipes. Ductile iron pipes
are recent development in metallic pipes, which are
basically spun cast iron pipes withimproved metallurgical properties. The great advantage of metallic
pipes is their high strength and mechanical properties
which permits them to carry high internal pressures
as well as external loads. Damages to metallic pipes
in transport and handling are minimal when compared
to other varieties especially cement pipes. Corrosion
is the greatest disadvantage in metallic pipes as it not
only reduces wall thickness and strength of the pipes
but also reduces the flow capacity. All cast iron pipes
behave well in distilled or fresh waters. The rate of
corrosion attack increases with the presence of salts
in the water, aeration and temperature. When CI pipes
are used in soft acid water the iron corrodes leaving
behind a residue of graphite and iron oxide which is
soft, porous and of low mechanical strength. Corrosion in steel pipes is more dangerous because of
thinner wall sections used in steel pipes, when
compared to CI pipes. Thus a suitable protective

coating is a must for steel pipes. If proper protective

coating is given corrosion resistance of pipes will not
become a criterion for selection of pipe material
among CI and steel pipes. For detailed discussion on
corrosion and its prevention see Chapter 8.
Comparison of various metallic pipes is given in
Table 1.
2.1 cast Iron pipes
There are three varieties in CI pipes based on their
manufacturing process, Vertically Cast Pipes, Horizontally Cast Pipes & Centrifugally Cast Pipes.
Vertical casting in sand moulds is an age old process.
But pipes manufactured by this process are not of
very good quality (properties), as internal surface of
pipes is not very smooth and there is a possibility for
non unifom thickness and defects which invariably
result in certain percentage of rejection which is
inherent in the process. The requirements for vertically cast iron pipes are covered in IS 1537 : 1976.
In our country CI pipes arc manufactured by horizontal casting also. This is similar to vertical casting
except that the casting is done horizontally. The
properties of these two are more or less similar. Only
flanged type of pipes are manufactured in this process. The requirements for the horizontally cast pipes
are covered in IS 7181 : 1986.
Now a days centrifugal casting (spun casting) is more
popular. In this process pipes are cast with the spinning action of sand moulds or metallic moulds. The
pipes produced by this process will have uniform
thickness and texture, and more compacted grains
compared to vertical casting. The spun process results
in faster production, longer pipes with vastly improved metal quality, a smoother inner surface and
reduced thickness and consequent light weight. The
requireruents for centrifugally cast iron pipes are covered in IS 1536 : 1989. The requirements for centrifugally cast low pressure pipes are covered in
IS 6163 : 1978.
Because of its case in manufacture, laying and jointing, the CI pipes are vastly used for water supply.
They are well suited for pressure mains and laterals
where tappine are made for house connections.
Because of its thickness it can withstand external
loads better than steel pipes.
CI pipes are heavy and thus the transportation costs
are more and not suitable for laying in inaccessible
places. Because of heavy weight these pipes are
/
4

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
generally manufactured in shorter lengths than steel
pipes; for easy handling and transportation. This increases laying and jointing costs. These pipes have
low tensile strength and are liable to have defects of
inner surface by virtue of their manufacturing
process. Because of its brittleness and casting defects,
CI pipes fail suddenly and damage caused is
destructive.
These pipes are susceptible to corrosion effect.
Hence it is preferable to give a protective coating.
With protective coating these pipes are suitable for
laying in slightly aggresive soils also. Coating shall
not be applied to any pipe unless its surfaces are
clean, dry and free from rust. Unless otherwise agreed
between the purchaser and the manufacturer all
pipes shall be coated externally and internally with
the same material by dipping in a tar or suitable base
bath. The pipes may be either preheated before
dipping or the bath may be uniformly heated. Alternatively, if mutually agreed between the purchaser
and the manufacturer, the pipes may be coated by
spraying or brush painting. The coating material shall
set rapidly with good adherence and shall not scale
off. Where the coating material has a tar or similar
base, it shall be smooth and tenacious and hard
enough not to flow when exposed to a temperature
of 65OC but not so brittle at a temperature of 0% as
to chip off when scratched lightly with a penknife.
The inside coating shall not contain any constituent
soluble in potable water or any ingredient which could
impart any taste or whatsoever to the potable water
after sterilization and suitable washing of the mains.
Pipes with or without sockets and flanges which are
imperfectly coated or where the coating does not set
or conform to the required quality, specified above
the coating shall be removed and the pipes/flanges
recoated.
Among CI pipes, centrifugally cast pipes are preferred due to the following reasons:

a) Spun pipes are about three fourth of the mass

of vertically cast pipes of same class.

b) It has got greater tensile strength than other

types of CI pipes because of its close grain
structure which allows thin wall section.

c) Spun pipes have smoother inner surface.

2.2 Ductile Iron Pips
Centrifugally cast ductile iron pipes are latest development in cast iron pipes. Molten metal treated with
magnesium is used for producing these pipes. Adding
magnesium based alloy to the molten metal gives a
uniform distribution of nodular carbon graphites in
casting, which improves the properties of the pipe to
a great extent. Ductile iron pipes have got high me-

chanical strength and good impact resistance when

compared to cast iron pipes. These pipes have high
wear and tear resistance and smooth internal surface.
These pipes are approximately 30 percent lighter
than conventional CI pipes because of their reduced
thickness due to high mechanical properties. The
requirements for ductile iron pipes are covered in
IS 8329 :1990. The requirements for ductile iron fittings for pressure pipes for water gas and sewage
are covered in IS 9523 : 1980. These pipes are
suitable for hydraulic working pressures up to
4 MPa (40 kgf/cm2) depending on diameter. These
pipes can be used where high stress concentrations
are anticipated.
For the purpose of surface protection, these pipes are
required to be coated during manufacturing stage.
Except when otherwise agreed to between the purchaser and the manufacturer, all pipes shall be coated
externally and internally with the same material, the _
pipes being preheated prior to total immersion in a
bath containing a uniformly heated composition having a tar or other suitable base. The coating material
shall set rapidly with good adherence and shall not
scale off when the pipes are to be used for conveying
potable water, the inside coating shall not contain any
constituent soluble in such water or any ingredient
which could impart any taste or odour whatsoever to
the potable water after sterilization and suitable
washing of the mains.
2.3 Steel Pipes
Steel tubes are seamless or welded, made by one of
the approved processes. The thickness of the steel
pipe is controlled due to the need to make the pipe
stiff enough to keep its circular shape during storage,
transport, laying and also to take the load of trench
back filling and vehicles.
The thickness of steel pipe is considerably less than
the corresponding cast iron pipe owing to higher
tensile strength of steel. Due to this property steel
pipes can be manufactured in more than twice the
length of CI pipes of same class, with consequent
savings in transport, pipe laying and jointing costs.
Due to their higher elasticity, steel pipes adapt
themselves to changes in relative ground levels without
failure. Hence they are suitable for laying on grounds
liable to subsidence. Steel pipes, being flexible, are
best suited for dynamic loads. Steel pipes maintain
their mechanical properties over a wide variation of
temperatures. Damage in transportation is minimal
for steel pipes. Steel pipes are vastly used for water
supply due to long established experience available
which has developed confidence in the usage of these
pipes.
5

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
?he

rigid, they require uniformly levelled bed for laying.

In case of loose soils, which are susceptible to subsidence, proper care shall be taken for preparing
the bed for laying these pipes. Cement pipes are
suitable for water supply with low to medium range
of pressures.

requirements for mild steel pipes up to

150 mm nominal diameter are covered in IS 1239
(Part 1) : 1990 and the requirements for mild steel
and wrought steel fittings are covered in IS 1239
(Part 2) : 1991. These pipes can be jointed by means
of socket and screw or by welding. The requirements
for steel pipes with diameters greater than 150 mm
are covered in IS 3589 : 1991. The requirements for
spiral welded pipes are given in IS 5504 : 1969.
Higher diameter steel pipes and spiral welded pipes
are joined by welding only.

Comparison of characteristics of cement pipes is

given in Table 2.
3.1 Cement Concrete Pipes
Concrete pipes are manufactured with or without reinforcement. Plain cement concrete pipes are used
only for non-pressure purposes. All pressure pipes
shall be reinforced. Cement concrete pipes are
produced by centrifugal spinning or vibratory process or a combination of both. The pipes are to be
cured in water or steam. RCC pipes cater to working
pressures up to 0.3 MPa (3 kgf/cm*) in case of
pumping mains and 0.4 MPa (4 kgf/cm*) in case of
gravity mains. The requirements for cement concrete
and reinforced cement concrete pipes are given in
IS 458 : 1988.Bends junction and specials conforming to IS 7322 : 1985 shall be used with cement
concrete pipes.

Corrosion badly affects the performance of steel

pipes. Hence suitable protective coating is essential
both internally and externally. Steel pipes are given
cement mortar lining or epoxy coating or hot applied
coal tar/asphalt lining in the factory or at site against
internal corrosion. Recommendations for cement
mortar lining for steel pipes are covered in
IS 11906 : 1986.
Alternatively Mild Steel tubes may be galvanized
during manufacturing for surface protection as per
IS 4736 : 1986
Steel is a material ideally suited for welding and has
got excellent mechanical properties. Hence steel pipes
are best suited for long distance high pressure pipelines. Steel mains being light in weight are used for
large diameters, especially above 900 mm, where CI
pipes become very heavy and uneconomical.
3 CEMENT

3.2 Steel Cylinder Reinforced Pipes

Steel cylinder reinforced concrete (SCRC) pipes are
similar to RCC pipes; in addition to reinforcement a
thin walled steel cylinder is used in the manufacture
of the pipe, which increases the strength of the
pipe. Ordinary RCC pipes are not suitable for
carrying water at relatively high pressures. In such
cases SCRC pipes are used. These pipes can be used
for working pressures of 0.6 MPa (6 kgf/cm*) to
2.0 MPa (20 kg&m*).

PIPES

Plain and reinforced cement concrete pipes, cylinder

reinforced concrete pipes, presttcssed concrete
pipes
and asbestos cement pipes come in the category of
cement pipes. In all these pipes the bonding material
used is cement. Generally ordinary portland cement
conforming to IS 269 : 1989 is used in pip
manufacturing. But other varieties like portland slag
cement,
portland
pozzolana cement, rapid
hardening cement, hydrophobic portland cement and
43 grade Portland cement conforming to IS 455 :
1989, IS 1489 : 1991, IS 8041: 1990, IS 8043 : 1978
and IS 8112 : 1989 respectively are also permitted
for pipe making. Cement has good corrosion resistance properties. Hence the steel embeded in it is
protected from corrosion. Greatest advantage of
cement pipes over metallic pipes is their corrosion
resistance. Because of this property, the water carrying capacity of pipes will not change much during
their life. Cement pipes are bulky and heavy, and
require careful transportation and handling. Cement
pipes are not suitable where sulphates are present in
the soil. Except for this, cement pipes have good
chemical resistance properties. As these pipes are

The requirements for SCRC pipes are covered in

IS 1916 : 1989 and the requirements for the specials
used with SCRC pipes are covered in IS 7322 :
1985.
3.3 Pre-stressed concrete

pipes

The pre-stressed concrete (PSC) pipes are manufactured by helically binding high tensile steel wire
under tension around a concrete core, thereby
putting the core in compression. When the pipe is
pressurised, the stress induced in pipe will relieve/
reduce the compressive stress caused by prestressing. Thus the concrete in PSC pipes will be
under compression most of the time, which is a
favourable factor for impermeability. Two types of
PSC pipes are in use today - cylinder type and non
cylinder type.
a) Cylinder Typ - These pipes are manufactured in the following manner.
6

r-

----.---- -.

_ __ _

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
A welded sheet steel cylinder is lined with
concrete suitably compacted and circumferentially prestresed to withstand internal
pressure and external loads and subsequently
coated with cement mortar to protect the steel
cylinder and prestressing wires.

pipes are vastly used in rural water supply. These pipes

can bc used for rising mains as well as distribution
mains.
The requirements for AC pressure pipes are covered
in IS 1592 : 1989 and test methods for pipes are
covered in IS 5913 : 1989. IS 9627 : 1980 gives the
requirements of AC pressure pipes (light duty),
which cater for working pressure up to 0.5 MPa
(5 kgUcm2).

b) Non-Cylinder Type - These pipes are manufactured in the following manner :

A suitably compacted concrete core is longitudinally prestressed with pretensioned high
tensile steel wire embeded in the concrete,
circumferentially prestressed to withstand
internal and extenal loads and subsequently
coated with cement mortar or concrete to
protect circumferential prestressed wire.

4 PLASTIC PIPES
4.1 Although the manufacture of plastic pipes was
started in late thirties, fast development came during
the second world war when there was a shortage of
conventional materials. In India, plastic pipes had
their begining in early sixties and made rapid strides
in eighties. These pipes are available in two groups
which are identified as thermoplastic and thermosetting materials. Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride
(UPVC), polyethylene, polybutylene, acrylonitrilebutadiene styrene (ABS) etc, come under thermoplastic group whereas thermosetting polyester and
epoxy are thermosetting. Among thermoplastic pipes,
UPVC and polyethylene pipes arc widely manufactured in India. The relevant specifications are given
in Annex A.

Prestressed concrete pipe is a unique combination of

durability of concrete and high strength of steel combined with economy of raw materials. PSC pipes cater
for intermediate pressure range for which metallic
pipes are expensive and cement concrete pipes would
not be possible. These pipes are ideally suited for
water supply mains with a pressure range of 0.6 to
2.0 MPa (6-20 kgf/cm2). These pipes economically
contpete with steel pipes for diameters 600 mm and
above.
PSC pipes can not be cut to size to close gaps in the
pipe-line. Special closure units are to be manufactured to the exact length. Even though PSC pipes are
very good in strength and economy, the manufacturing of these pipes calls for skilled personnel and
special machinery. Thus they can not be manufactured near to work sites, which results in higher
transportation costs.

NOTE - During the formulation of standards, extensive investigations were made which established that thermoplastic pipes are
qually safe from bacteriological point 0Pview as metalE pipes.
Thermoplastic pipes are generally manufactured by extrusion
moulding io continuous length. As tbe. plastic extrusion comes from
tbe die, it is cooled by water spray or immersion in water. The
pipe is pulled through a traction unit or hauled off and finally cut
to length by circular saw. Thermosetting pipes are generally maoufactured by cootinuous filament winding process or ceotrifugal
casting.

The requirements for PSC pipes and their specials are

covered in IS 784 : 1978.

The properties, usage and suitability of widely used

plastic pipes are discussed in the following paragraphs and comparison of properties of various plastic
pipes is given in Table 3.

3.4 Asbestos Cement Pipes

Asbestos cement (AC) pipes are being used in our
country for more than 50 years. These pipes are made
of a mixture of asbestos fibre and portland cement
compressed by steel rollers to form laminated material of great strength and density. These pipes have
smooth internal surface and they will have more or
less constant water carrying capacity through out
their life. They are not affected by electrolytic corrosion. These pipes are light when compared to
cement or PSC pipes. They can cater to working
pressures up to 1.25 MPa (12.5 kgf/cm2).Holes can
be drilled in these pipes, thus, tappings can be made.
These pipes are generally jointed by cast iron detatchable joints or by asbestos cement caller joints.
Because of their corrosion resistance, smooth flow
characteristics and suitability of pressure range these

4.2 Unplnsticised PVC Pipes

These are generally known as UPVC pipes or rigid
PVC pipes. These pipes are light in weight, tough,
exceptionally resistant to chemical attack and available in large lengths which reduce the cost of handling, transportation and installation. Lesser number
of joints facilitates not only speed in laying of pipeline but also reduces the chances of leakage. These
are immune to galvanic and electrolytic attack when
burried in corrosive soils or near brackish water.
UPVC pipes have good elastic properties and their
adaptability to earth movement is superior compared
to conventional pipe materials. Thermal conductiv7

_-,_.--.--

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
ity of UPVC pipes is very low compared to metals,
consequently water transported in these pipes
remain at a more uniform temperature. Smooth
internal .surface of the pipes offers less friction which
results in saving of energy in the conveyance of
water. These pipes are recommended for water
temperature ranging from 1 to 45OC. At higher temperatures up to 45OC,the strength of pipe reduces and
the working pressure shall be modified in accordance
with Fig. 1. Deterioration and decomposition of plastic pipes are accelerated by ultraviolet light and
frequent changes in temperature which are particularly severe in our country. Deterioration starts with
discolouration, surface crackig and ultimately ends
with brittleness. Thus the life of the pipe is reduced.
Further the coefficient of thermal expansionof UPVC
pipes is eight times greater than steel pipes and
therefore, provision shall be made when installed
over the ground. The supports provided to the suspended pipes between the anchors shall not grip or
distort the pipe but should allow the repeated longitudinal temperature movement to take place without
abrasion. Line or point contact with the pipe should
be avoided. Heavy components such as metal valves
should be individually supported.
4.3 Polyethylene Pipes
Polyethylene pipes have good chemical resistance
and are flexible, as such, a hard fall at the time of
loading and inloading, etc, can not do any harm to
it. These pipes can be easily bent in installation,
eliminating the specials like bends, elbows, etc, at
various locations, thereby reducing fittingr and installation costs. Polyethylene pipes are not fractured by
freezing and can be used up to ambient temperature

of - 40%. However, flow of water can be stopped

due to freezing of water. Direct application of
intense heat such as torch or open flame should not
be used. Two grades of pipes are manufactured,
namely, low density polyethylene (LDPE) pipes and
high density polyethylene pipes (I-IDPE). Low
density polyethylene pipes are highly flexible, can
be coiled and are recommended for maximum water
temperature of 38OC.These pipes have lower tensile
strength than HDPE pipes whereas HDPE pipes are
less flexible, tougher and at the same time they are
.resilient and also conform to topography of land
when laid overground or in trenches. They can
withstand movement of heavy traffic because of their
flexuml strength. These pipes are recommended for
maximum water temperature of 45OC.
The creep rupture strength of the pipe diminishes
with the increase in temperature above 27OC and
working pressure should be modified as given in
Fig. 2A and 2B for LDPE and HDPE pipes respectively. Polyethylene pipes also deteriorate in ultraviolet rays. Carbon black content of 2.5 2 0.5 percent
is added in the manufacture of these pipes for
safeguarding against deterioration under ultraviolet rays. Further, there is a possibility of HDPE
pipes passing the requirements stipulated in the
standard (IS 4984 : 1987) even with adulterated material
up to 30 to 40. percent. The effect of adulterated
material shows only after the pipe is used for a few
months. To safeguard this aspect melt flow index and
density tests have been prescribed in IS 4984 : 1987
The other precaution to be taken while laying LDPE
and HDPE pipes above ground is to provide adequate number of expansion loops, bellow or sliding
gland expansion joints as the thermal expansion/contraction of LDPE and HDPE pipes are 20 times and
14 times respectively greater than metal pipes. Care
should also be taken to account for the high increase
in surface temperature of these pipes in cases of
exposed laying or laying in proximity of artificial heat
SOUKXS.

4.4 Themwetting

plastic Pipes

These pipes are a matrix or composite of glass-fibre,

0.L

20

10

27

30

10

50

TEMPER.ATURE,C
FIG.

Gxtmi

(FOR

MOREPttaas~ Cuut~no@

GMNGlHEIihXMJM

~NIINUOUS

(~ElTIt3RN-T)

FOR %hPEIWmm

WORKING
fh

TO

b?WJRE

45Oc

thermosetting resin and fillers and are commonly

known as GRP pipes. These are suitable for water
distribution and are light in weight. With the range
of thermosetting resins available, varying the constituents and different methods of manufacture, considerable variation is possible in the properties of
pipe, in both resistance to corrosive environment as
well as from structural point of view. Requirements
of these pipes have been covered in IS 12709 : 1989.
These pipes are not covered in detail in this msnual
because oftheir limited use in rural watar supply at
present.
8

SP 57 (QAWSM)

TEMPERATURE

k.

2A

CiitAPHGtvINGm

MAXIMUM

WORKING
PRESSURE
(MULIIPEATIONFACKN)

Co-us

FOR-IhPERAm

UP To +38OC

1.75
l-6

8
t
i

t-0

O-8

0.6

10

15

20

25

27

30

TEMPE~~ATuRE
I;fG.

2B

GRAPI-IGfVINGTIiEm

35

40

L5

50

FASTER)
CONTINUOUS WORKING
PRESSURE
(MULIIPLICATION
Fox -lkImEmTuxEsUP l-0 4w
9

: 1993

As in the Original Standard, this Page is Intentionally Left Blank

*L

a--0

N#

(2)

(1)

:-

i)
ii)

iii)
i)

VI

;_ _
vii)

I -;

_
ix)

xi)
_

i)

i)

Xi)

)
-

cJpaci,y

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

TRANSPORTATION, HANDLING, STORAGE AND INSPECTION

CHAPTER 3
1 METALLIC

b) Cast Iron Pipes - While unloading, pipes

PIPES

shall not be thrown down from the trucks on

hard roads. Unloading them on timber skids
without a steadying rope and thus allowing
the pipes to bump hard against one another
should not be allowed. In order to avoid
damage to the pipes and specially to the
spigot end, pipe should not be dragged
along concrete and similar pavements with
hard surfaces.

1.1 Transportation
Pipes should be loaded in such a way that they are
secured and that no movement should take place on
the vehicle during transit.
The pipes should be loaded on vehicles in pyramid
orstraight sided formation. In case of pyramid loading
the pipes in the bottom layer should be restrained by
the use of broad wooden wedges secured to the vehicle
being loaded. The pyramid is to be formed by resting
pipes between the pairs of pieces in the preceding
layer with the sockets in layers reversed. Straight
sided loading may be used with supports along the
sides of the vehicles. The use of straight sided loading
is advantageous for utilizing full capacity of the
vehicle.

4 Mild Steel Pipes - It is essential to avoid

damage to the pipes, fittings, specials, etc, at
all stages during handling. The pipes and
specials shall be handled in such a mamrer
as not to distort their circularity or cause any
damage to their outer coating. Pipes shall not
be thrown down from the trucks nor shall
they be dragged or rolled along hard surfaces. Slings of canvas or equally non-abrasive material of suitable width or special attachment shaped to fit the pipe ends shall be
used to lift and lower coated pipes so as
to eliminate the risk of damage to the
coating.

1.2 Off-Loading
a) Ductile Iron Pipes - Cranes should be preferred for off-loading. However, for pipes up
to 400 mm nominal bore, skid timber and
ropes may be used.
When using mechanical handling equipment, it is
necessary to employ sufficient personnel to carry
out the operation efficiently with safety. The pipes
should be lifted smoothly without any jerking motion
tand pipe movement should be controlled by the use
of guide ropes in order to prevent damage caused
by pipes bumping together or against surrounding
objects.
Where the crar)e operator does not have a clear
view, he should be guided by the personnel supervising the operation. When cranes are used, the
whole sequence of operation should be carried out
smoothly and without snap. Properly designed
hooks and adequate stead ropes are essential. The
hooks should be of suitable shape to ensure positive
engagement when entered into the ends of the pipes
and then should pass over any protective packing
fitted around the pipe ends.

1.3 Stacking
Pipes being taken to a stock ground for storage and
held pending for further distribution should be arranged into stacks. The first layer of pipes should be
laid on a firm foundation consisting of solid timber
set level on the ground. Subsequent layers should be
placed according to the method of stacking
adopted. Care should be taken so that the pipes do
not rest on their sockets. The height of any stack
should not exceed 2 m.
1.3.1 Methods adopted for stacking of CI & ductile
iron pipes are described in following paragraphs:

The use of slings passed around bundles of pipes is

not recommended because bundles become unstable as the sling is drawn tight or released. However, when it is necessary to use the central slinging
method for lifting single pipe, a broad webbing sling
ia recommended which minimizes the risk of the pipe
slipping. Chain slings may slip and are dangerous.

Square stacking - In square stacking methods, second and subsequent layers are set at
right angles to the previous layers with spigots and sockets alternating in each layer and
sockets project beyond spigot end. The
pipes rest directly upon those beneath it
and care is needed in placing to prevent
damage.

b) Parallel stacking with timbers -

All the pipes

are parallel with the sockets of successive
layers reversed end-to-end with sockets
projecting beyond spigot end. Timber battens, placed about 600 mm from each end at
right angles to the pipes, are used to separate

15

. SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

the successive layers. Wdges

at both ends
of each hatten prevent pipe movement.

and shall be rejected if found unsuitable by the

authority.

Nested stacking (pyramid stacking) - Nested

stacking consists of placing each pipe between the two pipes underneath it, with the
sockets being all at one end of each layer
and being reversed in successive layers. The
bottom layer should be firmly anchored to
prevent stack collapse.

