Mass Spectrometry

Fundamental GC-MS
Introduction

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Aims and Objectives

Aims and Objectives

Aims

Introduce fundamental GC/MS concepts.

Explain the function of each major component of the GC/MS system.
Indicate the major advantages of GC/MS and the application areas in which it is
used.

Objectives
At the end of this Section you should be able to:

Describe the function of the various elements that are present in a typical GC/MS
system.
List the most common interfaces for GC-MS making a clear difference between
them.
List the most common mass analysers currently used in the modern analytical
laboratory.
Understand the benefits and limitations of GC/MS analysis.
Decide on the applicability of GC/MS for a particular analysis and the information
likely to results from analysis in one of the two common ionisation modes.

Content
Definitions
Instrument Fundamentals GC
Instrument Fundamentals MS
GC-MS Process
Why and When to Use GC-MS
The Coupling of GC/MS
The Bieman Concentrator
Direct Introduction
Ionisation
Overview
Electron Impact (EI)
Chemical Ionisation (CI)
Suitable samples for GC/MS
Mass Analysers
Overview
Quadrupole
Time-of-flight (TOF)
Ion Trap Mass Analyser
Magnetic sector
Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS/MS)
Detectors
Applications
References

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Definitions
GC/MS is a hyphenated technique, which combines the separating power of Gas
Chromatography (GC), with the detection power of mass spectrometry.
Mass
Spectrometry is a wide-ranging analytical technique, which involves the production and
subsequent separation and identification of charged species according to their mass to
charge (m/z) ratio.
The associated acronym, GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry) covers a
broad range of application areas. This module will explore the instrument acquisition
methods used, and examine the type of data that can be produced from such systems.
For more information about GC you can refer to Theory and Instrumentation of GC from
the GC Channel.[1]

GC/MS diagram

Instrument Fundamentals GC
Gas Chromatography (GC) uses a carrier gas to transport sample components through
either packed columns or hollow capillary columns containing the stationary phase. In
most cases, GC columns have smaller internal diameter and are longer than HPLC
columns.
Carrier gas: Alternative term for mobile phase; obviously, the term could only
be used as such in gas chromatography.

GC has developed into a sophisticated technique since the pioneering work of Martin and
Synge in 1952. GC is capable of separating very complex mixtures of volatile analytes.[2]
In Gas Chromatography, the mobile phase is a gas and the stationary phase is either:

A solid, commonly termed Gas solid chromatography (GSC).

An immobilised polymeric liquid, referred as Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC).
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Of these two types of GC, GLC is by far the most common. The main elements that are
currently present in conventional GC systems are presented next.[3, 4, 5, 6]

Where:
1. Gas Supply:[6] Gas is fed from cylinders through regulators and tubing to the
instrument. It is usual to filter gases to ensure high gas purity and the gas supply
pressure. Required gases might include:

Carrier (H2, He, N2 helium is most usual with MS detection)

Make-up gas (H2, He, N2 - if using an FID detector in parallel to the MS detector)
Detector fuel gas (H2 & Air if using an FID detector in parallel to the MS
detector)

2. Interface: After separation in the GC system, analyte species have to be transported to

the mass spectrometer to be ionised, mass filtered and detected. The interface in modern
instruments is heated to prevent analyte condensation and in some instruments will
contain a device to remove carrier gas molecules to allow analyte pre-concentration.
3. Pneumatic controls: The gas supply is regulated to the correct pressure (or flow) and
then fed to the required part of the instrument. Modern GC instruments have Electronic
Pneumatic pressure controllers older instruments may have manual pressure control via
regulators.
4. Oven:[5] Gas chromatography have ovens that are temperature programmable, the
temperature of the gas chromatographic ovens typically range from 5oC to 400oC but can
go as low as -25oC with cryogenic cooling.

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5. Column:[4] Gas Chromatography uses a gaseous mobile phase to transport sample

components through columns either packed with coated silica particles or hollow capillary
columns containing the stationary phase coated onto the inner wall. Capillary GC columns
are usually several meters long (10 120m is typical) with an internal diameter of 0.10
0.50mm, whilst packed GC columns tend be 1 5 meters in length with either 2 or 4mm
internal diameter.
6. Injector:[3] Here the sample is volatilised and the resulting gas entrained into the carrier
stream entering the GC column. Many inlet types exist including:

Split/Splitless a broadly applicable vapourising inlet

Programmed Thermal Vaporising (PTV) used to introduce thermally labile
samples or for large volume injection for low concentration analytes.
Cool-on-column (COC) - introduces the sample into the column as a liquid to
avoid thermal decomposition or improve quantitative accuracy.
Headspace injection to introduce gas phase analytes volatilized from the
sample.
Thermal desorption used to desorb tubes onto which volatile analytes have
been trapped, typically used for environmental monitoring.
Weaknesses of GC:
Requires the analyte to have significant vapour pressure between
about 30 and 300oC.
Presents a lack of definitive proof of the nature of detected
compounds. The identification process is based on retention time
matching, which may be inaccurate or at worst misleading.

