Humankind in a Biological World

(BIOL 100)

Human

Chimpanzee

Lion

Sea lion

Bat

6. Evolution and Speciation

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Mukhtar

Chair, Department of Biotechnology
American University of Ras Al Khaimah, UAE
!

Evolution
Evolution can broadly be defined as descent
with modification from a common ancestor. It is
the process by which Earths life-forms have
changed from their earliest beginnings to today.
But how did life first arise on Earth?

Population and Evolution

Generally, the word evolution means change, and the
process of evolution reflects this definition as it applies
to populations of organisms.
Biological populations are groups of individuals of the
same species that are subdivided from other
populations by geography and are somewhat
independent of other groups.

Biological Evolution
! Biological evolution is a change in the
characteristics of a biological population that
occurs over the course of generations. The changes
in populations that are considered evolutionary are
those that are inherited via genes.
! Changes that may take place in populations due
only to short-term changes in their environment
are not evolutionary. Obesity due to food habits
not an evolution

Four Possible Evolution

Models

Support for Common Descent Model

DNA Similarity of Humans

African
monkey
Gorilla

Chimpanzee

Human

Evolution/Emergence of Life on Earth

! Earth is estimated to be 4.5 billion years old.
Evidence from physical and chemical changes in
Earths crust and atmosphere suggests that life has
existed on Earth for about 3.8 billion years.
! The environment of the early Earth was very
different from that of today and would have been
an extremely hostile place for most organisms

How Life Emerged under Hostile

Environment
! Scientists hypothesize that conditions of the early
Earth favored the synthesis of small organic
molecules from inorganic molecules
! Specifically, the low-oxygen atmosphere of the
primitive Earth encouraged the joining of simple
molecules to form complex molecules
! Scientists further hypothesize that the energy
required for the joining of simple molecules could
have come from the lightning and intense ultraviolet
(UV) radiation striking the primitive Earth

A Model of Life Molecules

Emergences

Chemical Evolution
Organic macromolecules (proteins and genetic material)
aggregated into droplets
Beginning of living cells
Earliest cells
Prokaryotic cells (eg: bacteria) ~ 3.8 billion years ago
Eukaryotic cells (eg: yeast, fungus) ~ 1.8 billion years
ago
Multicellularity
Evolved ~ 1.5 billion years ago
Eventually led to organisms such as plants, and
animals

Chemical Evolution Led to Life

on this Earth

Charles Darwin
! In the mid-nineteenth century, the actual
mechanism for evolution was independently
conceived of and described by two naturalists:
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.
! Importantly, each naturalist spent time exploring
the natural world on expeditions to the tropics.
! From 1831 to 1836, Darwin traveled around the
world on H.M.S. Beagle, including stops in South
America, Australia, and the southern tip of Africa.

Galapagos Islands
! Galapagos Islands west of
Ecuador. On these islands,
Darwin observed species of
organisms on different
islands that were clearly
similar, yet had distinct
differences.
! For example, the ground
finches inhabiting the
Galapagos Islands comprised
several species with a unique
beak shape

Darwin - Theory of Natural Selection

! He postulated that the beak of an ancestral species
had adapted over time to equip the finches to
acquire different food sources
! Natural selection, also known as survival of the
fittest, is the more prolific reproduction of
individuals with favorable traits that survive
environmental change because of those traits; this
leads to evolutionary change
! Tortoise story

Molecular Aspects of Evolution

! Natural selection can only take place if there is
variation, or differences, among individuals in a
population. Importantly, these differences must
have some genetic basis; otherwise, the selection
will not lead to change in the next generation
! Genetic diversity in a population comes from two
main mechanisms:
! Mutation and
! Sexual reproduction

Theory of Natural Selection

! Differences in DNA account for differences
between species and even between individuals of a
species
! DNA is divided into units called genes
! Genes determine all the characteristics and
processes in an organism
! Random change of the genes (rare accidental
events that produce slightly different form of a
gene) can lead to new or modified characteristics

Mechanism of Natural Selection

! These changes in DNA (mutation) may produce
characteristics in an organism that cause it to
survive better under particular conditions than
organisms that do not posses the mutation.
! Such organisms are selected by nature to survive
and reproduce due to the mutation - process is called
Natural selection
! Natural selection causes survival of the fittest
! Evolutionary change occurs as the traits of
successful individuals become more common in the
population through reproduction

Evolution Evidences
Evidence that humans and all other life forms have
evolved over time comes from the following sources:
Fossil record
Biogeography
Comparison of anatomical and embryological
structures
Molecular biology (DNA analysis)

Fossil Record
Fossils are preserved remains and impressions of past
organisms
Fossilization occurs as hard body parts such as
bones, teeth, and shells become filled with minerals
from surrounding water and sediment (erosion,
uplifting of Earths crust or human excavation
expose fossils)

Fossils Records
Fossils of extinct organisms show similarities to, and
differences from, living species
Can be a link between ancient organisms and
modern species
Example: whale evolution: whales are thought to
originate from terrestrial (land) animals that
returned to the water

Fossils Preservation

Fossilization Examples

a) A body will decompose unless it is covered by

sediment or volcanic ash.

b) Hard elements of a body may be

preserved from decomposition
if they are covered quickly.

c) Over time more layers of sediment,

ash, or soil are deposited. The hard
elements of the organism become
mineralized by the same minerals
that comprise rocks.

22.1
d) Occasionally erosion, uplifting
of the earths crust, or human
excavation may expose fossils
to the surface.

e) A fossilized human
skeleton.

Fossils - More

Biogeography
Study of the geographic distributions of organisms
Related species are more likely
to be found in the same
geographic area than are
unrelated species
Example: marsupials (mammals
that carry their young in a pouch)

Comparative Anatomy
Homologous structures: Body parts that are similar in
structure but allow different functions, probably
share a common origin
Example: vertebrate forelimbs
Analogous structures: Body parts that are different in
structure but share a similar function but very
different origins
Example: bird wing and insect wing
Vestigial structures: body structures that no longer
have a function but are homologous to structures in
other organisms
Example: human coccyx (tail bone)

Comparative Anatomy
Homologous structures: These homologous forelimb structures
share a common evolutionary origin. Number indicate digits. Note how
homologous bones (indicated by similar colors) have undergone modification
in order to perform different functions in different vertebrates
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals 1

1
2

34 5

Phalanges

Human
(grasping)

2
3

5
1
4

Dog
(running)

4
2

Whale
(swimming)

Analogous structures. The birds wing and

the insects wings are both used for the same
function, but they evolved from entirely
different structures

Bird
(flying)

Birds wing

Insects wing

Comparative Embryology
Common embryological origins can be considered
evidence of common descent
Example: all vertebrate embryos look very similar
early in development
Comparison of the embryos of animals, especially
vertebrates show striking similarities in having
Gill or pharyngeal slits
Post-anal tail
Notochord/ spinal column

Embryology

Mammalian Embryo
Pharyngeal
arches

Brain
Eye

Somites
Notochord
Tail
Figure 22.5c

Species Elimination through

Mass Extinction
Extinction: a life-form dies out completely
Mass extinctions
5 mass extinctions in the last 530 million years
Most recent mass extinction: end of the dinosaurs

