SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

1 & 2

Presented at the

27th Annual
HANDS ON RELAY SCHOOL
March 15 - 19, 2010
Washington State University
Pullman, Washington

Stephen E. Marx, P.E.

Bonneville Power Administration
Malin, Oregon

Introduction
The electrical power system normally operates in a balanced three-phase sinusoidal steady-state
mode. However, there are certain situations that can cause unbalanced operations. The most
severe of these would be a fault or short circuit. Examples may include a tree in contact with a
conductor, a lightning strike, or downed power line.
In 1918, Dr. C. L. Fortescue wrote a paper entitled Method of Symmetrical Coordinates
Applied to the Solution of Polyphase Networks. In the paper Dr. Fortescue described how
arbitrary unbalanced 3-phase voltages (or currents) could be transformed into 3 sets of balanced
3-phase components, Fig I.1. He called these components symmetrical components. In the
paper it is shown that unbalanced problems can be solved by the resolution of the currents and
voltages into certain symmetrical relations.

Fig I.1
By the method of symmetrical coordinates, a set of unbalanced voltages (or currents) may be
resolved into systems of balanced voltages (or currents) equal in number to the number of phases
involved. The symmetrical component method reduces the complexity in solving for electrical
quantities during power system disturbances. These sequence components are known as
positive, negative and zero sequence components, Fig I.2

Fig I.2

The purpose of this paper is to explain symmetrical components and review complex algebra in
order to manipulate the components. Knowledge of symmetrical components is important in
performing mathematical calculations and understanding system faults. It is also valuable in
analyzing faults and how they apply to relay operations.

1. Complex Numbers
The method of symmetrical components uses the commonly used mathematical solutions applied
in ordinary alternating current problems. A working knowledge of the fundamentals of algebra
of complex numbers is essential. Consequently this subject will be reviewed first.
Any complex number, such as a + jb , may be represented by a single point p, plotted on a
Cartesian coordinates, in which a is the abscissa on the x axis of real quantities and b the
ordinate on the y axis of imaginary quantities. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.1
Referring to Fig. 1.1, let r represent the length of the line connecting the point p to the origin
and the angle measured from the x-axis to the line r. It can be observed that
a = r cos
b = r sin

(1.1)
(1.2)

2. Properties of Phasors
A vector is a mathematical quantity that has both a magnitude and direction. Many quantities in
the power industry are vector quantities. The term phasor is used within the steady state
alternating linear system. It is used to avoid confusion with spatial vectors: the angular position
of the phasor represents position in time, not space. In this document, phasors will be used to
document various ac voltages, currents and impedances.
A phasor quantity or phasor, provides information about not only the magnitude but also the
direction or angle of the quantity. When using a compass and giving directions to a house, from
a given location, a distance and direction must be provided. For example one could say that a
house is 10 miles at an angle of 75 degrees (rotated in a clockwise direction from North) from
where I am standing. Just as we dont say the other house is -10 miles away, the magnitude of

the phasor is always a positive, or rather the absolute value of the length of the phasor.
Therefore giving directions in the opposite direction, one could say that a house is 10 miles at an
angle of 255 degrees. The quantity could be a potential, current, watts, etc.
Phasors are written in polar form as
Y = Y

(2.1)

= Y cos + j Y sin

(2.2)

where Y is the phasor, Y is the amplitude, magnitude or absolute value and is the phase angle
or argument. Polar numbers are written with the magnitude followed by the symbol to
indicate angle, followed by the phase angle expressed in degrees. For example Z = 11090o .
This would be read as 110 at an angle of 90 degrees. The rectangular form is easily produced by
applying Eq. (2.2)

The phasor can be represented graphically as we have demonstrated in Fig. 1.1, with the real
components coinciding with the x axis.
When multiplying two phasors it is best to have the phasor written in the polar form. The
magnitudes are multiplied together and the phase angles are added together. Division, which is
the inverse of multiplication, can be accomplished in a similar manner. In division the
magnitudes are divided and the phase angle in the denominator is subtracted from the phase
angle in the numerator.
Example 2.1
Multiply A B where A = 535o and B = 345o .
Solution
A B = 535o 345o = (5 3) 35o + 45o
= 1580o

Example 2.2

Solve

C
where C = 1535o and D = 350o .
D

Solution
C 1535o 15
= 35o 50o
=
o
D 350
3
o
= 5 15

3. The j and a operator

Recall the operator j. In polar form, j = 190o . Multiplying by j has the effect of rotating a
phasor 90o without affecting the magnitude.
Table 3.1 - Properties of the vector j
1 = 1.0 + j 0.0
j = 190o
j 2 = 1180o = 1

j 3 = 1270o = j
j = 1 90o

Example 3.1
Compute jA where A = 1060o .
Solution
jA = 190o (1060o )
= 10150o
Notice that multiplication by the j operator rotated the Phasor A by 90o , but did not change the
magnitude. Refer to Fig. 3.1

(a) A

jA
(b) j A
Fig. 3.1. j effects
In a similar manner the a operator is defined as unit vector at an angle of 120o, written as
a = 1120o . The operator a2, is also a unit vector at an angle of 240o, written a 2 = 1240o .

Example 3.2
Compute aA where A = 1060o .
Solution
aA = 1120o (1060o )
= 10180o

(a) A

aA
(b) j A
Fig. 3.2. a effects
Table 3.2 - Properties of the vector a
1 = 1.0 + j 0.0
a = 1120o
a 2 = 1240o
a 3 = 1360o = 10o
1 + a2 + a = 0
a + a 2 = 1
1 + a = 330o

1 + a 2 = 3 30o
a a2 = j 3
a2 a = j 3
1 a = 3 30o
1 a 2 = 330o

4. The three-phase System and the relationship of the 3

In a Wye connected system the voltage measured from line to line equals the square root of
three, 3 , times the voltage from line to neutral. See Fig. 4.1 and Eq. (4.1). The line current
equals the phase current, see Eq. (4.2)

Fig. 4.1
VLL = 3VLN

(4.1)
(4.2)

I L = I

In a Delta connected system the voltage measured from line to line equals the phase voltage. See
Fig. 4.2 and Eq. (4.3). The line current will equal the square root of three, 3 , times the phase
current, see Eq. (4.4)
IL

I
VLL

Fig. 4.2
VLL = V

(4.3)

I L = 3I

(4.4)

The power equation, for a three phase system, is

S = 3VLL I L

(4.5a)

P = 3VLL I L cos

(4.5b)

Q = 3VLL I L sin

(4.5c)

where S is the apparent power or complex power in volt-amperes (VA). P is the real power in
Watts (W, kW, MW). Q is the reactive power in VARS (Vars, kVars, MVars).

5. The per-unit System

In many engineering situations it is useful to scale, or normalize, dimensioned quantities. This is
commonly done in power system analysis. The standard method used is referred to as the perunit system. Historically, this was done to simplify numerical calculations that were made by
hand. Although this advantage is eliminated by the calculator, other advantages remain.

Device parameters tend to fall into a relatively narrow range, making erroneous values
conspicuous.
Using this method all quantities are expressed as ratios of some base value or values.
The per-unit equivalent impedance of any transformer is the same when referred to either
the primary or the secondary side.
The per-unit impedance of a transformer in a three-phase system is the same regardless of
the type of winding connections (wye-delta, delta-wye, wye-wye, or delta-delta).
The per-unit method is independent of voltage changes and phase shifts through
transformers where the base voltages in the winding are proportional to the number of
turns in the windings.

The per-unit system is simply a scaling method. The basic per-unit scaling equation is
per unit =

actual _ value
base _ value

(5.1)

The base value always has the same units as the actual value, forcing the per-unit value to be
dimensionless. The base value is always a real number, whereas the actual value may be
complex. The subscript pu will indicate a per-unit value. The subscript base will indicate a
base value, and no subscript will indicate an actual value such as Amperes, Ohms, or Volts.
The first step in using per-unit is to select the base(s) for the system.
Sbase = power base, in VA. Although in principle Sbase may be selected arbitrarily, in practice it is
typically chosen to be 100 MVA.

Vbase = voltage base in V. Although in principle Vbase is also arbitrary, in practice Vbase is equal
to the nominal line-to-line voltage. The term nominal means the value at which the system was
designed to operate under normal balanced conditions.
From Eq. (4.5) it follows that the base power equation for a three-phase system is:
S3base = 3Vbase I base

(5.2)

Solving for current:

I base =

S 3base
3Vbase

Because S3base can be written as kVA or MVA and voltage is usually expressed in kilo-volts, or
kV, current can be written as:
kVAbase
amperes
3kVbase
Solving for base impedance:
I base =

(5.3)

Z base =

2
Vbase Vbase
=
I base Sbase

Z base =

2
kVbase
x1000
ohms
kVAbase

(5.4a)

Z base =

2
kVbase
ohms
MVAbase

(5.4b)

or

Given the base values, and the actual values: V = IZ , then dividing by the base we are able to
calculate the pu values

V
IZ
=
V pu = I pu Z pu
Vbase I base Z base

After the base values have been selected or calculated, then the per-unit impedance values for
system components can be calculated using Eq. (5.4b)
Z pu =

Z () MVAbase
Z ()
=
2
Z base kVbase

(5.5a)

or
kVAbase
Z ()
Z pu =
2
1000 kVbase

(5.5b)

It is also a common practice to express per-unit values as percentages (i.e. 1 pu = 100%).

(Transformer impedances are typically given in % at the transformer MVA rating.) The
conversion is simple

per unit =

percent _ value
100

Then Eq. (5.5a) can be written as

%Z =

100 MVAbase Z ( ) kVAbase Z ( )

=
2
2
kVbase
10kVbase

(5.6)

It is frequently necessary, particularly for impedance values, to convert from one (old) base to
another (new) base. The conversion is accomplished by two successive application of Eq. (5.1),
producing:
old
new
old Z base
new
= Z pu
Z pu
Z base
old
new
Substituting for Z base
and Z base
and re-arranging the new impedance in per-unit equals:

new
pu

=Z

old
pu

old
new
kVAbase
kVbase

new
old
kVA
kV
base
base

(5.7)

In most cases the turns ratio of the transformer is equivalent to the system voltages, and the
equipment rated voltages are the same as the system voltages. This means that the voltagesquared ratio is unity. Then Eq. (5.9) reduces to
new
new
old MVAbase

Z pu
= Z pu
old
MVAbase

(5.8)

Example 5.1
A system has Sbase = 100 MVA, calculate the base current for
a) Vbase = 230 kV
b) Vbase = 500 kV
Solution
kVAbase
Using Eq. (5.3) I base =
amperes
3kVbase
1000 100
amperes = 251A
a) I base =
3 230

b) I base =

1000 100
amperes = 115.5 A
3 500

Example 5.2
A 900 MVA 525/241.5 autotransformer has a nameplate impedance of 10.14%
a) Determine the impedance in ohms, referenced to the 525 kV side.
b) Determine the impedance in ohms, referenced to the 241.5 kV side
Solution
First convert from % to pu.
Z%
= 0.1014
Zpu =
100

Arranging Eq. (5.5a) and solving for Zactual gives

Z () = Z pu

2
kVbase
; therefore
MVAbase

a) Z 525kV = 0.1014
= 31.05

5252
900

b) Z 241.5 kV = 0.1014
= 6.57

241.52
900

A check can be made to see if the high-side impedance to the low-side impedance equals
the turns ratio squared.
31.05
= 4.726
6.57

525

= 4.726
241.5

10

6. Sequence Networks
Refer to the basic three-phase system as shown in Fig. 6.1. There are four conductors to be
considered: a, b, c and neutral n.

Network A

Ia

Ib

Ic

Van Vbn Vcn

Network B

In

Fig. 6.1
The phase voltages, V p , for the balanced 3 case with a phase sequence abc are
Van = Va = V p 0o

(6.1a)

Vbn = Vb = V p 120

(6.1b)

Vcn = Vc = V p + 120 = V p 240

0

(6.1c)

The phase-phase voltages, VLL , are written as

Vab = Va Vb = VLL 30o

(6.2a)

Vbc = Vb Vc = VLL 90
Vca = Vc Va = VLL 150

(6.2b)

(6.2c)

Equation (6.1) and (6.2) can be shown in phasor form in Fig. 6.2.

Fig. 6.2
11

There are two balanced configurations of impedance connections within a power system. For the
wye case, as shown in Fig. 4.1, and with an impedance connection of Z , the current can be
calculated as
Ia =

V
V
= P 0o
ZY ZY

(6.3)

Where is between 90o and + 90o . For greater than zero degrees the load would be
inductive ( I a lags Va ). For less than zero degrees the load would be capacitive ( I a leads Va ).
The phase currents in the balanced three-phase case are
I a = I p 0 o

(6.4a)

I b = I p 120o

(6.4b)

I c = I p 240o

(6.4c)

See Fig. 6.2. for the phasor representation of the currents.

7. Symmetrical Components Systems

The electrical power system operates in a balanced three-phase sinusoidal operation. When a
tree contacts a line, a lightning bolt strikes a conductor or two conductors swing into each other
we call this a fault, or a fault on the line. When this occurs the system goes from a balanced
condition to an unbalanced condition. In order to properly set the protective relays, it is
necessary to calculate currents and voltages in the system under such unbalanced operating
conditions.
In Dr. C. L. Fortescues paper he described how symmetrical components can transform an
unbalanced condition into symmetrical components, compute the system response by straight
forward circuit analysis on simple circuit models, and transform the results back into original
phase variables. When a short circuit fault occurs the result can be a set of unbalanced voltages
and currents. The theory of symmetrical components resolves any set of unbalanced voltages or
currents into three sets of symmetrical balanced phasors. These are known as positive, negative
and zero sequence components. Fig. 7.1 shows balanced and unbalanced systems.

Fig. 7.1

12

Consider the symmetrical system of phasors in Fig. 7.2. Being balanced, the phasors have equal
amplitudes and are displaced 120o relative to each other. By the definition of symmetrical
components, V b1 always lags V a1 by a fixed angle of 120o and always has the same magnitude
as V a1 . Similarly V c1 leads V a1 by 120o. It follows then that
Va1 = Va1

(7.1a)

Vb1 = (1240o )Va1 = a 2Va1

(7.1b)

Vc1 = (1120o )Va1 = aVa1

(7.1c)

Where the subscript (1) designates the positive sequence component. The system of phasors is
called positive sequence because the order of the sequence of their maxima occur abc.
Similarly, in the negative and zero sequence components, we deduce
Va 2 = Va 2

(7.2a)

Vb 2 = (1120 )Va 2 = aVa 2

(7.2b)

Vc 2 = (1240 )Va 2 = a Va 2

(7.2c)

Va 0 = Va 0
Vb 0 = Va 0
Vc 0 = Va 0

(7.3a)
(7.3b)
(7.3c)

Where the subscript (2) designates the negative sequence component and subscript (0) designates
zero sequence components. For the negative sequence phasors the order of sequence of the
maxima occur cba, which is opposite to that of the positive sequence. The maxima of the
instantaneous values for zero sequence occur simultaneously.

Fig.7.2
In all three systems of the symmetrical components, the subscripts denote the components in the
different phases. The total voltage of any phase is then equal to the sum of the corresponding
components of the different sequences in that phase. It is now possible to write our symmetrical

13

components in terms of three, namely, those referred to the a phase (refer to section 3 for a
refresher on the a operator).
Va = Va 0 + Va1 + Va 2
Vb = Vb 0 + Vb1 + Vb 2
Vc = Vc 0 + Vc1 + Vc 2

(7.4a)
(7.4b)
(7.4c)

We may further simplify the notation as follows; define

V0 = Va 0
V1 = Va1
V2 = Va 2

(7.5a)
(7.5b)
(7.5c)

Substituting their equivalent values

Va = V0 + V1 + V2

(7.6a)

Vb = V0 + a V1 + aV2

(7.6b)

Vc = V0 + aV1 + a 2V2

(7.6c)

These equations may be manipulated to solve for V0 , V1 , and V2 in terms of Va , Vb , and Vc .

1
(Va + Vb + Vc )
3
1
V1 = Va + aVb + a 2Vc
3
1
V2 = Va + a 2Vb + aVc
3

V0 =

(7.7a)

(7.7b)

(7.7c)

It follows then that the phase current are

I a = I 0 + I1 + I 2

(7.8a)

I b = I 0 + a 2 I1 + aI 2

(7.8b)

I c = I 0 + aI1 + a 2 I 2

(7.8c)

The sequence currents are given by

1
(I a + I b + I c )
3
1
I1 = I a + aI b + a 2 I c
3
1
I 2 = I a + a 2 I b + aI c
3
I0 =

(7.9a)

(7.9b)

(7.9c)

14

The unbalanced system is therefore defined in terms of three balanced systems. Eq. (7.6) may be
used to convert phase voltages (or currents) to symmetrical component voltages (or currents) and
vice versa [Eq. (7.7)].
Example 7.1
Given Va = 553o , Vb = 7 164 o , Vc = 7105o , find the symmetrical components. The
phase components are shown in the phasor form in Fig. 7.3
Vc

Va

105o
53o
-164o

Unbalanced condition

Vb

Fig. 7.3
Solution
Using Eq. (7.7)
Solve for the zero sequence component:
1
Va 0 = (Va + Vb + Vc )
3
1
= 553o + 7 164o + 7105o
3
= 3.5122o

From Eq. (7.3b) and (7.3c)

Vb 0 = 3.5122o
Vc 0 = 3.5122o

Solve for the positive sequence component:

1
Va1 = Va + aVb + a 2Vc
3
1
= 553o + 1120 o 7 164 o + 1240 o 7105o
3
= 5.0 10o

) (

From Eq. (7.1b) and (7.1c)

Vb1 = 5.0 130o
Vc1 = 5.0110o

15

))

Solve for the negative sequence component:

1
Va 2 = Va + a 2Vb + aVc
3
1
= 553o + 1240o 7 164o + 1120o 7105o
3
= 1.992o

) (

))

From Eq. (7.2b) and (7.2c)

Vb 2 = 1.9 148o
Vc 2 = 1.9 28o

The sequence components can be shown in phasor form in Fig. 7.4.