1.4.2 Inspection

4 Special precautions for bitumen-sheathed

pipes - Bitumen-sheathed pipes should be
handled with care to avoid any damage to the
sheathing. They should not be stacked but
laid in a single layer supported on timbers
placed under the uncoated portions of the
spigots and sockets. Sheathed pipes should
be lifted by means of properly designed
hooks fitting into the spigot or socket, or by
specially designed slings which will not
damage the sheathing. Wire rope, chains or
hemp slings should not be used.
1.3.2

Stacking of the Steel Pipes

Steel pipes can be stacked in any one of the methods

given in 1.3.1 (a) to (d). As steel pipes are plain ended
the problem of arranging spigot and sockets will not
be there. Padding shall be provided between coated
pipea and timber skids to avoid damage to the coating.
Suitable gaps in the pipes stacked shall be left at
intervals to permit access from one side to other.
1.3.3 stringing
Stringing consists of placing pipes on the ground in
line ready for laying. Care should be taken to
prevent damage during this operation.

of Steel Pipes

The pipes and specials shall be inspected and

defects noticed, if any, such as protrusions, grooves,
dents, notches, etc, shall be rectified. Care should be
taken that the resulting wall thickness does not
become less than the minimum specified. If the wall
thickness becomes less thantheminimum the damaged
portion should be cut out as a cylinder and replaced
by an undamaged piece of pipe.
A dent is a depression producing a significant alteration of the curvature of the pipe shell, the depth of
.a dent is measured as a gap between the lowest point
of the dent and the curvature of the pipe-line. All
dents exceeding 2 percent of the outer diameter of the
pipe should be removed. Dents shall be removed by
cutting out a cylindical portion of the pipe and replacing
the same with an undamaged piece of the pipe. Insert
patching may be permitted by the authority if the
diameter of the patch is less than 25 percent of the
nominal diameter of the pipe. Repairs by hammering
with or without heating shall not be permitted. Any
damage to the coating shall also be carefully examined and rectified.
2 CEMENT PIPES
2.1 Transportation
Pipes should be loaded at the works for transportation, either by rail or by road, in such a way that
they are secure and that no movement can take
place on the vehicle during transit. The same care is
needed if pipes are to be transferred from one
vehicle to another, however short the journey may
be.

1.4 Inspection
2.2 Off-loading
1.4.1 Inspection of Cast Iron and Ductile Iron Pipes
The pipes and fittings shall be inspected for defects
and be rung with a light hamnter preferably while
suspended to detect cracks. Smearing the outer
side with chalk dust helps the location of cracks. If
doubt persists further confirmation may be obtained
by pouring a little kerosene on the inside of the
pipe at the suspected spot; if a crack is present the
kerosene seeps through and shows on the outer
surface.

To avoid any costly manipulation or handling, the

pipes shall be unloaded where they are required.
a) Cement Concrete, SCRC, and Prestressed
Concrete P&es
Off loading should be carried out by, means
of chain block with shear legs or crane of
adequate capacity, using properly designed
slings and spreader beams or specially designed lifting beams (see Fig. 1). Slin@ should
be placed around the circumference of the
pipe and should not be threaded through
the pipe bore,asthelattermethodmaydamage

If a pipe is mishandled either accidentally or due to

carelessness during unloading or lowering operation
it should be thoroughly inspected before laying
16

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
the jointing surfaces. For the same reasons,
hooks located in the ends of the pipes should
not be used.

b) A.C. Pipes
Each stack shall contain only pipes of same class and
size, with consignment or batch number marked on
it with particulars of suppliers wherever possible.
Storage shall be done on firm level and clean ground
and wedges shall be provided at the bottom layer to
keep the stack stable. The stack shall be in pyramid
shape or the pipes laid lengthwise and cross-wise in
alternate layers. The pyramid stack is advisable in
smaller diameter pipes for conserving space in storing them. The height of the stack shall not exceed
1.5 m.
Cast iron detachable joints and fittings shall be stacked
under cover and separated from the asbestos cement
pipes and fittings.

Frc;.

A TYPICALbFllNG

BE/N

b) Asbestos

Cement Pipes (Except Where

Mechanical Handling Facilities are available)
Pipes weighing up to 60 kg shall be
handled by two persons by hand-passing.
Heavier pipes shall be unloaded from the
lorry or wagon by holding them in loops,
formed with ropea and sliding over planks set
not steeper than 45O. The planks shall be
sufficiently rigid and two ropes shall always
be used to roll the pipes down the planks. The
ropes should be tied on the side opposite to
the unloading. Only one pipe shall be unloaded at a time.

Rubber rings shall be kept clean, away from grease,

oil, heat and light.
2.4 Inspections
2.4.1 Inspection of Pipes Before Laying
Prior to being placed in the trench, pipes should
be visually inspected for evidence of damage with
particular emphasis laid on examination of the joint
surfaces which may have been damaged by impact
during transit or during off loading and handling at
site.
2.4.2 Repairing Damaged Concrete Pipes

Under no circumstances shall the pipes be thrown

down from the carriers or be dragged or rolled along
hard surfaces.
23

Stacklng/StoIing
a) Cement Concrete, SCRC and PSC Pipes
Stacking - Pipes may be placed directly
on the ground provided it is reasonably
level and free from rocks and other projections. Stacking in tiers is permissible
provided timber bearers are placed between succeding tiers. If pipes are to be
stacked more than two tiers high, reference should be made to the manufacturer
for advice before exceeding the two tiers
specified.

2)

Strh&g - Stringing consists of placing

pipes on the ground in line ready for
laying. Care is again needed to prevent
damage during this operation.

Any damage to the pipe may impair its strength or

integrity consequently although some minor damage
may be repairable at site, such repairs should be
undertaken only by pipe manufacturer or under his
supervision.
3 PLASTIC PIPES
3.1 Transportation
Plastic pipes are lighter than other varieties of pipes.
Hence plastic pipes are easy to handle and transport.
But they need careful handling and transportation as
they are susceptible to damage.
Pipes should be loaded in such a way that they are
secured and that no movement should take place on
the vehicle during transport. Straight sided loading
may be used with supports along the sides of the vehicle. The use of straight sided loading is advantageous for utilizing full capacity.

17

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
3.2 Handling

on a permanent set.

Because plastics are softer than metals they are more

prone to damage by abrasion andby objects with
cutting edge. Hence such practices as dragging pipes
over rough ground should be avoided.

Storage of pipes in hot areas should be avoided. While

storing the .pipes at temperatures above 45OC continuous support may be given by levelled sand layer
or by other suitable methods.

The impact strengthof PVC pipes is reduced in cold

weather. It makes the pipes brittle. Hence more care
in handling shall be excercised in cold conditions.
Polyethylene pipes are not affected by low temperatures and hence no additional care is required.
If due to unsatisfactory storage or handling, a pipe
is damaged or kinked, the damaged portion should be
cut out completely.
3.3 Storage
a)

Polyethylene

Pipes

Black polyethylene pipe may bc stored either under

cover or in the open. It is suitably protected from
ageing due to sunlight by the addition of the appropriate quantity and type of carbon black. Natural
polyethylene pipe, however, should be stored under
cover and protected from direct sunlight.
Coils may be stored either on edge or stacked flat one
on top of the other, but in either case they should not
be allowed to come into contact with hot water or
steam pipes and should be kept away from hot surface.
Straight lengths should be stored on horizontal racks
giving continuous support to prevent the pipe taking

b)

PVC Pipes

The pipe should be given adequate support at all

times. Pipes should be stored on a reasonably flat
surface free from stones and sharp projections so that
the pipe is supported throughout its length. In storage,
pipe racks should provide continuous support and
sharp corners of metal racks should be avoided. Pipes
should not be stacked in large piles, especially under
warm temperature conditions as the bottom pipes may
distort, thus giving rise to difficulty in jointing. Socket
and spigoted pipes should be stacked in layer with
sockets placed at alternate ends of the stakes to avoid
lop sided stacks.
It is recommended not to store pipe inside another
pipe. On no account should pipes by stored in a
stressed or bent condition or near the sources of heat.
In tropical conditions, pipes should be stored in
shade.
Pipes should not be stacked more than 1.5 m high and
pipes of different sizes and classes should be stacked
separately.
The ends of the pipe should be protected from abrasion
particularly those specially prepared for jointing either
by spigot or socket solvent welded joints or shouldered for use with couplings.

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

CHAPTER 4 PIPE FIITINGS AND VALVES

1 Pipe fitting3 are the important component of pipelines. In Practice it has been observed that most of
the leaks occur at joints or at fittiw and therefore
due consideration should be given to the quality of
fitting3 for proper functioning of pipe-lines.
1.1 Indian Standards 00 various types of fittings
have been prepared to give guidance to the users.
Table 1 covers the salient features of fittings as
given in various Indian Standards. However, for

comprehensive

reference, respective standardsshoukl

be referred to.

2 Valves are required in most water supply pipe

lines to regulate gow of water. Valves are of different
types depending on applicaticns., Taqe 2 covers the
salient features of some of the valves most commonly
used in water supply lines. For comprehensive nference, respective Indian Standards should be referred.

19

As in the Original Standard, this Page is Intentionally Left Blank

As in the Original Standard, this Page is Intentionally Left Blank

Table 2 Salient Features of Valves

(Clause 2)
SI
NO.

IS No., Title

(1)

(2)

i) IS 778 : 1984 Specification

for copper alloy gate globe
and check valves for water
works purposes

C1assRlcation/
Designation
(3)
a) Class 1 Valves -Suitable
for non-shock cold working pressure upto 1.0 MPa
(cold service means a mmperature
not exceeding
45oc)

b) Class 2 Valves - Suitable

for non-shock cold working pressure upto 1.6 MPa.

Types

Nomb~al Sixes (mm)

(4)

(5)

a) Gate valve (having

inside screw with rising or non-rising
stem or outside screw
with rising stem)
shall be of following
types :
i) Solid wedge type

Screwed end valves -

20(t),

25(l), 32 (I$).

40( l;),

50(2), 65 (2+),

80(3), and 100 (4)

b) Globe valves (having

rising stem with inside or outside screw)
shall be of following
types :

The nominal sixes in parenthesis are sixes according to IS 554 : 1985.

RerUIim
(7)

(6)
Class of
valve

Test

Test
Pressure
Min

8(+),lo(f), 15(i),

ii) Split wedge type

iii) Double disc type

Hydrostatic
Test Pressure
and Horation

Test
Duration

(MPa)

hfin

Class 1

Body test
seat test

1.5
1.0

(minutes)
2
2

Class 2

Body test
Seat test

2.4
1.6

2
2

NOTE - In back seat test (applicable to gate

and globe only) test pressure shall be same as
that for seat test.

Flanged valves - 15, 20,

25,32, 40,50,65,80
and
100 mm.

i) Straight type, and

ii) Right angle type
c) Check valves
i) Swing type (for
use with the axis
of the body end
ports horizontal or
vertical)
ii) Lift type with disc
or ball check (for
use with the axis
of the body end
ports horizontal or
vertical or in applications where
the axis of the
body end ports are
at right angles).

Swing check valves may

also be used in vertical
direction when the flow
is in upward direction.

- ~.
...):

:..I,

Table 2 ( Coh~ued
SI
No.

IS No., lIUe

(1)

(2)

iii) IS 781 : 1984 Specification

for cast copper alloy screw
down bib taps and stop valves
for water services

iv)

Hydrostatic Test Pressure

CIassincati~

ii) IS 780 : 1984 Specification

for sluice valves for water
works purposes (50 to 300
mm sizes)

Designation

and Lhuntion

(5)

(6)

(3)

PN 1 and PN 1.6 where PN is

the nominal pressure - Maximum permissible gauge working pressure in MPa

Non-rising

Suitable for cold non-shock

working pressure upto 1.0 MPa
(cold service condition means a
temperature
not exceeding
45%).

stem type

bOX.

PN
PN
PN
PN

0.4
0.6
1.0
1.6

Nominal
size
mm
700
350
350
350

to 1200
to 1200
to 1200
to 600

S&S.

PN 1

Body test
seat test

1.5
1.0

5
2

PN 1.6

Body test
Seat test

2.4
1.6

5
2

Test

Test
Pressure
(Gauge)
Min

Test
Duration
Min
(minutes)

@@a)

When tested complete with its components Internal hydraulic pressure - 2 MPa, Min
Teat duration -

supply purposes

NOrlliMI
PE.TSWe
IvlPa

PN Rating
of Valve

2 minutes, Min

These nominal sizes are the

nominal bores of socket or pipe
outlet to which the tap or valve
is normally fitted.
Self closing taps may be
with or without stuffing

Designated by nominal pressure

PN (see SI. No. 2, Co1 3) for the
sizes indicated below.

50,60,80,100,125,150,200,
250 and 300 mm.
These sizes refer to the nominal bore of the water way. The
actual bore at any point shall
not be. less than the nominal

Bib taps - 8, 10. 15, 20 and

25 mmStopValves
- 8,10,15,
20,25, 32, 40 and 50 mm.

IS 1711 : 1984 Specification

for self closing taps for water

v) IS 2906 : 1984 Specification

for sluice valves for water
works purposes (350 to 1200
mm size)

Nominal Sizes (mm)

Non-rising

stem type

Bib taps shall have

screwed male ends. Stop
valves
shall
have
screwed female ends or
male ends or mixed ends.

15 mm and 20 mm where
nominal size refers to nominal
bore. of inlet connection.

Tested in assembled condition with its components with internally applied hydraulic pressure
of 2 h4Pa Min for a duration of 2 minutes, Min.

350,400,450,500,
600, 700,
750,800,900,1000,1100
and
1200
(see Si No. 2, Co1 5 for de&ition of nominal size)

PN
Rating

Test

Test
Pressure
Min
(MPa)

Test
Duration
Min
(minutes)

PN 0.4

Body test
seat teat

0.6
0.4

5
2

PN 0.6

Body test
seat teat

0.9
0.6 -

5
2

PN 1.0

Body test
seat teat

1.5

1.0

5
2

Body test
Seat teat

2.4
1.6

5
2

PN 1.6

._-..

Table 2 ( Continued )
Sl

Classiticntion/

No.

IS No., Title

Designation

(1)

(2)

(3)

vi)

IS 3042 : 1965 Specification

for single faced sluice gates
(200 to 1200 mm sizes)

VP=
(4)

Class 1 -Suitable
for a maximum seating unbalanced head
of 6 m of water.

Shape

Vii) IS 5312 (Part 1) : 1984 Specification for swing check type

reftux (non-return) valves for
water works purposes, Part 1
Single door pattern

Designated by nominal pressure, PN (Maximum permissible working pressure in MPa).

The nominal pressure for various sizes shall be :

Flanged type

50,65,80,100,125,150,200,
250, 300, 350, 400,450, 500
and 600 mm
(see SI No. 2 Col. 5 for definition of nominal size)

Size of

viii)

IS 5312 (Part 2) : 1986 Specification for swing check type

reflux (non-return) valves for
water works purposes Part 2
Multi-door Pattern

1x) IS 9338 : 1984 Specification

for cast iron screw-down stop
valves and stop and check
valves for water works purposes

Valve, mm

Nominal
Pressure, MPa

50 to 125
150 to 3cxl
350 to 600

1.6
1.0
0.6

Designated by nominal pressure, PN (Maximum permissible gauge working pressure in

MPa). It shall have the following rating :
PN 0.6. PN 1.

Designated by nominal pressure, PN (Maximum permissible gauge working pressure in

MPa) for the sizes indicated as
follows :
Nominal

Nominal

Pressure

Size

MPa
l.G
J.6

mm
208 to 300
upto and
including 150

Flanged typo

a)
b)
c)
d)

Globe stop valve

Angle stop valve
Oblique stop valve
Globe stop and check
valve, and
e) Angle stop and check
valve

Circular
Square
Rectangular

Remarks

(6)

(5)

Rising or Non-rising
spindle type

Class 2 - Suitable for a maximum seating unbalanced head

of 15 m of water

Hydrostatic
Test Pressure
and Duration

Nominal Sizes (mm)

(7)

Size

200 to 1200 mm
200 to 1200 mm
300 x 375
to
1200 x 1050

400, 450,500,600,700,750,
800,900,1000
and 1200 mm.
The nominal size is the nominal bore of water way.

15, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 65, 80,

100, 125, 150, 200, 250 and
300 mm (see SI No. 2 Cot. 5
for definition of nominal size)

PN
Rating

Test
Pressure
(Gauge)

Test

Test
Dumtion
(minutes)

Wa)
PN 1.6

Body test
Seat test

2.4
1.6

5
2

PN 1.0

Body test
Seat test

1.5
1.0

5
2

PN 0.6

Body test
Seat test

0.9
0.6

5
2

PN
Rating

Test

Test
Pressure

PN 0.6

Body test
Seat test

0.9
0.6

2
2

PN 1

Body test
Seat test

1.5
1.0

2
2

Test

Test
Pressure

Test
Duration

(Gauge)

Min

PN

Test
Duration
hfin
(Gauge)
Min (MPa) (minutes)

Min (MPa) (minutes)

PN 1.6

AR flanged.
PN 1.0

Body test
Seat test
Back Seat test
(where specified)

2.4
1.6

5
2

2.4

Body test
seat test
Back Seat test
(where specified)

1.5
1.0

5
2

1.5

,. _. ,.

.:

iv---

_I----..-.-_-_

__

._

._

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

CHAPT.ER 5 INSTWLATION OF PIPELINE

The pipe-line should be laid along the straightest
route possible. Road crossings should be done at a
right angle to the road whenever possible.

1 GENERAL

Laying of pipe-lines are generally governed by the

regulations laid down by the local authorities. Authority may be an individual, an official, a board, a
department or an agency established and authorised
by the Union or State Government or any statutory
body created by law, which undertakes to administer
and enforce the regulations. These regulations are intended to ensure proper laying of pipes, giving due
consideration to safety of surroundings and workers
engaged in pipe laying.

2.1.1 For cross country terrain before carrying out

final field survey, the pipe alignment shall be
marked on Survey of India maps or cadastral plans
whichever is available and reconnaisance should be
undertaken along the pipe route selected. Any
change called for should be made before the final
survey is undertaken.
2.1.2

The pipes have to be properly handled, bedded and

back-filled to fulfill the desired design and service
requirements. Even a good pipe manufactured as per
the specification may be damaged by improper handling or bedding or back-filling. As various factors,
such as the size of the pipe and nature of soil and
surroundings influence pipe laying, it is not possible
to lay down any rigid rules. Each case will have to
be dealt with in different ways. Hence the procedures given here may be taken as guidelines only.
Common procedure for trenching and back-filling for
all typea of pipes is given in 2.3.2 and 2.4. Any
change in the procedure or special precautions
with respect to each type of pipe are discussed sepalately.
2 PROCEDURES COMMON
VARIETIES OF PIPES
/
SELECTION OF ROUTE

FOR

ALL

2.1 General
The selection of a suitable route for a pipe-line has
an important bearing on the capital cost and operating coats. A pipe-line route is selected from topographical and cadastral plans, on-site inspections,
and any other data avilable on the terrain, obstacles
and local services. In selecting a route the costs and
practicability have to be considered. Care should be
taken to ensure that the ground profile is below the
hydraulic grade line. (Low flow conditions should be
considered as well as peak rates, as the hydraulic
gradient is flattest for low flows). If there were a
peak above the ground line between the input and
discharge heads, obviously pumps would have to be
designed to pump over this peak. Peaks may also be
points of possible water column seperation which
result in water hammer pressures. On the other
hand the general level of the pipe-line route should
be kept as near to the hydraulic grade line as
possible to minimize pressures and consequently pipe
costs.

Final Field Survey Plans

Field surveys for strip width representing about

5OOm along the proposed alignments should be
carried out. Any vertical section or profile along the
pipe-line route should be shown to a scale appropriate to the variations in ground elevation. Special
crossings which require permission from authority
should be detailed on separate dmwir& and cross
referenced to the appropriate strip plan; the scale
should be between 1 : 100 and 1 : 125 depending on
the complexity of the work. In built up areas, consideration should be given to the use of plans of
1 : 1250 scale. In urban areas, trail trenches at suitable intervals will be necessary to locate the utilities
which may affect the laying of pipes.
2.2 Clearing the Site
Preliminary work required to be done before pipe
laying is started, includes pegging out, clearing and
disposal of all shrub, grass, large and small bushes,
trees, hedges, fences, gates, portions of old masonary
and debris from the route.
Where trees have been felled, the resulting-timber
shall be stacked properly and disposed off as directed
by the authority. Tree roots within a distance of about
half metre from the side of the pipe-line shall be removed or killed.
All other serviceable materials, such as wood work,.
bricks and masonry, recovered during the operation
of clearing the site shall be separately stacked and disposed off as directed by the authority.
2.3 Formation
Before pipe-line is laid, proper formation shall be
prepared. For undergmund pipe-line, suitable ttcnches
should be excavated, pipe-line above ground may be
laid in cutting or on enbankments or be supported by
pillars as the case may be.
33

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
2.3.1 Excatition and Preparation of Trenches for
Laying un&rground Pipe-line

The trench shall be so dug that the pipe may be laid

to the required alignment and at required depth.
When the pipe-line is under a roadway, a minimum
cover as given in Table 1 is recommended, but it
may be modified to suit local conditions by taking
necessary precautions. In tropics an earth cover of
at least 0.8 m should be provided in order to
protect pipes against great variation of temperature,
root growth into flexible joints and against falling
trees. When pipes are laid with more than 1.5 m cover
a special investigation is called for to ensure that
the pipes are strong enough to stand the earth
pressure. If they are not, the remedy is to bed or
fully surround the pipe-line with concrete. The
trench shall be shored, wherever necessary, and
kept dry so that the workman may work therein
safely, and efficiently. The discharge of the trench
dewatering pumps shall be conveyed either to
drainage channels or to natural drains, and shall not
be allowed to be spread in the vicinity of the worksite.
2.3.2 Ttenching
Trenching includes all excavation which is carried
out by hand or by machine. The width of the
trench shall be kept to a minimum consistent with the
working space required. At the bottom between the
faces, it shall be such as to provide not less than a
minimum clearance on either side of the pipe in
accordance with Table 1. Each case should, however,
be considered on ita merits, having regard to the

safety of the trench the method of laying and jointing the pipe and the need to avoid damage to pipe
coating. The bottom of the trench shall be properly
trimmed to permit even bedding of the pipe-line. For
pipes larger than 1 200 mm diameter in earth and
murum the curvature of the bottom of the trench
should match the curvature of the pipe as far as
possible, subtending an angle of about 120 at the
centre of the pipe as shown in Fig. 1A. Where rock
or boulders are encountered, the trench shall be
trimmed to a depth of at least 100 mm below the level
at which the bottom of the barrel of the pipe is to be
laid and filled to a like depth with lean cement
concrete or with non-compressible material like sand
of adequate depth to give the curved seating, as shown
in Fig. 1B and Fig. 1C.
For pipes with diameter less than 1200 mm the bed
of the trench shall be excavated to the pipe grades
so that uniform support is assured for the full length
of the pipe ( see Fig. 2)
For steel pipes when welding is to be carried out with
the pipe in the trench, additional excavation of not
more than 600 mm in depth and 900 mm in length
should be provided all round the pipe at the position
of the joints for facilities of welding.
2.3.3 Special Foundations in Poor Soils
Where the bottom of the trench at subgrade is
found to consist of material which is unstable to
such a degree that, in the opinionof the -authority,
it cannot be removed and replaced with ag approvd
material thoroughly compacted in place to support

Table 1 Minimum Cover Below Roadway and Minimum

Side Clearance for Pipes

(Clauses 2.3.1 and 2.3.2)

3lNo.

Mhtmlum cover
&low Rodway

WFdPlpc

Minimum CleWanec
ollERll~SkkOf
pip-

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

1)

Cast iron pipes

1000mm

200 mm

2)

Ductile iron pipes

!XJOmm

200 mm

3)

Steel pipes

12OOmm

200 mm

4)

Concrete and prcstresscd conaetc pipes

150 mm

5)

Asbestos cement pipes

6)

Plastic pipes

750 mm (Below footptlrs)

900 mm (Roads with heavy traffic)
1250 mm (Roads with very
heavy t&tic)
1OOOmm

300 mm

200 mm

) Mitthum depth of cover not spcciaed as impct factor catt be incrca& suitably while designing the pipe in case depth of cover is less than
900 mm.

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

1C TRENCH IN HARD
ROCK WITH SAND
BEDDING

1B TRENCH IN HARD
ROCK WITH CEMENT
CONCRETE BEDDING

IA TRENCH IN EARTH
OR MURUM

FIG. 1 TRENCHING
FORPIPES

28 FAULTY

LAYIN

PIPES RESTING ON MADE UP BED

FOR EVEN BEDDING OF PIPES

2C CORRECT

FIG. 2

LEARTH SCOOPED
FOR MAKING JOINT

LAWNG

LAYINGOFPIPESIN TRENCHES

the pipe properly, a suitable foundation for the pipe,

consisting of piling (timber or other materials) in
accordance with plans prepared by the authority,
shall be constructed.
2.3.4 Rock Excavation
Rock is an unyielding natural foundation material; includes igneous material and consolidated or cemented
sedimentary mineral matter in extensive undisturbed
beds or strata.

