COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY
Attitude formation and change.
History and Orientation
Leon Festinger (1951) synthesized a set of studies to distill a theory about communications social influences.
Cognitive dissonance enjoyed great popularity from the late 1950s through the mid-1970s. Theoretical
problems and conflicting findings lead to temporary replacement by similar self theories in the early 1980s,
but cognitive dissonance regained its place as the umbrella theory for selective exposure to communication by
the late 1980s.
Core Assumptions and Statements
Cognitive dissonance is a communication theory adopted from social psychology. The title gives the concept:
cognitive is thinking or the mind; and dissonance is inconsistency or conflict. Cognitive dissonance is the
psychological conflict from holding two or more incompatible beliefs simultaneously. Cognitive dissonance is a
relatively straightforward social psychology theory that has enjoyed wide acceptance in a variety of disciplines
including communication. The theory replaces previous conditioning or reinforcement theories by viewing
individuals as more purposeful decision makers; they strive for balance in their beliefs. If presented with
decisions or information that create dissonance, they use dissonance-reduction strategies tot regain
equilibrium, especially if the dissonance affects their self-esteem. The theory suggests that 1) dissonance is
psychologically uncomfortable enough to motivate people to achieve consonance, and 2) in a state of
dissonance, people will avoid information and situations that might increase the dissonance. How dissonance
arises is easy to imagine: It may be unavoidable in an information rich-society. How people deal with it is more
difficult.
Conceptual Model
Not applicable.
Favorite Methods
Experiments.
Scope and Application
Dissonance theory applies to all situations involving attitude formation and change. This theory is able to
manipulate people into certain behavior, by doing so these people will alter their attitudes themselves. It is
especially relevant to decision-making and problem-solving.
Example
Consider a driver who refuses to use a seat belt despite knowing that the law requires it, and it saves lives.
Then a news report or a friends car incident stunts the scofflaw into facing reality. Dissonance may be reduced
by 1) altering behavior start using a seat belt so the behavior is consonant with knowing that doing so is
smart or 2) seeking information that is consonant with the behavior air bags are safer than seat belts. If the
driver never faces a situation that threatens the decision not to use seat belts, then no dissonance-reduction
action is likely because the impetus to reduce dissonance depends on the magnitude of the dissonance held.
References
Key publications
Aronson, E., Fried, C. & Stone, J. (1991). Overcoming denial and increasing the intention to use condoms
through the induction of hypocrisy. American Journal of Public Health, 81, 1636-1638.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Festinger, L & Carlsmith, J.M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forces compliance, Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology 58 (2):203-210.
Robert A. Wicklund & Gollwitzer, P.M. (1982). Symbolic selfcompletion. Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; William
B. Swann Jr. (1984). Quest for accuracy in person perception: A matter of pragmatics, Psychological Review
91 (4):454-477; Steele, C.M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self, in
Berkowitz, L ed.Advances in experimental social psychology 21. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 261-302;
Vallacher, R,R. & Wegner, D.M. (1985). A theory of action identification. Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum;
Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior, in Berkowitz, ed, op.
cit., pp.181-227; Scheier, M,F. & Carver, S,S. (1988). A model of behavioral self-regulation: Translating
intention into action, in Berkowitz ed., Ibid., pp. 303-346; Higgins, E.T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What
patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer in Berkowitz, ed.,Ibid., pp. 93-136; Ziva Kunda (1980). The case
for motivated reasoning, Psychological Bulletin 108(3):480-498.
Cotton, J.L. (1985). Cognitive dissonance in selective exposure, in Zillman, D & Bryant, J, eds. Selective
exposure to communication. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, L, pp. 11-33.
Mahaffy, A.K. (1996). Cognitive dissonance and its resolution: A study of lesbian Christians, Journal for the
Scientific Study of Religion 35 (4):392-402.
Dickerson, C.A., Thibodeau, E.A. & Miller, D. (1992). Using cognitive dissonance to encourage water
conservation,Journal of Applied Social Psychology 22 (11): 841-854.
See also Interpersonal Communication and Relations & Public Relations, Advertising, Marketing and Consumer
Behavior
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