Vc1

Va2

Vc2
Vb2
Negative Sequence

Va1

Vb1

Va0
Vb0
Vc0

Zero Sequence

Positive Sequence

Fig. 7.4
Using Eq. (7.6) the phase voltages can be reconstructed from the sequence components.
Example 7.2
Given V0 = 3.5122o , V1 = 5.0 10o , V2 = 1.992o , find the phase sequence
components. Shown in the phasor form in Fig. 7.4
Solution
Using Eq. (7.6)

Solve for the A-phase sequence component:

Va = V0 + V1 + V2

= 3.5122o + 5.0 10o + 1.992o

= 5.053o

16

Solve for the B-phase sequence component:

Vb = V0 + a 2V1 + aV2

= 3.5122o + 5.0 130o + 1.9 148o

= 7.0 164o
Solve for the C-phase sequence component:
Vc = V0 + aV1 + a 2V2

= 3.5122o + 5.0110o + 1.9 28o

= 7.0105o
This returns the original values given in Example 5.2.
This can be shown in phasor form in Fig. 7.5.
Vc
Vc0

Vc1
Vc2

Va

Va0

Va2

Vb

Va1

Vb0
Vb1
Vb2

Fig. 7.5
Notice in Fig. 7.5 that by adding up the phasors from Fig. 7.4, that the original phase, Fig. 7.3
quantities are reconstructed.

8. Balanced and Unbalanced Fault analysis

Lets tie it together. Symmetrical components are used extensively for fault study
calculations. In these calculations the positive, negative and zero sequence impedance networks
are either given by the manufacturer or are calculated by the user using base voltages and base
power for their system. Each of the sequence networks are then connected together in various
ways to calculate fault currents and voltages depending upon the type of fault.

17

Given a system, represented in Fig. 8.1, we can construct general sequence equivalent
circuits for the system. Such circuits are indicated in Fig. 8.2.

Fig. 8.1

Z0

Z1

I0
+

V0

10 o

V1

V2
-

Positvie Sequence Network

I2
+

Zero Sequence Network

Z2

I1

Negative Sequence Network

Fig. 8.2
Each of the individual sequence may be considered independently. Since each of the sequence
networks involves symmetrical currents, voltages and impedances in the three phases, each of
the sequence networks may be solved by the single-phase method. After converting the power
system to the sequence networks, the next step is to determine the type of fault desired and the
connection of the impedance sequence network for that fault. The network connections are listed
in Table 8.1

Table 8.1 - Network Connection

Three-phase fault - The positive sequence impedance network
is only used in three-phase faults. Fig. 8.3
Single Line-to-Ground fault - The positive, negative and zero
sequence impedance networks are connected in series. Fig. 8.5
Line-to-line fault - The positive and negative sequence
impedance networks are connected in parallel. Fig. 8.7
Double Line-to-Ground fault - All three impedance networks
are connected in parallel. Fig. 8.9

The system shown in Fig. 8.1 and simplified to the sequence network in Fig. 8.2 and will be used
throughout this section.

18

Example 8.1
Given Z 0 = 0.19990o pu , Z1 = 0.17590o pu ,

Z 2 = 0.17590o pu , compute the fault current and

voltages for a Three-phase fault. Note that the
sequence impedances are in per-unit. This means that
the solution for current and voltage will be in per-unit.
Solution
The sequence networks are interconnected, as shown in
Fig. 8.3

Note that for a three phase fault, there are no negative

or zero sequence voltages.
V0 = V2 = 0
I0 = I2 = 0
The current I1 is the voltage drop across Z1
V
I1 = 1
Z1

Z0

I0
+

V0
-

Z1

I1
+

V1

10o

Z2

10o
I1 =
j 0.175
= j 5.71

I2
+

V2

The phase current is converted from the sequence value

using Eq. (7.8).

Fig 8.3

I a = 0 j 5.71 + 0 = 5.71 90 pu
o

I b = 0 + a 2 ( j 5.71) + a(0) = 5.71150o pu

I c = 0 + a( j 5.71) + a 2 (0) = 5.7130o pu

Calculating the voltage drop, and referring to Fig. 8.3, the sequence voltages are
V0 = V2 = 0

Ib

V1 = 10 Z1I1
V1 = 1 j 0.175( j 5.71) = 0.0
= 0.0 pu

Ic

Vc
Vb Va

The phase voltages are converted from the sequence

value using Eq. (7.6).
Va = 0.0 + 0.0 + 0.0 = 0.0 pu
Vb = 0.0 + a 2 (0.0) + a(0.0) = 0.0 pu
Vc = 0.0 + a(0.0) + a 2 (0.0) = 0.0 pu

Ia

Fig 8.4
19

The per-unit value for the current and voltage would now be converted to actual values
using Eq. (5.6b) and knowing the base power and voltage for the given system.
The currents and voltages can be shown in phasor form in Fig. 8.4

Example 8.2
Given Z 0 = 0.19990o pu , Z1 = 0.17590o pu , Z 2 = 0.17590o pu , compute the fault
current and voltages for a Single line-to-ground fault. Note that the sequence impedances
are in per-unit. This means that the results for current and
voltage will be in per-unit.
Solution
Z0
I0
The sequence networks are interconnected in series, as
shown in Fig. 8.5
+

Because the sequence currents are in series, and using

ohms law.
I 0 = I1 = I 2
V1
I0 =
( Z 0 + Z1 + Z 2 )

V0
-

Z1

I1
+

10o
I0 =
( j 0.199 + j 0.175 + j 0.175)

10o

V1

= j1.82 pu

The phase currents are converted from the sequence value

using Eq. (7.8). Substituting I 0 = I1 = I 2 into Eq. (7.8)
gives

Z2

I2
+

V2

I a = I 0 + I 0 + I 0 = 3I 0
I b = I 0 + a 2 I 0 + aI 0 = 0
I c = I 0 + aI 0 + a 2 I 0 = 0

Fig 8.5

Refer to Table 3.2: 1 + a + a 2 = 0

Note that I a = 3I 0 . This is the quantity that the relay sees for a Single Line-to-Ground
fault.
Substituting I 0 = j1.82 pu
I a = 3I 0 = 3( j1.82)
= j 5.46 pu

20

Calculating the voltage drop, and referring to Fig. 8.5, the sequence voltages are
V0 = Z 0 I 0
V1 = V Z1I1
V2 = Z 2 I 2
Vc

Substituting in the impedance and current from above

V0 = j 0.199( j1.82) = 0.362
V1 = 1 j 0.175( j1.82 ) = 0.681
V2 = j 0.175( j1.82 ) = 0.319

Va

The phase voltages are converted from the sequence value using
Eq. (7.6).

Vb
Ia

Va = 0.362 + 0.681 0.319 = 0

Fig 8.6

Vb = 0.362 + a 2 (0.681) + a(0.319) = 1.022238o pu

Vc = 0.362 + a(0.681) + a 2 (0.319) = 1.022122o pu
The per-unit value for the current and voltage could
now be converted to actual values using Eq. (5.6b)
and knowing the base power and voltage for the
given system.

Z0

I0
+

The currents and voltages can be shown in phasor

form in Fig. 8.6

V0
-

Example 8.3
Given Z 0 = 0.19990o pu , Z1 = 0.17590o pu ,

Z 2 = 0.17590o pu , compute the fault current and

voltages for a Line-to-Line fault. Note that the
sequence impedances are in per-unit. This means
that the solution for current and voltage will be in
per-unit.
Solution
The sequence networks are interconnected, as
shown in Fig. 8.7

Z1

I1
+

10 o

V1
-

Z2

Because the sequence currents sum to one node, it

follows that
I1 = I 2

V2
-

Fig 8.7
21

I2

The current I1 is the voltage drop across Z1 in series with Z 2

V1
I1 =
Z1 + Z 2
10o
j 0.175 + j 0.175
= j 2.86 pu

I1 =

I 2 = + j 2.86 pu
I0 = 0

The phase current is converted from the sequence value using Eq. (7.8).
I a = 0 j 2.86 + j 2.86 = 0 pu
I b = 0 + a 2 ( j 2.86) + a( j 2.86) = 4.95 pu
I c = 0 + a( j 2.86) + a 2 ( j 2.86) = 4.95 pu
Calculating the voltage drop, and referring to Fig. 8.7, the sequence voltages are
V1 = V2
V2 = Z 2 I 2
= ( j1.75)( j 2.86)
= 0.5 pu
V0 = 0

The phase voltages are converted from the sequence value using Eq. (7.6).
Va = 0.0 + 0.5 + 0.5 = 1.0 pu
Vb = 0.0 + a 2 (0.5) + a(0.5) = 0.5 pu
Vc = 0.0 + a(0.5) + a 2 (0.5) = 0.5 pu
The per-unit value for the current and voltage
would now be converted to actual values using
Eq. (5.6b) and knowing the base power and
voltage for the given system.

Vc
Ic
Ib

Va
Vb

The currents and voltages can be shown in

phasor form in Fig. 8.8

22

Fig 8.8

Example 8.4
Given Z 0 = 0.19990o pu , Z1 = 0.17590o pu , Z 2 = 0.17590o pu , compute the fault
current and voltages for a Double Line-to-Ground fault. Note that the sequence
impedances are in per-unit. This means that the solution for current and voltage will be
in per-unit.
Solution
The sequence networks are interconnected, as shown in Fig. 8.9

Because the sequence currents sum to one node,

it follows that
Z0

I1 = ( I 0 + I 2 )

I0
+

The current I1 is the voltage drop across Z1 in

series with the parallel combination of Z 0 and
Z2
I1 =

V0
-

Z1

V1
ZZ
Z1 + 0 2
Z0 + Z2

I1
+

Substituting in V1 = 10 , and Z 0 , Z1 , and Z 2 ,

then solving for I1

10o

V1

Z2
I2
I1 = j 3.73 pu
Z2
+
I0 =
I1
(Z 0 + Z 2 )
V2
= + j1.75
Z0
I2 =
I1
(Z0 + Z 2 )
Fig 8.9
= + j1.99
The phase current is converted from the sequence value using Eq. (7.8).

I a = j1.75 j 3.73 + j1.99 = 0 pu

I b = j1.75 + a 2 ( j 3.73) + a ( j1.99) = 5.60152.1o pu
I c = j1.75 + a( j 3.73) + a 2 ( j1.99) = 5.6027.9o pu

23

Calculating the voltage drop, and referring to Fig. 8.9, the sequence voltages are
V0 = V1 = V2
V0 = Z 0 I 0
= ( j1.75)( j 0.199)
= 0.348 pu

The phase voltages are converted from the sequence value using Eq. (7.6).
Va = 0.348 + 0.348 + 0.348 = 1.044 pu
Vb = 0.348 + a 2 (0.348) + a(0.348) = 0 pu
Vc = 0.348 + a(0.348) + a 2 (0.348) = 0 pu

Refer to Table 3.2: (1 + a + a 2 = 0 )

The per-unit value for the current and voltage would

now be converted to actual values using Eq. (5.6b)
and knowing the base power and voltage for the given
system.
The currents and voltages can be shown in phasor
form in Fig. 8.4

24

IR

Ib
Ic

Va

Fig 8.10

9. Oscillograms and Phasors

Attached are four faults that were inputted into a relay and then captured using the relay
software.
Three-phase fault. Compare to example (8.1)

Fig 9.1a

Fig 9.1b

Fig 9.1c

25

Single Line-to-Ground fault. Compare to example (8.2)

Fig 9.2a

Fig 9.2b

Fig 9.2c

26

Line-to-Line fault. Compare to example (8.3)

Fig 9.3a

Fig 9.3b

Fig 9.3c

27

Double Line-to-Ground fault. Compare to example (8.4)

Fig 9.1a

Fig 9.4b

Fig 9.4c

28

10. Symmetrical Components into a Relay

Using a directional ground distance relay it will demonstrated how sequential components are
used in the line protection. To determine the direction of a fault, a directional relay requires a
reference against which the line current can be compared. This reference is known as the
polarizing quantity. Zero sequence line current can be referenced to either zero sequence current
or zero sequence voltage, or both may be used. The zero sequence line current is obtained by
summing the three-phase currents. See Fig. 10.1

From Eq. (7.9)

(I a + I b + I c ) = 3I 0 = I r

(10.1)

This is known as the residual current or simply 3I 0 .

The zero sequence voltage at or near the bus can be used for directional polarization. The
polarizing zero sequence voltage is obtained from a broken-delta and a grounded wye voltage
transformer. See Fig 10.2
3V0

Va

Vb

Vc

29

From Eq. (7.7) the zero sequence voltage equals

1
(Va + Vb + Vc )
3
3V0 = (Va + Vb + Vc )

V0 =

(10.2a)
(10.2a)

Example 10.1
Using the values obtained from example 8.2, calculate 3V0 .
Solution
Va = 0

Vb = 1.022238o pu
Vc = 1.022122o pu

3V0 = 0 + 1.022238o + 1.022122o

= 3.25180o pu

The zero sequence voltage is 3.25180o pu . By connecting the value in the reverse gives 3V0
which equals 3.250o pu . Plotting this, we can show in phasor form what the relay sees, Ia
lagging 3V0 by the line angle. In this case resistance is neglected, therefore Ia lags by 90o.
(see Fig 10.3).

30

References
Blackburn, J. L., Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, Mercel Dekker, Inc., New
York, 1987
Gross, Charles A., Power System Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1986
ABB, Protective Relaying Theory and Applications, Mercel Dekker, Inc., New York, 2004
Wagner, C. F. and Evans, R. D., Symmetrical Components, Krieger Publishing Company,
Florida, 1933
Lantz, Martin J., Fault Calculations for Relay Engineers, Bonneville Power Administration, 1965

31

2/23/2010

Hands-On Relay School:

HandsDistribution Protection Theory
Daniel Goodrich
Electrical Engineer, Bonneville Power Administration
March 17th, 2010

Agenda
Introductions
y Schedule:
y

Class 1:00pm to 5:00pm Today

Class 7:30am to Noon Tomorrow
y

Course Format

2/23/2010

Introductions
Instructor: Daniel Goodrich, PE
y 1986-2010: Engineer at Salt River Project,
Ph
Phoenix,
i AZ
y March 2010 to Present: Planning Engineer at
Bonneville Power Administration,Vancouver
Washington
y 10 years in System Protection (Transmission,
Distribution, and some Generation)
y Active participant in IEEE Power System Relay
Committee, 2005-2009
y And you areName, Utility/Business Affiliation,
Experience with Distribution Protection

Course Format
Theory
y Examples
y Questions
y Takeaways (watch for the T) and
reference material
y

2/23/2010

Outline
Configurations
y Comparison of Distribution and
Transmission Systems
y Class Scope
y Load shedding
y Substation feeder breakers
y Reclosing
y Fuse saving/sacrificing
y Cold Load Pickup
y

Outline Continued
Line Reclosers
y Sectionalizers
y Distribution Automation
y Distributed Generation
y

2/23/2010

Distribution System Configurations

Radial feeder: A feeder supplying
electric energy to a substation or a
feeding point that receives energy by no
other means (from IEEE 100)
y Open-Looped: Two distribution circuits
with two active sources that have a
normally open tie point between the
circuits.
T: What kind of system do you have?
y

Distribution System Configurations

Secondary Distribution System Network:
The secondaries of the distribution
transformers are connected to a common
network for supplying light and power
directly to consumers services (IEEE 100)
T: Do you have networks?

2/23/2010

Radial Feeds
Lowest cost; older systems
y Feeders isolated by geography
y Fault location is very difficult
y

Substation
Feeder

Open--Looped System
Open
Reduced outage time
y Switching flexibility for both planned
maintenance and unplanned outages
y

Normally Closed
Switch

Substation A

Normally Open
Switch

S b t ti B
Substation

2/23/2010

Open--Looped Example
Open

Secondary Distribution System

Network:
Highest level of reliability
y In locations of high concentrations of load
(downtown areas)
y

From
NREL

2/23/2010

Distribution and Transmission

System Differences
The distribution system:
y Is more dangerous to the public due to its
proximity and common presence
y Has many more faults than the
transmission system (20:1 ratio)
y Typically
yp
y has more automatic reclosingg

RELAY RELIABILITY

DEPENDABILITY
SECURITY

Takeaway: Are there one or two relays are on each

of your distribution substation feeders?

2/23/2010

Scope of Class

Scope of Class (Red Portion)

Receiving
Station
230/69kV
Generating
Station

Step--up
Step
Transformer

Transmission
230kV

Subtransmission
69kV
Distribution
12kV

Industrial./Commercial
Building

Distribution Substation
69/12kv
16

2/23/2010

Load Shedding
For transmission system stability
y Typically is employed at the distribution
level
y Three types, in order of speed:
y

Under-frequency (0.1 seconds)

Under-voltage
g (2
( to 10 seconds))
Rotating (Rolling) Blackouts (minutes/hours)
T: What load shedding do you employ?