2.3.5 Blasting
Blasting for excavation shall be permitted only after
securing the approval of the authority and only when
proper precautions are taken for the protection of
persons and property. The hours of blasting shall be
fixed by the authority. The procedure of blasting
shall conform to the requirements of local controlling
authority (reference may also be made to IS 408 :
1986).
35

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
2.3.6 Braced and Sheeted Trenches
Gpen cut trenches shall be sheeted and braced as
required by any governing state laws and municipal regulations and as may be necessary to protect
life, property or the work. When close sheeting is
required, it shall be so driven as to prevent adjacent
soil from entering the trench either below or through
such sheeting.
The authority shall have the right to order the sheeting
to be driven to the full depth of the trench or to such
additional depths as may be required for protection
of the work. Where the soil in the lower limits of a
trench has the necessary stability, the authority at its
discretion may permit stopping of the driving of
sheeting at some designated elevation above the
trench bottom.
2.3.7 Sheeting and bracing which have been ordered
to be left in place should be removed for a distance
of 0.9 m below the established street level or the
existing surface of the street, whichever is lower.
Trench bracing, except that which should be left in
place, may be removed when the backfilling has
reached the respective levels of such bracing. Sheeting, except that which has been left in place may be
removed ,after the backfilling has been completed or
has been brought up to such an elevation as to permit
its safe removal. Sheeting and bracing may be removed before filling the trench, but only in such a
manner as will ensure~adequate protection of the completed work and adjacent structures.
2.3.8 Care of Surface Material for Re-use
All surface materials which, in the opinion of the
authority, a *esuitable for reuse in restoring the surface shall be kept separate from the general excavation m:erial as directed by the authority.
2.3.9 Stccking Excavated Material
All excavattd material shall be stacked in such a
manner that it does not endanger the work and
avoids obstruciing footpaths and roads. Hydrants
under pressure, surface boxes, fire or other utility
controls shall be left unobstructed and accessible until
the work is completed. Gutters shall be kept clear or
other satsifactory provisions made for street drainage
and natural water-courses shall not be obstructed.
2.3.10 Barricades Guards and Safety Provisions
To protect persons from injury and to avoid damage
to property, adequate barricades, construction signs,
torches, red lanterns and guards, as required, shall be
placed and maintained during the progress of the

construction work and until it is safe for traffic to use

the roadway. All materials, piles, equipment and pipes
which may serve as obstructions to traffic shall be
enclosed by fences or barricades and shall be protected by proper lights when the visibility is poor.
The rules and regulations of the local authorities
regarding safety provisions shall be observed.
2.3.11 Maintenance of Traffic and Closing Streets
The work shall be carried in such a manner that it
causes the least interruption to traffic, and the street
may be closed in such a manner that it causes the
least interruption to the traffic. Where it is necessary for traffic to cross open trenches, suitable bridges
shall be provided.
Suitable signs indicating that a street is closed shall
be placed and necessary detour signs for the proper
maintenance of traffic shall be provided.
2.3.12 Structure Protection
Temporary support, adequate protection and maintenance of all underground and surface structures,
drains, sewers and other obstructions encountered in
the progress of the work shall be furnished under the
direction of the authority. The structures which may
have been disturbed shall be restored upon completion of the work.
2.3.13 Protection of Property
Trees, shrubbery fences, poles and all other property
shall be protected unless their remqval is shown on
the drawing or authorized by the authority. When
it is necessary to cut roots and tree branches; such
cutting shall be done under the supervision and direction
of the authority.
2.3.14 Avoidance of the Existing Service
As far as possible, the pipe-line shall be laid below
existing services, such as gas pipes, cables, cable
ducts and drains but not below sewers, which are
usually laid at great depth, if it is unavoidable pipeline should be suitably protected. A minimum clearance of 150 mm shall be provided between the pipeline and such other services. Where thrust or auger
boring is used for laying pipe-line across roads, railways or other utilities, larger clearance as required
by the authority shall be provided. Adequate arrangements shall be made to protect and support the
other services during laying operations. The pipeline shall be so laid as not to obstruct access to the
other services for inspection, repair and replacement. When such utilities are met with during excavation, the authority concerned shall be intimated and
36

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
arrangements made to support the utilities in consultation with them.
2.4 Back Filling
For the purpose of back-filling, the depth of the
trench shall be considered as divided into the following three zones from the bottom of the trench to
its top:
Zone A

From the bottom of the trench to the

level of the centre line of the pipe,

Zone B

From the, level of the centre line of the

pipe to a level 300 mm above the top
of the pipe, and

Zone C

From a level 300 mm above the top of

the pipe to the top of the trench.

2.4.3 Back-filling in Zone A shall be done by hand

with sand, fine gravel or other approved material
placed in layers of 150 mm and compacted by
tamping. The back-filling material shall be deposited
in the trench for its full width on each side of the
pipe, fittings and appurtenances simultaneously.
2.4.4 Back-filling in Zone B shall be done by hand
or approved mechanical methods in layers of 150
mm, special care being taken to avoid injuring or
moving the pipe. The type of back-fill material to
be used and the method of placing and consolidating shall be prescribed by the authority to suit individual locations.
2.4.5 Back-filling in Zone C shall be done by hand
or approved mechanical methods. The types of backfill material and method of filling shall be as prescribed by the authority.

2.4.1 Back-Fill Material

2.4.6 Back-Fill Under Permanent Pavement

All back-fill material shall be free from cinders,

ashes, slag, refuse, rubbish, vegetable or organic material, lumpy or frozen material, boulders, rocks or
stone or other material which in the opinion of the
authority, is unsuitable or deleterious. However,
material containing stones up to 200 mm as their
greatest dimension may be used in Zone C unless
specified otherwise herein.

Where the excavation is made through permanent

pavements, curbs, paved footpaths, or where such
structures are undercut by the excavation, the entire
backfill to the subgrade of the structures shall be
made with sand in accordance with 2.4.1.1. Paved
footpaths and pavements consisting of broken stone,
gravel, slag or cinders shall not be considered as
being of a permanent construction. Method of placement and consolidating the backfill material shall be
prescribed by the authority.

2.4.1.1 Back-fill sand

Sand used for back-fill shall be a natural sand complying with 2.4.1 graded from fine to coarse. The
total weight of loam and clay in it shall not exceed
10 percent. All material shall pass through a sieve of
aperture size#2.0 mm [see IS 2405 (Part 2) : 1980 ]
and not more than 5 percent shall remain on IS Sieve
of aperture size,O.63 mm.

2.4.7 Back-Fill with Excavated Material

The excavated material may be used for back-fill in
the following cases, provided it complies with 2.4.1:

4 In Zone C, in cases where settlement is unimportant and when shown on the drawings
or specified, the back-fill shall be neatly
rounded over the trench to a sufficient
height to allow for settlement to the required j
level.

2.4.1.2 BaCk-fill gravel

Gravel used for back-fill shall be natural gravel,
complying with 2.4.1 and having durable particles
graded from fine to coarse in a reasonably uniform
combination with no boulders or stones larger than
50 mm in size. It shall not contain excessive amount
of loam and clay and not more than 15 percent shall
remain on a sieve of aperture size 75 micron.
2.4.2 Back-Filling

in Freezing

b) In any zone when the type of back-fill material is not indicated or specified provided
that such material consists of loam, clay, sand,
fine gravel or other materials which are
suitable for backfilling in the opinion of the
authority.

Weather

Back-filling shall not be done in freezing weather

except by permission of the authority, and it shall
not be made with frozen material. No fill shall be
made where the material already in the trench is
frozen.

2.4.8 Concrete Slabs Over Pipes

When pipes are laid under roads and pavements
subjected to heavy traffic loads, the trenches may be
covered with reinforced concrete slabs of suitable
dimensions.
37

---

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

2.5 Peparation

of Formation

for Pipe-line Above

b) Hard murum and soft rocks

Jr : 1

c) Hard rock

I, : 1

Gmand

Formation should be prepared by cutting high

grounds and filling in low areas. Care shall be taken
while fixing the alignment and gradient of the pipeline, to balance the cutting and filling quantities, as
far as possible, with minimum of load. Care should
also be taken to ensure that the pipe rests fully either
on cutting or on bank.
25.1 Cutting High Grounds
Excavation for the formation in cutting should be
done in such a manner as to obtain sufficient width
at the bottom to accommodate the pipe-line, its
supports, a service passage and side drains. The sides
of the cutting should generally have the following
slopes:
a) Earth murum and boulders

1:l

All excavated material shall be the property of the

authority and shall be stacked or disposed off as
directed under 2.3.3 above. Typical sections in cuttings are shown in Fig. 3 and 4.
2.52 Peparation of Embankment
Material used for embankment shall be spread in
horizontal layers not more than 300 mm thick. Each
layer shall be compacted by watering, ramming and
rolling before the next layer is laid. Mechanical
compaction is recommended. The compaction
obtained shall not be less than 90 percent of the
proctor density [see IS 2720 (Part 7) 19801. Any
wash-outs during rains shall be replaced with
suitable material. The embankment shall be finished
to the correct dimensions and gradient prescribed by

RIGINAL

GROUND

FtG. 3 SECllON!-IVCUTlTNG

ORIGINAL

GROUND

SERVICE

FIG. 4 SECI-ION
IN

PASSAGE

PARTLY
Cunw~ AND EMBANKMENT
38

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
the authority. If banking is to be done on the sloping
ground or on embankment, it shall be cut in steps of
not less than 300 mm deep and 450 mm wide to give
a proper bond. Side slopes of the embankment shall
be steeper than 1 horizontal to 1 vertical.

sand piles or rubble piles. In the alternative, RCC or

wooden piles should be driven to transfer load to
harder substrata.

l$e slopes of embankment should be protected by

pitching or any other method, if so required by the
authority.

The mode of laying the pipe-line crossing road, railway or a river shall be determined so as to satisfy the
requirements of the authority concerned.

2.5.3 Width of Embankment

Where the pipes run beneath tram tracks or are located

in areas where similar vibratory effects are likely,
care should be taken to avoid any direct transmission
of the vibrations to the pipes itself. Ample cover with
soft well-packed filling is essential.

2.6 Road, Rail and River Crossing

The width of the embankment at top shall be such

as to accommodate the pipe-line and the service passage. Typical section of the bank is shown in Fig. 5.
2.5.4 Materials for Embankment

2.7 Conditions

Materials used for embankment shall be such that it

does not harm the pipe-line. It shall not swell when
moisture laden or shrink and crack when dry and
shall have self-draining properties. Mud, clay, slush
and decaying vegetable matter shall not be used.
The material shall also be free from cinders, ashes,
refuse, rubbish, organic material, frozen material or
material which in the opinion of the authority is
unsuitable or deleterious. All lumps and clods shall
be broken to allow uniform subsidence of the earth
work throughout the embankment.

Unsuitable

for Laying of Pipe

No pipe shall be laid in or when, in the opinion of

the authority, trench conditions are unsuitable.
2.~._(hsing Pipes

When the pipes run beneath the heavy loads, suitable

size of casing pipes/culverts may be provided to
protect the carrier pipe.
2.9 Clearance

When crossing existing pipe-lines or other structures, alignment and grade shall be adjusted as
necessary, with the approval of the authority to provide clearance as required by state or local regulations or as deemed necessary hy authority to
prevent future damage or contamination of either
structure.

2.5.5 Stability of Embankment

Emabnakment shall rest on good foundation which
shall be capable of taking load of the earth fill, the
pipe-line, service road, etc. When embankment is laid
on soft ground, such as marshy clay or marine clay,
such soft foundation shall be stabilized by providing

SERVICE

FIG 5 SECTIONIN

PASSAGE

E~IEIANKMENT

39

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
2.10 Appurtenances
The spacing of the isolating sluice valves along a
pipe-line depends upon the type of terrain through
which the pipe-line
passes and the operational
flexibility
required. Valves may be positioned as
follows :
a) At the beginning
line;

and at the end of the pipe-

b) To facilitate hydraulic testing of sections or

the pipe-line;
c) For long pipe-lines, isolating valves should
be provided at intervals not exceeding 6 km;
and
d) On either side of a major crossing.
Valves may be located either above ground or below
ground, but should be easily accessible.
2.10.1 Control valves should be provided on all
branches. Similarly, air valves at all humps and scour
valves at all dips are necessary. For inspection
purposes, man-holes may be provided on either side
of isolating valve and at other suitable places.
2.103 Protective devices, such as relief valves, surge
or break pressure stations, may be provided to ensure
that the internal pressure at any point in the pipe-line
does not exceed the design pressure.

structures
by more than 150 mm on each side.
Wherever, in the opinion of the authority, existing
conditions make it necessary or advisable to remove
additional pavement, it shall be removed as directed
by the authority.
2.11.2 Replacement

2.11 Removal, Restoration and Maintenance

Paved Footpaths, After Laying of Pipe
2.11.1 Allowable

Removal

of

of Pavement

Pavement and road surfaces may be removed as a

part of the trench excavation, and the amount removed shall depend upon the width of trench specified for the installation of the pipe and the width and
length of the pavement
area required to be removed for the installation of gate valves, specials,
man-holes or other structures. The width of pavement
removed along the normal trench for the installation
of the pipe shall not exceed the width of the trench
specified by more than 150 mm on each side of the
trench. The width and lengths of the area of pavement removed for the installation of gate valve,
specials, man-holes
or other structures shall not
exceed the maximum linear dimensions of such

and Structures

All pavements, paved foothpaths, curbing, gutters,

shrubbery, fences, poles, sods or other property and
surface structures removed or disturbed as a part of
the work shall be restored to a condition equal to that
before the work began, furnishing all labour and materials incidental thereto. In restoring the pavement,
sound granite blocks, sound brick or asphalt paving
blocks may be reused. No permanent pavement shall
be restored unless and until, in the opinion of the
authority, the condition of the backfill is such as to
properly support the pavement.
2.113

Cleaning-up

All surplus water main materials and

temporary structures shall be removed
as directed by the authority. All dirt,
excess earth from the excavation shall
a dump and the construction site left
satisfaction of the authority.
3 LAYJNG
PIPE
3.1 Lowering

2.10.3 Pressure indicating

and flow recording instruments and burst alarms should also be provided
at suitable places.

of Pavements

AND JOINTING

all tools and

from the site
rubbish and
be hauled to
clean to the

OF CAST

IRON

of pipes and fittings

Proper implements, tools and facilities satisfactory to

the Authority shall be provided and used for the
safe and convenient
execution of the work. All
pipes, fittings, valves and hydrants shall be carefully
lowered into the trench, piece by piece, by means
of a derrick, ropes or other suitable tools or equipment, in such a manner as to prevent damage to pipe
materials and protective coatings and linings. Under
no circumstances
shall pipe materials be dropped
or dumped into the trench. Pipes over 300 mm diameter shall be handled and lowered into trenches
with the help of chain pulley blocks. Tripod supports
used for this purpose shall be regularly checked to
prevent all risks of accidents.
3.2 Cleaning Pipes and Fittings
All lumps, blisters and excess coating material shall
be removed from the socket and spigot end of each
pipe and the outside of the spigot and the inside of
tbe socket shall be wire-brushed and wiped clean and
dry and free from oil and grease before the pipe is
laid.
40

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
3.3 Laying Pipe

3.6 Direction of Laying of Socket End

Every precaution shall be taken to prevent foreign

material from entering the pipe while it is being
placed in the line. If the pipe-laying team cannot put
the pipe into the trench and in place without getting
earth into it, the authority may require that before
lowering the pipe into the trench, a heavy, tightly
woven canvas bag of suitable size shall be placed over
each end and left there until the connection is to be
made to the adjacent pipe. During laying operations,
no debris, tools, clothing or other materials shall be
placed in the pipe.

On level ground, the socket ends should face the upstream. When the line NIIS uphill the socket ends
should face the upgrade.

After placing a length of pipe in the trench, the

spigot end shall be centered in the socket and the pipe
forced home and aligned to gradient. The pipe shall
be secured in place with approved backfill material
tamped on either side except at the socket. Pipe and
fittings which do not allow a sufficient and uniform
space for joints shall be removed and replaced with
pipe and fittings of proper dimensions to ensure such
uniform space. Precautions shall be taken to prevent
dirt from entering the joint space. At times when pipe
laying is not in progress, the open ends of pipe shall
be closed by a watertight plug or other means approved by the authority.
Joints of pipe in the trench which cannot be poured
shall be caulked with jointing materials to make them
as watertight as possible.

3.7 Permissible
Joints

Deflection at Socket and Spigot

Where necessary to deflect pipe from a straight line,

either in the vertical or horizontal plane, to avoid obstructions or where long radius curves are permitted,
deflection at joint shall not exceed the following:
Lead joints

2Vp

Rubber joints
For nominal bore 80 to 300 mm

50

For nominal bore 350 to 400 mm

40

For nominal bore 450 to 750 mm

30

3.8 Usage of Anchor and Thrust Blocks in Pipelines

3.8.1 General
High pressure mains need anchorages at dead
ends and bends, as appreciable thrust occur which
tend to cause draw and even blow out of joints.
Where the thrust is appreciable, concrete blocks
should be installed at all pointswhere movement may
occur.

3.4 Number of Pipes Laid Before Jointing

3.8.2 Hydrants
Wherever the jointing material specified is cement,
six or more lengths of pipe shall be laid in place ahead
of each joint before such a joint is finished.
3.5 Cutting of Pipe
The cutting of pipe for inserting valves, fittings or
closure pieces shall be done in a neat and workmanlike manner without damage to the pipe or cement
lining so as to leave a smooth end at right angles to
the axis of the pipe. For this purpose use of a pipe
cutting machine is recommended. When pipe cutting
machine is not available for cutting pipes of large
diameters, the electric-arc cutting method may be
permitted using a carbon or steel rod. Only qualified
and experienced workmen shall be employed on this
work. When the pipe cutting machine is not available
and the site conditions do not permit pipe cutting by
machines, the pipe can be cut using chisels. The flame
cutting of pipe by means of an oxyacetylene torch
shall not be allowed.

The bowl of each hydrant shall be well braced

against a sufficient area of unexcavated earth at the
end of the trench with stone slab or concrete backing, or it shall be tied to the pipe with suitable metal
tie rods, clamps, or restrained joints as shown or
directed by the authority. Tie rods, clamps or other
components of dissimilar metal shall be protected
against corrosion by hand application of a bituminous
coating.

3.8.3 Pipe-lines
Anchorages are necessary to resist the tendency of
the pipes to pull apart:
a) At bends or other points of unbalanced pressure, or
b) When they are laid on steep gradients and the
resistance of their joints to longitudinal
(shearing) stresses is either exceeded or
41

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
NOTE - In sewerage system the usage of natural or synthetic
rubber rings may be decided by the authority taking into consideration the characteristica of effluent.

inadequate. They are also used to restrain or

direct the expansion and contraction of rigidly joined pipes under the influence of temperature changes.

All the material mentioned in 3.9.2 shall be handled

with cam in order to prevent contamination and shall
be dry when put into place in the joint. The material
used shall be free of oil, tar or greasy substances. In
cement joints, the yarning materials may be omitted
if so specified.

It is advisable to avoid sharp bends above 45 and

in soft ground it is better not to put two bends together
but to separate them by at least a length of a straight
pipe. If the pressures are high enough to merit it and
sleeve joints are being used, the joints on the bends
and on two pipes either side of them should be fully
welded inside and outside, and the trench, refilled
with concrete to 150 mm above these pipes and bends.
Pipes laid on steep inclines should be anchored or
transversed blocks or other precautions taken tb prevent slippage and measures to overcome unbalanced
pressures provided.
-Anchor or thrust blocks shall be designed in accordance with IS 5330 : 1984. Thrust resistant design
pressure should be equal to the test pressure.

NOTE - Spun yarn used as a jointing material SW be sterilized quality. It shall have been exposed to vapours of 40
percent formaldehyde in air-tight chamber for three hours
before using it in water main.

3.9.3 Placing of Yarning Material

The yarning material shall be placed around the spigot
of the pipe and shall be of proper dimensions to centre
the spigot in the socket. When the spigot is shoved
home, the yarning material shall be,driven tightly
against the inside base or hub of the socket with
suitable yarning tools.

3.8.4 Restrain Materials

Vertical and horizontal reaction backing shall be made
of concrete of grade Ml5 conforming to IS 456 :
1978.
3.9 Jointing of Cast Iron Pipes
3.9.1 Jointing of Socket and Spigot Pipes

Jointing may be done with any one of the following

materials:

Molten lead (under dry conditions),

W Lead

When a single strand of yarning material is used, it

shall have an overlap at the top of not more than
50 mm. When more than a single strand is required
for a joint, each strand shall be cut to sufficient length
so that the ends will meet without causing overlap.
The ends of the strands shall meet on opposite sides
of the pipe and not on the top or at the bottom.
Successive strands of yarning material shall be driven
home separately.
3.9.4 Lead Joints
3.9.4.1 Lead for caulking purposes should conform
to IS 782 : 1978.

wool (under wet conditions),

3.9.4.2 Quantity of lead for joints

Cement, and

4 Tarred yarn (for sewers only where considered necessary).

The quantity of lead required for different sizes of

pipes are given in Table 2.

3.9.2 Yarning of Packing Material

3.9.4.3 Heating and pouring of lead

Yarning of packing material shall consist of one of

the following:

Lead shall be heated in a melting pot kept in easy

reach of the joint to be poured so that the molten
metal will not be chilled in being carried from the
melting pot to the joint and shall be brought to a
proper temperature so that when stirred it will show
a rapid change of colour. Before pouring, all scum
shall be removed. Each joint shall be made with one
continuous pour filling of the entire joint space with
lead. Spongy or imperfectly filled joints shall be burnt/
chiselled out and repoured.

a) Spun yam,
b) Moulded or tubular natural or synthetic
rubber rings,
c) Asbestos rope, or
d) Treated paper rope.

42

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
Table 2 Quantity of Lead for Diffemnt Sizes of Pipes
(Clause 3.9.4.2)
NominalSize

Leadpa Joint

Ijeptbof Lead

dPtpc
mm

Joint
mm

(1)

(2)

(3)

80

1.8

45

100

2.2

45

125

2.6

45

150

3.4

50

200

5.0

50

X50

6.1

50

300

7.2

55

350

8.4

55

400

9.5

55

450

14.0

55

500

15.0

60

600

19.0

60

100

22.0

60

750

25.0

60

800

31.5

65

900

35.0

65

loo0

41.0

65

1100

46.0

65

1200

52.0

70

1500

66.5

75

NOTE - The quantities of lead given are provisional and a variation of 20 percent is permissible either way,

39.4.4

Position of joint runner

The joint runner shall fit snugly against the face of

the socket and the outside of the pipe shall be dammed
with clay to form a pouring lip to provide for filling
the joint flush with the face and to the top of the
socket.
3.9.4.5 Procecibre for caulking of socket and spigot
joint3
The common form of joint is made by first caulking
a spun yam then filling the remainder of the joint
space by running in molten lead, taking care that no
dross enters the joint, and then thoroughly caulking
the lead. The lead need not extend into the joint
further than the back of the groove formed in the
socket.

The spun yam is used to centre the spigot in the

socket, to prevent the flow of molten lead into the
bore of the pipe, to reduce the amount of lead
required to complete the joint and to make the joint
watertight. Spun yarn may become infected with
bacteria, which may contaminate the water and, therefore, shall be effectively disinfected before use.
Alternately, proprietary brands of sterilized spun
yam may be used. Shreded lead or lead wire or strip
may be used instead of spun yam, thus producing a
solid lead joint. Lead covered yam may also be used
which does not have the disadvantages of plain yam.
Cold lead may be caulked into the joint space first
followed by spun yam, and the joint then completed
with cold or molten lead.
Caulking may be done with pneumatic tools or with
a hand hammer weighing not less than 2 kg. When
43

:
i

sp 57 (QAwSM) : 1993
working with lead wool, it is very important to use
caulking tools of appropriate thickness to fill the joint
space, and to thoroughly consolidate the material
from the back to the front of the socket. Lead run
joints shall be preferably finished 3 mm behind the
socket face.
3.9.4.6

Quantity of lead wool and spun yarn for

joints
The quantity of lead wool and spun yam required for
different sizes of pipes are given in Table 3. As lead
wool jointing is mostly done in difficult site conditions, higher tolerances may be permitted in practice
from the standards specified in Table 3.

3.95

Cement joints

3.9.5.1 Where cement joints are used for cast iron

gravity sewers, cement as permitted in IS 456 : 1978
may be used.
3.9.5.2 Procedure
Closely twisted spun yam gasket of such diameter as
required to support the spigot of the pipe at the
proper grade and make truly concentric joints, and in
one piece of sufficient length to pass around the pipe
and lap at the top, shall be thoroughly saturated in
cement paste. This gasket shall be laid in the socket

Table 3 Quantitiesof Lead Wool and Spun Yarn for

Different Sizes of Pipes
(Clause 3.9.4.6)
(Materials for Single Collar Joints)
Nomhal Internal
ma
mm

Lead Wool
wd8at
kg

spun Yun
weigtlt
kg

(1)

(2)

(3)

80

1.30

0.17

100

1.70

0.23

150

2.41

0.34

175

2.89

0.37

200

3.37

0.57

225

3.63

0.64

250

4.11

0.74

300

4.82

0.82

350

6.04

1.17

375

6.52

1.25

400

7.00

1.33

450

9.64

1.84

500

10.86

1.99

600

12.79

2.83

750

15.68

3.52

a25

17.12

3.88

900

18.80

4.25

1200

28.44

6.01

NOTE - Under special drcumstanccs the Fhgineer-in-Charge may decide the quantities of lead wool/spun yam depending upon the site
COlditiOnS.

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
for the lower third of the circumference of the joint
and covered with cement mortar (1 cement : 1 coarse
sand). The spigot of the pipe shall be thoroughly
cleaned with a wet brush, inserted and carefully driven
home, after which a small amount of mortar shall be
inserted in the annular space around the entire circumference of the pipe and solidly rammed into the
joint with a caulking tool, the mortar previously placed
being driven ahead of the gasket. The remainder of
the joint shall then be completely filled with mortar
and bevelled off at an angle of 45 degrees with the
outside of the pipe. On pipes of 450 mm in diameter
or larger, the joints shall be pointed and smoothed
from the inside. While making cement joints, one
lead joint shall be introduced for every ten cement
joints.
The inside of the pipe shall be cleaned after the mortar
sets slightly by dragging a large gunny-wrapped
block of wood or straw through the pipe. Care is,
however, necessary to see that this block is not left
in the sewer when the work is interrupted or completed.
3.9.3.3 Time interval before jilting p@e
Pipe laid with cement joints shall not be filled with
water until a lapse of twelve hours after the last joint
in any valved section has been made, and pressure
shall not be permitted in the pipe until all joints have
aged.

used, and for large diameters, the joints shall be made

by flanged connecting pieces.
4 LAYING AND
IRON PIPES

JOINTING

OF DUCTILE

4.1 Laying Underground

Pipes should be lowered into the trench with tackle
suitable for the weight of pipes. For smaller sizes, up
to 250 mm nominal bore, the pipe may be lowered
by the use of ropes but for heavier pipes, either a well
designed set of shear legs or mobile crane should be
used. When lifting gear is used, the positioning of the
sling to ensure a proper balance, should be checked
when the pipe is just clear of the ground. If sheathed
pipes arc being laid, suitable wide slings or scissor
dogs should be used.
All construction debris should be cleared from the
inside of the pipe either before or just after a joint
is made. This is done by passing a pull-through in the
pipe, or by hand, depending on the size of the pipe.
When laying is not in progress, a temporary end
closure should be securely fitted to the open end of
the pipe-line. This may make the pipe buoyant in the
event of the trench becoming flooded, in which case
the pipes should be held down either by partial rctilling of the trench or by temporary strutting. All
persons should vacate any section of trench into which
the pipe is being lowered.