Human Evolution
Human origin trace back to the first primates
(mammals that live in trees including monkeys and
apes)
Primates probably arose from an insect-eating
mammal that lived in trees (eg: modern tree shrew)

A large tree shrew

Primates
! Primate characteristics reflect a living in trees
lifestyle specialized for manual capture of insects
! Flexible, rotating shoulder joints
! Sensitive pads on ends of feet and hands
! Nails instead of claws
! Grasping feet and hands
! Forward-facing eyes
! Large brain
! small litter size (a small number of children)

Examples of modern primates whose

members retain the ancestral features. The
female loris
(b) have many features characteristic of
all primates, including grasping hand and
feet, forward-facing eyes and smaller litter
size

Monkeys and apes are placed with

humans

Human Success Factors

"Many aspects of human skeletal anatomy reflect our
terrestrial lifestyle and upright way of walking
Bipedalism = walking on two feet
S-shaped spine
Large patella (bone that covers the knee)
Arms shorter than legs
Toes not opposable

Differences in skeletal anatomy and teeth between

chimpanzees and humans. Chimpanzees are quadrupedal
knuckle walkers, humans are bipedal with an upright
stance

Success Elements of Human Evolution

Bipedalism
Shortening of jaw and flattening of face
Reduced differences in body size between
males and females
Increased brain size along with tool use
Language and behavioral complexity

Species in Genus Homo

Species within the genus Homo (from earliest to
most recent)
~ 2.5 mya
Homo habilis (handy man)
~ 1.9 mya
Homo ergaster (working man)
Homo erectus (upright man)
~ 143,000 ya
Homo sapiens (thinking man)
~ 130,000 ya

Timelines to Homo sapiens

Cro-Magnon people are the first to be designated

Homo sapiens sapiens

Human Evolution
Two hypotheses for the evolution of modern humans
Multiregional hypothesis (= multiple origins)
H. sapiens evolved independently in Europe,
Asia, Africa, and Australia from distinctive local
populations of earlier humans
Out of Africa hypothesis (= single origin)
H. sapiens evolved from earlier humans in Africa
and later migrated to Europe, Asia, and Australia

Timeline for Human Evolution

Differences Among Humans

! Racial differences are slight differences in
characteristics between subgroups of a common
species
! Differences helped populations adapt to
environments
!Dark skin: provides protection from ultraviolet
(UV). Prevent damage in intense sunlight
!Light skin: allows adequate UV radiation for
vitamin D production in less intense sunlight

Differences in Homo sapiens

manifested as race

Review Questions
1. Define natural selection. How does natural
selection lead to evolution?
2. Define speciation. What are the mechanisms of
speciation
3. How does comparative anatomy and
embryology support evolution?
4. What are the main trends in human evolution?

Becoming Human Documentary

http://www.becominghuman.org/node/
interactive-documentary

Speciation Formation of New Species

!Speciation occurs along two main pathways:
! Geographic separation (allopatric speciation)
and
! Through mechanisms that occur within a
shared habitat (sympatric speciation)
Both pathways isolate a population reproductively
in some form.

New Species Pre-requisite

For a new species to develop,

something must cause a breach in the
reproductive barriers

Speciation
Charles Darwin
On the Origin of Species (1859)
Species are not specially created, unchanging
forms
Modern species are descendants of ancestral
species
Evolution occurs by natural selection
Natural selection leads to speciation
Speciation = formation of new species.
When populations become separated, they may
become genetically distinct and the separated
populations are no longer capable of successful
interbreeding. This can result in a new species
(source of biological diversity).

Allopatric Speciation
Allopatric speciation- When a new species arises due
to geographical separation from parent population
! African Elephant can be divided into 3 subspecies
due to geographical isolation:
! West African,
! Forest elephants of Central Africa
! Savannah elephants of Central, Eastern and Southern
Africa

Sympatric Speciation

Sympatric speciation- It occurs when a new species

originates while remaining in a geographically
overlapping area with the parent species

Speciation Rates Varies

Classification

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Mukhtar

Chair, Department of Biotechnology
American University of Ras Al Khaimah, UAE

Genetically Modified Food/Organism

Genetically modified foods (or GM foods) are foods produced

from organisms that have had specific changes introduced into

theirDNAusing the methods ofgenetic engineering.
The definition of GM foods may also include foods that have an a

deleted gene, foods such as cheese that are made from enzymes that
are from a genetically modified organism, and foods such as beef that
have been fed genetically modified feed.

Genetically Modified Foods

Why engineering -carotene (provitamin A)

biosynthesis into rice endosperm?
Milledriceisprovitaminafree

Symptomsofaprovitaminafreediet
Nightblindness
Xerophthalmia
Fatalsusceptibilitytochildhooddiseases(e.g.measles)

andgeneralinfections(diarrhoea,respiratorydiseases)

Epidemiology
124millionchildrenaredecientinvitaminA
12milliondeathsannually(14years)
0.250.5milliondeaths(510years)UNICEF;Humphreyetal.,1992)
Aseverepublichealthproblemin(118)countries(WHO)

Improved provitamin A Accumulation in

Golden Rice

Genetically Modified (GM) Foods

Created by inserting DNA from one organism into another (I.e. fish

genes into apples) OR modifying an organisms DNA to attain a

desirable trait. (I.e. a tomato with reversed DNA to slow down ripening)

Motivation for GM Foods

Traditionally, plants and animals were selectively mated in

order to get desired phenotypes. This took many

generations to improve organisms
Genetic engineering offers a rapid and precise method of

altering organisms as compared to traditional methods that

are slow and inaccurate

Information Flow
The components that make up DNA are the same in all
organisms. The sequence of these components is the recipe
for the proteins synthesized by different organisms. Proteins are
responsible for the characteristics exhibited by life forms. By
taking the DNA sequence that codes for a protein responsible
for a desirable characteristic and putting it into the DNA
(Genome) of another organism; the desired characteristic will
be expressed. The new sequence will begin to make the
intended protein.

How is genetic modification possible

The components of
DNA are the same in
all organisms.
Sequences that code
for proteins can be
moved from one
organism to another.

How can DNA be moved from one

organism to another
Find an organism with the desired

trait

Isolate the gene sequence that

codes for the desired trait

Insert the gene sequence into

the genome of the plant cell

Allow the genetically altered

cell to grow into a plant

Allow the plant to propagate

How can DNA be moved from

one organism to another
A vector/plasmid can carry
DNA.
Viruses and bacteria also can
be utilized to transfer genes.

Genetically modified
organisms

Genetically
modified
foods

Genetically modified foods

Benefits of GM Foods
Easing of world hunger
Development of crops
that can be grown in
marginal soil

Reduced strain on
nonrenewable resources
Development of drought
resistant crops
Development of salttolerant crops
Development of crops
that make more efficient
use of nitrogen and other
nutrients

GM Foods Benefits
Reduced use of

pesticides and
herbicides

Development of

pest resistant crops

Reduced
herbicide use is
better for the
environment and
reduces costs for
farmers

GM Foods Benefits
Improved crop quality
Development of frost resistant
crops
Development of disease
resistant crops
Development of flood
resistant crops

Improved nutritional
quality
Development of foods designed
to meet specific nutritional goals

Summarizing GM Foods - Benefits

Humanitarian:
Pest resistance
Herbicide
resistance
Cold tolerance
Drought
tolerance

Increased nutrition
Edible vaccines

Improved
farming

Cheaper
food
More
food

Reducing
world
hunger
and
improving
world
health

Environmental: reduced use of

herbicides and chemicals in farming.