Under--frequency Example
Under
Coordinated by NERC
Frequency

% of Total Load

59.5

5%

59.1

1.5%

58.9

5%

58.7

7.5%

58.5

7%

58 3
58.3

7%

Total

35%

Restoration is controlled by Operations

2/23/2010

Under--voltage Load Shedding

Under
Typical purpose is to separate load when
substation loses its source
y Electromechanical settings, 2.3 Seconds at
Zero volts
y Micro-processor settings, 10 seconds at
63% of nominal
y

Under--voltage tripping for Stability

Under
Coordinate with other utilities
y May be coordinated by NERC
y Phoenix example:
y

Voltage

Time Delay

% Load Shed

50% of nominal

2 Seconds

5%

70%

80%

90%

10

10

2/23/2010

Under--voltage Restoration
Under
Automatic
y In stages; example:
y

Feeder 1 (up to 6 MW) instantaneously

Feeder 2 after 5 second time delay
Feeder 3 after 10 second time delay
Feeder 4 after 15 second time delay

Substation Feeder Breaker

y

Is typically the dividing point between

sub-transmission and distribution

Breakers

11

2/23/2010

Substation Feeder Breaker

y

Traditional protective devices:

Instantaneous (50) and time (51) over-current,
over current
non-directional
Ground 50/51
Reclosing relay

Newer configurations
All functions in one relay
May add under
under-voltage
voltage, under
under-frequency
frequency, back
block/trip, breaker failure

12

2/23/2010

Basic Protection: OverOver-current

Load current Zero to 600 Amps
y Fault current 500 to 10,000
10 000 Amps
y Length 500 feet to 15 miles
y

Distribution Coordination
Principles
1.
2
2.
3.

Give all faults a chance to be temporary

Lock out a feeder only for permanent
faults
Remove only the smallest portion of the
feeder from service

From Electrical DistributionSystem

Protection, Cooper Power Systems

13

2/23/2010

Feeder protection basics

Trip feeder breaker for faults anywhere
along the feeder
y Must account for:
y

Upstream and downstream protective devices

Abnormal switching
Normally Closed
Switch

Substation A

Substation A

Normally Open
Switch
New feeder
segment

Normally Open
Switch

Normally Closed
Switch

Substation B

Substation B

Basic study steps

1.

Determine system parameters

1. Source fault duty
1
2. Feeder conductor(s) type, length to end of
line

2.
3.
4.

Model the system

Simulate faults at nearest and furthest
points
Set relay to trip for any point along the
feeder

14

2/23/2010

Source Fault Duty

y

From system model

COLLIER
69.kV 15544
36.9P-2
1153P123
1563P-57

Collier 3
12.47kV 3
0.0P-169

Sample
12.47kV
0.0P107

8651P93
0.88P-90

0.00P90

86 0P 8
8650P-87

410P122

T: What kind of fault study program do you use?

Conductor length, type

CONDUCTOR ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

UNDERGROUND DESIGN
(Primary)

OVERHEAD DESIGN (Primary)

CONDUCTOR
DESCRIPTION

PRIMARY CONDUCTORS

R (/mile)

Xa (/mile)

397 A.A.

0.259

0.4587

477 A.A.

0.216

0.447

795 A.A.

0.131

0.4146

266 A.A. (7 strd)

0.386

0.4895

3/0 A.A. (7 strd)

0.613

0.5177

1/0 A.A. (7strd)

CONDUCTOR LENGTH (mi)

0.209
0

0.973

0.5434

2 A.A. (7 strd)

1.55

0.5739

2/0 CU.

0.481

0.532

1 CU. (7 strd)

0.765

0.56

2 CU. (7 strd)

0.964

4 CU. (3 strd)

1.518

0.599

6 CU. (1 strd)

2.39

0.637

0.574

#2 ACSR

1.41

0.665

312 A.A.A.C.

0.417

0.479

500 MCM-AL (DUCT)

0.2472

0.3807

500 MCM-AL (D.B.)

0.264

0.2207

0.6354

350 MCM-AL **

0.2904

0.14784

750 MCM-AL (DUCT)

0.1265

0.3965

600 CU.

0.432

750 MCM CU.

0.0981

0.3968

0.689

2 AL (D.B.)

1.9628

0.11

0.3078

4/0 AL (DUCT)

0.6529

0.3458

500 CU.

0.15206

0.14098

0.625

0.2434

4/0 AL (D.B.)

15

2/23/2010

Fault levels
(1)
(2)

8700 A
9300 A

Substation

(1) Three phase fault in amperes

(2) Single line to ground fault in
Amperes

3000 A
2000 A

End of line

Over-current pickup < 3000 Amps

Ground over-current pickup <2000 Amps

TCC (Time(Time-Current Curves)

y

Drawn on a logarithmic scale to appear

linear

Time
(Seconds)

Current (Amperes)

16

2/23/2010

Transformer Damage and Fuse

Curves
1000
700
500
400
300
200

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

A. Transf. damage curve. 22.00 MVA. Category 3

Base I=555.00 A. Z= 7.0 percent.

100
70
50
40
30
20

1000
700
500
400
300
200
100
70
50
40
30
20

1. Pole Riser Fuse S&C 167-62-85

Total clear.

10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

10
7
5
4
3
2

1
.7
.5
.4
3
.3
.2

1
.7
.5
.4
3
.3
.2

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02

.01

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

.01

@ Voltage By

Fuse Blowing/Damage Regions

1000
700
500
400
300
200
100
70
50
40
30
20

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

A. Transf. damage curve. 22.00 MVA. Category 3
Base I=555.00 A. Z= 7.0 percent.
1

100
70
50
40
30
20

Fuse blows
1. Pole Riser Fuse S&C 167-62-85
Total clear.

10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

10
7
5
4
3
2

1
.7
.5
4
.4
.3
.2

1
.7
.5
4
.4
.3
.2

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01

1000
700
500
400
300
200

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02

Fuse does
not blow
10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

.01

@ Voltage By
N

17

2/23/2010

Fuse Curve Changes

A fuse will operate at a faster time
depending on:
y Pre-fault loading
y Ambient temperature
y Material used

Fuse Minimum Melt vs. Maximum

Clear
At 2,000 Amps:
Maximum clear is about 0.04 seconds
Minimum melt is about 0.02 seconds

18

2/23/2010

Transformer Damage Curve

y

Set by ANSI Standard

Electrical Damage curve

Mechanical Damage curve, depends on
transformer impedance

Transformer
Damage Curve

POTENTIAL
DAMAGE
AREA

38

19

2/23/2010

10 2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

1000
700
A. Transf. damage curve. 22.00 MVA. Category 3
500
Base I=555.00 A. Z= 7.0 percent.
400
300
1 167-62-85
1. Pole Riser Fuse S&C
200 Total clear.

Area of
Coordination

100
70
2
50 2. Main Normal OC Ph IEEE_EI TD=3.500
40
30 CTR=240 Pickup=6.5A No inst. TP@5=0.6484s
20

100
70
50
40
30
20

10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

10
7
5
4
3
2

Upstream 1device

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

Downstream
device

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

100
3
70
2
50 2. Main Normal OC Ph IEEE_EI TD=3.500
40
30 CTR=240 Pickup=6.5A No inst. TP@5=0.6484s
20
3. FDR Normal OC PH IEEE_EI TD=4.500
CTR=240 Pickup=2.5A No inst. TP@5=0.8336s
10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

1000
700
500
400
300
200
100
70
50
40
30
20
10
7
5
4
3
2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2
2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2
2

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

.01

@ Voltage By

10 2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

1000
700
A. Transf. damage curve. 22.00 MVA. Category 3
500
Base I=555.00 A. Z= 7.0 percent.
400
300
1
1. Pole Riser Fuse S&C 167-62-85
200 Total clear.

.01

1000
700
500
400
300
200

.01

@ Voltage By
N

20

2/23/2010

Coordination:
Fuse operates before feeder
breaker curve, before main
breaker curve, before
transformer damage curve

Fault at end of
line

Fault at
substation

Pickup

Coordination
Curve
Comparison
of Time Dials

Time Dial 15

Time Dial 0
0.55
55

42

21

2/23/2010

1000
700
500
400
300

10

1. Sample EI IEEE_EI TD=1.000

CTR=240 Pickup=1.A (Dir) No inst. TP@5=0.1852s

200

Coordination
Curve
Comparison
of curve shape

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

100
70
50
40
30
20

100
70
50
40
30
20

1
3

10
7
5
4
3

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

Moderatelyy Inverse

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01

200

3. Sample VI IEEE_VI TD=1.000

CTR=240 Pickup=1.A (Dir) No inst. TP@5=0.1869s

10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

1000
700
500
400
300

.1
.07

Very Inverse
.05
.04
.03

2. Sample MI IEEE_MI TD=1.000

CTR=240 Pickup=1.A (Dir) No inst. TP@5=0.2413s
10

.02

Extremely Inverse
.01

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

@ Voltage By

43

Relay to Fuse Coordination

Feeder
Breaker

Fuse
51

Relay

Fault
Load

Fuse maximum melt should be 0.2 to 0.3

seconds faster than relay, for any point
downstream of the fuse.
The challenge is typically at the maximum fault
values.
T: Where do you employ fusing?

22

2/23/2010

Fused Single
Single--Phase Transformer

Fused ThreeThree-Phase Transformer

23

2/23/2010

Fusing Cubicle

Current limiting fuse operated

24

2/23/2010

Successful
Coordination

1000
700
500
400
300
200

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

1000
700
500
400
300
200

1. FDR Normal OC PH IEEE_EI TD=4.500

CTR=240 Pickup=2.5A No inst. TP@5=0.8336s
100
1Ia= 3006.8A (12.5 sec A) T= 0.83s
70
50
40
30
20

100
70
50
40
30
20
10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

10
7
5
4
3
2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2
2. Xfmr fuse Lo BAY-0-NET065
Total clear.
Ia= 3006.8A T= 0.18s

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01

FAULT DESCRIPTION:
Bus Fault on:
0 Sample
10

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
12.47kV 3LG

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

.01

@ Voltage By

Automatic Reclosing
Why? ~70% of faults are temporary
y Improved customer service and reliability
y Survey Results:
y

Utility

First Reclosure

Second Reclosure

Instantaneous

20 seconds

25

15

N/A

N/A

N/A

Instantaneous

30

Instantaneous

15

25

2/23/2010

Reclosing Continued
A wide variety of practices
y The presence of underground feeders,
feeders
distributed generation and SCADA tend
to reduce reclosing
y

T: What is yyour reclosingg sequence?

q

Fuse Sacrificing/Saving
Fuse sacrificing allows the fuse to blow
before an upstream device for fault
conditions
y Fuse saving allows the upstream device to
operate once before the fuse. If the fault
is temporary, the fuse might be saved.
y

T: Does your company employ fuse saving

or fuse sacrificing?

26

2/23/2010

Fuse
Sacrificing

1000
700
500
400
300
200

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

1. FDR Normal OC PH IEEE_EI TD=4.500

CTR=240 Pickup=2.5A No inst. TP@5=0.8336s
100
1Ia= 3006.8A (12.5 sec A) T= 0.83s
70
50
40
30
20

100
70
50
40
30
20
10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

10
7
5
4
3
2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2
2. Xfmr fuse Lo BAY-0-NET065
Total clear.
Ia= 3006.8A T= 0.18s

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01

FAULT DESCRIPTION:
Bus Fault on:
0 Sample
10

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
12.47kV 3LG

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

Fuse Saving

1000
700
500
400
300
200

10

1000
700
500
400
300
200

1. FDR Normal OC PH IEEE_EI TD=4.500

CTR=240 Pickup=2.5A Inst=1500A TP@5=0.8336
100
1Ia= 3006.8A (12.5 sec A) T= 0.83s
70
50
40
30
20

10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

10
7
5
4
3
2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01

.01

@ Voltage By

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

100
70
50
40
30
20

Addition of
instantaneous
element on relay

1000
700
500
400
300
200

2. Xfmr fuse Lo BAY-0-NET065

Total clear.
Ia= 3006.8A T= 0.18s

FAULT DESCRIPTION:
Bus Fault on:
0 Sample
10

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
12.47kV 3LG

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

.01

@ Voltage By
N

27

2/23/2010

DC +

Fuse Saving Scheme

The instantaneous (50) element is
supervised by the reclosing relay
(79)

Trip Bus

Fuse Saving in Microprocessor Relay

79 (O->I)
Reset Time (Seconds)
#1 Pickup
51P (3I>)
50P-1 (3I>>1)
50P-2 (3I>>2)
50P-3 (3I>>3)
#1 Open time (Seconds)

60
NA
Enable
Lockout
NA
0.1

p
#2 Pickup
51P (3I>)
50P-1 (3I>>1)
50P-2 (3I>>2)
50P-3 (3I>>3)
#2 Open time (Seconds)

NA
Disable
Lockout
NA
15.0

28

2/23/2010

Fuse Saving
Coordination
Problem

1000
700
500
400
300

10

200

1000
700
500
400
300
200

100
70
50
40
30

20
10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

Cannot predict
which element will
operate first

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

100
1. Xfmr fuse 150 kVA Lo BAY-0-NET015
70
Total clear.
50
Ia= 3006.8A T= 0.01s
40
2. FDR Normal OC PH IEEE_EI TD=4.500
30
CTR=240
CTR
240 Pickup=2
Pickup 2.5A
5A Inst=1500A
Inst 1500A TP@5=0
TP@5 0
20
Ia= 3006.8A (12.5 sec A) T= 0.83s
FAULT DESCRIPTION:
Bus Fault on:
0 Sample

10
7 3
12.47kV
5
4
3
2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02

.01

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

.01

@ Voltage By

Instantaneous vs. Instantaneous

29

2/23/2010

Fuse to Fuse Coordination

Common in overhead distribution and in
industrial applications
pp
y Using the same fuse type (K, N) of different
sizes helps with coordination because of similar
curve shapes
y Tables are available for coordination
y The general principle is that the maximum
clearing time of the downstream (protecting)
fuse is less than 75% of the minimum melting
time of the upstream (protected) fuse.
y

Fuse to Fuse Coordination

With the 75% reduction,
the two fuses coordination
i reduced
is
d
d ffrom 2
2,500
500
Amps to 2,000 Amps

30

2/23/2010

Sample Fuse Coordination Table

From ee.Washington.edu

Cold Load Pickup

y

When a protective device operates due

to the energization of a cold
cold feeder,
feeder
caused by inrush of distribution
transformers

31

2/23/2010

Transformer Energization Current

Feeder Energization Current

~3,000
3 000 Amps

~600
600 Amps

32

2/23/2010

Cold Load Pickup Solution

Solution---Phase
Phase
1000
700
500
400
300
200

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

100
70
50
40
30
20

100
70
50
40
30
20

1. FDR Normal OC PH IEEE_EI TD=4.500

CTR=240 Pickup=2.5A Inst=1500A TP@5=0.8336s

10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S
1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

10
7
5
4
3
2
1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

2 FDR OC Cold Load PH IEEE

2.
IEEE_EI
EI TD=12.000
TD=12 000
CTR=240 Pickup=2.5A Inst=3000A TP@5=2.223s

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01

1000
700
500
400
300
200

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

.01

@ Voltage By

Cold Load Pickup Solution

Solution---Ground
Ground
1000
700
500
400
300
200

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

100
70
50
40
30
20

1000
700
500
400
300
200

100
1. FDR Normal Gnd OC IEEE_VI TD=5.00
70
CTR=240 Pickup=0.75A Inst=1560A TP@5=
50
40
2. FDR Cold Load Gnd IEEE_VI TD=10.00
30
CTR=240 Pickup=1.5A Inst=3000A TP@5=1
20

10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

10
7
5
4
3
2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02

.01

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

Q: Does your utility

use Cold Load
settings, and if so, how
is it accomplished?

.01

@ Voltage By
N

33

2/23/2010

Line Reclosers
Is a breaker on a stick: It can sense and
interrupt faults
y Typically has 3 or 4 automatic reclosures
y Commonly employs fuse saving
y Can be single or three-phase
y Are rated by:
y

Continuous and interrupting rating in

Amperes
Interrupting medium (Vacuum or Oil)
Hydraulic or electronic control

Line Reclosers

34

2/23/2010

Effective Placement of Recloser

On the edge of a residential development

Recloser Application Factors

1.
2
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

System Voltage
Maximum fault current at recloser
location
Maximum load current
Minimum fault current in the zone of
p
protection
Coordination with upstream and
downstream devices
Ground fault Sensing
From Electrical DistributionSystem
Protection, Cooper Power Systems

35

2/23/2010

Recloser-Fuse Coordination Simple

RecloserExample
1000
700
500
400
300

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

200

3. Xfmr fuse 1500 kVA BAY-0-NET140

Total clear.
FAULT DESCRIPTION:
Ia= 3006.8A T= 0.55s
Bus Fault on:
0 Sample
1

20

10
7
5
4
3
2

2. Recloser Slow Phase IEEE_EI TD=10.000

CTR=1000 Pickup=0.4A No inst. TP@5=1.8525s
1 Ia= 3006.8A (3.0 sec A) T= 0.90s
.7
.5
.4
.3

1
.7
.5
.4
.3

.2

.2

1. Recloser Fast Phase IEEE_EI TD=1.000

CTR=1000 Pickup=0.4A Inst=1000A TP@5=0.1852s
Ia= 3006.8A (3.0 sec A) T= 0.09s

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03

Employs fuse saving

Wont go to lockout for
temporary faults

.02

.02
.01

First trip: Instantaneous

Wait 2 seconds, reclose
S
Second
d ttrip:
i F
Fastt Curve
C
Wait 5 seconds, reclose
Third and fourth trip: Slow
curve
6. Lockout after fourth trip

100
70
50
40
30
12.47kV 3LG
20

10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03

1.
2.
3
3.
4.
5.