Instrument Fundamentals MS
The mass spectrometer is an instrument designed to separate gas phase ions according
to their mass to charge ratio (m/z) value.
mass to charge ratio (m/z):
This represents the mass of a given particle (Da) to the number (z) of
electrostatic charges (e) that the particle carries The term m/z is measured in
Da/e.
Mass spectrometry involves the separation of charged species which are produced by a
variety of ionisation methods. In GC/MS the most common ionisation methods are:[7]
Electron impact (EI)
Chemical Ionisation (CI)
These ionisation methods will be explain in detail in a subsequent chapter.
The separation of the phase ions is achieved within the mass spectrometer using
electrical and/or magnetic fields to differentiate ions.

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Spectrometers are excellent for unambiguously identifying the structure of a single

compound but much less when presented with mixtures of them.
In addition to the analyser, the mass spectrometer also includes an ionisation chamber, a
vacuum system and a detector.

Where:
1. Control Electronics: The MS parameters can be selected and controlled from this
panel. Modern instruments will also allow to control MS parameters from a computer by
using specially designed software.
2. Detector: The ion beam that emerges from the mass analyzer, have to be detected
and transformed into a usable signal.
The detector is an important element of the mass spectrometer that generates a signal
from incident ions by either generating secondary electrons, which are further amplified, or
by inducing a current (generated by moving charges).
3. Vacuum System: Mass analysers require high levels of vacuum in order to operate in
a predictable and efficient way.
The vacuum systems of most modern LC-MS systems consist of a differentially pumped
system, usually with a foreline pump establishing a rough vacuum and a high vacuum
pump or pumps situated on the analyser body to establish the high levels of vacuum
required for effective mass to charge ratio measurement.
4. Mass Analyser: There are several very popular types of mass analyser associated
with routine GC-MS analysis and all differ in the fundamental way in which they separate
species on a mass-to-charge basis.
5. Ion Source: In the ion source, the products are ionized prior to analysis in the mass
spectrometer.
Ionisation is the process whereby electrons are either removed or added to atoms or
molecules to produce ions. In GC-MS charge may also be applied to the molecule via
association with other charged molecules.
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GC-MS Process
There are several discrete stages in GC/MS analysis, typically these include:[7]

Sample components separation.

Ionisation of sample components.
Separation and detection of gas phase ions.

The mass analyser is used to sort ions according to their mass to charge ratio. Most
popular analyser types include Quadrupole, Time of Flight, Ion Trap and Magnetic Sector.
The mass analyser may be used to isolate ions of specific mass to charge ratio or to
scan over all ion m/z values present depending upon the nature of the analysis required.
The detector is used to count the ions emergent from the mass analyser, and may also
amplify the signal generated from each ion. Widely used detector types include: electron
multiplier, dynode, photodiode and multi-channel plate.
All mass analysis and detection is carried out under high vacuum established using a
combination of foreline (roughing) and turbomolecular pumps.

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Why and When to Use GC/MS

The use of GC-MS in many application areas within analytical science continues to grow
almost exponentially. Listed below are some pointers as to the applicability of both GC as
a separative technique and MS as a means of detecting analyte species.[4, 8, 9 10]

GC-MS analysis of urine, sample know to contain cocaine

CP-Sil 24 CB
This type of phase contains 50%
dimethylsiloxane
and
50%
diphenylsiloxane monomer units,
which is ideal for the separation of
analytes such as drug molecules and
pesticides.

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MS spectrum of cocaine
GC Separations
Produce fast analyses because of the highly efficient nature of the separations achieved
By using a combination of oven temperature and stationary phase very difficult
separations may also be undertaken
Excellent for quantitative analysis with a range of sensitive and linear detectors to
choose from (including the MS detector)
Limited to the analysis of volatile samples. Some highly polar analytes can be
derivatised to impart a degree of volatility, but this is not always possible and quantitative
errors may occur.
A practical upper temperature limit for conventional GC columns is around 350-380oC.
In GC analysis, analyte boiling points rarely exceed 400oC and the upper molecular weight
is usually around 500 Da
MS Detection
Allows specific compound identification.
Structural elucidation via spectral
interpretation combined with elemental composition from accurate mass analysers is
possible.
Allows high sensitivity detection - femto-gram amounts have been detected by
certain mass analyzer types.
Is highly selective, certain analyzer and experiment combinations can lead to highly
selective and sensitive analysis of a wide range of analyte types.