3.9.6 Flanged Joints

Cast iron pipes may also be jointed by means of
flanges.
3.9.6.1 The gaskets used between flanges of pipes
shall be compressed fibre board or natural/synthetic
rubber (see IS 638 : 1979) of thickness between 1.5
to 3 mm. The fibre board shall be impregnated with
chemically neutral mineral oil and shall have a smooth
and hard surface. Its weight per square metre shall
be not less than 112 g/mm thickness.
3.9.6.2 Each bolt should be tightened a little at a
time taking care to tighten diametrically opposite
bolts alternatively. The practice of fully tightening
the bolts one after another is highly undesirable.
3.9.6.3 Several proprietary flexible joints arc available for jointing cast iron pipes and these may be used
with the specific approval of the authority; however,
they shall bc used strictly in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions.
3.9.6.4 For branches of small diameter cast iron pip
ing, copper-alloy screwed unions or ferrules shall be

4.1.1 On gradients of 1 : 15 or steeper, precautions

should be taken to ensure that the spigot of the pipe
being laid does not move into or out of the socket
of the laid pipe during the jointing operations. As
soon as the joint assembly has been completed, the
pipe should be held firmly in position while the
trench is backfilled over the barrel of the pipe. The
backfill should be well compacted.
4.2 Laying Above Ground
The ground should be dressed to match the curvature
of the pipe shell for an arch length subtending an
angle of 1200 at the centre of the pipes. Alternatively,
the pipe-line should be laid either on saddle, roller
or rocker supports as specified by authority. The pipes
may be allowed to rest on ground if the soil is nonaggressive.
4.3 Supporting

Pipes above Ground

The following recommendations assume that no additional bending moments above those due to the self
weight of the pipe and its contents are present.
45

_._

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
Where a pipe-line crosses a watercourse, the design
and method of construction should take into account the characteristics of the watercourse. Early
consultation with river authorities will assist in evaluating the effect of river characteristics (for example,
nature of bed, scour levels, maximum velocities, high
flood levels, seasonal variations, etc), on design and
construction.

4.3.1 With Spigot and Socket Pipes

It is recommended that above ground installation of
spigot and socket pipes be provided with one support
per pipe, the supports being positioned behind the
socket -of each pipe.
This results in a normal distance between supports of
4 m as shown in Fig. 6A.

If necessary, unsupported spans between 4 and 6 m

may be obtained by positioning the pipe supports
relative to the pipe joints as shown in Fig. 6B.

Pipes should be fixed to the supports with mild steel

straps so that axial movement due to expansion or
contraction resulting from temperature fluctuation, is
taken up at individual joints in the pipe-line. In
addition, joints should be assembled with the spigot
end withdrawn 5 to 10 mm from the bottom of the
socket to accommodate these thermal movements.

4.3.2

With Flanged Pipes

The recommended maximum unsupported span is 8

m. The supports shall be located at the centre of every

second pipe as shown in Fig. 7 A

Pipes supported in this way are capable of free

deflection and axial movement at the joints which
accommodate small movements of the pipe supports.

The relative positions of pipe joints and pipe supports

should be as shown in Fig. 7B.

The designed anchorage shall be provided to resist

the thrusts developed by internal pressure at bends,
tees, etc.

The supports of all flanged pipework spans should be

stable and unyielding due to movements in the pipeline.

6A.

PIPES

OVER

Lm

NORMAL

TO

GROUNO

6m

SPAN

66.

PIPES

CROSSING

OVER

WATER

COURSE

FIG.6 SPIGOT
ANDSOCKET
F?PESLAYINGABOVE
GROUND
46

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

7A.

PIPES

l-5 m min.

ABOVE

NORMAL

GROUND

_1

l-5 m min.

7B.

PtP.ES CROSSING
WATER COURSE
FIG. 7 FLANGED
PEE LAYINGABOVE
GROUND

4.5 End Preparation

of Cut Pipes for Jointing

The straps should prevent any lateral movement

or lifting of the pipe-lines but not restrict expansions and constructions caused by temperature fluctuations,

The burr left after cutting should be trimmed off by

light grindng or by filing.

4.4 cutting

4.6 Wrapping

of Pipes

The cutting of pipe for inserting valves, fittings, etc,

shall be done in a neat and workman like manner
without damage to the pipe.or lining so as to leave
a smooth end at right angles to the axis of the pipe.
Methods of cutting ductile iron pipes are given in
4.4.1 to 4.4.3.

4.4.1 By &r&saw
Hand or power operated hacksaw should be used with
blades having teeth at a pitch of 1 mm.
4.4.2 By Manually Operated Wheel Cutter
The type of cutting wheel used for cast iron pipes is
not suitable for ductile iron pipe. Special wheels, as
used for cutting steel pipes, shall be used and cut ends
are trimmed with a file.
4.4.3 By Pipe Cutting Machine
Machines with cutter heads or abrasive wheels shall
be used. Cutter head should have a front rake angle
of 70 as used for steel pipes.

When ductile iron pipes are to be laid in aggressive soils, the pipes should be wrapped externally
with protective coatings, such asbitumen or coal tar
sheathing protective tapes or by loose polyethylene
sleeving, or in certain circumstances, concrete before
laying. At joints, bends and valves, precautions
should be taken to provide sufficient overlap of the
wrapping sleeve so that no pipe-line is exposed to
the aggressive soil.
4.7 Pipe-line Markers

Distinctive markers should be erected at all roads,

railways, river and canal crossings, and elsewhere as
required to identify the pipe-line and to indicate its
position. Markers should be placed at field boundaries, preferably in such a way that they are not
obscured by vegetation. At all valve installations,
plates should be provided to give the same information as on the markers. Markers should not be
treated with any substance likely to be harmful to
livestock.
47

SP 57 (QAWSM)
4.8 Pipe-line

: 1993

Ancborage

secured
below:

All pipe-lines having unanchored flexible joints require anchorage at changes of direction and at dead
ends to resist the static thrust developed by internal
pressure. Dynamic thrusts caused by flowing water
act in the same direction as static thrusts. This thrust
is of sufficient magnitude at high velocities to warrant
safety consideration.
Anchorages to resist the thrust should be designed
taking into account the maximum pressure the main
is to carry in service or on test, and the safe bearing
pressure of the surrounding soil.
Where possible, concrete anchor blocks should be
of such a shape as to allow sufficient space for
the remaking of the joints. Figure 8 shows typical
anchorage using concrete thrust blocks.
Pipe-line should bc securely anchored at dead
ends, tees, bends, tapers and valves to resist thrust
arising from internal pressure. Anchors and thrust
blocks should be designed in accordance
with
IS 5330 : 1984. Steeply inclined pipe-lines should be

by

anchors

transverse

STCEL

Spacing
m
5.5

Gradient
1 in 2 and steeper
Below
Below
Below
Flatter

1 in
1 in
1 in
than

2
4
5
1

to
to
to
in

11.0
16.5
22.0
Not usually required

1 in 4
1 in 5
1 in 6
6

Typical anchor blocks to resist horizontal thrust,

vertical thrust and gradient thrust for buried mains
are shown in Fig. 8.
4.9

Joints

and Jointing

of Ductile Iron Pipes

Two main types of joints are used with ductile iron

pipes and fittings:
a) Socket and spigot flexible joints:
1) Push on joints;
2) Mechanical

and

joints.

b) Rigid flanged joint.

DEAD

END

STHAP

GRADIENT
VERTICAL
THRUST
BURIED MAINS
FIG. 8 -hIc.u.

as shown

Spacingof Transverse Anchors for Steep&

Inclined Pipe-lines

TEE

BEND

spaced

-hIRUST

BLOCKS

THRUST

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
4.9.1

Flexible Joint

c) Centralization of spigot within socket, and

d) Strict compliance with manufacturers jointing instructions.

The spigot and socket flexible joint should be de-

signed to permit angular deflection in direction and

axial movement to compensate for ground movement
and thermal expansion and contraction. They incorporate gasket of elastomeric materials and the
joints may be of the simple push-on-type or the type
where tbe seal is effected by the compression of a
rubber gasket between a seating on the inside of
the socket and the external surface of spigot. Joints
of the latter type are referred to as mechanical joints.
Both push-in (Fig. 9A) and mechanical joints are
flexible joints. Flexible joints require to be externally anchored at all changes in direction such as at
bends, etc, and at blank end to resist the thrust created
by internal pressure and to prevent the withdrawal
of spigots.

Where the pipe-line is likely to be subjected to movement due to subsidence or temperature variations, the
use of flexible joints is recommended. A gap should
he left between the end of the spigot and the back
of the socket to accommodate stub movement.

4.9.2 Flanged Joint

5 LAYING AND JOINTING OF STEEL PIPES

Flanged joints are made on pipes having a machined

flange at each end of the pipe. Tbe seal is usually
effected by means of a flat rubber gasket compressed between two flanges by means of bolts
which also serve to connect the pipe rigidly (see Fig.
9B). Gaskets of other materials, both metallic and
non-metallic, are used for special applications.

The inside of sockets and the outside of spigots

should be cleaned and wirebrushed for a distance
of 150 to 225 mm. Glands and gaskets should he
wiped clean and inspected for damage. When lifting.
gear is used to place the pipe in the trench, it sould
also be used to assist in centralizing the spigot in the
socket.

5.1 Laying of Pipes Underground

The procedure for trenching as described in 2.3.2
shall he carefully followed. Before the pipe is lowered,
the trench shall he carefully examined to determine
that an even bedding is provided for the pipe-line
and that the pipe may be lowered into it without
damaging the coating.

5.1.1 Lowering and Assembling

of Pips

and Spe-

CiUlS

9A. FLEXIBLE

JOINT

9B. FLANGE,0
FIG.

(PUSH

IN TYPE)

JOINT

9 TYPICAL
TYPESOF JOINTS

4.9.3 Jointing Procedure

Procedure for jointing will vary according to the type
of joint being used. Basic requirements for all types
are:
a) Cleanliness of all parta,
b) Correct location of components,

The procedure for lowering varies with the method

adopted for coating the pipe-line. Where the coating
is to he done in the trench, the pipe may be
lowered in the_trench on supports sufficiently high
so as to facilitate out-coating. The pipe should he
lowered progressively with the help of shear legs or
cranes using wide belts or slings., In case of coated
pipes, extra care shall be taken to preserve the
coating while lowering. Sling may be removed
progressively without the necessity of digging under
the pipe. Where the trench is sheeted, the pipes shall
be lowered into the trench by removing at a time,
one or two struts only, care being taken to see that
no part of the shorting is disturbed or damaged. If
necessary, additional struts may be fixed during lowering. Alter the pipe is lowered, it shall he laid in
correct line and level by use of levelling instruments, sight rails, theodolites, etc. Care shall he taken
to see that the longitudinal joints of the consecutive
pipes are staggered by at least 300 and should he
kept in upper third of the pipe-line, if there are two
longitudinal joints they should be on the sides. Wbile
assembling, the pipe faces shall be brought close
enough to leave a uniform gap not exceedng 3 mm.
The spiders from inside and tightening rings from

49

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
outside or other suitable equipment should be used
to keep the two faces in shape and position till at least
one run of welding is carried out.
5.1.1.1 The pipe faces shall first be tack-welded alternately at one or more diametrically opposite pairs
of points. After completing tack-welding, full welding shall be carried out in suitable ins following a
sequence of welding portions of segments diametrically opposite.

for lifting and laying the pipes on supports or on

ground. The pipe-line may be allowed to rest on
ground if the soil is non-aggressive. The ground
should, however, be dressed to match the curvature
of the pipe shell for an arch length subtending an
angle of l%Y at the centre of pipes. Alternatively,
the pipe-line should be laid either on saddle or roller
and rocker supports as specified by the authority.
Figures 10 & 11 show supports generally adopted on
steel pipe-lines.

5.1.2 Backfilling

5.2.2 Expansion Joints

Backfilling should closely follow the welding of

joints of the pipe so that the protective coating does
not get subsequently damaged. Material harmful to
the pipe-line shall not be used for backfilling. Refilling shall be done in layers not exceeding 300 mm.
Each layer shall be compacted by watering and ramming, care being taken to prevent damage to the
%pe-line. The filling on the two sides of the pipe-line
should be carried out simultaneously.

For all pipe-lines laid above ground, provision for

expansion and contraction on account of temperature variation should be made either by providing
expansion joints at predetermined intervals or by
providing loops where leakage through expansion
joints are provided, it is necessary to create restraining points on the pipe-line to ensure proper functioning of these joints. The pipe laying work should
preferably start from the restrained points on either
side working towards centre where the expansion
joint should be fitted last. Spacing of expansion joint
depends on local conditions. Provision of expansion
joint at intervals of 300 m on exposed steel pipe-line
is generally recommended. Expansion joints should
always be provided between two fixed supports or
anchorages.

5.1.2.1 The spiders provided during assembly and

welding shall be retained until the trench is refilled
and compacted. Where timbers are placed under the
pipe-line to aid alignment, these shall be removed
before backfilling. For further precautions and use of
material in backfilling, reference should be made
to 2.4.

5.2 Laying of Pipes Above Ground

5.2.3 Anchorages

5.2.1 General

The pipe shall be .anchored by concrete anchor

blocks or other means to resist unbalanced water
pressures and temperature stresses. Provision should
be made to anchor the main during construction and
in service where floatation could occur.

The procedure of handling the pipes as described

in 5.1 and for lowering and assembling the pipes
underground as described in 5.1.1 should be followed

RING GIRDER

FIG. 10 SADDLESUIWRT

FIG. 11 ROLIEROR ROCKER

SUFWIRT
50

SP 57 (QAWSM)
5.3

Jointing of Steel Pipes

5.3.0 Steel Pipes with Diameter 200 mm and Above

are Joined By Welding
Before aligning, assembling and welding, the pipe
faces shall be cleaned by scraping by wire brushes
or any other method specified by the authority.
5.3.1 Welding

5.3.1.1 Genera!
The welding of pipes in the field should comply with
IS 816 : 1969. Electrodes used for welding should
comply with IS 814 : 1991.
5.3.1.2 Testing of welded joints

The welded joints shall be tested in accordance with

procedure laid down in IS 3600 (Part 1) : 1985. One
test specimen taken from at least one field joint out
of any 10 shall be subjected to test.

5.5

Branch Connections,

: 1993

Specials, Etc

Complicated specials, such as Y pieces, composite

bends and tapers, shall be fabricated
in workshops. Small branches, single piece bends, etc, may
be fabricated at site, care being taken to ensure
that the fabricated fittings have at least the same
strength as the pipe-line to which these are to be
joined.
5.6 Jointing
200 mm

of Pipes with Diameter

Less Than

Small diameter pipes are mainly joined by means of

screw and socket joints. White lead and spun yarn are
used as leak proofing material for these joints. The
white lead is applied on the threaded end with spun
yarn, and inserted into the socket of other pipe. The
pipe is then turned and tightened.
5.7

Coatings

5.7.1 Buried Pipes

If the results of the tensile test do not conform to the
requirements
specified,
retests of two additional
specimen from the same section shall be made, each
of which shall conform to the required specifications.
In case of failure of one or two, extensive gouging
(scooping out) and repairing shall be carried out as
directed by the authority.
If internal pressures exceed 1.5 MPa (15 kgf/cm),
special attention should be given to the assembly of
the pipe and the first run of weld. Non-destructive
testing of the &mpleted weld may be carried out on
pipe-lines
by radiographic (see IS 48.53 : 1982) or
ultrasonic method ( see IS 4260 : 1986) as agreed
upon between the user and the manufacturer.
5.3.1.3

Welding of closure gaps

Final welding of closure gaps should be carried out

within a temperature
range of average air temperature + SC. For buried pipe-lines final welding
may best be done after intermediate pipes have
been backfilled.
5.4

Blank

Buried steel pipe-lines are liable to external corrosion and should be protected by the use of suitable
coatings. The selection ofcoatings may be influenced
by economic factors, such as the required life of the
pipe-line and the maintenance cost. Maximum protection against external corrosion of buried pipelines is achieved by the use of high quality coatings
in conjunction with cathodic protection system.
5.7.1.1 A number of coating materials are available.
The type selected and the thickness applied depend
upon the degree of protection required, the electrical resistivity of the material, its porosity, its resistance to penetration of water, its resistance to
microbiological
attack, its stability at the pipe-line
operating temperature and its mechanical strength.
5.7.1.2 Some of the common coating used are given
in Table 4.
5.7.1.3 Where pipe-line is coated at the fabrication
shop or at a site yard special care should be taken
to ensure that the coating is not damaged during subsequent handling and transport.

Flanges

Blank flanges shall be used at all ends left unattended at the temporary closure of work. Blank
flanges may also be necessary for commissioning a
section of the pipe-line or for testing the pipe-line
laid. For temporary
closures, non-pressure blank
flanges consisting of mild steel plates tackwelded at
the pipe ends may be used. For pipes subjected to
pressures, the &lank flanges should be suitably designed.

5.7.1.4 Before applying the coating, it should be ensured that the pipe is clean, that is, all loose mill scale,
dirt, rust, oil, grease, moisture, etc, are removed.
Pipes may be cleaned by wire brushing, pickling and
phosphating or by shot blasting. Where primers are
necessary, they should be applied immediately after
cleaning.
5.7.1.5 All coatings should be applied in accordance
with manufacturers recommendations.
51

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
Table 4 Types of Coatings and Their Uses
(Clause 5.7.1.2)
Remarks

MIltddS

SI
No.

(3)

(2)

(1)
9

Hot applied coal tar based coatings

ii)

Hot applied bitumen based coatings

Suitable for application

shop or at site

do

iii)

Hot applied tape coatings comprising

fabric tapes impregnated with bitumen
or coal tar

Generally used for relatively short lengths of

pipes or for field application to welded joints in
the coated pipes

iv)

Cold applied tape coatings,

PVC or polyethylene

Suitable for application either at fabrication shop

or at site. Also for coating field welded joints in
precoated type pipes and fittings

v)

Thin film protectives based on coal tar

or bitumen

Generally unsuitable for high corrosive environments

Thick mastic coatings

May be used to give extra strength to the coating

vii)

Epoxy or other resinous paints

Suitable for application either at fabrication shop

orat site. Requiresspecial techniques for application

viii)

RCC gunite

Suitable for application at site. Requires special

technique for application.

vi)

including

5.7.1.6 When coating mentioned at Sl No. (i), (ii),

(iii), (v) or (vi) in Table 4 are adopted the pipe-line
shall be provided with cathodic protection to prevent
pin hole formation in the pipe shell on account of
corrosion.
5.7.2 Above

Ground Pipe-lines

Pipe-lines
laid above ground are liable to atmospheric corrosion and should be adequately protected
by painting.
5.7.2.1 Paints
Should be applied as specified

by the authority.

5.7.2.2 Where the pipe-line is partly above ground

and partly under-ground,
the coating used on the
buried portion should be continued well clear of the
ground.

vary according to the size of the pipe depending

upon the working space,.inside the pipe. In case of
large diameter pipe-lines, cement mortar lining shall
preferably be carried out after the pipe-line is laid in
position and the backfill in the trenches is properly
consolidated. This will prevent the lining from being
damaged due to deformation of pipe-line, due to self
weight and also due to handling of pipes during laying
operation.
5.7.4 Dry Film Thickness
Both for internal and external painting, the thickness
of the dry paint film is very important from the point
of view of determining the protective life. The minimum
dry film thickness of the paint system should be specified and measurements to that effect be made by using
instruments like elcometer or other reliable measuring devices.
NOT!? -

5.7.3

either at the fabrication

For Further details see IS 10221

: 1982.

Internal Coating or Lining

Where waters to be conveyed

are corrosive in
nature, the pipe-line should be provided with an
internal coating or lining. Such linings are usually of
bitumen, coal tar, epoxy or similar resin, concrete or
cement mortar. Care should be taken to see that the
material useh for coating is non-toxic. The lining may
be applied to the pipe before or after laying. In the
former case, it should be made continuous at the
joints after laying. Methods of applying internal lining

6 LAYING
CONCRETE
PIPES
6.1 Trench

AND JOINTING
OF CEMENT
AND PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE

Excavation

Trench shall be of sufficient width to provide a free

working space on each side df the pipe. The free.
working space shall be preferably not less than
150 mm on either side. For deeper excavations wider
52

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
trench may be required. The trench width should be
kept minimum, sufficient to allow proper tamping of
the backfill. Any inadvertant increase in the actual
width should be referred to the designer. If the sides
of the trench are not vertical, the toes of the side
slopes shall end at the top of pipe, and practically
vertically sided trench shall be dug from these down
to the sub grade.
6.2 Laying
Pipes should be lowered into the trench with
tackle suitable for the weight of pipes, such as well
designed shear slings with chain block or mobile
crane. While lifting, the position of the sling should
be checked when the pipe is just clear off the
ground to ensure proper balance. Laying of pipes
shall preferably proceed upgrade of a slope If
the pipes have rubber ring joint it is easier to force
spigot into socket. In case of collar joint, the collars
shall be slipped on before the next pipe is laid.
Expansion joint shall be provided for buried line
at maximum intervals of 100 m, but for exposed
pipes, the joint intervals shall not exceed 45 m. Cast
iron or steel collars and lead caulking conforming to
IS 782 : 1979 shall be used for expansion joint. Where
flexible rubber ring joints are used, expansion joints
need not be provided. When laying is not in progress, the open end of the pipe-line should be
fitted with temporary end-closure. This may make the
pipe buoyant in the event of the trench becoming
flooded and any movement of the pipes should be
prevented either by partial refilling of the trench or
by temporary strutting.
6.3 Jointing
in such a manner that there shall be as little unevenness as possible along the inside of the pipe. The
procedure will vary according to the type of joint
being used. Basic requirements for all types are:
cleanliness of all parts, particularly joint surface;

b) correct location of components;

of the spigot and the back of the socket (for

rubber ring joint) to ensure flexibility at each
joint; and

any lubricant used shall be approved as to

composition and method of application.

Details of jointing shall be as recommended by the

manufacturer.
For collar joint the loose collar shall be set up over
the joint so as to have an even caulking space
all round. Into this caulking space shall be rammed
1 : .1.5 mixture of cement and sand for pressure
pipes and 1 : 2 for non-pressure pipes just suff~iciently moistened to hold together in the hand. The
caulking shall be so firm that it shall be difficult to
drive the point of a pen into it. The caulking shall
be employed at both ends in a slope of 1 : 1. In place
of cement mortar, any other suitable approved
compound may be used. Every caulked joint shall be
kept wet for about ten days for maturing. The section
of the pipe-line laid and jointed shall be covered immediately to protect it from weather effects. A
minimum cover of 100 mm is considered adequate.
A polyethylene sheet shall also be used to cover the
joint to prevent evaporation of water.
6.4 Joints for Concrete Pipes
6.4.1 Types

The joints may be mainly of two types:

a) Rigid joints, and
b) Flexible joints.
6.4.2 Rigid Joints

The sections of the pipe should be jointed together

4 provision of the correct gap between the end

centralization of spigot within socket;

In this the water seal is effected by cement mortar

or similar material which will not allow any movement between the two pipes.
6.4.2.1 Socket and spigot joint
Tbe annular space between socket and spigot is filled
with cement mortar (1 : 2). This joint is used for low
pressure pipe-line. The details of joint are shown in
Fig. 12.

OPEiJlNG
AT J3lNT
CAULKED
CEMENT MORTAR
(1:2)

\ \WITH

INiERNAL
DIA
t

FIG. 12 SPIGOT
ANDSOCKET
JOINT(RIGID)

53

SP 57 (QAWSJf)

: 1993

6.4.2.2 Collar Joint

Colllars 15 to 20 cm wide cover the joint between
two pipes. A slightly damp mixtures of cement and
sand is rammed with caulking tool. The details are
shown in Fig. 13.

FIG. 15 EXTERNAL
FLUSHJOINT(RIGID)
and the pipe surface. These are mainly of two types
as given below.
6.4.3.1 Roll on joint

FIG. 13 COLLARJOINT (RIGID)

6.4.2.3 Flush joint

A rubber ring (circular in cross-section) is placed at

or near the end of the spigot and rolls along it as the
spigot enters the socket. The details of the joint are
shown in Fig. 16.

a) Internal jiush joint

This joint is generally used for culvert pipes of
900 mm diameter and over. The ends of the pipes
are specially shaped to form a self centering joint
with an internal jointing space 1.3 cm wide. The
finished joint is flush with both inside and outside
with the pipe wall (see Fig. 14). The jointing space
is filled with cement mortar mixed sufficiently dry
to remain in position when forced with a trowel or
rammer.