200

100
70
50
40
30

1000
700
500
400
300

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

.01

@ Voltage By

For

No

Recloser Coordination with

Upstream Breaker
Time curves are the same as for circuit
breakers
y Instantaneous element of the upstream
breaker must not reach past the
recloser
y

FaultLevels:

Phase2,100Amps
Gnd 1,420 Amps
Gnd1,420Amps
3.45miles

Bkr

Substation

1245
R

Line
Recloser

Fault Levels:
FaultLevels:
5.54
miles

Phase970Amps
Gnd620Amps

End of line

36

2/23/2010

Recloser Coordination with

Upstream Breaker
1000
700
500
400
300
200

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

1. Substation Breaker IEEE_VI TD=5.000

CTR=240 Pickup=0.75A Inst=3000A

100
70
50
40
30

100
70
50
40
30

1
2
2. Recloser IEEE_VI TD=3.600
CTR=1000 Pickup=0.08A Inst=900A

20
10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

20

See table in TTY Window.

End of line fault

1
.7
5
.5
.4
.3

1000
700
500
400
300
200

10
7
5
4
3
2

Fault just downstream of recloser

1
.7
5
.5
.4
.3

.2

.2

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02

.01

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

For a ground fault

downstream of the
recloser the time element
recloser,
of the substation breaker
coordinates well with the
instantaneous element of
the recloser.
For a fault at the end of the
line, the time elements
coordinate.

.01

@ Voltage By
N

Recloser-Recloser
RecloserRecloser--Breaker
Coordination

37

2/23/2010

Recloser Challenges
y
y
y
y
y
y
y

Changes in load current over time

Feeder length too long; fault duty below load
levels
Coordinating 3 or more curves (breaker,
recloser, fuse)
Getting SCADA to remote locations
Battery maintenance
Voltage input from both sides needed for
reversability
If recloser is too close to substation, cannot
coordinate due to high fault levels

Sectionalizer
From IEEE 100:
A self
self-contained
contained circuit
circuit-opening
opening device that
automatically opens the main electrical
circuit through it after sensing and
responding to a predetermined number
of successive main current impulses equal
or greater to a predetermined magnitude
magnitude.
It opens while the main electrical circuit is
de-energized. It may also have a provision
to be manually operated to interrupt
loads.

38

2/23/2010

From Hubbell/Chance 10D

Secitionalizer Applications
Where fault duty is very high, and time
curves won
wontt coordinate (typically
between breaker or recloser curves and
fuse curves.
y Between two protective devices with
time curves that are too close together.
y

39

2/23/2010

1000
700
500
400
300
200

10

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

1000
700
500
400
300
200

1. FDR Normal OC PH IEEE_EI TD=4.500

CTR=240 Pickup=2.5A Inst=1500A TP@5=0.8336
100
1Ia= 3006.8A (12.5 sec A) T= 0.83s
70
50
40
30
20

100
70
50
40
30
20
10
S
E7
C5
O4
N3
D2
S

10
7
5
4
3
2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

1
.7
.5
.4
.3
.2

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01

Area of difficult
coordination
2. Xfmr fuse Lo BAY-0-NET065
Total clear.
Ia= 3006.8A T= 0.18s

FAULT DESCRIPTION:
Bus Fault on:
0 Sample
10

.1
.07
.05
.04
.03
.02
12.47kV 3LG

2 3 4 5 7 100 2 3 4 5 7 1000 2 3 4 5 7 100002 3 4 5 7

CURRENT (A)
TIME-CURRENT CURVES

.01

@ Voltage By
N

Distribution Automation
Technique used to limit outage duration
and restore service to customer through
fault location identification and automatic
switching. Reconfiguring a feeder can also
be done to reduce losses, or eliminate
temporary overloading

40

2/23/2010

Basic Example

Fiber
Fiber

Distribution Operations Center

Substation

Substation

CLOSED

MID-POINT
Automatic Switch

OPEN

OPEN
Automatic Switch

CLOSED

MID-POINT
Automatic Switch

Basic Example

Fiber
Fiber

Distribution Operations Center

Substation

Substation

FAULT

OPEN
MID-POINT
Automatic Switch

CLOSE

OPEN
Automatic Switch

MID-POINT
Automatic Switch

41

2/23/2010

Automation Effects on Relaying

Abnormal feeder configurations
y Circulating currents when feeders are
connected to two substations
simultaneouslymay need directionality
y May lose fuse saving and fault locating
ability
y

IEEE Power System Relaying Committee Working Group

D11 Effect of Distribution Automation on Protective
Relaying

Distributed Generation
Distributed Resource (DR): A source
of electric power that is not directly
connected to the bulk power
transmission system. DR includes both
generators and energy storage
technologies

Source: IEEE Standard 1547 for Interconnecting Distributed

Resources with Electric Power Systems

42

2/23/2010

Example: Diesel Generators (2,000 kVA)

kVA)

Sample Controls

43

2/23/2010

Hydroelectric (750 kVA

kVA,, 480V)

Solar Concentrator (25 kV Stirling engine)

44

2/23/2010

Residential Photovoltaic

Typical 3 kW Residential PV Site

Billing Meter
and Breaker
Panel

Utility AC
Disconnect

Solar
S
System

PV non
billing Meter
Inverter

DC Disconnect

45

2/23/2010

Bicycle Power!

Reasons for Distributed Generation

For reliability: Data Centers and Water
treatment plants
y Economics: Photovoltaics with incentives
y Environment: Renewables (Wind, Solar)
y

46

2/23/2010

Distributed Generation Issues

Public and Utility worker safety is the
major concern
y Each Utility should have its own
Interconnection Guidelines Document
y Getting all of the correct information
takes several meeting iterations:
y

One line and three line diagram

Intended operation (fast transition, soft
unload, peaking, load reduction)
Protective devices, coordination study and
relay settings

Distributed Generation Issues Continued

Is islanding a possibility?
y Cannot accept customer owned and
maintained equipment as a substitute for
utility protection.
y Operation of generation during hold tags,
also called contact tags
y Witness testing of generators at
commissioning and for re-verification
y

47

2/23/2010

Types of Paralleling
Open-transitiononly needs to meet
NEC requirements
y Fast-transitiongenerators parallel for
0.1 seconds or less
y

Not within the scope of IEEE 1547too fast

for a need for relaying
Requirements can include:
x
x
x
x

Signed inter-connection agreement

Switch meets UL1008
Utility witnesses a demonstration
Back-tripping in case switch gets stuck

Types of Paralleling Continued

y

Soft unloading
For larger loads where fast transition will not
work
Generator typically parallels for 2 to 20
seconds

Continuous (solar, co-generation)

48

2/23/2010

Island
A condition in which a portion of a area electric
power system
p
y
(the
(
utility)
y) is energized
g
solelyy byy
one or more local electric power systems (the
distributed generator)
y Is a possibility when the generator size is equal
to or greater than the minimum feeder load. At
SRP, this value is around 500 kW
y IEEE 1547: Unintended islandsgenerator
must be off line within 2 seconds
y Transfer tripping may be required, or voltage
sensing at the substation

Ground fault simulator (no grounding banks)

12.47 kV ground fault
detected at SRP sub,
but not at distributed
generator
Because primary side
off distribution
di ib i
transformer is delta
connected, there is no
return path to
customer generator for
ground fault current

Why a special ground

fault detection
scheme?

Customer
Switchboard

SRP
Transformer

Customer
Generator

49

2/23/2010

Ground fault simulator (with grounding bank)

Grounding bank
provides a return path
for ground fault
current.

CT

Customer
Switchboard

Customer
Generator
GFR

Ground fault current path

SLGF

Delta-wye xfmr

To SES

Theory of operation
Fault on delta side of xfmr has
no path to ground, relative to DG
Grounding bank (GB) provides
a path to ground
CT on neutral of GB provides an
operating quantity for DG GFP (Iop)
Or, use open delta VT connection
in conjunction with GB

Transfer switch

Distributed
Generator (DG)

~
m ww

(3 single phase xfmrs

connected grounded wye
primary, delta secondary with CT
on neutral of primary side connection)

Iop
Generator GFP

Alternate
configuration
(Open delta VT
connected
to delta primary still requires GB, but
VT provides relay
operating quantity)

Grounding bank

ww

Grounding Banks for

DG Ground Fault Protection

Generator GFP

50

2/23/2010

Sympathetic Tripping
Transient pickup of relays or other healthy
feeders due to the conditions created byy
a fault on another feeder of the system.
(Othman, Mamdoh and Karnal)

Example: Fault on transmission system

causes voltage to temporarily sag on
distribution system with a lot of low
inertia induction motors (air
conditioners), and the feeder trips
Solution is to raise the pickup of the feeder
relays.

References
The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, C.
Russell Mason
Electrical Distribution System Protection, Third
Edition, Cooper Power Systems
Protective Relaying Principles and Applications,
J. Lewis Blackburn
IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed
Resources with Electric Power Systems

51

2/23/2010

Disturbance photos

Failed Capacitor Bank

52

2/23/2010

Failed Switch

Open CT

53

2/23/2010

4 kV Energized at 12 kV

Distribution Breaker Failure

54

2/23/2010

PT Fire

Junction Box Under Water

55

2/23/2010

Trampoline

56

DG Interconnection Protection
Protecting
Utility Distribution with Interconnecting
Distributed Generation Green Power, MicroGrids and
Smart Grids
Technical & Industry Practice Background
What IEEE Standard 1547 Doesnt Tell You

Chuck Mozina -- is a Consultant, Protection and Protection Systems for Beckwith

Electric and resides in Palm Harbor (near Tampa), Florida. His consulting practice
involves projects relating to protective relay applications, protection system design and
coordination. He specializes in generator and power plant protection.
Chuck is an active 25-year member of the IEEE Power System Relay Committee
(PSRC) and is the past chairman of the Rotating Machinery Subcommittee. He is
active in the IEEE IAS I&CPS, PCIC and PPIC committees, which address industrial
system protection. He is a former U.S. representative to the CIGRE Study Committee
34 ( now B-5) on System Protection and has chaired a CIGRE working group on
generator protection. He also chaired the IEEE task force that produced the tutorial
The Protection of Synchronous Generators, which won the PSRCs 1997 Outstanding
Working Group Award. Chuck is the 1993 recipient of the Power System Relay
Committees Career Service Award and he recently received the 2002 IAS I&CPS
Ralph Lee Prize Paper Award. His papers have been republished in the IAS Industrial
Applications Magazine.
Chuck has a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering from Purdue University and
is a graduate of the eight month GE Power System Engineering Course. He has
authored a number of papers and magazine articles on protective relaying. He has
over 25 years of experience as a protection engineer at Centerior Energy( now
FirstEnergy), a major investor-owned utility in Ohio where he was the Manager of the
System Protection Section. He is also a former instructor in the Graduate School of
Electrical Engineering at Cleveland State University as well as a registered
Professional Engineer in the state of Ohio.

DG Interconnection Protection

Presentation Objectives

Distributed Generation Overview

- What is distributed generation (DG)?
- Explore Types of DGs
- Explore the Future - Green Power, MicroGrids and Smart Grids
- Define interconnection protection
- Tell you what IEEE 1547 Doesnt

n
Protection Variables & Standards
Generator types: Synchronous, Induction, Asynchronous
Interconnection Transformer grounding makes a big difference!
Protection to meet interconnection challenges
Comparison of various power company and standards
including IEEE 1547
Distribution protection coordination issues
IEEE Distribution Survey Data - DG issues and impact on distribution systems

Introduction to DG Interconnection Protective Relays

DG Interconnection Protection

What is DG Interconnection Protection?

Protection that allows the DG to operate in parallel to the

utility

Large non-utility generators do not require specific

interconnection protection
- Integrated into transmission system
- Breaker(s) are tripped by transmission line/bus/transformer
protection.

Smaller DGs do require specific interconnection protection

DG Interconnection Protection

Generator vs. Interconnection Protection

To Utility System
To Utility System

Interconnection
Transformer

Utility System
DG System

Interconnection
Relay

Utility System
DG System

Local Loads

Local Loads

Interconnection

Generator

DG Interconnection Protection

Outline
Dispersed Generator Interconnection Protection Areas
Detection of loss of parallel operation with utility
Fault backfeed detection
Detection of damaging system conditions
Abnormal power flow
Restoration
Tripping, Automatic Restoration and Automatic Reclosing on Utility System
Trip of generator or main incoming breaker to separate from utilityhow to
decide
Auto restoration strategies
Utility auto reclosinghow to protect your generator
Use of Digital Technology for DG Interconnection/Generator Protection
Advantages of the technology
User-selectable functionality
Self-diagnostics
Communications capability
Oscillographic capability
Software demo

DG Interconnection Protection

Impact of Smart Grids on DG

Enhance use of communication networks from p
protection and
data acquisition
Peer to Peer as well as DG site to central location
communications.
MircoGrids made possible by enhance communication network.
Green Power and it ascending role in DG projection that are
interconnected to the utilityy at the distribution level.

DG Interconnection Protection

Brief DG History

Until Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) in 1978, U.S. utilities
were not required to interconnect with small generators.
- Started DG
- Beckwith
B k ith gets
t into
i t the
th interconnection
i t
ti
protection
t ti
business
b i
- Hot until late 1980s when tax incentive terminated

Late 1990s DG again hot

- Driven by high utility rates and
n de-regulation
- DGs can generator cheaper at source of consumption
+ Peak Shaving and Load Following
- Hot until early 2000s when natural gas prices increased

Late 2000s Green Power drives resurgence of DGs

- Regulates require utilities to generator a portion of their
power from green sources.

DG Interconnection Protection

Why is DG Becoming Popular Again?

Major Reason
Cost of utility power is very high in many parts of the U.S. due to:
Deregulation problems (CA)
Settlement of stranded investment (East Coast-Midwest)
DGs Can Generate Power Cheaper Than Utility Power From A Central Plant
Use of waste heat (CHP) enhances DG economics
New Technologies Are Being Tried
n
Microturbines
Diesels powered from synthetic fuel
Methane (from landfills) powered gas turbines
Fuel Cells
PV
Wind
Federal and State Government Push for Renewable Resources
(Green Power)
Many Utilites are Receptive to DGs That Can Provide Power During System Peak
Load

DG Interconnection Protection

Protection Objectives
UTILITY CONCERNS:
Protection of the system from
damage

System Short Circuit

Damage:
loss of coordination,
customer outages

DG OWNER CONCERNS:
Protection of the generator from
damage
Automated Reclosing:
shaft to torque on generator
Transient Overvoltage:
also affects generator

Transient Overvoltage:
during islanding, transformer
connections, ferroresonance

Power Quality:
affects load served from
generator bus

Power Quality:
during islanding voltage and
harmonics

DG Interconnection Protection

Projection: A significant amount new generating capacity

maybe be supplied by none utiltiy Generation in the next
decade and beyond.
This new capacity will take two forms:

Large capacity plants owned & operated by non-utility entities (IPPs and
NUGs)
- Gas turbines & combined cycle plants
n
- Typically greater than 10MW
- Connected into utilitys transmission and subtransmission systems
Protection integrated into transmission and subtransmission systems

Small dispersed generating units

- Connected into utilitys distribution system
- Typically less than 10MW
Installations require DG interconnection protection

DG Interconnection Protection

DG Standards History

IEEE PSRC WG Report

- Intertie Protection of Consumer-Owned Sources of Generation 3
MVA or Less
L

First guideline addressing DG

Published in 1985

Good work and full of application information

DG Interconnection Protection

DG Standards History

Std 1001 from IEEE SCC23

- IEEE Guide for Interfacing Dispersed Storage and Generation
Facilities with Utility Systems

First standard addressing DG

Published in 1988

Withdrawn and replaced by IEEE 1547 series of standards,

still a good work and full of application information

DG Interconnection Protection

Recent History & Today

Standard 929
- Focus: Small inverter based systems sourced from
PV, Fuel Cells, Microturbines
IEEE 1547 and its Follow-up Standards
- Focus:Produce universalDG interconnection
protection document to be used as a minimum
technical requirement

Can be purchased from IEEE

DG Interconnection Protection
IEEE 1547 Says DGs Shall :
Not Cause Overvoltages or Loss of Utility Relay
Coordination
Disconnect When No Longer Operating in Parallel With
the Utility.
+ Only Discusses 81O/U and 27, 59
Not Energize the Utility when it is De-energized
Not Create an Unintentional Islands
Use Utility Grade Relays
Not Cause Objectionable Harmonics
Not Cause Loss of Synchronism That Results in
Objectionable Flicker

DG Interconnection Protection

IEEE 1547: Addressed Areas

Impact of size
- Intended to cover up to 10MW

Impact of Islanding
- Creation of unintentional islands must be detected and
eliminated as fast as possible

Local Disturbances
- Quality of service on the utility system should not be degraded

DG Interconnection Protection

More IEEE 1547

1547.1: Standard for Conformance Test Procedures for

Equipment Interconnecting DR with EPS
- Scope: Specifies the Type, Production and Commissioning
tests that shall be performed to demonstrate that
interconnection functions and equipment of a DR conform to
IEEE 1547

1547.2:

Application Guide for IEEE Std.

g DR with EPS
Interconnecting

1547

for

- Scope: Provides technical background and application

details to support understanding for IEEE 1547 Standard for
Interconnecting DR with EPS

DG Interconnection Protection

More IEEE 1547

IEEE 1547.3: Draft Guide for Monitoring, Information

Exchange and Control of DR Interconnected with EPS

Other 1547.4: Address DG Installation on Low Votage

Networks both Spot and Street Neworks
- Scope: Facilities interoperability of one or more DRs
interconnected with EPS

DG Interconnection Protection

Complete List of IEEE 1547 Standards

IEEE Std 1547TM Standard for Distributed Resources Interconnected with Electric Power
Systems
IEEE Std 1547
1547.1TM
1TM Standard for Conformance Test Procedures for Equipment
Interconnecting
Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems
IEEE 1547.2TM Application Guide for IEEE Standard 1547, Interconnecting Distributed
Resources
with Electric Power Systems
IEEE 1547.3TM Guide for Monitoring, Information Exchange, and Control of Distributed
Resources
Interconnected with Electric Power Systems
y
IEEE P1547.4 Draft Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration of Distributed Resource
Island
Systems with Electric Power Systems
IEEE P1547.5 Draft Technical Guidelines for Interconnection of Electric Power Sources
Greater Than
10 MVA to the Power Transmission Grid
IEEE P1547.6 Draft Recommended Practice for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with
Electric

DG Interconnection Protection

Factors that will accelerate DG installations

are:

Low-cost natural gas

- That has changing for the worse and de-accelerated DG in early
2000s ---- Now prices have gone down.