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The Coupling of GC/MS

In comparison to liquid chromatography interfaced to mass spectrometry (LC-MS), GCMS has the advantages of higher chromatographic resolution and higher peak capacity, a
single mobile phase (helium), fewer issues with solubility and separations that can be
adjusted by electronic controls such as temperature and flow programming.
The major hurdle to interfacing GC to MS is the volume of gas that has to be vented
between the GC and MS stage in order not to compromise the vacuum under which the
analysing device must operate. In the initial development of GC-MS only packed columns
were commercially available, and thus the major problem was the elimination of very large
amounts of carrier gas, this problem was solved by the use of vapour concentrator
devices.
The simplest way to reduce eluent gas flow rate into the mass spectrometer is the use of
carrier gas splitting (no sample enrichment occurs using this technique). This technique
may be used when packed GC columns are used and where analyte concentrations are
high.
Alternative momentum jet separating devices are also available where the carrier gas is
vented in preference to the analyte where analyte enrichment will occur.
Today with the advent of capillary columns using relatively low carrier gas flow rates, the
need for vapour concentrator devices has been eliminated. The mass spectrometer
pumping system can easily deal with gas flows for direct injection into the mass
spectrometer.[11,12]

Vacuum System Considerations

The entire MS process must be carried out at very low pressures (~10-8 atm) and in order
to meet this requirement a vacuum system is required.
It is difficult for packed GC columns to be interfaced to an MS detector because they have
carrier gas flow rates that cannot be as successfully pumped away by normal vacuum
pumps; however, capillary columns' carrier flow is 25 or 30 times less and therefore easier
to "pump down." That said, GC/MS interfaces have been developed for packed column
systems that allow for analyte molecules to be dynamically extracted from the carrier gas
stream at the end of a packed column See the Bieman concentrator below.
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The Bieman Concentrator

The Bieman concentrator device is used with packed columns or with wide bore capillary
columns at higher flow rates. In this device the carrier gas is removed in preference to the
analyte and hence analyte enrichment occurs.

Bieman Concentrator

Direct Introduction
Direct introduction is typically used with capillary GC columns and most modern
instruments can easily cope with flow rates up to 2 mL/min.

Direct Introduction
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Ionisation
Overview
Ionisation is the process whereby electrons are either removed or added to atoms or
molecules to produce ions. In GC-MS charge may also be applied to the molecule via
association with other charged molecules.[11]
Such ions are produced in GC/MS systems by the use of strong electric fields in the
vapour phase.

Mass spectrometry involves the separation of charged species which are produced by a
variety of ionisation methods in GC-MS. These include:

Electron impact Ionisation (EI) - where analyte molecules are directly ionised
through collision with a bombarding electron stream resulting in the removal of an
electron to form a radical cation species.
Chemical Ionisation (CI) - where analyte molecules are charged through reaction
processes with a charged reagent gas plasma producing either anion or cation
species depending upon the analyte and analyser polarity.

Some representative reactions for electron impact and chemical ionisation are presented
next.
In electron impact molecules are ionised by the interaction with electrons.

M ( g ) + e M (+g ) + 2e
In a chemical ionisation experiment experiment, ions are produced through the collision of
the analyte with ions of a reagent gas that are present in the ion source. Some common
reagent gases include: methane, ammonia, and isobutane. Lets consider ammonia
chemical ionisation:

1. n NH 3 + e NH 4 + 2e

2.

NH 4+ + M NH 3 + [ M + H ]+

3.