Genetically Modified Animals

The microinjection
method uses a fine needle
to inject a solution of DNA
into a developing embryo

GM Plants
Agrobacterium that normally normally infects
plants with disease is used to infect plant with gene

of interests or

A particle gun is used to shoot small bits of

metal coated with the gene into the plant.

Genes into Plants

Agrobacterium mediated transformation is the most widely used

means of integrating DNA fragments of interested into the

genome of plant cells.
Naturally occurring plant pathogen,Agrobacterium tumefaciens
(soil bacterium).
Pathogenic Agrobacterium carry a large plasmid, referred to as
the Tumor Inducing or Ti plasmid, which is required for disease
transmission.
The Ti plasmid contains virulence genes (vir), which code for the
protein machinery required for transfer and integration of disease
causing genes into the host plants genome.

Genes into Plants

In the 1980s scientist took advantage ofA. tumefaciensability to

insert foreign DNA into plant chromosomes to develop highly

efficient vectors for plant transformation and genetic engineering.
By swapping the oncogenes from the T-DNA region of the Ti

plasmid with any plant gene expression cassette (containing a

plant promoter, a gene of interest and a transcriptional terminator
sequence), they were able to integrate their particular gene of
interest into the host genome without causing the disease.

Agrobacterium Transformation

GM foods in Canada
Foodsresultingfromaprocessnotpreviouslyusedforfood;
Productsthathaveneverbeenusedasafood;or

Health
Canada
groupsGM
foodsintoa
category
called
Novel
Foods.

F
oodsthathavebeenmodiedbygeneticmanipulation,also
knownasgeneticallymodied(GM)foods,geneticallyengineered
foodsorbiotechnologyderivedfoods

70 novel
foods have
been
approved
for sale
in Canada.

Potatoes
Canola
Corn
Tomatoes
Squash
Soybeans
Flax
Sugarbeets
Are all
examples!!

Thesecropsare
processedintothe
goodsingrocery
stores.
Fries,cakes,oils,
sugars,sauces
Animalsthatfeed
onGMOs
Andmoreall
withoutmandatory
labeling.

Issues with GM Foods

Environmental possibility of unintended

harm to other organisms:

potential risk of harm to non-target organisms,

e.g. a pest resistant crop that produces toxins

that may harm both crop-damaging and non
crop-damaging insects

e.g. The pollen of BT corn on milkweed is thought to

affect (slow or kill) the larvae of Monarch
butterflies. Further studies are underway.

Image credit: http://www.public-domain-photos.com/ & Microsoft clipart

Issues with GM Foods

Pesticides become less effective as pests

become resistant to modified crops.

Different varieties and strengths of pesticides

will be needed once weeds have adapted to

the existing effective pesticides.

Image credit: Microsoft clipart

Issues with GM Foods

Human health risks
Introducing a gene into a
plant may create a new
allergen or cause an
allergic reaction in
susceptible individuals
For example, inserting
genes from a nut into
another plant could be
dangerous for people
who are allergic to nuts

Image credit: Microsoft clipart

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Mukhtar

Chair, Department of Biotechnology
American University of Ras Al Khaimah, UAE
!

Questions?
! What Stem Cell are?
! Types of Stem Cells
! Why are we interested?

Stem Cells
! Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into

specialized cells and can divide (through mitosis) to produce more stem cells
(Daughter Cells)

! Daughter cells can be differentiated

! Stem Cells are found in multicellular organisms
! Mammals
! Embryonic Stem Cells
! Adult Stem Cells
! Cord blood Stem Cells

Humans > 200 Cell types

o Nerve cells (neurons), muscle cells (myocytes), skin (epithelial) cells,

blood cells (erythrocytes, monocytes, lymphocytes, etc.), bone cells

(osteocytes), and cartilage cells (chondrocytes)
o Cells essential for embryonic development but not incorporated into the

body of the embryo, include the extra-embryonic tissues, placenta, and

umbilical cord
o All of these cells are generated from a single, totipotent cell, the zygote,

or fertilized egg.

Embryonic stem (ES) cells

Where we find them
blastocyst)
cells'inside!
'='inner'cell'mass!

embryonic'stem'cells'taken'from!
the'inner'cell'mass!
outer'layer'of'cells!
='trophectoderm!

uid'with'nutrients!

culture'in'the'lab!
to'grow'more'cells'''!

Understanding Embryonic Stem Cells

In humans, it is called an embryo until

about eight weeks afterfertilization

Stages of Embryogenesis

Day 1
Fertilized egg

Day 2
2-cell embryo

Day 11-14
Tissue Differentiation

Day 3-4
Multi-cell embryo

Day 5-6
Blastocyst

Embryonic Stem Cell Lines

Isolate inner cell mass
(destroys embryo)

Outer cells
(forms placenta)
Inner cells
(forms fetus)

Day 5-6
Blastocyst

Kidney

Culture cells

Special sauce
(largely unknown)

Heart muscle

Heart
repaired

7/9/15!

Dr.'Hariom'Yadav!

Embryonic stem (ES) cells

What they can do
dierentiation!
embryonic'stem'cells!

PLURIPOTENT)

all'possible'types'of'specialized'
cells!

Embryonic stem (ES) cells

Challenges
skin!

'A!
s
n
o
diti

con
'
r
e
'und

embryonic'stem'cells!

grow
grow'under'con
ditions'B!
grow
'und
er'co
ndit
ions
'C

neurons!
!

blood%

?%

liver!

Stem Cells Types

Stem cell type

Description

Examples

Totipotent

Each cell can develop into a

new individual

Cells from early (1-3

days) embryos

Pluripotent

Cells can form any (over 200)

cell types

Some cells of blastocyst

(5 to 14 days)

Multipotent

Cells differentiated, but can form Fetal tissue, cord blood,

a number of other tissues
and adult stem cells

Adult Stem Cells

! Tissue6replacement6'tissues'continuously'

dying'and'need'to'be'replaced''skin,'
lining'of'stomach!
! Injuries''to'generate'new'population'of'
cells!
! Adult'stem'cells'are'not'totipotent!
! Adult'stem'cells!

! Multipotent'(few'cells'types)''!
! Bone'marrow'stem'cells''red'blood'cells'and'all'
white'blood'cells'circulating'in'out'body!
! Neuronal'stem'cells!
! Unipotent'(one'cell'type)''Cardiac'stem'

cells!

Adult Stem Cells

! An'adult'stem'cell'is'an'undierentiated'(or'partiallyTdierentiated)'

cell'found'in'tissues'and'organs!
! They'can'self>renew'and'dierentiate'to'become'most'or'all'of'the'
specialized'cell'types'within'their'specic'tissue'lineage.!
! Adult'stem'cells'!
! Maintain'cell'populations!
! Help'you'heal'!
! Play'a'role'in'aging!