I
FIG. 16 ROLL ON JOINT (FILE)
6.4.3.2 Co$ined gasket

CEMENT
MORTAR>,

PIPE

Rubber ring of circular cross-section is held in the

groove formed on the spigot. Some times, the crosssection is in the shape of lip. The lips are opened
due to water pressure which ensure water seal. For
assembly of this joint a lubricant has to be applied
to the sliding surfaces. The lubricant washes off when
the pipe is in service. The details of the joint are
shown in Fig. 17.
rO-RING

FIG. 14 INTERNAL.FLUSH JOINT (RIGID)

b) External flush Joint
This joint is suitable for pipes which are too small
for jointing from inside. Great care shall be taken in
handling to ensure that the projecting ends are not
damaged as no repairs can be readily effected
from inside the pipe. Details of the joint are shown
in Fig. 15.
6.4.3

Flexible Joints

The water seal is effected because of contact pressure

between the sealing rubber ring (or similar material)

FIG. 17 C~NPINEDO-RING JOINT (FLEXIBLE)

6.5 Change of Direction
Small changes in direction may be made by setting
adjacent pipes at a slight angle to one another. The
maximum angle will vary with the type of joint used
and the diameter of pipe. Maximum permissible angle
shall be as recommended by the manufacturer.
54

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1093
6.6 Laying and Anchoring of Pipes on Gradients

b) The walls of the trench shall be cut generally

to aslope of I4 : 1 or I2 : 1 depending on
the nature of the soil.

Where gradient steeper than 1 in 6 is contemplated

consideration should be given to the construction of
suitable transverse anchor blocks spaced as shown in
Table 5.
Table 5 Spacing of Transverse Anchots
Steeply Inclined Pipe-Lines
(Clause 6.6)
Gradlent

CT)

: 2 or steeper

1:3tol:4

10
15

1: 5 to 1: 6
1:7to1:12
Flatter than 1

for

W&g

(1)
1

c) If the trench bottom is extremely hard or

rocky or loose stony soil, the trench should
be excavated at least 150 mm below the
trench grade. Rocks, stone or other hard
substances from the bottom of the trench
shall be removed and the trench brought
back to the required grade by filling with selected fine earth or sand (or fine murum if
fine soil or sand is not available locally) and
compacted so as to provide a smooth bedding
for the pipe. Where excavation requires
blasting operation it shall be ensured that
no pipes have been stacked in the vicinity
or completed pipe-line in the vicinity have
already been covered before starting of
blasting operations; this is necessary to prevent damage to the exposed pipes in the
vicinity by falling stones as a result of blasting.

Depends on grouod conditions

: 12

Not usually required

It should be noted that where very steep gradients

occur the trench may act as a drain after hack filling
has been completed, the flow of water could disturb
granular bedding material, hence, reducing the effective support for the pipes. In these circumstances alternative bedding material should he considered. If
the flow of water through the bedding material is
potentially substantial, clay water stops should be
~introduced.
In the case of gradients steeper than 1 in 15, consideration should be given to the use of suitable
spacers to achieve the correct gap between the end
of the spigot and the back of the socket. Pracautions
should be taken to ensure that there is no movement
of adjacent pipes relative to each other, immediately
after the jointing operation is complete. As soon as
joint assembly is complete, the last pipe laid should
be firmly restrained in position until back filling over
it is complete and well compacted.
7 LAYING
CEMENT

AND
PIPES

JOINTING

OF ASBESTOS

7.1 Excavation
The procedure

for trenching as described in 2.3.2

shall be followed. In addition to that the following
precautions are to be taken as the pipes are
delicate :
a) The excavation of the trench shall be so
carried out that the digging of the trenches
does not get far ahead of the laying operations. By doing this, the risk of falling of
sides and flooding of trenches shall be
avoided.

d) During excavation, large stones and rubble

shall be separated and removed from .the excavated soil and stacked separately. This is
necessary to prevent any damage to the
completed pipe-line due to the fall of stones
during re-filling of the trench.
7.2 Cutting of Pipes
7.2.1 Cutting of pipes may be necessary when pipes

are to be laid in lengths shorter than the lengths

supplied such as while salvaging the pipes with
damaged ends or while replacing cast iron accessories
like tees, bends, etc, at fixed positions in the pipeline. In such cases it may also be necessary to reduce
the cut ends by rasps to suit the inner diameter of
central collar. The cutting of pipes shall be done as
given below.
7.2.2 A line shall be marked around the pipe with
a chalk piece at the point where the cut is to be
made. The line shall be so marked that the cut is truly
at right angle to the longitudinal axis of the pipe. The
pipe shall be rigidly held on two parallel rafters
nailed to cross beams, taking care that the portion to
be cut does not overhang and the cut mark is
between the two rafters. The pipe shall be neatly cut
at the chalk mark with carpenters saw or hack-saw
having a long blade, by slowly rotating the pipe
around its longitudinal axis so as to have the uncut
portion on top for cutting. Cutting of the pipe at the
overhang should as far as possible be avoided, it is
dangerous as an overhanging end is liable to tear off
55

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
7.3.4 Some clayey soils (for example black cotton
soil) are drastically affected by extremes of saturation and dryness. In changing from totally saturated
to a completely dry conditions, these soils are subjected to extraordinary shrinkage This shrinkage
is usually seen in the form of wide and deep
cracks in the earth surface and may result in
damages to underground structures, including pipe
materials. The clay forms a tight gripping bond with
the pipe, subjecting it to excessive stresses as the
clay shrinks. In such areas, the engineer should
establish whether the condition exists to a degree
justifying special precautions. It is recommended that
in such cases an envelope of a minimum 100 mm of
tamped sand shall be made around the pipeline to
avoid any bonding.

due to its weight before the cut is completed (see

Fig. 18).
7.3 Laying of Asbestos Cement pipes
7.3.1 The pipes shall be lowered into the trenches
either by hand passing or by means of two ropes.
One end of each rope shall be tied to a wooden or
steel peg driven into the ground and the other end
shall be held by men which when slowly released
will lower the pipe into the trench.
7.3.2 The pipes shall rest continuously on the bottom
of the trench. The pipes shall not rest on lumps of
earth or on the joints. Four-me& long wooden
templates may be used to check the level of the bed.
Clearance of approximately 100 mm in depth and
width equal to length of the collar plus 30 mm on
both sides shall be provided at the joint which shall
be refilled from side after the joint is made.

7.3.5 In places where rock is encountered, cushion

of fine earth or sand shall be provided for a depth of
150 mm by excavating extra depth of the trench, if
necessary, and the pipes laid over the cushion. Where
the gradient of the bed slopes is more than 30 it may
be necessary to anchor a few pipes against their sliding
downwards (see Fig. 19).

7.3.3 In unstable soils, such as soft soilsand dry

lumpy soils it shall be checked whether the soils can
support the pipe-lines and if required suitable special
foundation shall be provided.

DO NOT CL? AT
THE

FIG. 18 CUTTINGOF

ASBESTOS

-WIOIH

CTMENT

OVERi-iANG

PRESSURE

PIPE

OF TRENCH
NT TO SHAPE

FINE EARTH OR
RAMMED AND FI

EXTRA EXCAVATION
ABOUT 150 mm

ENLARGED

SECTION

P-X

SLOPE 36AND

FIG.

19

LYING

OF

OVER

AC ~stnuz
56

lnxsr~ ROCKS

XX

SP 57 (QAWSM)
7.4

Jointing of Asbestos

Cement Pipes

: 1993

7.4.2.6 The flanges shall be moved on both ends to

enclose rubber rings. The fastening bolts shall be
inserted through the holes of the flanges and the bolts
shall be tightened alternately and evenly for proper
sitting of the joint.

7.4.1 Before commencing jointing, the pipes shall

be cleaned; the joints and the ends of the pipe shall
be cleaned, preferably with a hard wire brush to
remove loose particles.

7.4.3 Asbestos Cement Coupling

7.4.2

Cast Iron Detachable Joints

7.4.3.1 This joint shall consist of three rubber rings
and an asbestos cement coupling machined on the
inside.

7.4.2.1 The joint shall consist of a central collar, two

rubber rings, two flanges of cast iron and the required
number of bolts and nuts.

7.4.3.2 The rubber rings shall be sealed in their

respective grooves, after cleaning the coupling and
rubber rings. The machined ends of the pipe and end
rings in the coupling shall be suitably lubricated with
a soft soap solution or other lubricant which is not
deterimental to rubber rings or drinking water. Then,
the assembly shall be made by pushing with a crowbar (see Fig. 21) or using a pipe puller.

7.4.2.2 One flange and rubber ring shall be placed

on end of the pipe already laid, and the other flange,
rings and central collar shall be slipped on to the pipe
to be assembled (see Fig. 20).
7.4.2.3 The rubber ring shall be kept positioned at
half the collar width less 2.5 mm from the end of the
pipe already laid. A site gauge as shown in Fig. 20
may be used for convenience.

7.4.4 The joints shall be made by keeping the pipes

in one line. Any permissible deflection at the joint
shall be made after completion of the joint only. The
amount of deflection and the radius of curvature by
successive deflection shall be as given in Table 6 (see
Fig. 22).

7.4.2.4 The other pipe shall be brought nearer leaving a gap of 5 mm between the two pipe ends. This
gap will facilitate manouvering of deflection at joints
alter assembly and will take care of any expansion in
the pipe-line.

7.4.5 Wherever necessary, change over from cast

iron pipe to asbestos cement pipes and vice versa
shall be done with the help of suitable adaptors (see
Fig. 23).

7.4.2.5
The collar shall be slided to sit square around
the rubber ring on pipe 1 and then the rubber ring
shall be rolled on pipe 2 to sit around the collar.

..,
Ids:

.I

PIPE 1

_____

FIG. 20 CASTIRONDETACHABLE
JOINT
57

PIPE 2

SP 57 (QAWSM) : lYY3

RUBBER

RING

1.. ._.. ..:,.,-:y .,:. ..I_

I _:: .-:-! ,...: :

j : .z

ii

FIG. 21 ASBESTOS(ZFMENTCOUFUNG JOINT

FIG. 22

DBFLBCTION AND RADIUS OF CLJRVATURJZ BY ?kJCCESSIVE &FIECTION

OF PIPES

Table 6 Deflection and Radius of Curvature

(Clauses 7.4.4 and Fig. 22)

(1)
10
20
30
4
50

Radius R of Curvature

Displacement D In mm for

APsle
of Deflectjon

20
35
50
70
85

Hpe h%h
2m
3m

4m

(3)

(4)

(5)

35
70
100
135
170

50
100
150
200
250

70
135
200
270
335

58

in mm for

Pipe hgta
3m
2m

4m

:;

(8)

(9)

60
30
20
15
12

120
60
40
30
24

180
90
60
45
36

240
120
80
60
48

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

.SUl?ABLE

ADOPTER--\

FIG. 23 LJNE DIAGRAM SI-~OWING

CHANGE OVERFROM

CASTIRON TO

b!SBESlOS--SUREhE

7.5

Thrust Blocks

7.5.1 Thrust, blocks are required to transfer the resulting hydraulic thrust from the fitting or pipe on to
a larger load bearing soil section.
7.5.2 Thrust blocks shall be installed wherever there
is a change in the direction of the pipe-line, size of

FIG. 24

kATlON

the pipe-line on the pressure-line diagram, or when

the pipe-line
ends at a dead end. If necessary,
thrust blocks may be constructed at valves also.
7.5.3 Thrust blocks shall be constructed taking into
account the pipe size, water pressure, type of fitting,
gravity component of shell when laid on slopes and
the type of soil. The location of thrust blocks for
various types of fittings is given in Fig. 24.

OF-hRUST B~oaa

59

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
7.5.4 When a fitting is used to make a vertical bend,
it shall be anchored to a concrete thrust block designed to have enough weight to resist the upward and
outward thrust. Similarly at joints, deflected in vertical plane, it shall be ensured that the weight of the
pipe, the water in the pipe and the weight of the soil
over the pipe provide resistance to upward movement. If it is not enough, ballast or concrete shall be
placed around the pipe in sufficient weight to counteract the thrust.
7.5.5 When the line is under pressure there is an outward thrust at each coupling. Good soil, properly
tamped is usually sufficient to hold pipe from side
movement. However, if soft soil conditions are encountered, it may be necessary to provide side thrust
blocks or other means of anchoring. In such cases
only the pipe on each side of the deflected coupling
shall be anchored without restricting the coupling.
7.5.6 Pipes on slopes need to be anchored only when
there is a possibility of the backfill around the pipe
sloping down the hill and carrying the pipe with it.
Generally for slopes up to 300 good well drained soil,
carefully tamped in layers of 100 mm under and over
the pipe, right up to the top of the trench will not
require anchoring. For steeper slopes, one out of
every three pipes shall be held by straps fastened to
vertical supports anchored in concrete.
7.6 Special Cast Iron Fittings and Accessories

ing of these specials are necessary against the direction of thrust.

7.6.3.1 The anchorage shall consist of either concrete
cast-in-! tu or masonry built in cement mortar. The
anchors shall be extended to the firm soil of the trench
side. llu sh- K of the anchors will depend on the kind
of special, lrsed. They shall be spread full width of
trench and carried vertically by the side and over the
special to about 15 cm. The bearing area on sides of
the trench will be proportional to the thrust and to
the bearing capacity of the sides of the trench.
7.7 Service Connections
7.7.1 When the pipe is used in distribution house
service, connections shall be provided through a saddle
piece.
7.7.1.1 The saddle piece consists of two straps which
envelopes the portion of pipe from where connection
is to be given. The hole of required size shall be
drilled through the pipe and the boss provided in the
top strap. Ferrule piece shah be connected after making
threads in the boss and pipe. Suitable rubber packing
shall be used between the straps and the pipe to
provide cushioning as well as sealing against leakages (see Fig. 25).
7.7.2 The size of the hole drilled in the pipe shall
be limited to those given in Table 7.
Table 7 Size of Hole Drilled in Pipe
(Clause 7.7.2)

7.6.1 Normally when pipe-line is laid, a certain number of cast iron fitting such as tees, bends, reducers,
etc, and special fittings such as air or sluice valves
are required.

Pipe Size

7.6.2 Laying of Fittings

All cast iron fittings shall be plain ended to suit the
outside diameter of asbestos cement pressure pipes
and to the class and diameter of pipe manufactured.
When using such cast iron fittings, they are jointed
by cast iron detachable joints only. For any cast iron
specials having flanges, they are jointed in the pipeline with cast iron flange adaptors having one end
flanged and the other plain ended.

Maximum Size

of Drilled Hole

mm

mm

(1)

(2)

80 and la0

20

125 and 150

25

200

35

250 and above

50

LAYINGS AND JOINTING

POLYETHYLENE PIPES
8

OF

7.6.3 Anchorages

8.1 Laying

It should particularly be noted that the cast iron

joints do not hold pipe ends within it firmly. During
working at test pressure, there will be the tendency
for the pipe ends or special ends to slip out of the
joint, more so with the case of blank end cap used
for closure of pipe-line and all degree bends and tees.
In order to keep them firmly in the pipe-line, anchor-

8.1.1 While installing the pipes in trenches, the bed

of the trench should be level and free from sharp
edged stones. While laying in rocky areas suitable
bed of sand or pebbles should be provided. The
initial back fill to about 10 to 15 cm above the pipe
should be fines and/or screened excavated material.
Where hard rock is met with, bed concrete MlO, 15
60

-._-

--

SP 57 (QAWSM)

,- ROCK

ON

\-SOFT

THIS

SIDE

SOIL

ON

OF TRENCH

THIS

SIDE

OF

ENLARGED
DETAIL OF SADDLE
FOR SERVKE
CONNECTKIN

TRENCH

DO NOT TAKE
CONNECTION

G I PIPE

II \

LINE

AGO&

1000

TO 1250

VERTICAL
GIOVER
SADDLE

7P

mm

:F,lGR
FIG. 25 DETAILSSHOWING
METHOD
THE bSBESlD.3

OF TAKING

cm thick may be provided, before putting in the soft

sand/gravel.
8.1.2Provisions shall be made for the effect of thermal movements between the anchors/supports.
8.1.3 Plastic pipes in general need not be painted.
Painting may disguise its character. Hazard might
occur by mistaking this pipe for metal one in using
it for load beaming support, or for electrical
grounding.
8.1.4 Plastic pipes shall not be installed near hot
water pipes or near any other heat sources.
8.1.5 Plastic pipe clamps may be used to support the
pipe. Pipe clips may also be used but care shall be
taken not to over tighten and cause the clips to
bite into the pipe. Pipe clips should be correctly
aligned and should provide a smooth flat surface for
contact with pipe. Sharp edged supports should be
avoided. AI1 types of manual controls, and valves in
particular should be anchored firmly so as to minimize the turning movement imparted to the pipe by
operation of the hand wheel (see Fig. 26).

SOFT SOIL LRocK

SERVICE

hEZWRJ3

Co~~Ecno~s

FROM

PIPE

8.1.7 Eflect of Temperature

The coefficient of expansion is about twenty times
(for low densitv polyethylene pipes) and fourteen
times (for high density polyethylene pipes) than the
expansion experienced with metal pipes. This also
holds good for contraction due to fall in temperature.
In many instances the normal changes in the direction
of the pipe provide an adequate means of accommodating expansion.
In continuous straight runs of pipe it is necessary
except where pipes are laid underground to insert
units to absorb the expansion. Expansion loops, bellows
or sliding gland expansion joints may be used.
Care should be taken to account for the high increase
in surface temperatures of these pipes in cases of
exposed laying or laying in the close proximity of
artificial heat sources.
8.2 Jointing Techniques
8.2.1 The commonly used joints are as follows:

8.1.6 Support Spacing

a) Insert type joints,

Supports for horizontal run, such as pipe clamps,

brackets should be used at approximately the spacing
given in Fig. 27.

9 Compression fittings,
4 Fusion welding,
61

SP 57 (QAWSM)

: 1993

FIG. 26 VALVE CHAMBERDETAIL

90

110

125

l&O

160

160

OUIER

NOTE-

200
OIA

250
OF

315

PIPE

IN

355

LOO

LSD

560

630

mm

The values from graphare to be multipliedby :

1.0 for HDPE pipe ratedpressure0.4 MPa (4 kgf/cmq (Class II),
1.1 for HDPE pipe ratedpressure0.6 MPa (6 kgf/cm? (Class III), and
1.25 for HDPE pipe ratedpressure1.0 MPa(10 kgf/cmq (Class IV).
FIG. 27

DISTANCE BETWEEN
RPE SUPWRTS FORHDPE

PIPE FOR

TRANSPORTATION
OF WATER/WASTE WATER

d) Threaded joints,
e) Flanged joints, and
f) Telescopic joints.
8.2.1.1 There are insert type of fitting of both plastic
and metals available for use with PE pipes. In corro-

sive locations plastic fittings are preferred because

of their high resistance to corrosion. In less corrosive conditions
gun metal fittings are frequently
used and in normal or slightly corrosive environments, brass fittings are commonly employed. In certain cases, threaded malleable cast iron fittings are
used.
62

SP 57 (QAWSM)
8.2.2 Insert Type Joints (see Fig. 28)
8.2.2.1 These are commonly used for LDPE pipes
wherein a serrated PE or metallic fitting is inserted
into the pipe and tightened by a clip.
8.2.2.2 The outer serrations of HDPE/metal insert
type fittings lock into the PE pipes to prevent their
coming out under sudden pressure surge. If the pipe
bore is slightly undersized, a little heating by immersion in boiling water in case of LDPE and oil bath
(130C) in case of HDPE would soften the pipe to
enable insertion of fitting. If the bore of the pipe is
loose, the bore clip of worm drive type will secure
the fitting and ensure a leak proof joint. The insertion
of these fittings into the bore of the pipe is done with
hand pressure only. As a measure of safety, worm

drive type clip should be used in all cases. This type of

jointing is used normally in small diameter pipes up to
110 mm.
8.2.3

Compression Fittings

8.2.3.1 They are used for LDPE and HDPE joints.

They are detachable joints and are made of metals or
plastics.
8.2.3.2 In the majority of cases the metal fittings are
based on the type of compression fittine commonly used with copper tubes. In this type of joint
the dimensions
of the pipe are generally not altered. The joint is effected by an internal liner and a
compression
ring or sleeve which shrinks and
therefore compresses the pipe wall on to the liner,

F>j=-j
28 A HEAllNG

28 B FLARING ON THE CONE

IN OIL BATH

28 C INSERTlNG

FLARED PIPE ON THE SERRATED FllllNG

lY -Pipe

: 1993

28 D COMPLETED

JOINT

OD suiting to standard steel pipe.

FIG. 28 TYPICAL
ILLUSTRA~ON
OFMAKINGINSERTTYPEJOIN-I-S
FORHDPE
63

PIPES

SP 57 CQAWSM) : 1993

thus gripping to the wall of the pipe. The liner and

compression sleeve may also be an integral unit (see
Fig. 29).
8.2.3.3In other cases the flared pipe wall is compressed on a conical insert either by two male and
female threaded metallic nuts (see Fig. 30A) or by
backing loose flanges (see Fig. 30 B). The water seal is
made by compression of ends of PE flared pipe between sloping surface of metallic nuts/flanges and
conical inserts.

,a.2.3.4 Compression joints with collar pipe ends hnd

jlat gaskztk
Aluminiumalloy or brass fittings with male and female
coupling parts are available for jointing with metallic
fittings. The male and female ends of the coupling are
inserted face to face on two ends of the pipes to be
jointed. Collars are made on the pipe ends by heating
the ends with hot plate or electric coil. The two collars
are brought together and the female end of the coupling is tightened on the male end. A water tight seal is

FIG. 29 C%PRES.SION
FITIYNG
(TYPE1)

3OA
_ FLARED JCINTS WITH METALLICNUlS

LFLARED

PIPE

END

308 FLARED FLANGED JDINT ~-

FIG. 30 COMFWSSION
FIITNG(TYPE2)

64

-BACKING
FLANGE

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

be 200C and surface of heating mirror should be 2100

+ 5OC[heating mirror is a metallic plate heated up to
the required temperature either by electrical coil
embedded inside or by blow torch. The word mirror
has come because this hot plate radiates heat (see
Fig. 32)J. The pipes to be welded should be held on
either side of the heating mirror with only contact
pressure of about 20 kPa (0.2 kgfIcm2). When the rim
of molten material is found, the pipes are removed
from the heating mirror and immediately the joint is
made by application of moderate pressure of approximately 0.1 to 0.2 MPa ( 1 to 2 kgf/cm2) for 2 to
3 seconds. The initial heating time for achieving
molten rim, varies from 1 to 5 mindepending upon the
pipe wall thickness and size.

made between the flanges. This is a detachable type of

jointing and is practicable up to 50 mm dia pipes (see
Fig. 3 1).
8.2.4 Fusion Welding
8.2.4.1 Fusion welding is commonly used in HDPE
and is a permanent type of joint.
8.2.4.2 Procedure of butt welding of HDPE pipes
The pipe should be cut square and the face of the
pipe should be slightly scraped prior to welding to
remove oxidized layer. At the time of welding, levelling of the pipes is essential particularly in case of
larger diameter pipes. Welding temperature should

FIG.31 COMPRFSSIONJOINTwrrn COLLARS

/TEFLON

ENDSANDFLATGASKJST
CLOTH

AT 200

A PROCEDURE
OFWELDING
%?APROCEDURE OF WELDING
FORCE FOR WELDING
PRESSURE
-

PIPE

+-FORCE

UNDER BUTT
WELDING

FOR WELDING
PRESSURE

FUSION

326 PIPE UNDER BLJlT FUSION WELDING

FIG 32 PR~~~IXJRE
OF BUTTWELDING OF HDPE m

65

SP 57 (QAWSM)

: 1993

Following precautions should be taken while applying

this procedure:

a) It is essential

to see that the rim formed is not

excessive.

b)

While jointing, the pressure should be maintained until the joint is luke-warmand afterthe
pressure is relieved, the joint is allowed to cool
completely.

The mirror should be kept exactly around

21oOC which needs about 30 mitt time (for
electrical mirror). It is also essential to see that
the temperature is maintained constant by the
proper setting of regulator. For detecting the
correct temperature, crayon chalk is used. For
example at 21oOC the colour of crayon dot on
the mirror changes within 2 seconds. But the
dot made should be thin and if not, time taken
will be more, indicating a wrong temperature.

A satisfactory butt welded joint of HDPE will have

the strength factor of one. Temperature is of primary
importance and weld efficiency may decrese if the
temperature does not fall with in the range of 200 5
1ooc.
8.2.5

joint should be cut so that when the joint is made, all

the threaded portion of the pipe is totally enclosed in
the fitting.

Screwed Joints (Threaded Joints)

8.2.5.1 These can be used for LDPE and HDPE pipes

with higher pressure ratings which have thicker walls.
It should be noted that such threading reduces the
factor of safety and hence working pressure in the
lower classes will have to be assumed for design
purposes. Ordinary metal cutting dyes of adjustable
and guided variety may be used. As far as possible, a
full thread should be cut in one operation. It is advisable to plug the end of the pipe during threading
operation to avoid distortion due to flexibility. When
threading the pipe, taper threads should be used and
only the exact number of threads required for the
HDPE

8.2k5.2 Galvanized iron fittings are suitable where

there is no risk of corrosion. In corrosive conditions,
PEorother corrosion-resistant
material fittings should
be used.
8.2.5.3 Under no circumstances
should steel pipe
wrenches be used on a plastic pipe or fitting.
8.2.6 Flanged Joints
8.2.6.1 These are used for jointing LDPE and HDPE
pipes particularly of larger size to valves and vessels
and large size metal pipes where strength in tension is
required.
%
8.2.6.2 It consists of flanges either loose or welded to
the pipe ends. It is recommended that suitable metallic backing plates be used to support the polyethylene flanges to enable them to be bolted together.
Injection moulded polyethylene flanges with metal
inserts of 6 to 9 mm thickness may also be used. In
most cases, sealing is improved by incorporating a
natural or synthetic rubber gasket between polyethylene flanges (see Fig. 33).
8.2.7

Telescopic Joint (see Fig. 34)

8.2.7.1 Any joint (socket and spigot type) that permits sliding of the free end (spigot end) inside the
socket with a rubber or suitable gasket, without any
leakage is called telescopic joint.
8.2.7.2 The socket could be an integral part of the
pipe at one end or two ends or a special coupler into
which the free ends (spigot ends) of the pipes are
pushed to achieve a water tight joint.