NH 4+ + M [ M + NH 4 ]+
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Electron Impact (EI)

In the Electron Impact (EI) process, electrons are emitted from a heated filament (usually
made of tungsten or rhenium) and are accelerated across the source by using an
appropriate potential (5-100V) to achieve the required electron energy (sufficient to ionize
the molecule).[7]

Electron Impact
The analyte is introduced into the mass spectrometer ion source, where it is impacted by
this beam of ionizing electrons, leading to the formation of an analyte radical cation. The
process can be described as follows:

M ( g ) + e M (+g ) + 2e
The process is a relatively harsh form of ionization and as a consequence, the parent
molecule often breaks apart producing a variety of fragments with a relatively small
amount of the parent ion remaining. In some circumstances, if the molecule is sufficiently
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labile, no parent ion may be seen within the resulting spectrum. The degree of
fragmentation depends upon the magnitude of the 1st ionisation potential of the analyte
molecule and the energy of the impacting electrons.
Chemical Ionisation (CI)
Chemical ionisation involves the ionisation of a reagent gas, such as methane at relatively
high pressure (~1 mbar) in a simple electron impact source.[7,13] Once produced, the
reagent gas ions collide with the analyte molecules producing ions through gas phase
reaction processes such as proton transfer.

NH 4 + e NH 4+ + 2e
2. NH 4+ + M NH 3 + [ M + H ] +

1.

3.

NH 4+ + M [ M + NH 4 ]+

Chemical ionisation is a soft process, because the energy of the reagent ions in general
never exceeds 5eV, and as a consequence the spectrum produced by this technique
usually shows little fragmentation.

Chemical Ionisation

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Under chemical ionisation conditions, the registered spectra will strongly depend upon the
nature of the reagent used, and because of that different structural information can be
obtained by choosing different reagent gases.
Commonly-used reagent gases are: methane, iso-butane, ammonia or combinations of
these gases.
Suitable samples for GC/MS
Electron impact is the most commonly used method of ionization, and a great number of
organic compounds are amenable to EI. To give an EI spectrum, the sample must be
volatile enough to undergo GC analysis and may be solid, liquid, or gas. Since samples
must usually be heated, thermally labile samples may be unsuitable or may require
derivatistation. Unfortunately, some compounds will fragment completely and wont give
molecular ions, however this is does not preclude these analyte types. Ionic samples
generally do not work well by EI.[7]

Common ionisation techniques range of application.[14]

For compounds that do not work by EI, alternate methods of ionization have been
developed, and among them chemical ionisation is the most widely used.
CI can produce molecular ions for some volatile compounds that do not give molecular
ions in EI. CI is also particularly useful for highly sensitive quantitative analysis of
halogenated compounds.

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Mass Analysers
Overview
In its simplest form the process of mass analysis in GC-MS involves the separation or
filtration of analyte ions or fragments of analyte ions created in the ion source.
There are several very popular types of mass analyser associated with routine gas
chromatography mass-spectrometric analysis and all differ in the fundamental way in
which they separate species on a mass-to-charge basis:[15]

Quadrupole and Ion Trap Mass analysers: ions are filtered using electrostatic potentials
applied to the elements of the mass analysers which are used to select ions according to
their mass to charge ratio non-selected ions are ejected from the mass analysing device
and are not detected.
Time of Flight (TOF) mass analysers: use differences in flight times of accelerated ions
through an extended flight path to separate ions.
Magnetic Sector Mass Analysers: use magnetic fields to select ions by directing the
beam of ions of interest towards the detector.
The analyte and fragment ions are plotted in terms of their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z)
against the abundance of each mass to yield a mass spectrum of the analyte as shown.

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Quadrupole
In quadrople mass analysing devices, electric fields are used to separate ions according
to their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) as they pass along the central axis of four parallel
equidistant rods (or poles). Ion separation is performed by using controlled voltages
applied to the mass analyser rods which impart an electrostatic field inside the analysing
device.[16]
As long as x and y, which determine the position of an ion from the centre of the rods,
remains less than r0, the ion will be able to pass through the quadrupole without touching
the rods. This is known as a non-collisional or stable trajectory.

Where the ion is caused to oscillate with a trajectory whose amplitude exceeds r0 it will
collide with a rod, and become discharged and subsequently pumped to waste. This is
known as an unstable or collisional trajectory.

Advantages
Reproducibility
Low cost

Quadrupole mass analyser

Disadvantages
Low resolution
Mass discrimination. Peak height vs.
mass response must be 'tuned'

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Time-of-flight (TOF)
The basic principles of mass analysis using time-of-flight mass analysers are relatively
straightforward in comparison to many of the other typical mass analysing devices.[17]
Ions are extracted (or produced) in short bursts or packets within the ion source and
subjected to an accelerating voltage. The ions then drift or fly down an evacuated tube
of a set length (d). Once free from the region of accelerating voltage the speed at which
the ions travel down the tube is dependant upon their mass (m) and charge (z). This
mass analyser is useful as all ions are detected (almost) simultaneously. Scanning the
mass range of all ions is very rapid and as such the inherent sensitivity of the instrument
is increased.