Adult Stem Cells - Types

"Hematopoietic'stem'cells:'blood'and'immune'system''!
"Mesenchymal'stem'cells:'bone,'cartilage,'fat,'muscle,'tendon/

ligament!
"Neural'stem'cells:'neurons,'glial'cells!
"Epithelial'stem'cells:'skin,'linings!

Hematopoietic stem cells

"Give'rise'to'all'the'blood'cell'types:!
"Myeloid'(monocytes'and'
macrophages,'neutrophils,'basophils,'
eosinophils,'erythrocytes,'
megakaryocytes/platelets,'dendritic'
cells)!
"Lymphoid'(TTcells,'BTcells,'NKTcells)!
"Found'in'the'bone'marrow'from'very'

early'on'in'development,'as'well'as'in'
umbilical'cord'blood'and'placental'
tissue!

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC)

! These6stem6cells6will6

dierentiate6into:6)
! cartilage6cells6

(chondrocytes))
! muscle6cells6(myocytes))
! fat6cells6(adipocytes))
! tendons,6ligaments,6and6
connective6tissue6
(epithelial6cells6including6
osteoblasts)6)

! These6cells6are6located6

throughout6the6body)

Bone6marrow,6fat,6and6cord6

blood6are6easiest6to6isolate)

Neural Stem Cells

Neural6 stem6 cells' (NSCs)'
a r e ' s e l f T r e n e w i n g ,'
multipotent' cells' that'
g e n e r a t e' t h e' m a i n'
phenotype' of' the' nervous'
system!

Neural stem cells

! Parkinsons' disease' is' an' illness,'

which'arises'from'a'clinical'motor'
dysfunction' caused' by' dopamine'
d e p l e t i o n' i n' t h e' s t r i a t u m'
following'a'reduction'of'the'large'
dopaminergic' neurons' located' in'
the'substantia'nigra.'!
! Autologus' neural' stem' cells'
(NSCs)' have' the' potential' for'
stem' cell' therapy' to' eectively'
treat'Parkinsons'Diseases.!

Neural stem cells

Epithelial stem cells

! Give rise to epithelial cells which

constitute 60 percent of the

differentiated cells in the body.
! Responsible for covering the
internal (i.e. intestinal lining) and
external surfaces (i.e. skin) of the
body, including the lining of
vessels, glands, and other cavities.
! Epithelial stem cells are also found
in the bulge region of the hair
follicle

Cord Blood Stem Cells

Cord Blood Stem Cells Uses

! After' a' baby' is' born,' cord' blood' is' left' in' the' umbilical' cord' and'

placenta.'It'is'relatively'easy'to'collect,'with'no'risk'to'the'mother'or'
baby.' It' contains' haematopoietic' (blood)' stem' cells:' rare' cells'
normally'found'in'the'bone'marrow!
!
! Cord'blood'is'used'to'treat'children'with'cancerous'blood'disorders'
such'as'leukaemia,'or'genetic'blood'diseases'like'Fanconi'anaemia.'
The'cord'blood'is'transplanted'into'the'patient,'where'the'HSCs'can'
make' new,' healthy' blood' cells' to' replace' those' damaged' by' the'
patients' disease' or' by' a' medical' treatment' such' as' chemotherapy'
for'cancer!

Families urged to donate cord blood stem cells

'
Sta6Reporter6/616November62013'
Public donation of cord blood stem cells can help form a substantial registry of stem
cells for the UAE and save lives, according to the Dubai Cord Blood and Research
Centre (DCRC).
"Many Arab families are in need of cord blood and the centre is sometimes unable to
find a match with the same ethnic diversity, Fatma Al Hashimi, Head of the Education
and Development Unit at the DCRC, said, adding that a registry can help such
families
"Presently, more than 80 diseases can be cured with the help of stem cells and this

includes leukaemia, and treatment of genetic disorders such as thalassemia.!

!

Issues Relevant to Embryonic Stem Cells

Issues Relevant to Embryonic Stem Cells

! Can make cells and implant into patients
! Damage Tissues can be replaced
! In Reality Issues
! Issues Political due to source of the cells, as we are taking these cells from human
embryos, ethical discussion
! Biological Issues Got cells, transplant, survival in the human body and integrate
effectively into the tissue, have to be part of the tissues
! We are asking the cell to do lot more things
! Able to act correctly for long time
! Retain their properties
! Avoid harming patient
! Biggest Risk is Cancer also In case some cells are not differentiated
! Immune rejection recognized as foreign

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

! Induced Pluripotent Stem

Cells (iPSCs)
! Generated from

reprogrammed somatic
cells
! Similar or equivalent to
ESCs, i.e., pluripotent and
the ability to renew
themselves indefinitely

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

! Pluripotent''just'like'embryonic!
! Are'induced!
! Cells'from'the'patient'are'taken''Adult'dierentiated'cells'(skin'cells)!
! Turn'back'the'clock'for'reverting'them'back'to'embryonic'stem'cells''

Using'genetic'tricks''Embryonic'stem'cells'genes'!
! 'Embryonic'stem'cells''Pluripotent!
! Advantage''Cells'came'from'the'same'patient!
! Work'well'in'animal'model'and'some'human'cells!
! Research'is'ongoing!

Stem Cell Therapy

! Clinical'Trials'for'Diabetes!
! Blindness!
! Regenerative'medicine''whole'organism'can'be'replace!
! Maintaining'your'health'like'maintaining'your'car!
! Ongoing'clinical'trials!

Key Questions
! What is meant by terms unipotent, multipotent and pluripotent?
! What are the major functions of stem cells?
! At what developmental stage stem cells are found in human and of what

type?
! Compare and contrast, embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells and induced

pluripotent stem cells?

Humankind in a Biological World

(BIOL 100)

10. Nature versus Nurture

Genes and the Environment

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Mukhtar

Chair, Department of Biotechnology
American University of Ras Al Khaimah, UAE

Biological Perspective of Personality

Nature- refers to what people inherit

from their parents
People behave the way they do because they are
animals who act in accordance with their animal
instincts and are determined by their biology

Nurture- refers to a variety of factors such

as education, culture, living conditions
People behave the way they do because they
are determined by the things other people
teach them, the things they observe around
them, and because of the different situations
they are put in.

Questions?
What make you think, feel and behave the
way you do?

Heredity Faithful Transmission

of Genes
Transmission of characteristics from parents to
offspring
Plays a key role in the development of traits
Height, eye color, etc.
Could be involved in many psychological
disorders:
Depression
Schizophrenia
Bipolar disorder
Alcoholism

GENES:
Genes
TheBuildingBlocksof
Heredityand
Development
Genesareparts
ofDNA
molecules,which
arefoundin
chromosomesin
thenucleiof
cells.
Chromosome:threadlike

structuremadelargelyof
DNAmolecules
DNA:aspiraling,complex
moleculecontaininggenes

DNA
(DeoxyribonucleicAcid)

Chromosomes and Inheritance

The human genome includes 46
chromosomes in 23 sets matched
sets; each chromosome has the
same gene locations.
This includes the X and Y
chromosomes, not a matched set
in males, who are missing some
genes on the Y.
A biological parent donates half
his/her set of chromosomes to
his/her offspring.
We received half a set of
chromosomes from each
biological parent.