High electricity rates

The advance of CHP as driver

New technology : microturbines and fuel cells. Microturbines are

pretty much a dead technology.

Unreliability of utility supply to critical process and loads

The Northeast blackout of August 2003 and Calif. Rotating

Blackout.
Government Mandated Green Power High Buy Back and/or
Mandating a Percent of Future Power be Green.

10

DG Interconnection Protection

Consumer Shaving Strategies

Peak Shaving
No electrical export

DG Interconnection Protection

Load Following

Load
Generation

Morning

Midday

Night

11

DG Interconnection Protection

Why Green Power

Federal and State Governments Push for Renewable Resources.
Green Power Is In.
Two Basic Strategies:
1. PUC Mandate That a Percentage of Generation is Green by a
Given Date. This Typically Fosters Installation of Large Blocks of
Green Energy Installation such as
n Wind Farms .
2. Increase the Buy Back Rate and Let Market Forces (Typically
IPPs) Install Green Generation.
Generation This Typically Fosters Smaller
Generators Installed on Distribution Systems.
Technological Advances have Reduced Green Power Costs.

DG Interconnection Protection

DG: Green or Not Green

Not Green
- Burn conventional fuel
Gas
Diesel, oil, gasoline

Green
- Use renewable sources to reduce reliance of fossil fuels:
Solar
Methane (from decomposition)
Wind
Hydro
Diesels Powered by Syn Fuel
Biomass (burn it)
Tidal

12

DG Interconnection Protection

Islanded Operation of DG with Utility Load

is Generally Not Allowed
Utility Substation

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads

Feeder Isl and

If DG creates a feeder island,

reclosing requires synchronizing at the utility
substation

Greatly complicates restoration

DG
- Requires synchronizing at utility substation
- Inhibits automatic reclosing
Power quality issue
- DG may not be able to maintain voltage, frequency and harmonics within
acceptable levels (load generation; no harmonic sink)

Loads

DG Interconnection Protection

DG Facility Islanding to the Utility is Allowed

Utility Substation

Loads

Loads

Loads

Loads
Loads

Loads
Loads

Loads

n
Loads
Loads

Loads
Loads

Loads

Loads
DG can create its own island,
and synchronize to the utility

Feeder deenergizes when utility opens feeder

Restoration responsibility on the DG
- Requires synchronizing to utility
- Inhibits automatic reclosing

13

Loads
DG

DG Island

DG Interconnection Protection

Smart Grids
Full Integration of all Components of the Distribution System
Through By-Directional Communication
Communication.
+ Peer to Peer Relay Communication
+ Adaptive Relaying

+ Full Control of Load

+ Energy Storage
+ MircoGrid Operation System During Contingencies

DG Interconnection Protection

Smart Grids --- MircoGrids

14

DG Interconnection Protection

Smart Grids --- MircoGrids

DG Interconnection Protection

High Penetration of DG on Distribution Systems

Will Require Smart Grid Technology to Control
System Voltage

15

Voltage control with high levels

of DG require some type of
adaptive watt/VAR control

DG Interconnection Protection

Challenges for the Protection Engineer

Applying Todays Technology

Seamless integration of DGs into the utility protection system

despite:
- Too many cooks in the kitchen
Owner, consultant, packager, utility
- Ownership boundaries
- Conflicting objectives of DG owners vs. Utility
Want everything for nothing
Want to pay for nothing

Making sure protection is correct and operational over the life of

the installation
- Settings are properly developed
- If system or installation changes, assess the impact on the
existing protection

DG Interconnection Protection

Interconnection Protection: Core Elements

Loss of parallel operation (anti-islanding)

- Voltage and frequency (27, 59, 81-U, 81-O) ; power (32F, 32R-U);
instantaneous overvoltage (59I) , rate-of-frequency change
(81R),Transfer Trip
- Based on load (real and reactive) not equaling generation
Except 59I, which is based on self-excitation of resonant
induction and synchronous generators with pole top capacitors

Fault backfeed detection

- Ground over/under voltage (27N, 27N/59N), ungrounded systems
- Phase and ground overcurrent (51V, 51N), grounded systems
Directional overcurrent (67, 67N) and impedance (21) may be
used
- Negative sequence overcurrent (46), detects ground faults
- All based on sensing abnormally high current or
abnormally low/high voltage as a result of faults

16

DG Interconnection Protection

Interconnection Protection: Core Elements

Detection of damaging system conditions

- Open phase condition or load imbalance (46, 47), negative
sequence current and voltage
- Phase sequence reversal (47), negative sequence voltage
- Loss of synchronism (78)
- Based on severe quantity imbalance (including reverse phase
rotation) or power system and DG going out of step

Abnormal power flow detection

- DG Export (32F)
- Low
L
DG Import
I
t (32R-U)
(32R U)
- Transformer magnetizing (32F, very sensitive)
- These strategies are used when the DG is sized so it cannot
physically or contractually export (peak shaver)

Facilitate proper restoration

- Reconnect timer (all generators)
- Sync check (synchronous only)

DG Interconnection Protection

Interconnection Protection Placement

Utility
DG Interconnection
Protection

Sync

Interconnection
Transformer

DG

Point of
Common
Coupling

Loads

Loads

17

DG Interconnection Protection

Interconnection Protection Placement

Utility
Ungrounded
Primary
Onlyy

Interconnection
Transformer

Point of
Common
Coupling

DG Interconnection
Protection

Sync

DG

Loads

Loads

DG Interconnection Protection

Interconnection Protection Placement

Utility
Ungrounded
Primary
Only

Point of
Common
Coupling

Interconnection
Transformer

DG Interconnection
Protection

Sy nc

Point of
Interconnection

DG

Loads

18

Loads

DG Interconnection Protection

What Utilities Generally Specify

Utility-grade interconnection relays

- Pass all pertinent ANSI standards

CT and VT requirements (quantities sensed)

Winding configuration of interconnection transformers

Functional protection
- 81U/O, 27, 59, etc.
- Settings of some interconnection functions
Pick ups
Times (to clear faster than utility reclose)

DG Interconnection Protection

Types of Generators
Induction
Synchronous
Asynchronous (Static Power Converters)

19

DG Interconnection Protection

Induction Generator

VAr Source

Induction
Types of
- Excitation provided externally by system
Generators
VAr
VA drain
d i
- Less costly than synchronous machines
Wind Power
No excitation system or control
No sync equipment needed
- Limited in size to <=500 KVA
- May cause ferroresonance after disconnection from
utility (self-excitation from nearby caps)

DG Interconnection Protection

Type I Wind Turbine Generator

Induction Generator
Pitch Regulated
Squirrel Cage
Induction Generator
Direct Grid Connected

20

DG Interconnection Protection

Type II Wind Turbine Generator

Induction Generator
Variation of Type I
Variable Slip
Wound Rotor
Induction Generator
Rotor Brought Out via
Slip Rings
Rotor Resistance
Modified Electronically
to Control Speed-Torque

DG Interconnection Protection

Induction Generator Short Circuit Calculations

--- Voltage source in series with the direct axis
sub-transient inductance

That means for a 3-phase fault at the LV

terminals, it contributes approximately a
maximum symmetrical short-circuit current with
a magnitude equals to the induction generator
locked rotor current during the first cycle after
the fault.

21

DG Interconnection Protection

Induction Generator Short Circuit Current Decay

3-phase fault on MV bus

DG Interconnection Protection

Type III W ind Turbine Generator

Double Fed Induction Generator
Pitch Regulated
W ound Rotor Induction
Generator
AC/DC/AC Power
Converter Betw een Rotor &
Grid
Pow er Converter Controls
Controls Torque
Stator Directly Connected to
Grid
Fast VAR Control

22

DG Interconnection Protection

DG Interconnection Protection

Typical Wind Farm One Line

23

DG Interconnection Protection

Induction Generator: Ferroresonance

Ferroresonance can take place between an induction

machine and capacitors after utility disconnection from
f d
feeder.
F
Ferroresonance
can also
l
occur on Synchronous
S
h
Generators!

Generator is excited by capacitors if the reactive

components of the generator and aggregate capacitors are
close

This interplay produces non-sinusoidal waveforms with

high voltage peaks. This causes transformers to saturate,
causing non-linearities to exacerbate the problem

DG Interconnection Protection

Induction Generator: Ferroresonance

The overvoltage can damage insulation, damage arrestors

and cause flashovers

Standard overvoltage (59) element may not detect this

conditionthey RMS the waveform, missing the high
peaks, and may have a long time delay (e.g. 30+ cycles)

A peak instantaneous overvoltage (59I) element will detect

and protect against this condition
p
- This element should sense all three phases!

24

DG Interconnection Protection

Test Circuit Setup

FERRORESONANCE
NEW YORK FIELD TESTS 1989
FIELD TEST CIRCUIT

DG Interconnection Protection

Induction/Synchronous Generator:
Ferroresonance can also occur on synchronous
generators

25

DG Interconnection Protection

Conditions for Ferroresonance

1. DG Must be Separated From the Utility System
((islanded condition))
2. KW Load in the Island Must be Less than 3 Times
DG Rating
3. Capacitance Must be Greater Than 25 and Less
Than 500 Percent of DG Rating
4. There Must be a Transformer in the Circuit to
P
Provide
id Nonlinearity
N li
it
SOLUTION : USE 59I ELEMENT

DG Interconnection Protection

Synchronous Generator

Types of Generators
Internal Combustion
Engines
Small Hydro

Synchronous

Gas Turbines

Dc field provides excitation

Need to synchronize to utility system

26

DG Interconnection Protection

Asynchronous Generator
VArs

Types of
Generators
Solar, PV
Fuel Cells
Wind

Asynchronous

- St
Static
ti P
Power C
Converter
t (SPC) converts
t generator
t frequency
f
to system frequency (dc-ac or ac-dc-as)
- Generator asynchronously connected to Power System
+ may be self-commutating (needs sync relay)
+ may be line-commutating (no sync relay needed)
-

IEEE P 929 and UL 1741 Provide Guidance on SPCs

DG Interconnection Protection

Asynchronous Generator:
Static Power Converter

S
Some
h
have built-in
b ilt i anti-islanding
ti i l di protection
t ti
- SPC tries to periodically change frequency
If grid is hot, SPC cannot change the frequency
If grid has tripped, the frequency moves and the controller
trips the machine

Difficult to test; some utilities do not trust and require

other protection

27

DG Interconnection Protection

Type IV Wind Turbine Generator

Power Converter Coupled
Pitch Regulated
Wound Rotor Induction
Generator
AC/DC/AC Power
Converter Coupling to Grid
Either Induction or
Synchronous
Fast VAR Control

DG Interconnection Protection

DG Types & Capacities

Technology

Typical Capacity

Photovoltaic (Solar)
Wind

10 s W to several 100s
10s
100 s W
100s W to a few MW

Geothermal
Hydro

100s kW to a few
n MW
100s W to a few MW

Reciprocating Engine

100s W to a few MW

Combustion Turbine
Combined Cycle
Microturbines
Fuel Cells

10s MW to 100s MW
A few 10s of MW to 100s MW
10s of kW to 100s kW
10s of kW to 10s of MW

28

Utility Interface
DC to AC Inverter
Induction and synchronous
generators, AC to AC
inverter
Synchronous generator
Induction or synchronous
generator
Induction or synchronous
generator
Synchronous generator
Synchronous generator
AC to AC Inverter
DC to AC Inverter

DG Interconnection Protection

Impact of Interconnection Transformer

Ungrounded Primary Transformer Winding
- O
Overvoltage
lt
may be
b caused
d by
b DG when
h
ungrounded
d d
primary transformer windings are applied (no ground
source) and the DG backfeeds once utility disconnects
Grounded Primary Transformer Winding
- Ground fault current contribution caused by DG
grounded primary transformer windings during utility
faults
- Source feeder relaying and reclosers responding to
secondary ground faults within the DG facility

DG Interconnection Protection

Ungrounded Primary: System Backfeed

Backfeed to Utility
DG

n
DG Facility
a

Ground Fault

Van=Vag

ground

n=g

vag=0

Van= -Vng

Vbn=Vbg

Vbn=Vbg

Vcg

Vbg
n

Unfaulted
b

c
Vcn

29

Vbn

DG Interconnection Protection

Sensing Ungrounded System Ground Faults

with 3 Voltage Transformers
Backfeed to Utility
DG

n
DG Facility

59
N

Ground Fault

Van=Vag

ground

n=g

vag=0

Van= -Vng

Vbn=Vbg

Vbn=Vbg

Vcg

Vbg
n

Unfaulted
b

c
Vcn

Vbn

DG Interconnection Protection

Sensing Ungrounded System Ground Faults

with 1 Voltage Transformer
Backfeed to Utility
DG

59
N

27
N

DG Facility
a

Ground Fault

Van=Vag

ground

n=g

vag=0

Van= -Vng

Vbn=Vbg

Vbn=Vbg

Vcg

Vbg
n

Unfaulted
b

c
Vcn

30

Vbn

DG Interconnection Protection

Saturation Curve of Pole-Top Transformer

Many utilities only allow use of ungrounded primary windings if the DG

sustains at least a 200% overload on islanding
The overload prevents the overvoltage from occurring

DG Interconnection Protection

Ungrounded Primary Interconnection

Transformers

Low
Voltage
(SEC.)

High
Voltage
(PRI.)

DG

31

DG Interconnection Protection

Ungrounded Primary Interconnection

Transformers
Problems
Can supply the feeder
circuit from an
ungrounded source
after substation
breaker A trips
causing overvoltage

Low
Voltage
(SEC.)

High
Voltage
(PRI.)

DG

DG Interconnection Protection

Ungrounded Primary Interconnection

Transformers
Problems
Can supply the feeder
circuit from an
ungrounded source
after substation breaker
A trips causing
overvoltage

n
Advantages
Provide no ground
fault backfeed for
fault at F1 & F2
No ground current
from breaker A for a
fault at F3

Low
Voltage
(SEC.)

High
Voltage
(PRI.)

DG

32

DG Interconnection Protection

Grounded Primary Interconnection

Transformers

Low
Voltage
(SEC.)

High
Voltage
(PRI.)

DG

DG Interconnection Protection

Grounded Primary Interconnection

Transformers

Problems
Provides an unwanted
ground current for supply
circuit faults at F1 and F2

Allows source feeder

relaying at A to respond to
a secondary
yg
ground fault
at F3 (Ygnd-Ygnd only)

Low
Voltage
(SEC.)

DG

33

High
Voltage
(PRI.)

DG Interconnection Protection

Grounded Primary Interconnection

Transformers
Problems
Provides an unwanted
ground current for
supply circuit faults at
F1 and F2

Allows source feeder

relaying at A to
respond to a
secondary ground fault
at F3 (Ygnd-Ygnd only)

Advantages
No g
ground current from
breaker A for faults at F3
(delta sec. only)
No overvoltage for ground
fault at F1

Low
Voltage
(SEC.)

No overvoltage for ground

fault at F2

High
Voltage
(PRI.)

DG

DG Interconnection Protection

Typical Interconnection Protection

UTILITY

Anti-Islanding
M-3410A Functional
Diagram

59
I

81

59

Loss of Parallel Operation Detection

Over/under frequency & over/under
voltage window

Note 1

47

27

51
V

60
FL

51
N

46

32

3Y

25
Waveform Capture

Sequence of Events

Communications
(Modbus)

LED Targets

User Interface
with PC

M t i
Metering

79

Programmable I/O

52
I

Note 2
BUS

52
G

Notes:
1) Supply VTs are not necessary if potential to relay terminals is <= 480 VAC
2) Bus VTs are not necessary if potential to relay terminals is <= 480 VAC

34

59I may be applied to detect

ferroresonance between
induction/synchronous machines and
capacitor banks.