Time-of-flight (TOF)
Advantages
High ion transmission
Highest practical mass range of all
MS analyzers
Detection limit

Disadvantages
Fast digitizers used
in TOF can have
limited dynamic
range

Ion Trap Mass Analyser

Ion trap mass spectrometers work on the basis of storing ions in a trap, and
manipulating the ions by using applied DC and RF fields. The amplitude of the applied
voltages enables the analyser to trap ions of specified mass to charge ratio within the
analysing device. Non-selected ions are given a trajectory by the electrostatic field that
causes them to exit the trap. By filling the trap with an inert gas fragmentation of selected
ions is possible. This is useful when structural information is required.[18]
The system has some unique capabilities, including being able to perform, multiple
product ion scans with very good sensitivity (MSn). It should be noted that the spectra
acquired with an ion trap mass analyser may be significantly different to those acquired
from a triple quadrupole system due to the different collision regimes within the systems
(collision energy/gas).

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Ion trap mass analyser

Ion trap mass analyser

Advantages
Disadvantages
High sensitivity
Produces very unusual spectra if the ions
Multiple Product Ion scan
are stored in the trap too long.
capability (MS)n
Easily saturated
High resolution
Poor for low mass work (below 100 Da)
Good for DDA analyses
Poor dynamic range (except the most
modern devices) and hence may have limited
quantitative use

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Magnetic sector
Magnet / electric sector instruments are employed for mass analysis using the principle
that charged species can be deflected in magnetic and electric fields. The degree of ion
deflection in a magnetic field is proportional to the square root of their m/z ratio and the
potential through which they are accelerated prior to mass analysis, making the
measurements of mass-to-charge ratio very accurate when using this type of mass
analyser.[18,19]
Electric fields are used in conjunction with magnetic fields to focus a fast moving beam of
ions created in the source according to the kinetic energy of each ion, allowing each m/z
value to be sharply focussed prior to deflection in the magnetic field. This focussing
action helps to improve the resolution of the magnetic sector mass analyser so that
measurements can be made between ions whose mass to charge ratio differs by only a
few parts per million.

Magnetic sector

Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS/MS)

MS/MS is the combination of two or more MS experiments. The aim is either to get
structural information by fragmenting the ions isolated during the first experiment, and/or
to achieve better selectivity and sensitivity for quantitative analysis by selecting
representative ion transitions using both the first and second analysers.[20]
Product Ion MS/MS analysis can be achieved either by coupling multiple analysers (of the
same or different kind) or, with an ion trap and carrying out successive fragmentations of
trapped ions.
MSn (should read MS to the n) is an acronym that refers to multiple ion production and
filtering within a single instrument.
Most common instruments use a combination of
quadrupoles (as shown below) with a collision cell (usually a multi-pole device) between
the analyzing devices in which the emergent ions from the first analyzer are fragmented
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prior to secondary mass filtering. Other combinations of mass analysing devices such as
quadrupoles and time of flight, or quadrupoles with magnetic sector instruments are
possible.

GC-MS/MS
Where:
1. Transfer Line: The columns effluent is directed to the ion source
2. Ion Source: In the ion source, the products are ionized prior to analysis in the mass
spectrometer.
3. Octapole: The ion beam that emerges from the source is focused prior to the first mass
analyser.
4. Quadrupole: In quadrople mass analysing devices, electric fields are used to separate
ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) as they pass along the central axis of
four parallel equidistant rods (or poles).
5. Collision Cell: The function of a collision cell is to modify ions by either colliding into
fragments, or to react them with other molecules.
6. Detector: The ion beam that emerges from the mass analyzer, have to be detected
and transformed into a usable signal.

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Detectors
Once the ions have passed the mass analyser they have to be detected and transformed
into a usable signal.[21] The detector is an important element of the mass spectrometer
that generates a signal from incident ions by either generating secondary electrons, which
are further amplified, or by inducing a current (generated by moving charges).

Ion detector systems fall into two main classes:

Point detectors: ions are not spatially resolved and sequentially impinge upon a detector
situated at a single point within the spectrometer geometry.

Array detectors: ions are spatially resolved and all ions arrive simultaneously (or near
simultaneously) and are recorded along a plane using a bank of detectors.

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Applications
To give a full list with the applications of GC/MS is simply impossible, its flexibility makes it
applicable across many application areas. Examples of some interesting applications are
listed below:
Inorganic Industrial Analysis:[22] Inorganic compounds with low molecular weights.