Genes
Influence of our genes on who we are
Things that we are born with
Physical abilities/disabilities
Mental abilities/disabilities
Gender
Race
Physical attributes
Some elements of personality
The genome: an organisms entire collection of genes

Allele
An allele is one of two or more
versions of a gene. An individual
inherits two alleles for each gene,
one from each parent. If the two
alleles are the same, the individual
is homozygous for that gene. If
the alleles are different, the
individual is heterozygous.

Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype:
the genetic constitution of
an individual organism
genotype is out complete
heritable genetic identity
Genes and chromosomes
Phenotype: what you see - the visible or observable
expression of the results of genes, combined with the
environmental influence on an organisms appearance or
behavior

Environment
The environment that surrounds us
It can be supportive or it can present
hardships

Environment
The environment includes factors such as:
Peers
Socioeconomic factors
-isms
Media
Religion and culture
Environmental factors (e.g. exposure to chemicals,
smog, pollution)
Access to necessities, such as food and water,
health care, housing, and so on
Events or circumstances (e.g. accidents, incidents,
natural disasters, wars)

Individuals Choices
The individual choices we all make can influence
the direction our lives take
Whether we take advantage of opportunities and
overcome challenges has a lot to do with the choices
that we make
The factors included in individual choice include:
Education (formal and informal)
Exercise
Nutrition
Outlook on life (half full, half empty)
Relationships ....and more

How we Study Nature vs Nurture

Kinship Studies
Twin Studies- used to determine how much genetics
determine who we are
Identical twins share the same genetic makeup, so
differences must be caused by the environment
(nurture)
Fraternal twins only share some of their genes so
differences could be caused by genetics or the
environment
Identical twins are more likely to share disorders
such as autism, substance abuse, and schizophrenia
The problem with twin studies is that they grow up
together and therefore, have the same genes but
also the same environment

Twin studies reveal the absolute and relative

importance of environmental and genetic
influences on individuals in a sample

Monozygotic/Dizygotic Twins

Monozygotic Twins
Monozygotic twins are
genetically identical
because they are
formed from one
fertilized egg
that splits into two
These twins are of the
same sex and should
look very much alike.

Dizygotic Twins
Dizygotic means from two separate
eggs
DZ twins will not be any closer
genetically than brothers and sisters
- they will have about 50 percent
their genes in common
These twins are not necessarily of
the same sex

Identical vs. Fraternal Twins

Studies of twins in adulthood show that
identical twins are more alike than fraternal
twins in:
personality traits such as extraversion
(sociability) and neuroticism (emotional
instability).
behaviors/outcomes such as the rate of
divorce.
abilities such as overall Intelligence test
scores.

Twin and Adoption Studies

To assess the impact of nature and nurture, how do we
examine how genes make a difference within the same
environment?
study traits of siblings vs. identical twins
see if the siblings vary more than twins

Twin and Adoption Studies

How do we find out how the same genes express

themselves in different environments?
We can study the traits of identical twins as they
grow up, or if they were raised separately (e.g., the
Minnesota Twin Family Study).

Studies of Identical Twins Raised

Apart
Similarities found in
identical twins
despite being raised
in different homes:
personality, styles
of thinking and
relating
a b i l i t i e s /
intelligence test
scores
attitudes
interests, tastes
specific fears
brain waves, heart

Giventheevidenceofgene>cimpactonhowa
personturnsout,

doesparen*ng/nurture
makeanydierence?
Doesthehomeenvironmenthaveanyimpact?

Studieshavebeenperformedwithadopted
childrenforwhomthebiologicalrela>ves
areknown.
Findings:Adoptedchildrenseemtobemore
similartotheirgene>crela>vesthantheir
environmental/nurturerela>ves.

Nature and nurture working together

Interaction of Genes and Environment

Self-regulation:
genes turn each
other on and off in
response to
environmental
conditions
Epigenetics: the
environment acts on
the surface of genes
to alter their activity

Exampleofself
regulaFonin
animals:
shorteneddaylight
triggersanimalsto
changefurcoloror
tohibernate
Exampleofself
regulaFonin
humans:
obesityinadults
canturno
weightregula>on
genesinospring

Human Twin Studies

Human twins, on occasion, have been separated
at birth and raised under different environmental
conditions.
Studies of separated twins show that they have
similar food preferences and activity patterns,
and even select mates with similar characteristics.
These twin studies lend support to the hypothesis
that at least certain types of behavior are
primarily influenced by nature (i.e. genes)

Twin Study Center

The Minnesota Twin Study

Objectives:
How our environment and genes work together to
influence everything from attitudes, talents and
abilities, to job selection, to falling in love, to aging
and health.
Research so far indicates that characteristics like
personality are primarily related to genes
Study:

Identical twins reared together

Identical twins reared apart
Fraternal twins reared together
Fraternal twins reared apart

Jim Twins
Identical twins Jim Lewis and Jim Springer
were only four weeks old when they were
separated
Each infant was taken in by a different adoptive
family
The two were finally reunited at age 39.
The similarities the twins shared not only
amazed one another, but researchers at the
University of Minnesota as well

Jim Twins
As youngsters, each Jim had a dog named "Toy."
Each Jim had been married two times - the first
wives were both called "Linda" and the second
wives were both called "Betty."
One Jim had named his son "James Allan" and
the other Jim had named his son "James Alan."
Each twin had driven his light-blue Chevrolet to
Pas Grille beach in Florida for family vacations.

Human Twin Studies

Both Jims smoked Salem cigarettes
Both Jims had at one time held part-time posts as
sheriffs.
Both were fingernail biters and suffered from
migraine headaches.
Differences:
Each styled his hair differently
One Jim more clearly conveyed himself through
speech, while the other was better suited to writing

Bush Twin Daughters

President George W. Bush and Laura Bush return to the White House
with their daughters Barbara (left) and Jenna (right) Tuesday, Nov. 2,
2004. Barbara and Jenna are fraternal twins.

Adoption Studies
Adoption studies are important because they include two
sets of factors that may account for differences in
behavior, personality, and psychopathology:
biological parents and
environmental parents.
Of course, any links between the biological parents and
the child that is given away is usually explained by
genetics, and any links between the adoptive, or
environmental parents, to the adopted child is usually
attributed to environment

Adoption Studies

Searching for Parenting Effects:

Biological vs. Adoptive Relatives

Despite the strong impact of
genetics on personality, parenting
has an influence on:

religious beliefs
values
manners
attitudes
Politics and habits

Parents vs. Peers

Battling over non-genetic influence
Parents have
more influence
on:

Peers have
more influence
on:

Education and career path

Cooperation
Self-discipline
Responsibility
Charitableness
Religion
Style of interaction with
authority figures

Learning cooperation
skills
Learning the path to
popularity
Choice of music and other
recreation
Choice of clothing and
other cultural choices
Good and bad habits

Nature/Nurture
From Genes to the Role of Environment
Experience and Brain Development
Rats living in an enriched environment (more
social interaction and physical play) experienced a
greater growth in brain size and complexity than
those rats living in an impoverished environment.

Biological Perspective of Personality

Evolutionary perspective Characteristics have
emerged from natural selection that promotes
desirable characteristics
Genes and personality Heritability of personality traits

Physiology
Neurological correlates and functions

Temperament
Building blocks of personality

Gender and Social Connection

When boys play, the focus tends When women play, the focus
tends to be on connection and
to be on the activity.
conversation.
Male play is more competitive.
Female play is more social.
Men tend to dictate how the
playtime will proceed.
Girls tend to invite feedback.