FLANGE

FIG.33 FLANGED
JOINT
66

METALLIC

BACKING

SP 57 (QAWSM)

34 T)ZJJXOPIC
JOINT
8.2.7.3 These joints are normally weak in longitudinal pull and hence need anchoring wherever such a
tendency of longitudinal pull is likely in the pipe-line.
In the case of telescopic joints, one external anchorage is generally necessary at each end of the pipeline, at valve and at all changes of direction. The
supports of the side connection should ensure that
excessive lateral bending does not occur. In small
diameter the coupler itself could be modified to have
a split, threaded, grip type gasket of hard materials in
addition to 0 ring type of rubber gasket (for water
tightness) to prevent any slipping out of the free end of
thepipe in longitudinal pull.
8.3 Bending
83.1

Cold Bending

Small diameter PE pipes have a degree of flexibility

such that a substantial radius may be set up within a
length of pipe itself without heating, and without causing residual stress.
8.3.1.1 This enables gradual curves to be negotiated
without the need for special bends or flexible coupliw. In low density PE pipes an inside radius of not
less than 12 times the outside diameterofthepipe
is permissible. In case of high density PE pipes the
radius of the bend shall be greater than 20 times
the outside diameter of the pipe. Cold bends should
only be used on pipes operating at ambient tempeIStWF%.

8.3.2 Hot Bending

8.3.2.1 Forming of small,~radiusbend may easily be
done by the application of heat either by hot air
oven or by immersion in a suitable liquid at an appropriate temperature. For low density, the temperature range is loo0 to 110C and suitable liquids are
water, glycerol or a solution of calcium chloride.
Higher density PE pipe should be heated in an inert
liquid, such as glycerol (or any oil in emergency) at
a temperature of 130%. Electrical heating coils or
plates may be used only by experienced technicians.

8.3.2.2 In preheating operations, the low thermal

conductivity of PE should be kept in mind. Over
heating can usually be recognized by surface
discolouration and distortion. On the other hand
bending operations should not be performed at too low
a temperature, because of excessive stress that could
result. Naked flames for heating should be used only
by experienced operators.
8.3.2.3 At bending temperature, the bore of the
pipe tends to collapse and therefore requires support during the bending operation. Internal support
should be effected before heating by packing the
bore of pipe with warm fine dry sand or by inserting
rubber pressure hose, rubber rod, or a flexible
spring. After the pipe is uniformly heated, it should be
pulled around a simple jig and held in the correct
position until it cools off.
8.3.2.4 It is recommended that radius of the bend
for pipes up to 50 mm size should not be less than
three times the outside diameter of the pipe for low
density PEand five times the outside diameter for high
density PE. Pipes of large diameter will require an
increase in radius.
9 LAYING AND JOINTING OF PVC PIPES
9.0 Laying of PVC Ptpes
9.1.1 Procedure given in 2 is to be followed for
preparing site and trenches.
9.1.2 Where ovality of the pipes occur, it should be
rectified before laying in position.
9.1.3 While installing the pipes in trenches the
pipes should be bedded in sand free from rock and
gravel.
9.1,4. Provision shall be made for the effects of thermal movement. Between the anchors for suspended
pipes the supports should not grip or distort the pipe,
but should allow the repeated longitudinal temperature movement to take place. without abrasion. Line
67

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
or point contact with the pipe should be avoided.

Heavy components, such as metal valves should be individually supported.

9.1.5 In the case of telescopic joints one external anchorage is generally necessary at each end of the
pipe-line, at valve and at all changes of direction. The
supports of the side connection or bend should
ensure that excessive lateral bending does not occur.
9.1.6 Plastic pipes in general need not be painted.
Painting may disguise its character. Hazard might
occur by mistaking this for metal one in using it for
load bearing support, or for electrical grounding.
Also use of certain paints can cause damage to PVC
Pipe*
9.1.7 Plastic pipes shall not be installed near hot
water pipes or near any other heat sources.
9.2 Jointing Techniques

for PVC Pipes

9.2.1 Unplasticized PVC pipe is made by continuous

extrusion process and is generally available as rigid

(hard) in factory cut lengths.
9.2.1.1 Satisfactory jointing plays an important role
in successful application of these pipes. The commonly used joints are as follows:

a) Solvent

mains. These joints are commonly used and economical for PVC pipeworks.
9.2.2.2 This technique is used with both spigot and
socket type joints, in which the socket is made
specially to form a close fit on the pipe end and with
injection moulded fittings.
9.2.2.3 Solvent cement consists essentially of a solution of vinyl polymer or copolymer dissolved in a
suitable volatile mixture or organic solvents. The solvent constituents soften the mating surfaces, which
diffuse into one another to form a cold weld. Such
chemicals are available with chemical resistance
equal to that of the pipe. For solvent cements available in India, it is recommended by manufacturers
that full load could be given only after 24 hours.
Further guidance may be obtained from the respective manufacturers.
9.2.2.4 The solvent welded joint may be achieved
either by heat application method or by non heat
application method. The non heat application
method is easier and is recommended for water
supply installations. A typical illustration of solvent
welded joint is shown in Fig. 35. The details of the two
methods are as given below:
(i) Non heat application method
a) Inthis method, instead of forming a socket
on one of the pipe ends by heat application, an injection moulded socket fitting or
coupler is used. This socket fitting has a
provision to take in the pipe normally on,
either ends. Thesolvent cements are ap-!
plied on the surfaces to be jointed and the,
joint is made at the ambient temperature.
The fabricated fittings are inferior to the
injection moulded ones, and wherever
possible only injection moulded fittings
should be used.

welded joints,

b) Flanged joints,

Screwed or threaded joints, and

Rubber ring joints.

9.2.2 Solvenr Welded Joints

9.2.2.1 These are permanent in nature and strong in

tenstion. They are used for selvice pipes of water

PVC

COUPLER
PVC PiPEJ

FIG.

35 PVC SOLVENT WELDED

JOINT
68

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

b) The pipe should he cut perpendicular to

bevelled at an angle of 200 to 300 on the

outer periphery. Tbe tool used for bevelling may be a reamer or a blade or a pen
knife. One of the pipe ends (female end) is
expanded by heating a length of 1.5 times
the diameterof the pipe to a temperature of
13oOCby blow torch, salt saturated bath or
any other suitable medium maintained at
that temperature. Tbe male end is inserted
inside the softened female pipe end. A
plug gauge may be used to prevent distortion. The beat application may be in one or
two-step methods described in(b) and (c).

the axis of tbe pipe length with a metal

cutting saw or an ordinary band-saw witb
a small teeth. Pipe ends have to be bevelled slightly with a bevelling tool (reamer)
at an angle of about 30. The total length
of insertion of socket shall be marked on
pipe and checked how far the pipe end
could he inserted into the fitting. Usually
the pipe end should go into the fitting
socket (with a taper inside) up to
$ to $ of the socket length.

Dust, oil, water, grease, etc, should be

wiped out with dry cloth from the surfaces
to he coated with solvent cements. After
that the surface should he degreased tborougbly with a suitable solvent, such as
methylene chloride. The coating of solvent cements shall he applied evenly on
the inside of the fitting for full length of
insertion and then on the outside of the
pipe end up to the marked line. For hot and
dry climate thicker coatin@ should be
applied. The pipe should he pushed into
the fitting socket and held for 1 to 2 minutes as otherwise the pipe may come out of
tbe fitting due to the slippery quality of
cement and the tapering inside bore of the
fitting. The surplus cement on the pipe
surfaces shall be wiped out.

b) In the one step method, a little before

beating is complete, a thin coat of slow
drying solvent cement is applied evenly on

the inside surface of female end of pipe

and the outside surface of the male end of
pipe for a length of about 1.5 time the
diameter. After the insertion is complete,
the joint is cooled with water or a wet
cloth.

In most of the cases, the pipe inserted

should be up to the marked line and in no
case shall be less than 2/3 of tbe length of
the pipe end up to marked line. When
solvent welding the pipes, the spigot end
should always be fully inserted into the
socket. If this cannot be done, either the
solvent cement has dried up too much or
the tapering of the socket is too steep.

In the two-step method, the initial insertion as described under non-heat application method above, is done without solvent cement application. After cooling,
the pipes are separated, roughened with
sand paper and cleaned with a suitable
solvent such as methylene chloride. Tbe
pipe ends are coated with solvent cement
and pushed into the socket firmly.

4 Precautions

1) Where blow torch is used, care should

be taken not to overheat the pipe as it
would damage and weaken the pipe.

2)

e) In hot climates with a larger temperature

difference between day and night it is
advised to make the joints early in the
morningorintheeveningwhenitiscooler.
Thus the joints are prevented from being
pulled apart again when the pipe cools off
at night. After making the joints, the trench
with the pipe should be covered with the
soil as soon as possible to ensure an even
temperature for the system.

Before applying the solvent cement,

wiping out of dust, oil, grease and
moisture is very essential.

3) When the joint is made, the remaining

cement on the pipe surface should be
wiped off immediately without fail, as
the continued action of solvent cement
will weaken the wall of the pipe and
cause failue under pressure.

a) This method of jointing makes use of

4) Since solvent cements am intlammable:

they should not be used near naked
flames. In certain cases, flames given
off from cement may be a source of
danager, if the operation is not carried
out in a.well ventilated area.

spigot and socket shapes of the pipes. Tbe

female end is bevelled on the bore. Tbe
other pipe end (male end) to be inserted is

5) When not in use containers of cement

should be kept closed tightly to avoid

(ii) Heat application method

69

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

c) By solvent cementing a plastic full faced

flange on to the pipe end and bolting this to
be the fitting face. A backing ring or wide
washers should be used to distribute the bolt
loads. This prevents the distortion of the PVC
flange. A typicaillustration
of the type of
connection is shown in Fig. 37.

loss of solvent or entry of dirt. Cement

which has gelled or hardened should
be discarded.
9.2.3 FlangedJoints
These are used for jointing of PVC pipes particularly of larger sixes to valves and vessels and larger
size metal pipes where strength in tension is required.
The joint is made by the compression of a gasket or a
ring seal set in the face of the flange. The flange may
be formed in several ways as under:

9.2.4 Union Joint

This is a form of flanged joint but the faces are
held together by a screwed connection. A composite metal and PVC socket union is a very satisfactory
method of jointing PVC to screwed metallic fittings.
A typical illustration of union joint is shown in
Fig. 38.

a) By upsetting the pipe end on a mandrel after

heating the pipe ends. A backing ring of metal
or thermoset plastic compresses the up set
pipe end on to the fitting face of the gasket.
Crinkles are formed too easily in the collar and
the whole unit loses much of its strength.

9.2.5 Screwed Joints

9.2.5.1 These are similar to the joint used with metal
pipes. If pipe has to be jointed by screw threads, only
thick walled pipe should be used and cut with taper
pipe threads. The die should be clean and the thread
should be made in one pass. The threaded pipes
shall not be subjected to pressures exceeding twothirds of the pressure rating for unthreaded pipes.

W By solvent cementing a plastic stub flange on

to the pipe end and again using a backing
ring. The pipe end may also be welded to the
PVC flange. A typical illustration is shown in
Fig. 36.

METALLIC
BACK-UP
FLANGE
PVC

VANSTONE

METAL
PIPE WITH
METAL
FLANGES
REWED
FLANGE

k3OLf

AND

NUT

FIG. 36 FLANGEDJOINTSWITHPVC
r
VC PIPE

BOLT

AND NUT

SOLVENT
/-RUBBER

GASKET

----t-

LPVC
TAII

FLANGED
PlFrE

LCONVENTIONAL
PIPE
(WELDED
OR SCREWED
TO METALLIC
FLANGE)

FIG. 37 FIAIWXJ~WESJOINTINGPVC PIPESANDOTHERCONVEN-IIONAL

RPES USING PVC FLANGED
TAILPIECE
70

JI-- ----------.SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

PVC PIPE

SOLVENT

VC THREADED
ADAPTOR

FIG.38 UNIONJOINT
9.2.5.2 Short pieces of thick walled pipe may be
threaded at one end and solvent cemented on to
normal walled pipe at the other end to make the connector pieces to screwed metal fittings. This system
may be used up to 50 mm in outside diameter.
9.2.5.3 Jointing with hemp and paste shall not be
used. The joint should be made to firm hand tightness
using only strap trenches.
9.2.5.4 There is no well defined increase in the
tightness at assembly as there is with metal to metal
fittings and these joints can therefore very easily be
over strained.
9.2.5.5 Injection moulded threaded joints are used
for jointing PVC to metal pipes. Cutting of threads
into PVC pipes is not recommended as these pipes are
notch sensitive. Unplasticized PVC pipes may be
moulded and jointed in the same way as the metal
pipes. But the PVCmaterial is very notch sensitive and
therefore cutting of screw threads into PVC pipe is not
recommended. Injection moulded threads are however less notch sensitive.

PVC

PVC to metal connection with threaded joints

should be made with the PVC as the male components of the joint. PVC as the female component may
be used only when specific arrangements are made
to prevent over tightening or where both the threads
arc of parallel form and the fluid seal is made by a
separate ring or gasket. A typical illustration of the
type of joint is shown in Fig. 39.
9.2.6 Fixing Water Tap to PVC Pi&es
While connecting metallic water taps to the PVC pipes
in domestic plumbing, it is recommended to use a
metallic coupler to the tap and then connect the
same to the PVC pipe using injection moulded
threaded joints. The metallic part alone is supported
and not the PVC. The unsupported length from the
face of the wall should not be more than 10 cm for
satisfactory operation and a strong coupling be
provided on the face of the wall at the point of
overhang. For any repairs to the tap, the tap should be
removed from the metal couplerto avoid working on

PIPE SOLVENT
WELDED

METALLIC

L PVC THREADED
ADAPTOR
(MALE)

L: METALLIC
COUPI.ER

THREADED
(FEMALE
I

FIG. 39 JOINTING
PVC POPE
YXICONVEN~ONAJ_
F~PE
71

PIPE

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
it in&u. A typical illustration of connection is shown
in Fig. 40.

9.2.7.4 The following are some of the types of rubber

ring joints:

a>Insertion joints:

9i2.7 Rubber Ring Joints

1) With spigot and socket, or

9.2.7.1 Rubber ring joints can provide a water tight
seal but are not designed to resist pull. In thecase
of these joints, the rubber and the fluid to be transported should be compatible. The material of rubber
rings should conform to IS 5382 : 1985. Where aggressive soils are met with, synthetic rubbers perform better. Generally speaking, rubber ring joints
are used for large sized pipes (63 mm and above).
Such joints may be provided on pipes which are
buried in the ground and supported throughout on a
bedding so that they are not subjected to movement
and longitudinal pull.
9.2.7.2 The strength of a rubber ring joint to longitudinal forces is not high and for same joints a flange
or a shoulder is made on the pipe end to provide the
necessary strength in tension. For buried water supply mains the installed pipes and joints are supported
by the continuous bed of the trench and no tensile
strength in the joint itself is necessary. However,
care shall be taken to anchor the pipe and fittings at
bends and at connections to valves. If used above
ground, they shall be anchored to provide the required strength.
9.2.7.3 Unplasticized PVC pipes may be jointed by
methods employing a rubber ring to provide the
water tight seal. The ring may be housed in groove
formed in a plastic or metallic housing. The rubber is
commpressed and makes a seal between the pipe and
the housing. The ring shape and the method of compressing the ring vary considerably in different
types of joints. Most joints often require the application of lubricating paste. Where natural rubber rings
are used, mineral oils or petrol or grease of any type
should, on no account be used.

2) With separate collar pieces having two

rubber rings, one at either end,

b) Lip seal joints;

4 Wedged joints; and
4 O-ring shrink joints.
9.2.7.5 Storage
Following precaution shall be taken for storage of
rubber riw, gaskets, etc:

a) At all times

rubber rings and gaskets and all

other fittings shall be stored so as to avoid
damage of any kind to them or contamination
by oils, petrol or greases.

b) All rubber items should be stored in a

cool, dry and dark place. When not in use,
containers of lubricant should be kept closed
tightly to avoid entry of dirt.
9.2.8 Service Connections
9.2.8.1 Roth metal and plastic saddles are available
for the off take of service connections from larger
bore pipes (50~mm diameter and above). One type of
saddle consists of a half round moulded unplasticized PVC section which is solvent cemented to the
pipe surface. The outside of the PVC section has a
boss on to which the service connection may be
screwed. Another type consists of two half round sections of metal or PVC which are bolted together or held
round the pipe by wedge grips. A seal is formed
between the saddle and the pipe by rubber O-ring
compressed between the pipe and the under surface

PVC PIPE SOLVLNl

WELDED

Fro. 40 coNNEcIK)NopPVC P~~E~~MJZTALU~WARBTA~~

72

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
of the upper section. The service connection is taken
from a boss on the upper section.
9.2.8.2 Conventional equipment for tapping under
pressure may be used with these service connections
using a special &panning cutter to pierce the pipe
wall. Some ferrules have self contained cutter for
this purpose. Ferrules should not be screwed directly
into unreinforced pipes without the introduction of a
reinforcing saddle piece. A/typical illustration of a
ferrule connection is shown in Fig. 41.
9.3 Forming and Bending
9.3.1 Hot Forming
9.3.1.1 The thermoplastic nature of the unplasticized PVC enables the material to be manipulated
and formed to shape after heating to temperature
between 12SC to 14OOC.On cooling, the material will
become rigid and will retain its reformed shape.
9.3.1.2 When in softer state the material will be
capable of considerable deformation and may be
formed to the desired shape with ease. Pipe may be
worked to form bends, off sets or taper sections.
Increase or reductions of pipe diameters can be
effected and pipe ends may be belled or flared as
required using farmers of suitable shape.
9.3.1.3 PVC is a poor conductor of heat and in consequence of this care shall be exercised when heating
to allow sufficient time for the heat to penetrate the

thickness of the material. Visual indication of temperature is difficult but when correctly heated the
material becomes rubber like to touch. On no account attempt be made to form the material in temperature less than that required (under 9.3.1.1). Heating may be carried out in hot air ovens by radiant heat,
aromatic free oil bath, self saturated bath or by any
other suitable method. A blow torch may also be used,
care being taken to avoid local overheating which
will cause discolouration of the material and subsequent charring of the surfaces. Whichever form of
heating is used, the article should not be removed
from the jigs or farmers until complete cooling has
been effected, otherwise a tendency for the material to
revert to its original shape will occur.
9.3.1.4 While bending at the forming temperature
the pipe bores tend to collapse and will therefore
require support during the forming operation. Internal supports should be effected before heating by
packing the bore of the pipe with warm fine dry sand,
a rubber pressure hose, or rubber rod of the correct
diameter or by any other suitable means.
9.3.1.5 After heating the pipe uniformly it should be
pulled around a simple wooden jig and held in the
correct position. It is then cooled externally with air or
water until it is set.
9.3.1.6 The bending of small diameter pipes may also
be done on the horizontal mould plate with the required radius clearly marked on it.

FIG. 41 FERRULE
~NNEClTON(uSINGPvc
73

SERVICEfhDDLE)

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
9.3.1.7 It is recommended that the centre line radius
of. the bend for pipes up to 50 mm diameter should
not be less than three times the nominal diameter of
the pipe. Pipes of larger diameter will require an
increase in radius to the order of five times the nominal
diameter.
9.3.1.8 Hot forming at site is not recommended.
9.4 support

Table 8 Minimum Supports for

unphsticized
PVC Pipes
(Chuse 9.4)
All dimensionsin millimetres.
2w4.T

4wc

Dh
(1)

Suitable anchor blocks should be provided at all

changes in the direction of the pipe-line and wherever
else required to withstand thrust resulting from the
internal water pressure at blank ends. Valves and
hydrant tees should be supported in such a manner
that the torque applied in operating a valve is not transmitted to the pipe-line.

spacing

Recommended support spacings for unplasticized

PVC pipes are given in Table 8. These are based for
conveyance of cold water. For vertical runs support
spacing may be increased by 50 percent.

outside

9.5 Anchorage

(2)

(3)

16

750

675

20

780

700

25

a25

750

32

900

825

40

1050

975

50

1 125

975

63

1200

1000

75

1275

1 125

110

1500

1425

125

1800

1650

140

1875

1725

180

1950

1800

200

2025

1875

225

2100

1950

250

2 175

2025

9.5.1 Concrete Surrounds and Ancorage - When

pipes are encased in concrete either as a protective
surround or as an anchorage, membranes, such as felt
or polyethylene film, should be placed between the
concrete and the PVC pipe.
9.5.2 Where differential movement is likely to occur
at the ends of a concrete surround the adjacent
pipe-line should comprise one or more short lengths
of pipe jointed by means of a double socket fitting incorporating rubber ring sealing.
9.5.3 It should be noted that any side connections into
the line except at the point of anchorage, will be
subjected to lateral movement and that their supports
should be placed at sufficient distance away from the
branch connection or bend to ensure that excessive
lateral bending does not occur.
9.6 Notch Effect

A rigid PVC pipe is highly sensitive to the presence

of notch, that is the existence of a very small notch
affects the impact resistance considerably. This
largely depends upon the shape of the notch. The
impact value should be considered only as l/3 to l/10
of the value without notch, when the notches are
present. The sharp edged V notches are dangerous
but curved U shaped notches are tolerable. Therefore, threading in the pipe should be discouraged
wherever possible. Only injection moulded threaded
(with curved ends) fittings should be used.

74

* #-

--

-_..._ ---

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

CHAPTER 6 TESTING AND DISINFECMBN

1 TESTING OF CAST IRON PIPE-JINE

shall be applied by means of a pump connected to the

pipe in a manner satisfactory to the authority.

1.1 Types of Tests

1.2.3 Examination under Pressure
After a new pipe has been laid, jointed and backfilled
in accordance with Chapter 5 (or any valved section
thereof) it shall be subjected to the following two
tests:
a) Pressure test at a pressure as specified in 1.2
and
b) Leakage test at a pressure to be specified by
the authority for a duration of two hours.
.2 Jrocedure for Pressure Test

All exposed pipes, fittings, valves hydrants and joints

should be carefully examined during the opentrench test. When the joints are made with lead, all
such joints showing visible leaks shall be recaulked
until tight. When the joints are made with cement and
show seepage or slight leakage, such joints shall be
cut out and replaced as directed by the authority.
Any cracked or defective pipes, fittings, valves or hydrants discovered in consequence of this pressure
test shall be removed and replaced by sound material and the test shall be repeated until satisfactory to
the authority.

..2.1 Pressure Test

1.3 Procedure for Leakage Test
be field test pressure to be imposed should be not
less than the greatest of the following:

4 One and a half times the maximum sustained

operating pressure,

b) One and a half times of the maximum pipelinestatic pressure, and

4 Sumof the maximumstatic pressure and surge

pressure subject to the works test pressure.
Where the field test pressure is less than two thirds
the works test pressure, the period of test should be
increased to at least 24 hours. The test pressure shall
be gradually raised at the rate of nearly 0.1 MPa
(1 kgUcm2) per minute.
If the pressure measurements are not made at the
lowest point of the section, an allowance should be
made for the static head between the lowest point, and
the point of measurement to ensure, that the maximum
pressure is not exceeded at the lowest point. If a drop
in pressure occurs, the quantity of water added in
order to re-establish the test pressure should be carefully measured. This should not exceed 0.1 litre per
mm of pipe dia per km of pipe-line per day for each 30
metres head of pressure applied.
1.2.2 Pressurization
Each valved section of pipe shall be filled with water
slowly and the specified test pressure, based on the
elevation of lowest point of the linear section under
test and corn&cd to the elevation of the test gauge,

1.3.1 A leakage test shall be conducted concurrently

with the pressure test. Leakage is defined as the quantity of water to be supplied into the newly laid pipe,
or any valved section thereof within 0.035 MPa (0.35
kgf/cm2), of the specified leakage test pressure after
the air in the pipe-line has been expelled and the pipe
has been filled with water.
1.3.2 No pipe installation shall be accepted until the
leakage is less than the number of cm3/h as determined by the formula:
ND
qL =

10

where
4L = the allowable leakage in cm3/h,
N = number of joints in the length of the pipeline,

= diameter in mm, and

= the average test pressure during the leakage

test in MPa.