GC-MS analysis of monobutyltin trichloride (monobutyltin trichloride is currently employed

in the glass industry. It forms thin film of tin-silicon bonds.)
Hewlett Packard gas chromatograph Model 6890 (quadrupole type) equipped with
split/splitless injection. An HP-5 column (5% phenyl, 95% polydimethylsiloxane, 30 m
length0.25 mm id and 0.25 m)

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Environmental Sciences:[23] Analysis of a wide range of contaminants of low molecular

weight.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants.

GC-MS spectra
a. Spectra from pure compound (<99%)
b. Bile sampled from plaice (Pleuronectes platessa)
c. Bile sampled from plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) exposed to crude oil
GC-MS system consisting of a HP5890 series II Gas chromatograph (triple quadrupole),
Finnigan A200S autosampler and a Finnigan MAT SSQ7000 mass spectrometer (Thermo
Finnigan, Huddinge, Sweden). Helium was used as carrier gas and the applied column
was CP-Sil 8 CB-MS, 50 m 0.25 mm and 0.25 m.

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Food Analysis:[24] Analysis of molecules of importance in the food industry.

Electron impact chromatogram of turmeric (oversimplified)

GC was performed on a Varian gas chromatograph (quadrupole ion trap mass
spectrometer), model cx-3400 using a capillary column Supelcowax-10, 30 m 0.3 mm.
Pharmacochemistry:[8,9] Mainly focused in the analysis of molecules presenting drug
activity.

Benzoylecgonine (an alkaloid) GC-MS spectrum.

Column: 15 m x 0.25 mm coated with 0.25 m CP-Sil 24
Carrier Gas: Helium at 1.0 mL/min
Mass spectrometer: Saturn Ion-trap GC/MS system
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Bioanalysis:[25] which involves the quantification and identification of metabolites in

biological fluids.
Glycolaldehyde is a remarkable molecule that is converted to acetyl coenzyme A.
Glycolaldehyde can be derivatised with PFB hydroxylamine and then analysed with
GC/MS:

Derivatized glycolaldehyde was analyzed on a HP-1 capillary column (Hewlett-Packard

Co., Palo Alto, CA; 12 m 0.2-mm and 0.33 mm thickness)
The MS analysis was done in a Hewlett-Packard 5988A mass spectrometer in the
negative-ion chemical ionization (NCI) mode with methane as the reagent gas.

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Polymers:[26] The use of analytical pyrolysis with gas chromatography mass spectrometry
(GC/MS) to study the structure of polymeric material must be based on an understanding
of how these large molecules behave at elevated temperatures.
Pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) has become an important
technique for the analysis of synthetic macromolecules. Because the high molecular
weight of polymers limits their volatility, polymers are commonly analyzed by chemical
degradation to smaller fragments, followed by chemical derivatization to produce volatile
components amenable to GC/MS.

Column: 5% phenyl95% methyl polysiloxane coated capillary column 30 m 0.25 mm

ID 0.25 m (HP5-MS, Hewlett Packard).
The MS analysis was done in a Hewlett-Packard 5972 GCMSD (quadrupole type) mass
spectrometer by using electron impact.

References
1. Theory and Instrumentation of GC from the GC Channel.
2. A. J. P. Martin and R. L. M. Synge. A new form of chromatogram employing two liquid
phases Biochemical Journal. Volume 35, part 12 December 1941. 13581368.
3. Sampling Techniques and Sample Introduction from Theory and Instrumentation of
GC -GC Channel.
4. GC Columns from the Theory and Instrumentation of GC.
Theory and
Instrumentation of GC -GC Channel.
5. GC Temperature Programming from the Theory and Instrumentation of GC. Theory
and Instrumentation of GC -GC Channel.
6. Gas Supply and Pressure Control from the Theory and Instrumentation of GC.
Theory and Instrumentation of GC -GC Channel.
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7. Marvin McMaster and Christopher McMaster. GC/MS A Practical Users Guide

WILEY-VCH. USA 1988.
8. Zelda Penton. Determination of Benzoylecgonine and Cocaine in Urine with the
Saturn GC/MS Varian Application Note. Number 67
9. NIST Chemistry WebBook. NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69, June
2005 Release http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/
10. GC Columns. www.varianinc.co
11. Raymond P. W. Scott, Tandem Techniques John Wiley & Sons. Pp 165-173. USA
1997
12. A. Braithwaite and F. J. Smith. Chromatographic Methods Blackie Academic & and
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