Are these differences due to nature or nurture?

Influences on Who Youve Become

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Mukhtar

Chair, Department of Biotechnology
American University of Ras Al Khaimah, UAE

What is Life?
Recall all the Characteristics
DNA is the basis of life
Unit of Life (livings is cell)

Chemical Composition of Life

up of matter
Matter is composed of atoms
Most common atoms in living
organisms molecules are:
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Carbon
Nitrogen

Molecules = More than

one atom joined together

Compounds
Hydrogen Peroxide

Everything on this earth is made

Organic Compounds
ThreeCharacteristics
ContainCarbon
Complexinnature
Areproducedbylivingorganisms

Acompoundnotfulllingtheabovethreecriteriaiscalledinorganic
compound

Four Major Types of Organic Compounds

CarbohydratesSugar,Starch
LipidsOils
ProteinsMeat
NucleicAcids
Deoxyribonucleicacid
Ribonucleicacid

Building Blocks of All Livings - Cells

CellsareunitofstructureandfunctioninalllivingcellsPlants,

Animals,bacteria,fungietc.

TheCellTheory
Alllivingthingsaremadeofoneormorecells
Cellscarryoutthelifeprocessesofanorganism(function)
Cellsarisesfrompreexistingcellsthroughcelldivision
Cellcontainhereditarymaterial(DNA)

Cell Animals and Plants - Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cell

Cells are the smallest independent

units of life

What is DNA?
Weallaremadeupofcell
Cellscontaininformationhowtodoeverything
Howtheinformationisstored?
JamesDWatsonandFrancisCrick1953DNAisthemoleculestoring

informationwithinthecell

DeoxyribonucleicAcid(DNA)

DNA is a Macromolecule
Largemoleculemadeupofsmaller

subunits
SmallersubunitsNucleotides

DNA has Complementary Base Pairing

Sugarphosphaterepeated

andbasesinthemiddle
Doublehelixladderand
twistit

5 end

3 end

Complementary bae
pairing - Each strand
of the double helix is
oriented in the
opposite direction

P
Figure 10.5B

3 end

5 end

Key Features of DNA

Twocomplementarystrands
SugarPhosphatebackbone
Madeupoffourtypesofnucleotides(ATCG)
ComplementarybasepairingATandCG
Thegeneticinformationoflivingthingsinformationpassedfrom

onecelltoanother,onegenerationtonextgeneration
DNAisabletoselfreplicateforcarryinginformationfromonecells

toother

DNA Chromosomes and Genes

RecallthemainfeaturesofDNA
Chromosomes Chromosomes are

threadlike structures located inside

the nucleus of animal and plant cells.
Each chromosome is made of protein
a n d a s i n g l e m o l e c u l e o f
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Passed
from parents to ospring, DNA
contains the specic instructions that
make each type of living creature
unique.

Chromosomes
KaryotypeAkaryotypeissimplya
picture of a persons chromosomes.
In order to get this picture, the
chromosomes are isolated, stained,
a n d e x a m i n e d u n d e r t h e
microscope.Mostoften,thisisdone
usingthechromosomesinthewhite
blood cells. A picture of the
chromosomes is taken through the
microscope.

Humans23pairsofchromosomes

Key Characteristics of Chromosomes

Long threads of DNA and proteins
Carry genetic information of cells
Information determine what proteins are made
Made up of many genes

Chromosome in the Cell

Genes
GenesaresegmentofChromosomes

thatcontainthecoderequiredtodirect
themanufactureofapolypeptideor
andRNAmolecule
RNAformationTranscription
PolypeptideformationTranslation

Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an international

scientic research project with the goal of determining the

s e q u e n c e o f c h e m i c a l b a s e p a i r s w h i c h m a k e
uphumanDNA,andofidentifyingandmappingallofthe
genes of the human genome from both a physical and
functionalstandpoint.
23000genesManygenesperchromosomes
The human genome contains approximately 3 billion of
thesebasepairs
Genescanbelocatedonchromosomes
Cysticbrosisgeneonchromosome7
Severalgeneticdiseases

DNA Replication Cell Division

Celldivisionis

associatedwithDNA
replication

What is DNA Replication?

AprocessinwhichidenticalcopiesofDNAaremade
Twomainquestion?
Whydoweneedit?
Howithappen?

DNA Replication Happens in the Cell

Before a cell can divide, the DNA in the
nucleus of the cell must be duplicated.
Since the DNA molecule consists of two
complimentary stands, if those two strands
separate and the right conditions are
present, two new stands that are the
compliments of the originals will be
produced.
Each new DNA molecule will consist of one
old stand, and a new complimentary
strand.

Why do we need DNA Replication?

RememberacharacteristicoflivingGrowth
Newcellsareneededformaintenanceandrepairwithinthe

body
Reproduction
DNAtellsevercellswhattodoandhowtodoit

How DNA Replication Takes Place?

Complementarybasepairingvital

componentforDNAreplication
DNAdoublehelixcanbeunzipped
DNAhelicaseunziptheDNA
Freenucleotidesinthenucleus
Freenucleotidesmoveinandbindsin
complementarywayDNAPolymerase
TwonewmoleculesofDNAidenticalto
eachotheroneoriginalandonenew
(Semiconservativereplication)

Hydrogen bonds between bases hold the

strands together: A and T, C and G
Hydrogen bond

Ribbon model

Partial chemical structure

Computer model
Figure 10.3D

Semiconservative Replication
Half conserved Half new

Replication is Always Semiconservative

The term semiconservative replication means that in the new

DNA molecule there is one old and one new strand.

This is seen in the figure below.

RNA
DNAisthemoleculethatstoretheinformationin

livingcells
RNAisalsoanucleicacid
Ribonucleicacid=RNA
RNAisanucleicacidandisdierentfromDNA
DierentsugarmoleculeRiboseinsteadof

Deoxyribose
InRNAinsteadofnucleotidethymine(T)wehave
uracil(Uracil)
RNAisasinglestranded

Function of RNA
RNA is involved in the

synthesisofproteins
P r o t e i n s h a v e g r e a t
importanceinlivingthings

Transcription produces genetic messages in the form of

mRNA
RNA
polymerase

RNA nucleotide

Direction of
transcription
Template
strand of DNA
Newly made RNA

Transcription
Transcription is the DNA-

directed synthesis of RNA

RNA synthesis
I s c a t a l y z e d b y R N A
polymerase, which pries the
DNA strands apart and hooks
together the RNA nucleotides
Follows the same base-pairing
rules as DNA, except that in
RNA, uracil substitutes for
thymine

RNA
RNA is single stranded, not double

stranded like DNA

RNA is short, only 1 gene long,

where DNA is very long and

contains many genes

RNA uses the sugar ribose instead

of deoxyribose in DNA

RNA uses the base uracil (U)

instead of thymine (T) in DNA.