DG Interconnection Protection

Typical Interconnection Protection for

Wye-Ground (PRI.) Interconnection Transformer
UTILITY

Fault Backfeed Removal

M-3410A Functional
Diagram

59
I

81

51
N

59

Note 1

47

27

51
V

60
FL

46

Grounded
Primary

Fault Backfeed Removal Detection

Typically not required for induction

generator or small synchronous DGs
- can rely on loss of parallel
protection

Moderate to large DGs

- phase faults: 51V
- ground faults: 51N

32

3Y

25
Waveform Capture

Sequence of Events

Communications
(Modbus)

LED Targets

User Interface
with PC

Metering

79

Programmable I/O

52
I

Note 2
BUS
Notes:
1) Supply VTs are not necessary if potential to relay terminals is <= 480 VAC
2) Bus VTs are not necessary if potential to relay terminals is <= 480 VAC

52
G

DG Interconnection Protection

Typical Interconnection Protection for

Ungrounded (PRI.) Interconnection Transformer
Fault Backfeed Removal

UTILITY

M-3410A
M
3410A Functional
F nctional
Diagram
59
N

Same as Grounded System, except:

27
N

59
I

81

51
N

46

59

47

27

51
V

60
FL

Fault Backfeed Protection uses

27N/59N or 59N to detect for ground
faults on system backfed from an
ungrounded primary interconnection
transformer

51N cannot detect ground fault

fed from ungrounded source

n
32

Waveform Capture

Sequence of Events

Communications
(Modbus)

LED Targets

User Interface
with PC

Metering

79

Programmable I/O

3Y

52
I

Note 2
BUS

52
G

Ungrounded
Primary

Note 1

Notes:
1) Supply VTs are not neccessary if potential to relay terminals is <= 480 VAC
2) Bus VTs are not neccessary if potential to relay terminals is <= 480 VAC

35

DG Interconnection Protection

Typical Interconnection Protection

UTILITY

Abnormal Conditions
M-3410A Functional
Diagram

59
I

81

51
N

59

46

Note 1

47

27

51
V

60
FL

32

3Y

25
Waveform Capture

Sequence of Events

Communications
(Modbus)

LED Targets

User Interface
with PC

Metering

79

Programmable I/O

52
I

Abnormal Conditions
Unbalanced currents
- open conductor/single phase (46)
- phase reversal (47)
Not just for commissioning
Ferroresonance
instantaneous overvoltage (59I)
Fuse Loss
- Potential loss detection ((60FL))

Note 2
BUS

52
G

Notes:
1) Supply VTs are not necessary if potential to relay terminals is <= 480 VAC
2) Bus VTs are not necessary if potential to relay terminals is <= 480 VAC

DG Interconnection Protection

Typical Interconnection Protection

UTILITY

Abnormal Power Flow

M-3410A Functional
Diagram
59
I

81

51
N

46

59

Note 1

47

27

51
V

60
FL

32

3Y

25
Waveform Capture

Sequence of Events

Communications
(Modbus)

LED Targets

User Interface
with PC

Metering

79

Programmable I/O

52
I

Note 2
BUS

52
G

Abnormal Power Flow

Enforces interconnect contract
- Prohibits DG from providing
power to utility in violation of
interconnect contract (32F,
32R-U)

Notes:
1) Supply VTs are not necessary if potential to relay terminals is <= 480 VAC
2) Bus VTs are not necessary if potential to relay terminals is <= 480 VAC

36

Sometimes used to detect

transformer magnetizing (must
be veryy sensitive))

DG Interconnection Protection

M-3410A DG Interconnection Relay

DG Interconnection Protection

Load Following Calf. Rule 21

Load
Generation

Morning

Midday

Night

37

DG Interconnection Protection

California Rule 21:

Options for Non-Export

Option
O
ti 1
- Use sensitive 32F relay, set at 0.01 pu (0.1%) of
interconnection transformer rating

Option 2
- Use 32R-U relay to guarantee import of at least 5%
of gross generator capacity

DG Interconnection Protection

California Rule 21:

Directional Power Options
Utility System
Forward + -

VT
2 7 , 5 9 ,8 1 U /O ,
25
CT

32
Reverse -

Local
Load

Two 32 Directional Power Options

- 32F, Sensitive forward (+) power
- 32R-U, Low reverse (-) power

38

DG Interconnection Protection

32F, Sensitive Forward (+) Power

Utility
System
O
Open
Switch

VT

Forward +
32

CT
Excitation
KW

Local
Load

32F relay set to operate on transformer excitation or magnetizing current

- Typically about 0.1% of transformer rating

Need transformer test sheet data to calculate value of magnetizing watts

DG Interconnection Protection

32R-U, Low Reverse (-) Power

Utility
System

32

120/1
CT
Reverse (-)

480V

G1

Local
Load

G2

32R-U Relay pickup set to at least 5% (-0.05 p.u.) of total connected generator
rated KVA
32R-U Relay programmed to trip when imported power falls below the
pick-up level

39

DG Interconnection Protection

Low Import Power: 32R-U

Minimal Export Power: 32F

Th
These
elements
l
t can cause nuisance
i
tripping
t i i off the
th DG if
large load swings occur in the DG facility

This may call for some adjustment of practices in the DG

facility

DG Interconnection Protection

Floating the Interconnection

Circuit breaker closed

Utility Source

Feeder Loads

Low Import Power (32R-U)

Generation adjusted to match local load

with small bias
Requires metering and governor control

Local
Load

400 kVA

40

Pow er Import
5 kVA

DG

395 kVA

Gen = Load - Bias

395 = 400 - 5

DG Interconnection Protection

Floating with Large Motor Loads

Circuit breaker closed

Feeder Loads

Utility Source

Low Import Power (32R-U)

Pow er Import
5 kVA

All circuit breakers closed

Generation adjusted to
match local load with
small bias
Part of load 40 kVA of
motors

Local
Load

40 kVA

360 kVA

DG

Gen = Load - Bias

395 = 400 - 5

395 kVA

DG Interconnection Protection

Ouch! Nuisance Trip!

Circuit breaker closed

Feeder Loads

Utility Source

Low Import Power (32R-U)

Momentary
export
<= 35 kVA

Motor breaker tripped,

others remain closed

Sudden loss of 40 kVA

Momentary power
outflow develops at PCC

Local
Load

DG

0 kVA

360 kVA

395 kVA

41

Gen = Load - Bias

395 = 365 - 5

DG Interconnection Protection

Countermeasures to This Possible

Miscoordination Problem (1)

Increase the bias on the DG governor so it produces less

power, and a wider margin is maintained to account for the
load fluctuations

Although the bias can eventually be widened enough so

nuisance trips do not occur, it may not be in the economic
best interest of the DG facility to import power when the DG is
in operation.

DG Interconnection Protection

Special Situation:
Use of Rate-of-Change of Frequency 81R

81R has been used widely in Europe as a means of antianti

islanding protection

In conjunction with wider set 81-U and 81-O, it allows:

- Faster tripping on severe load/generation imbalances postutility disconnection
- More forgiving of slower moving frequency excursions that
occur in system emergencies
- As higher DG penetration is forecast, the use of 81R may
allow DG to stay on-line during system emergencies, right
when the capacity is needed

42

DG Interconnection Protection

Special Situation:
Use of Out-of-Step 78- Reciprocating
Engines

78 may be used to protect a DG from damage from Out-ofOut of

Step (OOS) conditions

OOS conditions can occur from uncleared faults, particularly

3-phase, that pull down voltage and reduce power transfer

If mechanical power exceeds synchronizing power, the

generator will pull out of step

This can place enormous stress on the shaft (snap!) and

cause rapid rotor heating

Power Quality issue for utilities customers

DG Interconnection Protection

Special Situation: Reciprocating Engine Out

of Synchronism Condition (78)

43

DG Interconnection Protection

Special Situation: Reciprocating Engine Out

of Synchronism Condition (78)

1.

System frequency will remain at nominal during prolonged fault clearing

2.

Voltage may not go down enough for undervoltage protection to protect the pole slip

3.

OOS protection will detect the acceleration of the rotor and the resultant angle increase past 90 in the
case of a possible unstable swing

DG Interconnection Protection

Comprehensive DG Interconnection Package

44

DG Interconnection Protection

Comprehensive DG Interconnection Package:

Wye-Grounded Transformer Primary

DG Interconnection Protection

Comprehensive DG Interconnection Package:

Ungrounded Transformer Primary

45

DG Interconnection Protection

M-3520 Integrated Protection Systems

DG Interconnection Protection
Ungrounded Primary

UTILITY

M-3520 Relay

27
N

59
N

1 or 3

M-3520 Intertie Relay

25
59
I

67
N

79

81
R

50

46

2 or 3

81

59

47

27

60
FL

67

51
V

32

21

3Y

Waveform Capture
LED Targets (opt)
Sequence of Events
Programmable I/O
User Interface with PC
Metering
HMI (optional)
IRIG-B Input
Communications (MODBUS or BECO 2200)

52
I

BUS
XX

= standard function

XX

= optional function

52
G

46

DG Interconnection Protection

DG Trip & Restoration Possibilities

Utility
Multifunction Intertie Relay

Protection

25

n
Supervises "A"
Reclosing

Auto
Sync

Auto
Sync

Trips "B" & "C"

Trips Breakers B&C if:

Generation cannot
support local load

Re-sync at breakers
B&C after utility
restoration

LOADS

CASE #1 - Local Load Exceeds Generation

Restoration Practice
Interconnection relays trip DG generator breakers (B&C)
When utility restores, DG generator(s) auto synchronize to return to service

DG Interconnection Protection

DG Trip & Restoration Possibilities

Utility
Multifunction Intertie Relay

Protection

CLOSE

25

n
Supervises "A"
Reclosing

OPEN

Auto
Sync
S

Auto
Sync
S

Trips "A"

LOADS

Closing of Auto Sync

Switched to Breaker A

CASE #2 - Local Load Matches Generation

Restoration Practice

Interconnection relays trip main incoming breaker (A)

When utility restores, 25 function (with , F, and V) supervises recloses A which is auto sync by switching
VT Sources as shown

47

DG Interconnection Protection

DG Reconnect Timer & Reclose Permissive

Used to ensure utility has gone through successful reclose

cycle
- Set longer than total reclose cycle
- Uses permissive from voltage and frequency functions to
- ensure utility source is back and viable

Impact on utility reclosing

- Reclose delay must be longer than DG protection total
clearing time (relay+breaker+margin) for all protections!
- Lengthens reclose time

DG Interconnection Protection
10kW

Texas

1
3

50kW

500kW

1,000kW

2,000kW

2,500kW

10,000kW

27, 59, 81U/O, 25

59N or 51N, 32

32

81U

TT

IEEE
1547

Co
om Ed

Rule 21

Entergy
y

27, 59, 81U/O, 25

59N or 51N, 32

32

81U

TT

27, 59, 81U/O, 25

Sensitive (Xfmr Mag.)

27, 59, 81U/O, 25

32

LFP

27, 59, 81U/O, 25 -- Gen. < 50% of minimum load

Gen. > 50% of minimum load
Special Constraints, add 50BF, 21-2, TT

27, 59, 81U/O, 25, 32

48

27, 59, 81U/O, 25

59N/27N, 51,
51N, 32, 21

DG Interconnection Protection

Transformer Connections

Texas
- Not specified

Entergy
- Ygnd/delta or delta with zig-zig/Ygnd

Rule 21 (California)
- Not specified

Commonwealth Edison
- Delta/not specified

IEEE 1547
- Not specified

DG Interconnection Protection

Interconnection Transformer
IEEE Distribution Practices Survey 1/02

2002 Survey
- Grounded wye primary 58%
- Delta primary 9%
- Other 33%

1995 Survey
- Grounded
G
d d wye primary
i
33%
- Delta primary 33%
- Other 33%

49

DG Interconnection Protection

DG Impact on Distribution Protection

IEEE Distribution Practices Survey 1/02

No effect 22%

Revised feeder coordination 39%

Added directional ground relays 25%

Added direction phase relays 22%

Added supervisory control - 22%

Revised switching procedures 19%

DG Interconnection Protection

DG Impact on Utility Reclosing

IEEE Distribution Practices Survey 1/02

Revise reclosing practices 50%

Added voltage relays to supervise reclosing 36%

Extend 1st shot reclose time 26%

Added transfer trip 20%

Eliminate reclosing 14%

Added sync check 6%

Reduce reclose attempts 6%

50

DG Interconnection Protection

The Trouble with Reclosing:

Breakers or Reclosers

If high speed reclosing is employed, the DG interconnection protection must be faster!

Clearing time includes protection operation and breaker opening

DG Interconnection Protection

Summary

Properly designed interconnection protection

concerns of both DG owners and utility

Interconnection transformer configuration plays a pivotal role

in interconnection protection

State, National regulators and IEEE continue to struggle to

provide meaningful interconnection guidelines
- Some of these standards are devoid of substantive technical
guidance

Restoration practices need

interconnection protection

to be part

51

of

addresses

the overall

DG Interconnection Protection

Recommended Reading

Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook, Marcel

Dekker,, by
y Neil Petchers,, ISBN# 0-88173-349-0

On-Site Power Generation, by EGSA, ISBN# 0-9625949-4-6

IEEE 1547, IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed

Resources with Electric Power Systems,
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/scc21/

Intertie Protection of Consumer

Consumer-Owned
Owned Sources
Generation 3 MVA or Less, IEEE PSRC WG Report

of

DG Interconnection Protection

Recommended Reading

Update on the Current Status of DG Interconnection

Protection--What 1547 Doesnt Tell You,, Charles Mozina,,
Beckwith Electric, presented at the 2003 Western Protective
Relay Conference

Relay Performance in DG Islands, Ferro, Gish, Wagner and

Jones, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, January 1989

Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering, McGraw

Hill,, Section 4.3,, Electrical Interconnections,, W. Hartmann,,
ISBN# 0-07-019435-1

52

Power Quality Primer

Christine Goldsworthy
Bonneville Power Administration

27th Annual

Hands-On Relay School

March 15 19, 2010
Washington State University Pullman, Washington

Table of Contents
1.0

Power Quality and Standards Overview

2.0
2.1

Sags - ITI (CBEMA) & Semi 47-0706

Voltage Swells Case Study

3.0

Voltage Fluctuations - Light Flicker

4.0
4.1

Power Factor & Capacitance

Harmonics

5.0

Case Study System Impedance and Distributed Generation

Portions of this Power Quality presentation have been incorporated and reprinted with Permission from:
2

Power Quality = Voltage Quality

Power, is the rate of delivery
of energy and is proportional
to the product of voltage and
current.

It would be difficult to
define the Quality of this
quantity in any
meaningful way.

The power supply system

can only control the quality of
the voltage; it has no control
over the currents that
particular loads draw.

There is always a close

relationship between
voltage and current in any
power system.

We must address the phenomena in the current

passing through the system impedance to understand
the basis of many power quality problems.
3

 2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

 2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

IEEE 1159 2009 General PQ Classifications

(Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality)
Categories
*(1)(3)
Transients

Impulsive

Oscillatory

Short
Duration
Variations

Instantaneous

Momentary
root-meansquare
(rms)
Temporary

Typical
Duration

Typical
Voltage
Magnitude

Typical
Spectral
Content

Nanosecond

< 50 ns

5 ns rise

Microsecond

50 ns 1 ms

1 us rise

Millisecond

> 1 ms

< 5 kHz

Medium
Frequency

0 8 pu

5 500 kHz

High
Frequency

0 4 pu

0.5 - 5 MHz

Typical
Causes *(3)

Example of
Power
Conditioning
Solutions*(3)

Lightning,
Electrostatic
discharge, Load
switching,
Capacitor
switching

Surge Arresters,
Filters,
Isolation
Transformers

*(3)
Peak Magnitude,
Rise Time,
Duration

0.1 ms rise

0 4 pu a.

Low Frequency

Method of
Characterization

Waveshape,
Peak Magnitude,
Frequency
Components

Line/Cable
switching,
Capacitor
switching

Ferroresonant
Transformers,
Energy Storage
technologies,
UPS

Sags
Swells

0.5 - 30 cycles
0.5 - 30 cycles

0.1 0.9 pu
1.1 1.8 pu

Interruptions
Sags
Swells

0.5 cycles 3
s
30 cycles 3 s
30 cycles 3 s

< 0.1 pu
0.1 0.9 pu
1.1 - 1.4 pu

Interruptions
Sags
Swells

> 3 s 1 min.
> 3 s 1 min.
> 3 s 1 min.

< 0.1 pu
0.1 0.9 pu
1.1 1.2 pu

> 1 min

0.8 0.9 pu

Long
Duration
(rms)
Variations

Undervoltage
Overvoltage

> 1 min

1.1 1.2 pu

Imbalance

Voltage

steady state

0.5 2 %

Current

steady state

1 30%

RMS vs Time,
Magnitude,
Duration
Duration

rms vs time

Remote System
Faults,
System
Protection
(breakers),
Load Pick-up

Voltage
regulators,
Ferroresonant
transformers

Motor Start,
Load Pickup
Load Variations,
Capacitor bank
(in or out),
Transformer Tap
setting,

Voltage
Regulators,
Ferroresonant
transformers

IEEE 1159 - General PQ Classifications contd.

Typical
Duration

Typical
Voltage
Magnitude

DC Offset

steady state

0 0.1%

Harmonics
*(1)(2)

steady state

Interharmonics

steady state

Notching

steady state

Noise
Voltage Fluctuations
(Flicker)

Categories

Waveform
Distortion

Power Frequency Variations

Typical
Spectral
Content

Method of
Characterization
*(3)

Typical
Causes *(3)

Example of
Power
Conditioning
Solutions *(3)

0 20%

0 50th
Harmonic

0 2%

0 9kHz

Harmonic
spectrum, Total
Harm. Distortion,
Statistics

Non-Linear
loads, System
resonance,
Transformer
saturation

Filters (active
or passive),
Transformers
(cancellation
or zerosequence
components)

steady state

0 1%

broadband

intermittent

0.1 7%
0.2 2 Pst b.

< 25 Hz

< 10 s

+ 0.10 Hz

Intermittent
loads, motor
start, Arc
Furnace

Static Var
systems

NoteThese terms and categories apply to power quality measurements and are not to be confused with similar terms defined in IEEE std 1366 and other
reliability-related standards, recommended practices, and guides.
a. The quantity 1.0 pu corresponds to 100%. The nominal condition is often considered to be 1.0 pu. In this table, the nominal peak value is used as the base for transients and
the nominal rms value is used as the base for rms variations.
b. Flicker severity index Pst as defined in IEC 61000-4-15:2003 and IEEE Std 1453-2004.