1.3.3 Varation from Permissible Leaking

Where any test of pipe laid indicates leakage greater
than that specified in 1.3.2 the defective joints shall
be repaired until the leakage is within the specified
allowances.
1.4 PretrquJsite

ofTest

1.4.1
Where any section of a main is provided with
concrete thrust blocks or anchorages in accordance
75

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
._
with 3.8 of Chapter 5 the pressure test shall not be
made until at least five days have elapsed after the
concrete was cast. If rapid hardening cement has
been used in these blocks or anchorages, the test
shall not be made until at least two days have
elapsed.
1.4.2 Back-Filling
Before testing, the trench can be partially back-filled,
if required by site condition, except at the joints in
accordance with Chapter 5. Such back-filling shall be
done after obtaining the permission from the authority
concerned.
1.43

Time for Testing of Lead Jointed Pipe

If the requirements of 1.4.1 have been complied with,

a lead jointed pipe may be subjected to hydrostatie
pressure, inspected and test for leakage at any convenient time after the trench has been back-filled in
accordance with 1.42.
1.4.4 Time for Testing of Cement Jointed Pipe
After the requirements of 1.4.1 have been complied
with and the trench back-filled in accordance with
1.4.2 the main shall be filled with water in the manner
specified in 3.9.5.3 of Chapter 5 and 1.2.1 and shall not
be subjected to hydrostatic pressure; inspected and
tested for leakage till at least 36 hours have elapsed
thereafter. The pipe shall remain full of water until all
tests have been made.

b) number of joints

9 difference in elevation between one part of

the pipe-line and another.
Where the joints are left uncovered until after testing,
sufficient material should be back-filled over the centre
of each pipe to prevent movement under the test
pressure.
It is prudent to begin testing in comparatively short
length of test section. Progressively as experience is
gained, lengths of about 1.5 km or more, are tested in
one section, subject to consideration of length of
trench which can be left open in particular circumstances.
Bach section should be properly sealed-off, preferably with special stop ends secured by adequate temporary anchors. The thrust on the stop ends should be
calculated and the anchors designed to resist it. All
permanent anchors (see 4.8 of Chapter 5) should be
in position and, if of concrete, should have developed
adequate strength before testing begins. The section
under test should be filled with water, taking care that
all the air is displaced either through vents at the high
points or by using a pig or a sphere.
2.3 The test pressure to be applied should be not less
than any of the following:

a) The maximum sustained operating pressure,

b) The maximum static pressure plus 5 MPa
(50 kgf/cm2), and

1.4.5 In case where there are no valves, or valved

sections are too long, the testing may be permitted to
be carried out in suitable segments with the permission
of the authority.
2 TESTING OF DUCTILE IRON PIPE-LINE
2.1 After a new pipe-line is laid and jointed, testing
shall be done for:

a)

mechanical soundness and leak tightness of

pipes and fittings;

b) leak tightness
4

of joints; and

soundness of any construction work, in particular that of the anchorages.

2.2 Hydrostatic Testing

The completed pipe-line may be tested either in one
length or in sections; the length of section depending
upon:
a) availability of sufficient water, \

to be inspected, and

c) The sum of the maximum sustained operating

pressure (or the maximum static pressure) and
the maximum calculated surge pressure.
After filling, the pipe-line should be pressurized to the
specified operating pressure and left for a period of
time to achieve stable conditions.
The length of this period of time depends on many
factors such as slight movement of the pipe-line under
pressure whether air is trapped in the pipe-line or
whether the pipe-line has a concrete lining which
absorbs water.
The pipe-line is then pressurized up to the full test
pressure and the section under test completely closed
off. The test pressure should be maintained for a
period of not less than 10 minutes to reveal any defects
in the pipes, joints or anchorages.
Ihe test pressure should be measured at the lowest
point of the section under test or alternatively, an
allowance should be made for the static head between
76

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993.
Table 1 Maximum Field Hydrostatic Test Pressure for Ductile Iron Pipe-Lines
with Flexible Joints
(Clause 2.5)

the lowest point and the point of measurement, to

ensure that the required test pressure is not exceeded at
the lowest point.
2.4 In case of extreme temperature conditions, there
may be a tendency of hydraulic pressure building up
inside the pipe-line because of expansion of water
during the day time. This should normally not be of any
major concern as the joints and the pioes are manufactured to resist a much higher pressure. However,
sufficient care should .be taken to prevent floating or
bulging of the pipe-line because of buildingup of such
high pressure during the temperature rise.

Nomhal Bore
mm

b) Use of a bar probe to detect signs of water in

the vicinity of joints, if back-filled;

4 Aural inspection using a stethoscope or listening stick in contact with the pipeline;

Use of electronic listening device which detects and amplifies the sound or vibrations due
to escaping of water, actual contact between
the probe and the pipe is not essential;
Injection of a dye into the test water-particularly suitable in water-logged ground; and
Introduction of nitrous oxide in solution into
the test water and using an i&a-red gas concentration indicator to detect the presence of
any nitrous oxide that has escaped through the
leak.

4.5 (45)

350 to 600

3.0 (30)
2.1 (21)

NOTES
1 Theabovepressuresare0.5h4Pa(S.Okgf/an~
higher than the
pressure ratings for ductile iron pipes and fittings with flexible
joints. It is not considered necessary to field test ductile iron pipelines to 1% times the design operating pressure as is often the
practice with cast iron pipe-lines.
2 The field test pressures is applied to ductile iron pipe-lines only
when the pipe-line and its fittings are properly anchored.

Methods employed for finding leaks include:

by the backfill;

MPa (kgf/cmf)

upto3cKl

700t01200

2.4.1 If the test is not satisfactory, the fault should

be found and rectified. Where there is difficulty in locating a fault, the section under test should be subdivided and each part tested separately.

4 visual inspection of each joint, if not covered

Marlmum Fldd Hydroatatk

Test Pressure

2.6 It is important to ensure that proper arrangements are made for the disposal of water from the
pipe-line after completion of hydrostatic testing and
that all consents which may be required from authorities have been obtained. In some cases, for example, for heavily chlorinated water, some treatment
may be necessary before final disposal.
3 TESTING OF STEEL PIPE-LINE
3.1 General
Before putting it into commission, the welded pipeline shall be tested both for its strength and leakage.
3.2 Procedure for Test
Each valved section of the pipe shall be slowly filled
with clean water and all air shall be expelled from the
pipe-line through hydrants, air valves and blow-offs
fixed on the pipe-line. Before starting the pressure
test, the expansion joints should be tightened.
3.2.1 Pressure Test

2.5 After all sections have been joined together on

completion of section testing, a test on the complete
pipe-line should be carried out. This test should be
carried out at a pessure not less than the maximum
sustained operating pressure or the maximum static
pressure of the pipe-line and, during the test, inspection made of all works which have not been subjected
to section tests. During the test, the pressure at the
lowest point in the pipe-line should not exceed the
maximum given in Table 1.

The field test pressure to be imposed should be not

less than the greatest of the following:

lttimea the maximum sustained operating

pressure,

b) lktimes the maximum pipe-line static pressure, and

4 Sumof the maximumstaticpressure and surge

pressure subject to the test pressure.

77

SP 57 (QAWSM)

: 1993
4.2

Where the field test pressure is less than two thirds

the test pressure, the period of test should he at least
24 hours. The test pressure sball he gradually raised
at the rate of nearly 0.1 MPa per minute (1 kgf/cm2
per minute).

The site test pressure to he imposed should have

already been determined when placing orders for
pipes and fittings. In general, this pressure should not
he less than the maximum pipe-line operating pressure plus the calculated surge pressure allowance,
but in no case, should it exceed tbe works hydrostatic proof test pressure. If pressure measurements
are not made at the lowest point of the section under
test, an allowance should be made for the static
head between the lowest point and the point of
measurement to ensure that the maximum pressure
is not exceeded at the lowest point.

If the test pressure measurements are not made at the

lowest point of the section, an allowance should he
made for the static bead between the lowest point
and the point of measurement to ensure that the
maximum
pressure is not exceeded at the lowest
point. If a drop in pressure occurs, the quantity of
water added in order to re-establish the test pressure should be carefully measured. This should not
exceed 0.1 Iitre per mm of pipe dia per km of pipeline per day for each 30 m bead of pressure applied.
Wbere the pipe-line is tested in sections, two or more
welded joints at each gap may not get tested under
pressure. Special care should be taken in making
these welds and tbeseljoints should be kept under observation during tbe commissioning
of tbe system.
3.2.2

Pressurization

Each valved section of pipe shall be filled with water

slowly and the specified test pressure, based on the
elevation of lowest joint of the linear section under
test and corrected to the elevation of the test gauge,
shall he applied by means of a pump connected to
1the pipe in a manner satisfactory to the authority.

3.2.3 Examination Under Pressure

Under the test pressure no leak or sweating shall
he visble at all section of pipes, fittings, valves, hydrants and welded joints. Any defective pipes, fittings, valves or hydrants discovered in consequence
of this pressure test shall he removed and replaced
by sound material and the test shall he repeated until
satisfactory to the authority.
4 TESTING
4.1

OF CONCRETE

PIPE-LINE

General

All pipe-lines should he tested before being brought

into service. The test should he a hydrostatic test
performed by filling the pipe-line with water and
raising the pressure to the selected test pressure and
maintaining this for a sufficient period to allow for
absorption of water by the pipe material. A graph of
quantity of water added to maintain the test pressure
against time will show when absorption of water is
substantially completed. In the case of large diameter
low pressure pipes consideration may he given to
internal testing of joints only.

Site Test Pressure

4.3

Test Procedure

At the commencement of a pipe laying project, it is

prudent to test comparatively short section in order
to establish the test procedure and gain experience;
thereafter, the test may be applied to longer lengths.
Each section should he properly sealed off, preferably with special stop ends secured by adequate anchors. The thrust on the stop ends should he calculated on tbe full socket internal diameter and the
anchors designed to resist it. It may often be economical to provide a concrete anchor block of couple of
pipes laid and earth tamped around which has subsequently to he demolished rather than risk movement of the stop ends during testing. Hydraulic jacks
may he inserted between the temporary anchors and
stop ends in order to take up any horizontal movement of the temporary anchor. All permanent anchors
should he in position and, if of concrete, should have
developed adequate strength before testing begins.
The section under test should he filled with water,
taking care that all air is displaced either through
vents at the high points, or by using a swab.
After filling, the pipe-line should he left under operating pressure for a period in order to achieve
conditions as stable as possible for testing. The length
of this period will depend upon many factors such as
initial permeability, absorption, movement of the pipeline under pressure and the quantity of air trapped.
More water should be pumped in from a calibrated
container until the required test pressure is reached.
The test pressure should he maintained throughout
the test by means of continuous pumping, using a
pressure relief valve. The excess water coming from
the relief valve from the container should he returned
to the calibrated container. The rate of loss of water
from the container should he determined at regular
intervals; the standard of acceptance should he clearly
specified and the test should he continued until this
is achieved. The generally accepted standard for nonabsorbent pipe-lines such as steel and iron is 0.1 litre
78

rl

~---___-

-_

SP57 (QAWSM)

fault, the section under test should be subdivided

each part tested separately.

per millimetre of pipe diameter per kilometre of

pipe-line per day for each 30 metre head of pressure
applied. Concrete is an absorbent and permeable
material, the factors which govern the absorption and
permeability are very complex and they cannot at the
present time be subject to accurate analysis. It is
known, however, the following factors play an important
part:
4

The density

Method employed

The thickness of the concrete unit under test,

e) The pressure
f) The duration

leakage

and

include:

of each joint if not covered

use of a bar probe to detect signs of water

in the vicinity of joints if backfilled;
aural inspection using a stethoscope or listening stick in contact with the pipe-line;

b) The amount of surplus (non-combined) water

present in the concrete at the commencement
of the test,
The amount and quality of the cement matrix
(water-cement
ratio and cement content of
mix),

for finding

visual inspection
by the backfill;

of the concrete,

: 1993

use of an electronic listening device which

detects and amplifies the sound of escaping
fluid (actual contact between the probe and
the pipe is not essential);
injection of a .dye into test water @aticularly
suitable in waterlogged ground but subject to
approval by the appropriate authority); and

applied, and
of the test.

introduction of nitrous oxide in solution into

the test water, using an infra-red gas concentration indicator to detect the presence of any
nitrous oxide that has escaped through the
leakage.

Laboratory permeability tests are usually conducted

under very low heads (about 0.1 atmosphere) which
is in the order of 1 percent of the operating pressure
of many trunk water mains. For low head laboratory
permeability tests, the permeability coefficient may
be in the range of 1 x 10e8 to 1 x lO-Ocm3/s per cm2
(area of concrete under test) per cm (thickness of
concrete section under test). Air voids in well compacted
mature concrete may occupy 1 percent of the volume
of the concrete. As an example of the effect of items
(a) and (b) only, when concrete has been artificially
dried and then placed in water without any applied
pressure,
the accepted absorption of good quality
concrete should not exceed 6.5 per cent by mass of
the concrete in 24 hours. For concrete pressure pipe,
900 mm diameter, under a test pressure of 100 m
head, a figure of 6 percent for artificially dried
concrete may amount to about 48 000 l/km in 24
hours. For concrete pipe-lines, the standard of acceptability for non-absorbent pipe-lines quoted above
can be achieved only when absorption is complete.
In the case of concrete pipes, the attainment of this
standard may be costly and time consuming process
with no equivalent advantage obtained in the from of
a higher standard of completed pipe-line and it may
be preferable to specify for the rate of loss of water
from the container a figure more appropriate to the
absorption characteristics of concrete and thus larger
than the figure quoted for non-absorbent pipe-lines.
A value of 3 litres per mm diameter per km per 24
hours per 30 m head is recommended.

4.5 Final

Testing

After all sections have been jointed together on completion of section testing, a test on the complete pipeline should be carried out. This test should be
carried out at a pressure not less than the working
pressure of the pipe-line, care being taken to ensure
that the pressure at the lowest point in the pipeline does not exceed the maximum. During the test,
an inspection should be made of all works which
have not been subjected to sectional tests.
5 TESTING
LINES

OF ASBESTOS

CEMENT

PIPE

5.1 It is recommended to test the portions of the line

by subjecting to pressure test as in 5.2 as the laying
progresses before the entire line is checked. In this
way any error of workmanship will be found immediately and can be corrected at a minimum cost.
5.1.1 Usually the length of the section to be tested
shall not exceed 500 m.
5.2
The pipes shall be tested as specified
in
IS 5913 : 1970 in the factory and hence the purpose
of held testing is to check the quality of workmanship
and also to check whether the pipes have been
damaged in transit. As such, the test pressure shall
be kept as 1.5 times the actual operating pressure,
unless a higher test pressure is specified. However,
it may be noted that the test pressure during the field
test shall not exceed Lhe values given in Table 2.

4.4 Leak Detection

If the test is notsatisfactory, the fault should be found
and rectified. Where there is difficulty in locating a
79

SP 57 (QAWSM)

: 1993

Table 2 Test Pressure for Asbestos

(Clause 5.2)
CBar d Ptpe
(1)
5

pipes

MaxtmumFleld Tgt Pressure

Mpe (43Y~z)
(2)
c.375 (3.75)

10

0.75

15

1.125 (11.25)

(7.50)

20

1.50 (15.00)

25

1.875 (18.75)

5.3

Prior to testing enough back fill shall be placed

over the pipe-line to resist upward thrust. All thrust
blocks forming part of the finished line shall have
been sufficiently cured and no temporary bracing
shall be used.
5.4 The open end of the section can be sealed temporarily with an end cap having an outlet which can
serve as an air relief vent or for filling the line, as
may be required.

5.5 The blind face of the end cap shall be properly

braced during testing by screw jacks and wooden
planks or steel plate (see Fig. 1).
5.6 The section of the line to be tested shall be filled
with water manually or by a low pressure pump. Air
shall be vented from all high spots in the pipe-line
before making the pressure strength test because entrapped air gets compressed and causes difficulty in
raising the required pressure for the pressure strength
test.
5.7 Asbestos cement pipes always absorb a certain
amount of water. Therefore., after the line is filled,
it should be allowed to stand for 24 h, before pressure

testing and the line shall be again filled.

5.8 The test pressure shall be gradually raised afthe
rate of approximately one 0.1 Mpa/min (1 kgf/cm/
mm).
5.9 The duration of the test period if not specified
shall be sufficient to make a careful check on the
pipe-line

section.

WEDGES

END

CLOSURE
FCR PIPES UP TO.
125 mm NOMINAL DIP.

ONE OR TWO WOODEN

SLEEPERS
DEPENDING
3ON DIAMETER
OF
PIPE TO BE TESTE3
WOODEN
BLANK

LAC PIPE

PACXIN

END

CAP

END CLOSURE

FIG. 1 TYPICALDETAIL

FOR PIPES 125 mm AND OVER

NOMINAL
DIA
OF SHORINGAT THE Pm

80

END FOR ~'~STLNG

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
Table 3 Make Up Water Required Whik+ T&.ing

5.9.1

After the test has been completed, the trench

shall be filled as described in 2.4 of Chapter 5.
6 TESTING
OF POLYETHYLENE
UPVC PIPE LINES

Polyethylene Piping
(Clause 6.4)

AND

NominalSize

6.1

All pipe works, fittings and appliances shall be

inspected and tested hydraulically after the completion of installation. Before starting any test the
system shall be visually inspected to ensure that the
recommendations for the correct installation procedure have been complied with, and that the pipeline together with appliances, valves and fittings are
laid in the prescribed manner. Solvent welded pipelines should not be pressure tested until at least 24
hours after the last solvent welded joint has been
made.

6.4 When the system has been fully charged with

water and air displaced from the line, air vents should
be closed and the line initially inspected for seepage
at joints and the firmness of support under load.
Pressure then may be applied until the required test
pressure is reached (see Note).
NOTE - Thermoplastic pipes expand under pressure to a
greater extent than pipes of asbestos cement of cast iron.
This expansion is due to low modulus of elasticity of the
material and results in initial fall of pressure even though there
is no leakage for all the four pressure classification of pipes.
The amount of water required to build up a steady test pressure
for the plastics pipes is given in Table 3 and Table 4 for polyethylene and WC pipes respectively. The values are only approximate to give a guideline as variations occur due to
temperature fluctuation and variation in test pressure and wall
thickness. The time taken to build up approximate steady
pressure is 12 hours. Without any additional requirement of
make up water, the test pressure should not fall more than 0.02
MPa (0.2 kgf/cmq at the end of one hour test duration. This
extra quantity of water required is normally termed as make up
water.

(0

(2)

25
32
40
50
65
80
100
125

1.1
1.6
2.6
4.0
5.9
8.5
16.4
26.9

Table 4 Make Up Water Required

PVC Piping
(Clause 6.4)

6.2 All control valves shall be positioned open for

the duration of the test and open ends temporarily
closed with water-tight fittings. The testing pressure
should not be less than one and a half times the rated
pressure of the pipe under use.
6.3 Pressure should be applied either by hand pump
or power driven pump. Pressure gauges should be
correctly positioned and closely observed to ensure
that at no time the test pressures are exceeded.
The system should be slowly and carefully filled
with water, to avoid surge pressure of water hammer.
Air vents should be open at all high points so that
air may be expelled from the system during filling.

un?/100 In lJne

mm

While Testing

Nominal Size

Lltre/lOOm Lfne
mm

(1)

(2)

50

2.28

75

4.55

100

6.83

125

10.92

150

14.56

180

18.20

200

22.30

7 FLUSHING AND DISINFECTION OF MAINS

BEFORE COMMISSIONING
7.1 The mains intended for potable water supplies
should be disinfected before commissioning them for
use.
7.1.1 Distribution System Chlorination ofNew Mains

Special care should be taken to ensure disinfection

of new mains. Among possible sources of contaimination are sewer drainage contaminated soil in the
trench, contamination from workmen or their equipment or both and unavoidable foreign material present in the trench during construction.
7.1.2 Education of crew members as to the need for
avoiding contamination of the main during construction is fundamental. Contractors and workmen should
be thoroughly familiar with all pertinent state and
local requirements governing installation of mains.
All sewers water mains and other underground
conduits should be located prior to construction and

81

*,

-AL__..._

SP 57 (QAWSM)

: 1993

relocated, if necessary, to prevent contamination during construction.

Pipe should be strung on high
ground. At all times when construction is not actually
in progress, watertight plugs should be installed in
all pipe open@.
Gunny sacks and rags are not adequate. Provision should be made to pump any other
water that might collect in the trench. Special care
should be taken to avoid contamination of valves,
fittings, and pipe interiors, both before and during
construction each of them should be inspected and,
if necessary, cleaned before installation.
7.1.3 After pressure testing the main, it should be
flushed with water of sufficient velocity to remove
all dirt and other foreign materials. When this process
has been completed, disinfection (using liquid chlorine, or sodiunJcalcium hypochloiite) should proceed
by one of the recommended methods as described in
7.2 and 7.3.
7.2 Continuous Feed
In this method, water from the distribution system or
other approved source and the chlorine is fed at constant rate into the new main at a concentration of at
least 20 mg/I. A properly adjusted hypochlorite solution
injected into the main with a hypochlorinator, or
liquid chlorine injected into the main through a sohrtionfeed chlorinator and booster pump may be used. The
chlorine residual should be checked at intervals to
ensure that the proper level is maintained. Chlorine
application should continue until the entire main is

filled. All valves, hydrants, etc, alongthe main should

be operated to ensure their proper disinfection. The
water should remain in the main for a minimum of
24 hours. Following the 24 hours period no less than
10 mg/l chlorine residual should remain in the main.
7.3

Slug Method

In this method a continuous flow of water is fed with

a constant dose of chlorine (as in the previous method)
but with rates proportioned to give a chlorine concentration of at least 300 mg/l. The chlorine is
applied continuously for a period of time to provide
a column of chlorinated water that contacts all interior surfaces of the main for a period of at least 3
hours. As the slug passes tees, crosses, etc, proper
valves shall be operated to ensure their disinfection.
This method is used principally for large diameter
mains where continuous feed is impractical.
7.4 Regardless of the method used, it is necessary
to make certain that backflow of the strong chlorine solution into the supplying line does not occur.
Following the prescribed contact period, the chlorinated water should be flushed to waste until the
remaining water has a chlorine residual approximating that throughout the rest of the system. Bacteriological tests as prescribed by the authorities should
be taken, and if the results fail to meet minimum
standards, the disinfecting procedure should be repeated and the results again tested before placing the
main in service.

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993

CHAPTER 7 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS OF PIPE-LINES

b) Traversing the subzone in the night by sounding
rod, or stethoscope or electronic leak detector
for pinpointing leaks in pipes.

1 Once pipe laying is completed it is necessary to

pay great attention to its maintenance so as to ensure
a continuous supply of drinking water of good quality
in sufficient quantity.

2.6 Instruments

Used in Pipe-line Maintenence

2 PREVENTIVE MAINTENENCE
2.1 Preventive maintenence of water distribution
system pipe-lines assures the twin objectives of preserving the hygienic quality of water in the distribution mains and providing conditions for adequate
flow through the pipe-lines. The important aspects of
preventive maintenence of water mains are assessment, detection and prevention of wastage of water
from pipe-lines and maintaining the carrying capacity
of pipe-lines by cleaning of pipe-lines.
2.2 Waste in water supply mains may be caused due
to corrosion, fracture, faulty joints, improper ferrule
connections, etc. Waste in the service pipes and fittine inside the consumers premises are caused due
to faulty joints, corrosion, faulty washers on glands
in valves and taps.
2.3 A systematic leakage survey and detection,
followed by prompt corrective action is of importance
in bringing about a reduction in the wastage. The
frequency and extent of survey depends on the cost
and net benefit accruing therefrom.
2.4

Assessment of Waste

,2.4.1 In case of 24 hours supply, it is.possible to

assess total wastage occurring in pipe-line when
the consumption is at the minimum. The difference
between minimum flow in the system and accountable flow at that time divided by average daily flow
multiplied by 100 gives the percentage of waste in
that area.
2.4.2 In intermittent supplies the percentage of wastage is the ratio of flow in the mains (with all stop
cocks and taps closed) to the average daily consumption.

For flow and pressure measurements, location of pipeline and detection of under ground leaks through
pipes the following instruments are used and any
water supply undertaking should possess some of the
simple and few of the sophisticated instruments.
2.6.1 Pitometer Assembly
Used for measurement of single point velocity at the
centre line of pipe.
2.6.2 Pressure Gauge (with Recorder)
Spring type of pressure gauge used to measure
pressure at various points on the pipe-line. Recorder permits the continuous record of pressures
with time.
2.6.3 Integrating Type Water Meter
Normal integrating turbine type meter measures the
flow between the two hydrants connected by pressure
hose serving as bypass before feeding into zone or
subzone (isolated section of system). Normally 25
mm to 80 mm diameter are used.
2.6.4 Mobile Waste Water Flowmeter
The integrating rate of flow meter that can be
mounted on a trailer is used for measuring the waste
flow in a subzone (isolated section of system). The
rate of flow with reference to time is recorded on a
down chart.
2.6.5 Hydrants and Hose Pipe
These are required for bypassing the feed pipe to
the zone through the integrating or waste meter.

2.4.3 Remedial measures are called for if wastage is

above 10 percent.

2.6.6 Electronic Valve Box Locator

2.5 Leakage Detection

This is to locate buried metals under ground up to a

depth of about 0.25 to 0.5 m below the surface.

Leakage detection survey is confined only to the areas

with, heavy leakages as arrived at by the waste
assessment survey. This survey consists of:

2.6.7 Electronic Pipe-line Locator

a) Finding leaks inthe pipes by visual inspection of surface, and

By means of electro magnetic induction and wireless

signals, the existence and exact alignment of underground metallic pipe-line can be found.
83

SP-57 (QAWSM) : 1993

2.6.8

Sounding Rod

It is a 1.2 m long, 12 mm diameter hollow mild steel

rod or flat pointed at one end and fixed with cup
shaped brasscap of 50 mm diameter at the other.
Bamboo canes can also be used. The rod is traversed
along the centre line of pipe and the noises due to
water leakage are picked up by human ear thus locating
the possible leaks.
2.6.9

Electronic Leak Detector

It consist of a pick up, amplifier head phones. The

sound vibrations created by water escaping through
leaks in pipes are picked up and magnified by the
magnetic pick up and converted to electrical impulses. These are sensitive and can pin point the
position of leaks.
2.7 Corrective

Action

After location of leaks corrective steps in the pipes

and valves are to be undertaken and flow test to be
done again to determine the extent and efficiency of
repairs. If the result is not satisfactory, the entire
exercise has to be repeated.
2.8

Cleaning of pipes

2.8.1 The water carrying capacity of pipe-line gets

reduced due to growth of slime or incrustation. Hence
it is necessary to clean the pipes periodically to
maintain the 1zarrying capacity. Flushing and swabbing
are simple and common methods adopted in cleaning
of pipes.
2.8.2 Flushing
Water at high velocity is allowed to flow in the pipe
and finally escape through a scour valve or hydrant. The minimum velocity to be induced varies
from 90 to 120 cm/s and it is to be ensured that the
flow is in one direction and the dirty water does not
enter the cleaned section. Flushing can only remove
loose deposites of small size and not the slimy
layers and hard incrustations. Flushing disentangles
microscopic biological type growth also, which if
left unattended arc likely to grow further and
create problems. The period of flushing is determined
by the quantity of out going water in hydrants or
valves. Usually, this amounts to flushing out a volume of water equal to twice the capacity of the pipe
length under consideration. About 100 to 300 m length
of pipe can be flushed in one operation.