Table 17.1

Genetic Code
Language of DNA
How the language works and codes
Genes are segments of chromosomes that

contains the code required to direct the

manufacture of a polypeptide (protein) or
an RNA molecule - Information

How Genes Hold Instructions

Letsrecallourprevious

discussions

Proteins Made up of 20 different amino acids

Code World of DNA - Codon

A codon is a sequence of three

DNA or RNA nucleotides that

corresponds with a specific amino
acid or stop signal during protein
synthesis
DNA and RNA molecules are

written in a language of four

nucleotides; meanwhile
the language of proteins includes

20 amino acids.

RNA Messenger RNA Codons

Genes are in between Start Codon and Stop Codon

Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics

Challenges in Central Dogma

Omics
Viruses Reverse Transcription forming DNA from RNA

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Mukhtar

Chair, Department of Biotechnology
American University of Ras Al Khaimah, UAE

DNA Fingerprinting
The term DNA fingerprinting - or genetic fingerprinting - is applied to
the scientific process whereby samples of DNA are collected, collated
and used to match other samples of DNA, which may have been found
at the scene of a crime

Basis of DNA Fingerprinting

DNA - or genetic - fingerprinting relies heavily on the principle that

no two individuals share the same genetic code - except for identical
twins and statistically those elements of DNA that are examined and
used to obtain a match will be unique
This process is used as one means of identification when an attacker

or assailant has left some kind of bodily fluid or blood at the scene of
a crime and when no visual identification is possible

DNA Repeats in Non-coding Region

Short Tandem Repeat

o STR short tandem repeat in DNA
o Occurs when a pattern of TWO or more nucleotides are repeated and
the repeated sequences are adjacent to each other.
o Pattern can range in length from 2 to 10 bp
o Typically in non-coding intron region
o Count how many repeats of a specific STR at a given locus can create
unique genetic profile
o Currently over 10,000 published STR sequences in human genome
o Prevalent method for determining genetic profiles in forensic cases.

Short Tandem Repeats (STRs)

AATG

AATG

AATG

7 repeats

8 repeats

the repeat region is variable between samples while the

flanking regions where PCR primers bind are constant
Homozygote = both alleles are the same length
Heterozygote = alleles differ and can be resolved from one
another
Primer positions define PCR product size

STR Analysis
Analysis is performed by extracting nuclear DNA from cells of interest

DNA is amplified using PCR

Tested by gel electrophoresis or capillary electrophoresis

Why STRs are Preferred Genetic Markers

Rapid processing is attainable
Abundant throughout the genome
Highly variable within various populations
Small size range allows multiplex development
Discrete alleles allow digital record of data
Allelic ladders simplify interpretation
PCR allows use of small amounts of DNA material
Small product size compatible with degraded DNA

STRs of Three Humans

Lets Focus only on STRs

Characterizing STRs
MolecularBiologytechniquesare

used
PolymeraseChairReaction(PCR)
GelElectrophoresis
VisualizationofDNA

How the Crime Scene Investigation Works

Itisfascinatingtowatchthis

techniqueworking

Blood, hair or just touch

leave some cells that could

b e u s e d f o r t h e D N A
ngerprinting

DNA Fingerprints Can Never Be Altered

Every person has two unique fingerprints:
the pattern on their fingertips, and the
pattern of their DNA. Fingerprints can be
altered by surgery, but a persons DNA
fingerprint is the same in every one of
their cells. It cannot be altered by any
known treatment. Consequently, DNA
fingerprinting is rapidly becoming the
primary method for identifying and
distinguishing among individual human
beings.

The Cell
Smallestunitoflife
Composeallliving
things
Thenucleus(oneof
manyorganelles)
containsgenetic
informationthecellneeds
toexistandreproduce
mostcellsorganize
geneticinformationinto
chromosomes

Chromosomes
Ours bodys way of
organizing all the
information that our genetic
material contains
23 pairs in humans
- each pair contains one from
mother and one from father

Genes
Each chromosome
contains 100s to 1000s of
information blocks called
genes
Each gene is the blueprint
for a specific protein in the
body
- may tell our body what color
our eyes are supposed to be,
dozens of proteins are
responsible for synthesis of ATP,
digesting food, etc, etc etc

Every Human Cell Has DNA Fingerprint

A "DNA fingerprint" is kind of like a regular fingerprint. We all are born

with it, it is unique (Exception is identical twin!)

To find a DNA fingerprint, a scientist has to first take the DNA out of the

nucleus of a cell
The cell that is used to get a DNA fingerprint can be a skin cell, a hair

root cell, or even a cheek cell that gets washed out of your mouth in
your spit. This is because your unique DNA is the same in all of your cells.

DNA Fingerprinting

1980 realization that DNA can be used in crime scene

investigations
In1987therstcriminalwascaughtusingDNAevidence
In 1989 DNA ngerprinting was used for the rst time to prove that

someonewasactuallyinnocentofacrime

DNA Fingerprinting - Technology

When subjected to DNA fingerprinting, chromosomal DNA gives rise to

a series of bands on a gel

The order of bands is an individuals DNA fingerprint
It is the unique pattern of these bands that makes it possible to
distinguish individuals
Certain loci in human chromosomes are variable in length
These loci contain tandemly repeated sequences called

minisatellites
Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTRs)

PCR
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
A lab technique used to amplify segments of DNA

PCR
Reaction requirements
Template DNA total genomic DNA isolated from
an organism that contains a target region to be
amplified
DNA primers - Short pieces of single stranded
DNA that flank the target
Taq DNA polymerase - Attaches nucleotides on
the growing strand of DNA
Nucleotides (GATC) Polymerase adds
complementary nucleotides to the template

PCR
Reactions are placed in a machine called a thermal cycler. The
machine cycles through three temperatures.

PCR
1. Heat samples to 94C for a minute or so to denature the
double stranded template DNA.

PCR
2. Drop temperature to around 50 or 60C to allow primers to anneal.

PCR
3. Maintain temperature at 72C for a minute or two to allow the polymerase
to elongate the new DNA strands.

PCR
The thermal cycler repeats the denaturing, annealing, and elongating
temperatures approximately 30 times.

GelElectrophoresis
Gel with different sized pores
agarose and acrylamide are common
materials
Load DNA samples into wells at top of gel
Run electric current through the gel
DNA moves due to negative charge
Smaller bands run faster

DNA Fingerprinting Applications

Crime scene investigations
Paternity suites and family relationships
Archaeology
Human/family ancestry
Exonerate persons wrongly accused of crimes
Identify catastrophe victims
Identify endangered and protected species as an aid to wildlife

officials (could be used for prosecuting poachers)

Detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute air, water, soil,
and food
Match organ donors with recipients in transplant programs
Determine pedigree for seed or livestock breeds
Authenticate consumables such as caviar and wine

Modern genetic markers: microsatellites

Microsatellites are short tandem repeats (STR, also SSR)
Usually high diversity
Usually not in protein coding sequence
This example is an (AC)n repeat; a genotype is usually written n,n
With k alleles there are k(k+1)/2 possible unordered genotypes
ACTGTCGACACACACACACACGCTAGCT
TGACAGCTGTGTGTGTGTGTGCGATCGA

(AC)7

ACTGTCGACACACACACACACACGCTAGCT
TGACAGCTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGCGATCGA

(AC)8

ACTGTCGACACACACACACACACACACGCTAGCT
TGACAGCTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGCGATCGA

(AC)10

ACTGTCGACACACACACACACACACACACACGCTAGCT (AC)12
TGACAGCTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGCGATCGA

7,7

7,8

8,8

7,9

8,9

9,9

12

7,12

8,12

9,12

12

12,12

DNAFingerprinting
Used to identify individuals by their repeat regions (usually STR)
regions:
Steps involved:
1. Isolate and amplify
DNA if needed
2. DNA is cleaved into
smaller pieces with
restriction enzymes
3. DNA is separated with
gel electrophoresis

4. DNA is transferred to a
nylon membrane
(Southern blotting)
5. A radioactive primer is
designed that will be
complementary to unique
regions (STR, etc, regions).
Add this to nylon
membrane containing DNA.
6. Wash off excess primer and
hold nylon up to a
photographic plate to
expose. The pattern will be
unique to the individual.