*Notes:
1)
Magnitudes, durations, spectral content are typical but may exceed listed values.
2)
PQ Monitors may only measure up to the 50th or 70th harmonic as determined by sampling rates, but harmonics up to the 100th can be generated.
3)
Data Source - EPRI 2007 PQ Seminar.

2.0 Voltage Sags

IEEE 1100 ITIC (Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC)

grew into the Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers
Association (CBEMA)

Semi 47-0706 (Semiconductor Equipment and Materials

International)

Voltage Sags # 1 PQ Issue for Sensitive Equipment

Standards provide requirements for Voltage Sag Immunity for Sensitive Equipment :
Semiconductor process equipment (SEMI 47)
Food Industry Process Equipment (SEMI 42)
IEEE 1100-2005 Powering & Grounding Electronic Equipment (Green Book)
(ITIC/CBEMA)
10

Duration 3 cycles

-5

Magnitude (50%)
-10

-Remote Fault9

Voltage Sag Standards for Process Equipment

The best way to Guarantee that Process Equipment is Compatible with its
Electrical Environment is to Require the Equipment to Comply with Voltage Sag
Standards

OEMs have to be Forced to Incorporate Voltage Sag Tolerance into their

Equipment

The Push has to come from End Users

EPRI has shown that Machines can be Built to Comply with Voltage Sag
Standards, like SEMI F47, with almost no Difference in Cost

Recognized Voltage Sag Standards

SEMI F47-0706 (Semiconductor Equipment and Materials Institute)
IEC 61000-4-11 and 61000-4-34 (International Electrotechnical
Commission)
ITIC (Information Technology Industry Council)
10

2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

Information
Technology Industry
Council (ITIC) CBEMA
Curve

t < 20 ms typical region for

capacitor switching transients.

t > 50ms (3 cycles) typical

region for faults.

Curve applicable to 120V,

120/208, and 120/240 Nominal
Voltages

11 IEEE 1100-2005: New ITI (CBEMA) curve (2000)

Original CBEMA Curve Replaced by ITI (2000) CBEMA Curve

Capacitor Switching Transients measured w/RPM PQ Meter

Not Actual
Events Meter
connection
changes.

12

SEMI F47-0706 Sag Immunity Levels for Semiconductor

Process Equipment
Table 1 Required Voltage Sag Immunity
Sag Depth

Duration at 50 Hz

Duration at 60 Hz

50%

10 cycles

12 cycles

70%

25 cycles

30 cycles

80%

50 cycles

60 cycles

#1 Sag depth is expressed in percent of remaining nominal voltage. For example, during a 70% sag on a 200 volt nominal system, the voltage is reduced
during the sag to 140 volts (not 60 volts).

Table R1-1 Recommended Voltage Sag Immunity

Sag Depth

Duration at 50 Hz

Duration at 60 Hz

0%

1 cycle

1 cycle

80%

500 cycles

600 cycles

Test Methods: Semi 47 references IEC 61000-4-34 & 61000-4-11

for actual testing except where differences are noted.
13

IEC Low Frequency Phenomena

International Electrotechnical Commission - IEC

IEC 61000-4-11 is Intended to be used for Equipment LESS Then 16A

IEC 61000-4-34 is Intended to be used for Equipment GREATER Than16A
Both Standards can be Downloaded from http://www.iec.ch/
The Intent of IEC 61000-4-11 and -34 is to Define Voltage Dip Test
Levels, not for Specific Types of Equipment, but Attempts to Define the Environment
of the Equipment
IEC 61000-4-34 applies to Equipment over 16A and IEC 61000-4-11 for Equipment
Under 16A
Table 1 Below are the Voltage Dip Test Levels from the IEC 61000-4-34 and -11
Standards

14
2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

Voltage Sag Test Equipment: Porto-Sag (

Sag generators are the ideal tool for testing and qualifying
OEM equipment for sag immunity and ride-through tolerances.

Similarly portable sag generators can provide a myriad of test

voltage & currents of varying sag depth and duration for onsite/in factory testing under controlled conditions.

Testing can be done

at process levels or
component level to
help find the weakest
link(s).

15
2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

Effects of Voltage Sags on

Adjustable Speed Drives

16
2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

Example Response of ASD to Short Interruption

If either the EMO (emergency off) relay
or main contactor are susceptible to
voltage sags, the entire tool can shut
down during a sag.

17
2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

Voltage Sag Impact on ASD

Drive Trips on Undervoltage

18
2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

Embedded
Solution
Strategies

Batteryless Ride-Through Devices

(BRTDs)

Use Selective Power

Conditioners on
susceptible loads
CVT and
Power Ride
RTD

Embed the Solution through proper

design, configuration and
component selection strategies

Utilize a combination of
both strategies

DPI and VDC

19
2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

DYSC

CoilLock

Low Voltage
Ride Through
Module

Dip Proofing Inverter (DPI)

No batteries; therefore, no replacement and maintenance costs or hazardous waste.

Fast (<700s) transfer, off-line system develops little heat & fails to safety.

Able to withstand high inrush currents; no need to oversize as with UPSs & CVTs.

Lightweight, small & easy to retrofit; no step-up transformers or batteries.

Accurate application control; adjustable ride through time & variable transfer level.

Primarily designed for inductive low power factor loads.

20

2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

Voltage Dip Compensators

(VDC)

4T Model Down to 50%

VDCs maintain the control voltage

for switchgear such as electrically
held-in contactors and relays
during sags.

6T Model Down to 37%

21
2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

PQ estimates indicate that about

92% of all sags have a sag depth
of 50%.

Cost of Solutions versus Equipment Sensitivity

$$$$

Knowledge of Equipment Sensitivity

22
2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

2.1 Voltage Swells

Case Study: September, 2009

Arrester Failures

Islanded Motors

3. Overvoltages Steady State (SS) Variations

(Swells: 1.1 1.8 pu rms for 0.5 cycles to 1 minute)

Common Sources:

SLG Fault Unfaulted Phase

Large Capacitor Switching in
Load Variations
Load Dropping

RMS Measurement Voltage Swell of

110% + lasting app. 3800ms

24

Case Study Voltage Swells at Steam Plant

2 Coal-Fired Steam
Generators 750 MW ea
New Scrubbers added
Recently to Reduce
Emissions
Problem:
Multiple Surge Arrester Failures
on Steam Plant Startup Transformers
25

Startup Transformer
Arrester Damage

26

Steam Plant Owner:

Why is your power system failing
my arresters?

Steam plant receives startup power from 230 kV line.

Line is 3-Terminal (3 sources)

plus part-time steam plant startup load

27

One-Line Diagram

28

Waveforms: DFR Record Normal, Everyday B Phase Fault

29

Very Abnormal C-ph Fault: 1.5 pu Overvoltages on A-ph

30

1 sec

Very Abnormal C-ph Fault: 1.5 pu Overvoltages on A-ph

31

3 sec

Very Abnormal C-ph Fault: 1.5 pu Overvoltages on A-ph

32

3 sec

B-ph Fault: 1.8 pu Overvoltages on A-ph

with A-ph Collapse (Arrester Failure)

33

Reclose into A & B-ph Faults

From
Failed Arresters on Both Phases

Investigation:

Relay Operations were Proper

Overvoltages Occur During Open

Time (Energization from Steam
Plant

34

Transformers and Loads at Plant Note Ungrounded Primaries

35

Backfeed Condition

Slowly Decreasing Frequency Indicates High-Inertia Motors

Only Occurs when a Main Generator is Off Line and Its Auxiliary Loads
(Motors) are Fed from the Startup Transformers

High-Inertia, 9000 hp Induction Motors that were Added Recently

Causing Backfeed Problem

Large Capacitance from Long 230 kV Line (22 Mvar) Allows Induction
Motors to Self-Excite

Voltage Swell Equipment Damage Caused by Steam Plant Itself

Neutral Shift

Ungrounded Wye on 230 kV Side Acts Like Delta Winding - Allowing Full
Neutral Shift During Backfeeding

High Temporary Overvoltages (TOV) During Backfeeding Fails Arresters

First Fault Leads to Backfeeding Condition and Arrester Failure, Leading

to Second Fault and Another Arrester Failure..
36

Fixes for Problem

Steam Plant to Install Relaying to Detect Backfeed

Condition and Trip Off the Sources of Energization.

Steam Plant to Ground the 230 kV High Side Neutrals of

the Startup Transformers to Eliminate the Neutral Shift.

Lessons Learned

Unusual Situation Large, High-Inertia Motors and Large

Capacitance Will Combine to Act Like Generators.

Motors Cannot Always be Ignored as Potential Sources of

Islanding Problems.

Repeated Arrester Failures Will Nearly Always be From 60

Hz-Type Overvoltages.

Very Lucky to Have the A-ph Line Potential on the DFR. If

There is Space, It is Always Good to Add It.
37

Additional Power Quality Complaint from Steam Plant

Is it Necessary to Have Multiple Ends of a Line Reclose
into a Fault, putting More Stress on Loads?

38

Multiple Reclosures into a Fault:

Solution:
Introduce New Logic
Programming for the SEL
421 to Create Drive to
Lockout and Use Hot Line
Check.

Problem:
Steam Plant Concern
over Damage to Other
Motors with Three
Reclosures for Each Fault

Consider Making it a
System Standard at 230 kV
When its Possible
(Like Reclose Blocking with
Transfer Trip at 500 kV)

39

3.0

Voltage Fluctuations Light Flicker

Light Flicker Limits

IEEE Stds. 141 & 519

and . . .

IEEE Std. 1453 Graph

Replaced by - EIC
61000-4-15

Limits are based on the

subjective severity of the flicker
imposed on the light from a
230V/60W filament lamp.
The characteristic response of the
human eye is between 0.5 Hz 35 Hz
and is most sensitive around 8 9 Hz.

41

IEC 61000-4-15 Establishes flicker measurement criteria

Pst is the measure of short-term perception of flicker obtained for a

ten-minute interval.
A Pst of 1.0 represents the level that 50% of people would perceive
flicker in a 60W incandescent bulb.

Flicker severity
(Pst) is measured
over a 10 minute
observation period
Tst= 10 min.

Pst = 0.0314 P0.1 + 0.0525P1s + 0.657 P3s + 0.28P10s + 0.08P50s

IEC 6100-3-3:
Compatibility levels for Pst and Plt in LV and MV power systems . . .
Compatibility Levels
Pst

1.0

Plt

0.8

compatibility levels are the upper limit . . . Plan for lower levels

Imposes limits on the

voltage changes and
fluctuations induced
by a given appliance
connected to the
mains supply

Planning Levels
MV

HV-EHV

Pst

0.9

0.8

Plt

0.7

0.6

IEC 61000-3-3

42

Comparing flicker measurement methods

N

Plt =

i =1

Psti3

Plt = Long term measurement

Where Psti (i=1,2,3,) are consecutive readings
of the short-term severity Pst

12

Plt =

3
P
sti
i =1

12

Plt for a two hour period made

up of 12 consecutive Pst values.

Chart from IEEE 1453-2004

(withdrawn in 1/2010)
43

Flicker Producers . . . Common Sources

Sources
Arc Furnaces
Welding Plants
Motor Starts
Air Conditioners/Heat
Pumps HVAC
Adjustable speed drives
(ASDs)

Distributed Generation

Photovoltaic systems

Wind Turbines

Motor starting current (locked rotor)

may be 6 to 9 times the normal
running current due to its own rotor
inertia plus that of the load.
Maximum allowable motor start
current maximum allowable flicker
x short circuit fault current

ZSYS I LR = Vdrop(max) = 3% VSYS

ZSYS =

VSYS
ISC

Vsys
ISC

I LR = 3% VSYS

I LR = 3% ISC
44

4.0 Power Factor & Capacitance

Power Factor Basics

Power factor is a measure of how effectively equipment can convert current, from the power
system, to power that actually performs work.

True power factor (TPF) the ratio of real power (kW) to apparent power (kVA) includes the
60hz component plus all the harmonics.

Displacement power factor (DPF) is for the fundamental 60 Hz component (linear circuits) only
and is a measure of the angle between the voltage and current COS.

Cost is the major incentive for improving PF - Utilities and Generators

must design and build the system to meet the kVA (apparent power)
demands of the loads not just the real power (kW).

Utilities can charge penalties to customers with low PF charges are

often assessed for loads < .95 PF.

Loads requiring reactive power (kvar) such as motors,

transformers, relays (Wirewound equipment) require magnetizing
current (kvar) kvars lower the PF.

Electronic (non-linear) loads are contributing to lower PF due to

harmonic currents drawn by reactive/energy storage components
in switched-mode power supplies, ASD drives, etc.
46

PF and Beer? (True vs. Displacement Power)

kW The thirst quenching good

part

kvar Foam, Does not quench

thirst

kVA Total contents of the mug

PF= kW / kVA

PF Beer / (Beer + Foam)

For a given kVA: The more foam

you have (the higher the percentage
of kvar), the lower your ratio of kW
(beer) to kVA (beer + foam). Thus
the lower your power factor.

The less foam you have (the lower

the percentages of kvar), the higher
your ratio of kW (beer + foam). In
fact, as your foam (or kvar)
approaches zero, your PF
approaches 1.0.

kvar
kVA
kW

47
2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

Power Factor Formulas

DPF = COS

kVA = kW 2 + k var 2

(DPF cannot account for nonsinusoidal loads)

kW (60hz & Harmonics)

TPF =
kVA

Use when correcting to less than unity: PF<1

k var( needed ) = kW (tan(a cos(PFold )) tan(a cos(PF( desired ) )))

48

Correcting PF with Capacitors - Issues

to be addressed
Capacitor Limitations With the prevalence of sensitive and harmonic
producing loads such as switched-mode power supplies the use of power
factor correction capacitors is becoming increasingly complex.
Voltage

Magnification may produce voltage swells/system overvoltage, or

magnification of harmonic voltages.
Switching

Transients may trip ASDs/VSDs, create errors in PLC data

stream or relay misoperation.
Harmonics

may generate resonance with system impedance if harmonics

are present (expect harmonics to be present), create high currents causing
capacitor fuses to blow or fail capacitors.
49

Capacitor Voltage Magnification

Design for less than unity PF allowing for

reductions/fluctuations in load leading PF may cause
voltage to go too high.

% V =

k varcapacitor % Z transforme r
kVA transforme r

Sizing Options - Fixed, Switched or combination:

Fixed Bank for consistent load or severe weather loads
Switched bank switched in smaller increments for widely varying
loads during daytime
Combination - fixed & switched

50

1. Transients Impulse

(capacitor switching)

Common
Sources:
Lightning
Capacitor

Switching
Switching

Electro-Static

Discharge

July 10, 2003 at 09:51:49 Local

Trigger
Max131195
Min -105774
Duration
0.064 Sec

100000
50000
Volts

Load

MCMCAPS
Phase A Voltage
Wave Fault
150000

-50000
-100000
-150000
0

20

40

60

Time (mSeconds)

51

80

100
Electrotek

Capacitor Switching Transients

Capacitor Switching Restrike

Zero crossing
causes
erroneous
relay operation
in ASDs

52

Smoothing out Transients for ASDs

ASDs dc smoothing capacitor in the dc link can a have fairly narrow threshold
for dc overvoltages. Drives can be tripped for overvoltages as low as 1.17pu.

Capacitor switching surges can result in low frequency (300-800Hz) surge

currents into the dc link capacitor.

The surge current charges capacitor and causes a dc overvoltage.

The most common

method is to provide
isolation through the
use of inductors
(chokes) by reducing
the surge current.

A harmonic filter can

also be used to protect
the power supply but
can be costly and may
not completely
eliminate the problem.

53

4.1 Harmonics

Harmonic Resonance & the Role of Capacitance

Circuits appear predominantly inductive.

The addition of capacitance, i.e. Power factor correction,

may cause a resonance with the system/facility
inductance near a harmonic source frequency.

Harmonic resonance should be checked whenever a

harmonic producing load is present and particularly if
shunt capacitors are present.

Newer capacitors have lower losses, less damping due

to lower resistance

55

Harmonic Distortion - Time Domain

Harmonic Wave Generator
6
5
4
3
2

Volts

1
0
-1
-2

60hz Fundamental,

180hz 3rd h,

300hz 5th h

-3
-4
-5
-6
0

0.02
F

time
H3

H5

3rd & 5th Harmonic

6

Voltage (V)

Distorted voltage waveform

-2

-4

-6
0

0.01

0.02

0.03

time (s)
F+H3+H5

56

Harmonic Distortion Limits

Distortion limits
in IEEE 519

57

Sources of Harmonic Distortion

ASD Current PWM (Pulse Width
(Non-Linear Loads)
Modulation) type ASD

Variable/Adjustable Speed Drives

(VSD/ASD)
Variable Frequency Drives (VFD)
Switched-Mode Power Supplies
(SMPS)
Arc Devices Arc Furnaces, Welders
Fluorescent Lighting Electronic
Ballasts
UPS Systems

58

Electronic Power Supplies Typical PQ Issues

The current drawn from the mains supply by the SMPS rectifier circuit occurs in
short pulses (dc capacitor charging) around the AC voltage peaks. These pulses
have significant high frequency energy which reduces the power factor.

As the dc capacitor charges, it will cause the voltage to drop at the peak of the
voltage waveform. This causes the peak to be flattened somewhat (a condition
known as flat-topping)

The input current of basic switched-mode power supplies have high harmonic
content and relatively low power factor.

Mains
Input

Input Rectifier &

Filter

Inverter
Chopper
(Typ. 20kHz
Switching)

Output
Transformer
(High Frequency)

Output Rectifier &

Filter

AC - DC Switched-Mode Power
Supply (SMPS)
Chopper
Controller

59

DC
Output

Note flatopping of the voltages often due to

Switched-mode power supplies.