2.9 Swabbing
The swab used is made of polyurethene foam of
cylindrical shape 30 to 60 cm long with varying diameters. The swab is soft, flexible, highly compressible and can retain the original shape when released
from compression. Two varieties of swabs are available. One is soft and other is relatively hard.
2.9.1 The swab is pushed into the pipe by the momentum of the flowing water. As the swab moves it
sweeps out the loose and slimy layer adhering to the
inner walls of pipe-line and the deposit arc carried
away by the flowing water. Swabbing is not suitable
for cleaning of hard deposits in pipe-line.
2.9.2 Swabs are slightly larger in diameter than the
pipe to be cleaned. In certain cases with highly
encrusted pipes, swabs of diameter equal to that of
pipes to be cleaned are used initially. For pipes of
diameter 75 to 100 mm, the swab diameter is usually
25 mm larger while for larger diameter pipes it is 50
to 75 mm larger in size.
2.9.3 The length of mains to be cleaned is isolated.
The swabs dipped in bleaching powder solution is
inserted into mains through a hydrant or valve body
and water is allowed into that section keeping the
exit hydrant or valve open. The movement of
swab depends on the rate of flow or velocity of flush
in the pipe which usually should not be less than
30 cm/s.
3 GENERAL MAINTENANCE
3.1 Sufficient stock of spare pipea and specials should
be maintained for replacement of damaged ones.
3.2 Regular leak detection survey should be undertaken and leaking joints should be repaired and
broken (burst) pipes should be replaced.
3.3 A detailed record of break-downs and leaks observed, and the repairs undertaken should be maintained sectionwise so that more vulnerable length
could be identified and special measures to repair or
replace them could be undertaken.
3.4 A regular schedule of inspection and attendance
to all valves including air and scour valves should be
drawn up and it should be followed sc~pulously.
Special attention should be given to air valves.

84

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
3.5 Special Care for Steel Pipes Laid Above the
Ground
35.1 Pipes should be painted periodically to prevent
corrosion.

3.5.2 Appurtenances such as sluice valves, air

valves; rollers, expansion joints should be checked

and cleaned periodically. The cleaning and lubrication of rollers should be done twice a year that is
before and after the monsoon.
3.5.3 The catch drains provided for the portion of
water mains laid in cutting should be cleaned before
onset of monsoon so that no water accumulates in
cutting portion.

85

SP 57 (QAWSM): 1993

CHAPTER 8 PIPE-LINE CORROSION AND INCRUSTATION

1 Cormsion is destructive attackon a metal by chemical or electro-chemical reaction by the environment.

Deterioration by physical causes is not called corrosion but is described as erosion, galling or wear.
Rusting applies to corrosion of iron or iron base
alloys with the formation of corrosive products
consisting largly of hydro ferric oxides. Non-ferrous
metals, therefore, corrode but do not rust. Various
types of corrosion that would attack pipe-line are
given below.,
1.1

General Corrosion

General corrosion can take two forms, even and uneven. The former gives readily predictable design
life but the latter would tend to produce unexpected
early failure.
1.2 Localised Corrosion
It involves certain areas of the metal surface corroding at higher rates than others due to heterogeneties
in the metal, the environment or in the geometry of
the structure. Crevice corrosion, bimetallic corrosion,
intergranular corrosion, weld decay are all manifestation of localised corrosion.
1.3 Crevice Corrosion
It is related to differential aeration. Narrow crevices
may be formed during the fabrication or construction of a pipes, such as at flanged or threaded joints
and some welds and also if the metal is in contact
with nonmetallic solids such as plastics or glass, or
if there are sand, dust or permeable corrosion products inside the pipe. The essential features of crevice
corrosion are availability of cathodic areas where a
reactant, usually dissolved oxygen, can gain ready
access and a crevice into which diffusion is diticult.
Porous gaskets on flanged joints allow penetration of
water and form very effective condition for crevice
corrosion. Chloride ions also stimulate crevice corrosion. The mechanism is not simply differential
aeration, but also the build up of acid in the crevice
due to migration of anions from bulk solution to
balance the production of metal ions in the crevice
after deoxygenation of the crevice solution.

preferentially. The greatest problem occurs when the

corroding metal occupies a small area of surface in
conjuction with a large cathode area. This situation
can result in rapid pitting of pipe.
1.5 Pitting
Pitting is highly localised attack at specific areas
resulting in the formation of small pits which may
eventually lead to perforations. Many of the forms of
corrosion are referred to as pitting but strictly
speaking pitting refers to corrosive attack on passive
metals and alloys like stainless steel and aluminium
often in the presence of specific ions, such as chloride ions.
1.6 Underground Corrosion
Underground corrosion is probably the most diffrcult to access and control effectively. Factors that
control cormsivity of soil are amount of (a) porosity
(aeration), (b) electrical conductivity, (c) dissolved
salts, (d) moisture, and-(e) acidity or alkalinity present
in the soil.
1.7

Mkrobiologkal

Corrosion

It is associated with clayee soils where a particular

type of bacteria, depolarises the cathodic reaction by
reducing sulphate ions to sulphide ions utilising small
amounts of hydrogen liberated at cathode and promoting rapid corrosion. The sulphide formed is
probably the major cause of corrosion.
1.8 Stray Current Corrosion
It poses a serious problem in areas where there is a
extraneous electrical current. These electric currents
prefer to pass along the lower resistance path provided by a continuous metal pipe-line. The point
where the stray current enters becomes a cathode
and the point where it leaves an anode and this
point gets corroded. If the pipe is coated with an
insulating coating, the problem can be made more
serious due to rapid perforation of pipe at pinholes
in the coating.
2 CORROSION PREVENTIQN

1.4 Bimetallic Corrosion

It can occur where two pipes of different metals are
joined (for example a brass coupling used in a steel
pipes). Certain metals in combination will generate
an electro motive force (ernf) with one corroding

The following are the methods used for combating

corrosion:
a) Selection of proper material
b) Chemical methods

SP 57 (QAWSM)
c) Organic

coatings

d) Cathodic

protection,

2.4
and

e) Design.
2.1 Selection of Material
After studying the environmental
conditions where
the pipes are to be used, proper pipe material shall
be selected to suit the conditions. The properties of
various materials are given in Chapter 2.
2.2 Chemical

Methods

Soil rich in organic acids can be made less corrosive

by surrounding the pipe with limestone chips. Chalk
can be used in soil formation liable to microbiological
corrosion. Cement lining for iron water pipes behave
in a fashion which puts them into this category, by
passivating its surface. Mild steel pipes may also be
coated with zinc.
2.3

Organic

Coatings

Cathodic

: 1993

Protection

Cathodic protection is usually employed as a second

line of defence for hurried pipe-line. Cathodic protection is either by sacrifical anode or impressed
current using an external d.c. source, the choice de.pending on cost and operating conditions.
2.5

Design

Design of a pipe-line goes a long way towards prevention of corrosion. Factors include correct material
selection, avoidance of irregular profiles, etc. Con- :
sideration may also be given to the ease of application
of protection system and of maintenance.
2.6 For further, more exhaustive study on-the subject
of corrosion, see IS 8062 (Parts 1 and 2) : 1976 and
IS 10221 : 1982.
3 INCRUSTATION
Deposition of mineral matter on the inner walls of
pipe-line is called incrustation. This may occur regardless of pipe material.

Organic coatings include paints; coaltar applied as a

solution, flood coating or wrapping; bitumen applied
as coaltar; bitumen tape; tape based on polyethylene
with elastomeric based adhesive.

Water quality has much to do with the occurrence 01

incrustation. The kinds and amount of dissolved minerals
and gases in natural waters determine their tendency
to deposit some of the mineral matter as incrustation.
_

The coatings shall be suitable for the eventual environment of the pipes. For example, paint coatings selected for protection in the open, could fail within
months underground where greater water resistance
and resistance to aggressive salts and mechanical
damage is required. Another important requirement
of an organic coating is adhesion to the metal it is
protecting.

Incrustation is often a hard, brittle, cement like deposit

but sometimes it may be soft and pasty. Generally
precipitation of minerals like carbonates of calcium
or magnesium causes incrustation.
Incrustation reduces the water carrying capacity of
pipe-line. Hence, periodic cleaning of pipes, using
swabs should be undertaken.

87

SP 57 (QAWSM)

: 1993

ANNEX A
LIST

A-l

STEEL

PIPES

OF REFERRED

AND OTHER

AND FITTINGS
Mild steel tubes, tubulars and other
wrought steel fittings

IS 1239

Part 1 : 1990
Part 2 : 1991

RELEVANT

INDIAN

IS 1537 : 1976

Vertically cast iron pressure pipes

for water, gas and sewage (first
revision )

IS 1538

Cast iron fittings for pressure

pipes for water, gas and sewage
( second revision )

Mild steel tubes ( ji@z

revision )
Mild steel tubulars and other
wrought steel pipe fittings ( third
revision )

Part 1 : 1976
Part 2 : 1976

IS 1894 : 1972

Method of tensile testing of steel

tubes ( third revision )

Part 3 : 1976

IS 1978 : 1982

Line pipe ( second revision )

Part 4 : 1976

IS 3589 : 1991

Seamless and electrically welded

steel pipes for water, gas and
sewage (168.3 to 2 032 mm outside
dia) yirst revision )

Part 5 : 1976

Methods for sampling of steel

pipes, tubes and fittings ( first
revision )

Part 7 : 1976

IS 4711 : 1974

IS 4736 : 1986

Hot dip zinc coatings on mild steel

tubes ( first revision )

IS 5504 : 1969

Spiral welded pipes

IS 5822 : 1986

Code of practice for laying of

welded steel pipes for water supply
( first revision )

Part 6 : 1976

Part 8 : 1976
Part 9 : 1976
Part 10 : 1976
Part 11 : 1976
Part 12 : 1976
Part 13 : 1976

IS 6392 : 1971

Steel pipe flanges

IS 6631 : 1972

Steel pipes for hydraulic purposes

IS 8062

Code of practice for cathodic

protection of steel structures

Part 15 : 1976
Part 16 : 1976
Part 17 : 1976

General principle
Underground pipe-lines

Part 18 : 1976

Part 1 : 1976
Part 2 : 1976
IS 10221 : 1982

IS 11722 : 1986

Part 14 : 1984

Code of practice for coating and

wrapping of underground
mild
steel pipe-lines

Part 19 : 1976

Thin walled flexible quick coupling pipes

Part 21 : 1976

Part 20 : 1976

Part 22 : 1976
A-2
CAST
FITTINGS

& DUCTILE

IS 1536 : 1989

IRON

PIPES

STANDARDS

AND
Part 23 : 1976

Centrifugally cast (spun) iron pmssure pipes for water, gas and
sewage ( second revision )

Part 24 : 1982

88
L

General requirements
Specific requirements for sockets
and spigots of pipes
Specific requirements for sockets
of fittings
Specific requirements for flanges
of pipes and fittings
Specific requirements
for raised
flanges
Specific requirements for standard
flanges drilling of flanged pipes
and fittings
Specific requirements for flanged
sockets
Specific requirements for flanged
spigots
Specific requirements for collars
Specific requirements for double
socket bends
Specific requirements for tees, all
sockets
Specific requirements for double
socket tee with flanged branch
Specific requirements for crosses,
all sockets
Specific requirements for double
socket tapers
Specific requirements for caps
Specific requirements for plugs
Specific requirements
for bell
mouth pieces
Specific requirements for double
flanged bends
Specific
requirements
for all
flanged tees
Specific
requirements
for all
flanged crosses
Specific requirements for double
flanged tapers
Specific requirements
for split
puddle or body flanges
Specific requirements
for blank
flanges
Specific
requirements
for all
flanged radial tees

._. .-I_.-

-_ ..,.__I

SP 57 (QAWSM)
IS 1879 : .1988

Malleable cast iron pipe fittings

( second revision )

IS 3114 : 1985

Code of practice for laying of cast

iron pipes ( first revision )

Part 2 : 1987
Part 3 : 1987

IS 6163 : 1978

IS 7181 : 1986

Part 4 : 1987

Centrifugally cast (spun) iron low

pressure pipes for water, gas and
sewage ( first revision )

Part 5 : 1987

Horizontally
cast iron double
flanged pipes for water, gas and
sewage ( first revision )

Part 7 : 1987

Part 6 : 1987

Part 8 : 1987

IS 8329 : 1990

Centrifugally cast (spun) ductile

iron pressure pipes for water, gas
and sewage ( first revision )

IS 9523 : 1980

Ductile iron fittings for pressure

pipes for water, gas and sewage

Part 1 : 1976
Part 2 : 1976

IS 11606 : 1986

Methods of sampling of cast iron

pipes and fittings

Part 3 : 1976

IS 12288 : 1987

Code of practice for use and laying

of ductile iron pipes

IS 8008

Part 4 : 1976

A-3

PLASTICS

IS 3076 : 1985

IS 4984 : 1987

PIPES AND FITTINGS

Low density polyethylene pipes
for potable
water
supplies
( second revision )

Unplasticized
table water
revision )

IS 7634

Code of practice for plastics pipe

work for potable water supplies

Part 2 : 1975
Part 3 : 1975

IS 7834

Part 6 : 1976
Part 7 : 1976

IS 8360

High density polyethylene pipes

for potable
water
supplies,
sewage and industrial effluents
( third revision )

IS 4985 : 1988

Part 1 : 1975

Part 5 : 1976

Part 1 : 1977
Part 2 : 1977

PVC pipes for posupplies ( second

Part 3 : 1977

IS 10124

Part 1 : 1988

Choice of materials and general

recommendations
Laying and jointing polyethylene
(PE) pipes
Laying and jointing
cized PVC pipes

Part 2 : 1988
Part 3 : 1988

of unplasti-

Part 4 : 1988

Specification for injection mouldexl

PVC socket fittings with solvent
cement joints for water supplies

Part 5 : 1988
Part 6 : 1988

Part 1 : 1987

General
revision

requirements ( first
)
89

: 1993

Specific
requirements
for 45
degree elbows ( jirst revision )
Specific
mquirements
for 90
degree elbows ( first revision )
Specific
requirements
for 90
degree tees ( first revision )
Specific
requimments
for 45
degree tees ( jirst revision )
Specific requirements for sockets
( first revision )
Specific requirements for unions
( first revision )
Specific requirements
for caps
( jirst revision )
Specification for injection moulded
HDPE fittings for potable water
supplies
General requirements
Specific requirements for 90 degree
bends
Specific requirements for 90 degree
tees
Specific requirements for reducers
Sepcific requirements for ferrule
reducers
Specific requirements for pipe ends
Specific requirements
for sandwich flanges
density
high
Fabricated
polyethylene (HDPE) fittine for
potable water supplies
General requirements
Specific requirements for 90 degree
tees
Specific requirements for 90 degree
bends
Specification for fabricated PVC
fittings for potable water supplies
General
requirements
( first
revision )
Specific requirements for sockets
( first revision )
Specific requirements for straight
reducers ( jirsr revision )
Specific requirements
for caps
( first revision )
Specific requirements
for equal
tees ( first revision )
Specific requirements for flanged
tail piece with metallic flanges
( first revision )

SP 57 (QAWSM) : 1993
Part 7 : 1988
Part 8 : 1988
Part 9 : 1988
Part 10 : 1988
Part 11 : 1988
Part 12 : 1988
Part 13 : 1988

Specific requirements for threaded

adaptors ( first r&s& )
Specific requirements for 90
degree bends ( _fIrst revision )
Specific requirements for 60
degree bends ( firsr revision )
Specific requirements for 45
degree bends ( first revision )
Specific requirements for 30
degree bends ( first revisbn )
Specific requirements for 22l/r
degree bends ( firsr revision )
Specific requirements for ll/,
degree bends ( first revision )

IS 12231 : 1987

Specification for UPVC (rigid)

pipes for use in suction and delivery
lines of agricultural pumps

1s 12235

Methods of test for unplasticized

PVC pipes for potable water
supplies

Method for measurement of

outside diameter
2 : 1986 Measurement of wall thickness
3 : 1986 Test for opacity
4 : 1986 Determining the deterimental
effect on the composition of water
5 : 1986 Reversion test
6 : 1986 Stress relief test
7 : 1986 Test for resistance to sulphuric
acid
8 : 1986 Internal hydrostatic pressure test
9 : 1986 Impact strength test
10 : 1986 Method for determination of
organotin as tin aqueous solution
11 : 1986 Extractability of cadmium and
mercury occurring as impurities

IS 3597 : 1985

( first .revision )

IS 7322 : 1985

Part
Part
Part
Part
Part
Part
Part

A-5 ASBESTOS CRMRNTPlPESANB

Specification of glass fibre reinforced plastics (GRP) pipes for

use for water supply and sewerage.

Asbestos cement pressure pipes

( third revision )

IS 5531 : 1988

Cast iron specials for asbestos

cement pressure pipes for water,
gas and sewage ( second revision )

IS 5913 : 1989

Methods of test for asbestos cement

products ( first revision )

IS 6530 : 1972

Code of practice for laying of asbestos cement pressure pipes

IS 8794 : 1988

Cast iron detachable joints for use

with asbestos cement pressure
pipes ( first revi&on )

IS 9627 : 1980

Asbestos cement pressure pipes

(light duty)

IS 10292 : 1988

Dimensional requirement for rubber sealing rings for cast iron

detachable joints in asbestos
cement piping ( first revision )

IS 10299 : 1982

Cast iron saddle pieces for servfor asbestos

ice connection
cement pressure pipes

IS 11769

Guidelines for safe use of products containing asbestos

Concrete pipes (with and without

reinforcement) ( third revision )

IS 783 : 1985

Code of practice for laying of concrete ,;ipes ( firsr revision )

IS 784 : i 1978

Prestressed concrete pipes (including fittings) (j&w revision )

Steel cylinder reinforced concrete
pipes ( first revision )

IS 1916 : 1989

Asbestos cement products

A-6 VALVES AND OTHER ACCESSORIES

IS 778 : 1984

Copper alloy gate, globe and

check valves for water works
purposes ( fourth revison )

IS 780 : 1984

Sluice valves for water-works

purpose(5Oto3OOmmsize)( sixth

A-4 CONCRETE PIPES ANB FITTINGS

IS 458 : 1988

FITTINGS

IS 1592 : 1989

Part 1 : 1987
IS 12709 : 1989

Specials for steel cylinder reinforced concrete pipes ( first

revision )

Part 1 : 1986
Part
Part
Part

Methods of test for concrete pipes

revision )

IS 781 : 1984

Cast copper alloy screw down bib

taps and stop valves for water
services ( third revision )

IS 1703 : 1989

Copper alloy float valves (horizontal plunger type) for water

fittings ( third revision )

90

SP 57 (QAWSM)
IS 1711 : 1984

Self closing taps for water supply

purposes

IS 2685 : 1971

Code of practice for selection, installation

and maintenance
of
sluice valves ( first revision )

IS 2692 : 1989

Ferrules
for
water
( second revision )

IS 2906 : 1984

Sluice valves for water works

purposes (350 to 1 200 mm size)
( third revision )
Plug cocks for water supply
purposes ( first revision )

IS 3042 : 1965

Single faced sluice gates (200 to

1 200 mm size)

IS 3950 : 1979

Surface boxes for sluice valves

( first revision )

IS 4038 : 1986

Foot valves for water works

purposes ( second revision )

IS 4346 : 1982

IS 4854

IS 10805 : 1986

Foot-valves, reflux
return valves and
be used in suction
cultural pumping
revison )

valves or nonbore valves to

lines of agrisystems ( first

IS 12234 : 1988

Plastic equilibrium
float valves
for cold water services

IS 13114 : 1991

Forged brass gate, globe and check

valves for water works purposes
- Specification

A-7

OTHER STANDARDS
Grey
iron
revision )

IS 269 : 1989

Specification
for 33 grade ordinary portland cement
( fourth
revision )

Washers for use with fittings for

water services ( first revision )

IS 318 : 1981

Leaded
castings

Glossary of terms for valves and

their parts

IS 320 : 1980

High
tensile
brass rods and
sections (other than forging stock)
( second revision
)

IS 408 : 1981

Specification
for grease No. 1,
graphited ( second revision
)

IS 455 : 1989

Specification
for Portland
cement ( fourth revision )

IS 456 : 1978

Code of practice for plain and

reinforced
( third
concrete
revision )

IS 554 : 1985

Dimensions for pipe threads when

pressure tight joints are required
on threads ( third revision )

IS 638 : 1979

Specification
for sheet rubber
jointing
and rubber
insertion
jointing ( second revision )

IS 782 : 1978

Caulk

IS 814 : 1991

Covered electrodes for nanual arc

welding of carbon and carbon
manganese
steel
( fourrh
revision )

Screw-down stop, check and gate

valves and their parts

Part 2 : 1969

Plug valves and cocks and their

parts

Part 3 : 1984

Butterfly

valves

Swing check type reflux (nonreturn) valves for water works

purposes

Part 1 : 1984

Single-door
revison )

Part 2 : 1986

Multi-door

pattern

first

pattern

IS 9338 : 1984

Cast iron screwdown stop valves

and stop and check valves for
water works purposes
( first
revision )

IS 9739 : 1981

Specification for pressure reducing valves for domestic water

supply systems

IS 9762 : 1981

Plastic bib taps and stop valves

(rising spindle) for cold water
services ( first revison )

IS 210 : 1978

Part 1 : 1969

IS 5312

IS 9763 : 1988

services

IS 3004 : 1979

: 1993

Polyethylene

floats for ball valves

91

castings

tin bronze ingots

( second revision

third

and
)

slag

lg lead ( third revision

I,

r-

..-I__. ^

SP 57 (QAWSM)
IS 816 : 1969

IS 1387 : 1967

IS 1489 : 1991

: 1993
Code of practice for use of metal
arc welding
for general construction
in mild steel ( fiist
revision )
General
requirements
for the
supply metallurgical
materials
( jirst revision )
Specification
lana cement

for Portland pozzo( third revision )

IS 2065 : 1983

Code of practice for water supply

in buildings ( second revision )

IS 2107 : 1977

Whiteheart malleable iron castings ( first revision )

IS 2108 : 1977

Blackheart malleable iron castings ( first revision )

IS 2405
(Part 2) : 1980

Specification for industrial sieves:

Part 2 Perforated plates ( first
revision )

IS 2643
(Part 1) : 1975

Dimensions for pipe threads for

fastening purposes : Part 1 Basic
profile and dimensions

IS 2720
(Part 7) : 198Cl

Methods of test for soils : Part 7

Determination
of water content
- dry density relation using light
compaction ( second revision )

IS 2951
(Part 1) : 1965

Recommendation
for estimation
of flow of liquids in closed conduits : Part 1 Head loss in straight
pipes due to frictional resistance

IS 3487 : 1966

Copper strip and foil for manufacture of copper gaskets and

copper washers and eyelets

IS 3600
(Part 1) : 1985

Methods of testing fusion welded

joints and weld metal in steel :
Part 1 Cruciform fillet weld tensile test

IS 3658
(Part 1) : 1981

Code of practice for liquid penetram

flaw detection
( first
revision )

IS 4081 : 1986

Sefety code for blasting

lated drilling operations

IS 4260 : 1986

IS 4736 : 1986

Hot-dip zinc coatings on mild steel

tubes ( first revision )

IS 4737 : 1982

Chromite for chemical

( first revision
)

IS 4759 : 1984

Hot-dip zinc coatings on structural steel and other allied products ( second revision )

IS 4853 : 1982

Recommended practice for radioinspection

of fusion
graphic
welded butt joints in steel pipes
( first revision )

IS 5330 : 1984

Criteria
for design of anchor
blocks for penstocks with expansion joints ( first revision )

IS 5382 : 1985

Rubber
sealing
rings for gas
mains, water mains and sewage
( first revision )

IS 6837 : 1973

Three wheel type pipe cutter

IS 6843 : 1984

Technical supply conditions for

pipe cutters ( jirst revision )

IS 6881 : 1973

Linktype

IS 8041 : 1990

Specification
ing Portland
revision )

IS 8043 : 1978

Hydrophobic
Portland
( second revision )

IS 8112 : 1989

Specification
for 43 grade ordinary
Portland
cement
( first
revision )

IS 9845 : 1986

Method of analysis for the determination of specific and/or overall migration of constituents
of
plastics
material
and articles
intended to come into contact with
foodstuff ( first revision )

IS 10221 : 1982

Code of practice for coating and

wrapping of underground
mild
steel pipes

IS 10446 : 1983

Glossary of terms relating to water

supply and sanitation

IS 10883 : 1986

Single wheel type pipe cutters

industries

pipe cutters
for rapid hardencement ( second

cement

and re-

Recommended practice for ultrasonic testing of butt welds in

ferritic steels ( second revision )

92

SP 57 (QAWSM) : i993
IS 11906 : 1986

Recommendations
for cement
mortar lining for cast-iron, mild
steel and ductile-iron pipes and
fittings for transpoitation of water

IS 12820 : 1989

Dimensional requirements for

rubber gaskets for mechanical joints
and bush joints for use with cast
iron pipes for water, gas and sewage

c.

93