15000
10000
5000
0
0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0.04

-5000
-10000
-15000
U1

U2

U3

80
60
40
20
0
-20

PF1
PF2
PF3

-0.65
-0.92
-0.98

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0.04

-40
-60
-80
I1

I2

I3

Note: Relatively high vars (reactive power) and high harmonic current distortion in Channel 1
resulting in low PF. High K factor is an indicator of what will be increased harmonic load
on transformers.
60

Harmonic Related Problems

Blown Capacitor Fuses

Reduced Capacitor Life
Transformer & Reactor Overheating, Increased
losses, Reduced Life
Neutral Overheating
Motor & Generator Overheating
Control Circuits & Breaker Misoperation
Metering Inaccuracy
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), Communication
Circuit Interference

61

Harmonic Current
Content for Typical 6
Pulse Converter

N(6 1)

N =1

62

Frequency
(Hz)

Magnitude
(%)

60

100

300

17.5

420

11.0

11

660

4.5

13

780

2.9

Typical harmonic
current signatures
for common nonlinear loads

Switched-Mode Power Supply

L1

120VAC

Switcher
and
Controls

63

DC

Current Source Inverter

(CSI) type ASD. . .
. . . creates a regulated current
in the dc link inductor.
Commonly used to source
large inductive motor drives.
The level of current is
regulated to match the
motor current
. . . low motor speeds present
a poor power factor.
Current waveform and harmonic spectrum for ASD input current [IEEE 1159]

64

Electronic ballasts for fluorescent lights are more

efficient and faster turning on than magnetic ballasts
but are also a source of non-linear currents.

65

Amps
H=5th & 7th
H=17th & 19th
H=11th & 13th

H=23th & 25th

Amps
66

Harmonic Distortion - Example

Large refrigeration plant using 50Hp 150 Hp variable speed drive (VSD)
motors to run condensers for cooling/refrigeration.

Very high levels of harmonic currents causing thermal overloads in plant and
voltage distortion on utility distribution system I - THD 36.52%.

Higher frequency harmonics in this example could also cause interference with
communication circuits.

I THD =
I THD =

2
I
h

I 12
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
220
135
55
40
45
35
50
55
5
7
11
13
17
19
23
25

7702

I THD = 36.7%
67

THD and TDD for Current Distortion

Voltage distortion is measured with reference

to the fundamental 60HZ bus/system voltage
which, over time, is not expected to vary
greatly.

THD =

However, current (Load) can vary

considerably over time so that measuring
current distortion with respect to the maximum
demand load current is a more meaningful
expression of current distortion than THD.
The Demand can be measured over 15, 30, or
60 minute periods and calculated as the
average of the maximum demand current for
12-months.

68

n =2

Vfundamental

TDD =

2
h

I
n=2

2
h

*100%

IEEE 519 Total Demand Distortion

(TDD) Limits for 120V 69kV Systems

69

Harmonic Phase Sequences

Harmonic
Order

Sequence

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th

7th

8th

th

10th

th

11

12th

13th

etc

Triplen Harmonics (Triplens) are the odd multiples of

the third harmonic: 3, 9, 15, 21 . . .

Transformer connections can have a significant impact

on the flow of triplen harmonics from singe phase, nonlinear loads.

Measuring current on the delta side of a transformer will

not show the triplens.

When the load currents are balanced in a transformer

the following items hold true for triplens.
For (Y-) connected TXs:
1. In the Y winding triplen currents flow in each line
and add in the neutral since they are in phase.
2. Triplens flow inside the delta but are trapped and
do not show up in the line currents outside the .
For (Ygnd-Ygnd) connected TXs:
1. Balanced triplens flow from the LV
unimpeded.
70

HV system

Neutral Overload due to Triplens

5

3rd harmonics add in the

neutral whereas the
fundamentals cancel.

All triplens will add in the

neutral but the 3rd harmonic
tends be the highest and most
problematic.

5
-5

5
-5

-2

-4
0

-6

-5

SMPS (Switched-Mode Power Supplies) have a distinctively high 3rd harmonic.

When an older building (built before the electronic boom) is serving many SMPS
loads the neutral conductor may be undersized and become overloaded.
71

Transformer Overload due to Harmonics [

3rd

Flow of
harmonic current in
three phase transformers

72

Overheating due to harmonics

additional vars supplied to loads
drawing harmonic current.
Neutral connections are
particularly susceptible to
overheating.

Additional Hysteresis losses (heat

in core laminations) Increase
w/Frequncy.

Additional losses due to magnetic

flux I2R eddy current heat
losses also increase
w/Frequency/

Skin effect conductor heating

increase w/Frequency

Derating Transformers for Harmonics

UL 1561-1994 & UL 1562-1994 define the K-factor for dry type

transformers.

The K-factor

K factor =

1
I 2R

2 2
I
hh
h =1

Example K-factor calculation from

C57.110:

2500 kVA, 480V 3- TX

IR= 3007 A (rated full load

= K-factor = 0.97

rms current on 480 V winding)

Compare

K-factor to IEEE/ANSI Std. C57.110-2008 FHL Harmonic Loss Factor.

(Recommended Practice for Establishing Liquid-Filled and Dry-Type Power and Distribution Transformer Capability

When Supplying Nonsinudsoidal Load Currents)

73

Common Sources:

Waveform Distortion
Steady State Variation

74

Nonlinear Loads
System Resonance
Transformer Saturation

5.0 Case Study System Impedance

and Distributed Generation

System Interactions due to voltage fluctuations

from DGs
Large Motor

M
Voltage
Regulator

SUBSTATION

End of Feeder

FEEDER

LTC
DG

Possible
Interactions

Ratio of DG Output
to Utility Fault Level
76

Example: 50 MVA Wind Integration

77

Problem 1

Problem 2

Large and frequent fluctuations in

69kV system voltages.

High 5th harmonic (6-7%) on system

when the 69 kV loop is opened (for
line maintenance).

Generator is regulating system

voltages.

Harmonic resonance suspected when

generation level is low (0-5MW).

69 kV loop serves multiple

Distribution Utility loads some
w/sensitive loads.

Utilities' voltage regulator operating

excessively in response to voltage.

DG design does not incorporate

sufficient volt control (this is not a
system problem)

Wind Generator is experiencing

frequent 600 V CLR failures at
individual turbine sites.

Combination of 69 kV system
impedances and up to 2Mvars cable
capacitance (varies with generation
level as turbines are on/off line
tuning capacitor effect)

Issue for both problems Weak system/high system impedance

78

IEEE 1547 Requirements for Distributed Resource

Interconnection
4.1.3 Synchronization
The DR unit shall parallel with the Area EPS (Electric Power System) without causing a voltage
fluctuation at the PCC (Point of Common Coupling) greater than 5% of the prevailing voltage
level of the Area EPS at the PCC, and meet the flicker requirements of 4.3.2.
4.3 Power quality
4.3.1 Limitation of dc injection
The DR and its interconnection system shall not inject dc current greater than 0.5% of the full
rated output current at the point of DR connection.
4.3.2 Limitation of flicker induced by the DR
The DR shall not create objectionable flicker for other customers on the Area EPS.11
4.3.3 Harmonics (IEEE 519 - Short Circuit Test)
When the DR is serving balanced linear loads, harmonic current injection into the Area EPS at the
PCC shall not exceed the limits stated below in Table 3. The harmonic current injections shall be
exclusive of any harmonic currents due to harmonic voltage distortion present in the Area EPS
without the DR connected.

79

IEEE 1574(1-4) Standards for integration of

Distributed Generation < 10 MW

Stiffness: The ability of the power system to resist voltage deviations caused by
distributed generation or loading.

Stiffness ratio (SR): The relative strength of the system, at the PCC, compared with
the DR.

SR =

SC kVA(SYS) + SC kVA( DR )
SC kVA( DR )

SR =

SC kVA(SYS)
SC kVA( DR )

+1

1547 Currently only addresses DG of with an aggregate capacity of 10

MVA or less.

1547.5 (Draft) to Address DGs >10 MVA

80

Problem 1: Failing CLRs - Addressing the

Harmonic Resonance

No single factor is responsible for the resonance.

Many loads are served by this system all are potential

sources of harmonics.

A weak system allows harmonic currents to develop

problematic (6-7%) harmonic voltage distortion at the 5th
harmonic.

The best solution for this example is to install a harmonic

filter tuned around the 5th harmonic.

Add an LC filter on the Wind Farm 34.5 kV bus.

81

Parallel Resonance

Parallel resonance occurs when the combination of an inductive reactance

and capacitive reactance create a high impedance at the resonant
frequency.

Source reactance may be in the form of utility system sources and line
impedances, transformer impedance, or a combination of these.

Capacitance may be power factor correction capacitance, voltage

support capacitors, or cable capacitances.

Harmonic current sources (non-linear currents) create voltage distortion

due to high impedance at or near resonant freq..

High harmonic voltages drive high harmonic currents in the capacitor and
system inductive (source, line) reactance's.

Capacitor failure can occur if the voltage increase exceeds the capacitor
voltage rating.

82

Effect of Capacitor Size on parallel resonant frequency

83
[1]EPRI Power Quality Workbook for Utility and Industrial Applications

Series Resonance

When series resonance occurs a low impedance path is created for harmonic currents.
Series resonance tends to occur near the end of radial lines with capacitors near the end.
Radial lines frequently terminate on load serving transformers with power factor (PF) correction
capacitors and the combination can lead to series resonance between the transformer inductance
and PF capacitance.
The resultant harmonic voltage distortion can also lead to induced interference with parallel
communication circuits.

Low Impedance Series

Resonance becomes a
sink for a portion of the
system harmonics.
Customer may not have
any non-linear loads but
may see high voltage
distortion.
84

Calculating resonant frequency :

f =

1
2

LC

This approximation works for typical power impedances

(60Hz) for the resonant harmonic based on fundamental
frequency impedances:

hr =

Xc
X sc

MVA sc
Mvar cap

kVAtx * 100

kvarcap * Ztx(%)

MVAsc = system short circuit MVA

Mvarcap=Mvar rating of capacitor bank
85

Estimated Harmonic Resonance Calculate hr

Enter 3-phase MVA short circuit availability at the bus:

MVAsc= 35MVA

Note: If MVAsc is not known it can be estimated

from transformer ratings:
a. Enter transformer rated kVA:
b. Enter percent impedance from nameplate:
c. Calculate app. MVAsc by dividing line [a] by
10 times line [b]:

kVAT=
XT=

kVA
%X

MVAsc

MVA

Enter the total kvar of capacitors connected to the bus

and all feeds off the bus ( at same voltage level):

3 short circuit MVA

hr =
3 Mvar

35 MVA
hr =
1500 kvar
86

kvarcap= 1500kvar

hr = 4.8

Reducing the Effects of Harmonics

Use harmonic filters.
Derate transformer, generators, and motors.
Oversize neutral conductors.
Maintain a stiff system low system impedance
to minimize voltage distortion.
Verify Controls will work with non-linear loads.
Utilize true RMS sensing
circuit breakers,
tripping units, Meters,
Harmonic Filter
relays, and equipment.

XL
87

X
Hn
C

Harmonic Filter Design

Hn
kV
Mvar
XC
XL
XL

XL

X
Hn
2

Harmonic Order For Tuning

4.7

Capacitor Voltage (L-L)

4.16kV

3 Phase Capacitor Rating

800kvar

Capacitor Impedance

XL = kV2
(Mvar)N2

XC@60hz = kV2 = (4.16kV)2

(Mvar) (800kvar)
XC@60hz = 21.63 ohms

=X
C

XL = XC = 21.63 = 0.9792
N2
(4.7)2

N2

Reactor Impedance

XL = 0.9792 ohms
88

Problem 2: System Voltage Regulation

Addressing a Weak Transmission System

Wide voltage swings, seen at the PCC, are affecting voltages

at other substation buses on the utility system.

Large and frequent voltage variations are causing problems

with loads on the system customer utility voltage regulators
excessive operations.

DG design does not provide adequate regulation with existing

capacitors & controls. Direct-connected asynchronous
generator - oldest type of Wind generator w/high var demand
and difficult to coordinate PF correction capacitors.

89

IEEE 1547 PQ Requirements

Voltage regulation
The DR should not actively regulate the voltage at the PCC or
cause service voltages to go outside the requirements of ANSI
C84.1-1995, Range A.
ANSI C84.1 Maximum Utilization Voltage 72.5 kV

Wind DG - Voltage Trend

75
74

Manage flicker to
levels in IEEE 1453 &
IEC 6100-3-3

73

Voltage fluctuations at
the PCC < 5% of the
prevailing voltage level
of the Area EPS at the
PCC.

Volts (kV L-L)

72
71
70
69
68
67
66

5.8kV = 8%

65
8/4/2009
0:00

8/5/2009
0:00

8/6/2009
0:00

90

8/7/2009
0:00

8/8/2009
0:00

8/9/2009
0:00

8/10/2009
0:00

8/11/2009
0:00

Comparing Voltage Fluctuations of 2 Different Wind

Generators
V 7 8 kV (11%)
128

75

127

74

126

73

125

72

124

71

123

70

122

69

121
120

68

119

67

118

66

7/26/2009 0:00

7/31/2009 0:00

8/5/2009 0:00

8/10/2009 0:00

NC KV

CW KV

V 2 3 kV (2.2%)
91

8/15/2009 0:00

8/20/2009 0:00

System Voltage Following the DG

76
74
72
70
68
66
64
7/26/2009 0:00

7/31/2009 0:00

8/5/2009 0:00

8/10/2009 0:00

CW KV

DM KV

92

8/15/2009 0:00

8/20/2009 0:00

Comparing System Strength to Harmonic Limits

Compare Short Circuit

Ration (SCR) and Stiffness
Ratios to those in 519.

93

IEEE 519 Harmonic

Current limits associated
with SCR can be good
indicators of potential DG
problems - not only for
harmonics but potential
Voltage Regulation and
Flicker.

Problem 2: Solutions Considered

Three solutions were considered:
1.

Static Var Compensator Very Sexy BUT:

Very High initial/install cost

More importantly Can be maintenance intensive, prone to

harmonics themselves if not properly designed/maintained,
controls are complex, high cost of replacement parts, 1520 Year to obsolescence of controls.

2.

Shunt Capacitor at Substation DM to improve system

impedance/PF and decrease voltage swings.

3.

Change system configuration:

69 kV line was originally built to 115 kV

DG step-up generator has a double strapped primary to

operate at 69 kV or 115kV.

Transmission Utility and one of the load customers agreed

to replace/add transformation to operate at 115 kV.
94

Option 2 Selected for Best Overall Customer &

System Improvements
New connection to 115 kV doubles the SCR

95

MVAsc(69kV)
MVAsc(115kV)

MVAsc MWGEN SCR

142.6
50
2.85
327.9
50
6.56

Stiffness
Ratio
3.85
7.56

Solutions for Voltage Fluctuations caused by DG Starting

Inverters
Soft start (limited rate of change of power output at starting)
Synchronous machines
Use better voltage matching and phase angle synchronization at contact closure
Induction machines
Use good speed matching
Limit inrush by inserting impedance or reduced voltage start

Voltage Fluctuations - Reducing Interactions Between Devices

Voltage regulators, switched capacitors and DGs

Adjust settings such as time delay, bandwidth, voltage set point, etc.
Change DG operating mode, governor settings, exciter response settings (if
possible)
DG to DG dynamic interactions
If possible adjust generator governor and exciter response

96

Summary Today's Environment

Three major changes in the characteristics of loads and
power systems have altered the nature of the power
quality equation:
1.

Greater sensitivity of devices and equipment to

power quality variations.

2.

The interconnection of sensitive loads in

extensive networks and automated processes.

3.

An increase in loads that use power electronics

in some type of power conversion process.
97

Shared Responsibility
Certain power quality variations are unavoidable, and part of
operating a power system such as lightning transients and faultinduced sags. These are difficult to eliminate without assessing
unacceptably high costs that are ultimately borne by the
consumer.

Certain power quality variations have become so

commonplace that they are virtually impossible to eliminate
entirely, such as the presence of harmonics on utility systems.

There must be three equal partners in assuring power quality

problems do not arise or are managed to acceptable levels: the
utility, the end user, and the equipment manufacturers.

98

Acknowledgements

EPRI 2007 Power Quality Seminar Incorporated w/Permission and Courtesy of:
Mark Stephens, PE
Manager Industrial Studies
Electric Power Research Institute
942 Corridor Park Blvd
Knoxville, Tennessee 37932
Phone 865.218.8022
[email protected]

Bonneville Power Administration Case Studies and Waveform Data courtesy of:
SPC Central Staff - TECS
5411 NE Highway 99
Vancouver, WA 98663
Rita Coppernoll Manager SPC Technical Services

Presenter:
Christine Goldsworthy, Electrical Engineer
Substation Maintenance & High Voltage Equipment Engineering
5411 NE Highway 99
Vancouver, WA 98663
99

References

[1]Power Quality Workbook for Utility and Industrial Applications, EPRI

TR-105500s -1995
[2]Electrical Power Systems Quality- 2nd Ed.; Dugan, McGranaghan,
Santoso, Beaty; McGraw Hill, 1996
[3]EC&M, Electrical Construction & Maintenance.
IEEE Std 1159-2009
IEEE Std. 519-1992, Recommended Practices and Requirements for
Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems
IEEE Std. 1100-2005, Recommended Practice for Powering and
Grounding Electronic Equipment
IEEE Std. 1547 2003, Standard for Interconnecting Distributed
Resources with Electric Power Systems
IEEE Std. 141-1993, Recommended Practice for Electric Power
Distribution for Industrial Plants
IEEE Std. 1346 Calculating Cost of PQ events
SEMI 47-0706

100