Clearly, suspect one is the

match..

If all STR regions are

considered, there is a one in 3.4
billion chance of error. This
means there may be one other
person on the planet that would
be too similar to tell the
difference.
If all other satellite regions are
also considered, the chances of
error go way, way down
1 in 53,581,500,000,000,000,000

Uses of DNA Fingerprinting

Forensicscience(solving
crimes)
For example:
A murder victim is found.
The forensics team retrieved
a blood sample from the
crime scene. They prepared
DNA fingerprints of the blood
sample, the victim and a
suspect as follows:

Cat Hair on Accused Jacket

In1994,RoyalCanadian
MountedPolicedetectives
successfullytestedhairsfrom
acatknownasSnowball,and
usedthetesttolinkamanto
themurderofhiswife,thus
markingforthersttimein
forensichistorytheuseof
nonhumanDNAtoidentifya
criminal.

Yup, he
did it.

CODISCombinedDNAIndexSystem
National software developed by the FBI
Distributed to local, state, and national crime labs
All 50 states mandate inclusion of DNA fingerprint (if
available) from violent and sexually motivated crimes
Mostly a database of STR regions
Thousands of matches have led to the capture of criminals
that otherwise would not have been caught

This has led numerous people to suggest a national DNA database

that would include only polymorphism information

Paternity and maternity testing

DNAngerprintscanbeusedtodetermine
whetheraparticularpersonisthefather
(paternity)ormother(maternity)ofachild.
Thisinformationcanbeusedin
Paternitysuits
Inheritancecases
Immigrationcases
In the 1920s, Anna Anderson claimed that she was Princess Anastasia
Romanov of Russia. In the 1980s after her death, samples of her
tissue that had been stored at a Charlottesville, Virginia hospital
following a medical procedure were tested using DNA fingerprinting
and showed that she bore no relation to the Romanovs.

Male 2 does not have

many of the childs
paternal bands

The use of DNA

fingerprinting to
establish paternity

Therefore he cannot
be the biological father

Male 1 has all the childs

paternal bands
The probability of this
occurring by chance alone
is very small
Therefore he is the
biological father

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Mukhtar

Chair, Department of Biotechnology
American University of Ras Al Khaimah, UAE

Cancer
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of

abnormal cells in the body.

C ancer develops when the bodys
normal control mechanism stops
working.
Old cells do not die and cells grow out
of control, forming new, abnormal cells.
These extra cells may form a mass of
tissue, called a tumor.
Some cancers, such as leukemia, do not
form tumors

Cancer
Cancer begins inside a cell, the basic building block of all living things.
There are more than 100 types of cancer
Normally, when the body needs more cells, older ones die off and

younger cells divide to form new cells that take their place.
In Cancer the orderly process of producing new cells breaks down.
Cells continue to divide when new cells are not needed, and a growth
or extra mass of cells called a tumor is formed.
Over time, changes may take place in tumor cells that cause them to
invade and interfere with the function of normal tissues.

Mortality Associated With Cancer

Mortality rate, or death rate, is a
measure of the number of deaths
(in general, or due to a specic
cause)inaparticularpopulation

Oncology and Oncologist

Oncology is the branch of science that deals with tumors and cancers.

The word onco means bulk, mass, or tumor while -logy means study
An oncologist is a doctor who specializes in treating people with cancer.

The three main types of oncologists are medical, surgical, and

radiation oncologists. These different types of oncologists often work
together to treat a person with cancer.

Five Major Types of Cancers

Carcinomas begin in the skin or tissues that line the internal organs.
Sarcomas develop in the bone, cartilage, fat, muscle or other

connective tissues.
Leukemia begins in the blood and bone marrow.
Lymphomas start in the immune system.
Central nervous system cancers develop in the brain and spinal cord.

Cancer is usually named for the organ or type

of cell in which it starts growing.
Bladder cancer
Melanoma
Brain cancer
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Breast cancer
Ovarian cancer
Cervical cancer
Pancreatic cancer
Colorectal cancer

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Prostate cancer
Esophageal cancer
Skin cancer
Kidney cancer
Thyroid cancer
Liver cancer
Uterine cancer
Lung cancer
Leukemia

Factors Outside the Body - Environment

Factors Outside the Body (Environmental Factors) - Exposure to a wide
variety of natural and man-made substances in the environment
Theseenvironmentalfactorsinclude:
lifestylechoiceslikecigare@esmoking,
excessivealcoholconsumption
poordiet
lackofexercise
excessivesunlightexposure,
sexuallytransmi@edvirusescausingcancer

Cancer and Environment

Other factors including
exposure to certain medical drugs,
hormones,
radiation,
viruses,
bacteria, and
environmental chemicals that may be present in the air, water, food,

and workplace

Factors Inside the Body

Certain factors inside the body make some people more likely to develop

cancer than others. For instance, some people either inherit or acquire the
following conditions:
altered genes in the bodys cells,
abnormal hormone levels in the bloodstream, or a
weakened immune system

One of the ways scientists know that genes play an important role in the

development of cancer is from studying certain rare families where

family members over several generations develop similar cancers
Familial Cancers (2 -5% of all Cancers)

Carcinogenesis.
Some factors to consider
Heredity
Immunity
Chemical
Physical
Viral
Bacterial
Lifestyle

How Cancer is Treated?

Treatment options depend on the type of cancer, its stage, if the cancer has

spread and your general health. The goal of treatment is to kill as many
cancerous cells while minimizing damage to normal cells nearby.
The three main treatments are:
Surgery: directly removing the tumor
Chemotherapy: using chemicals to kill cancer cells
Radiation therapy: using X-rays to kill cancer cells

Integrative Oncology
Integrative oncology services describe a broad range of complementary

treatments that combat side effects, boost the immune system and
maintain well-being. Treating cancer cannot focus on the disease alone
but must address:
the pain,
fatigue and
depression that comes with it.

Integrative Oncology Services

Integrative oncology services include:
Nutrition therapy to help prevent malnutrition and reduce side effects
Naturopathic medicine to safely strengthen your immune system, boost your
energy and reduce side effects
Oncology rehabilitation to rebuild strength and overcome some of the physical
effects of treatment
Mind-body medicine to improve emotional well-being through counseling,
stress management techniques and support groups

Reducing the Risk of Developing Cancer

Two-thirds of the cases of cancer are caused by environmental
factors. Many of these cancers are linked to lifestyle factors that
can be modified,

Reducing Cancer Risks

Dont smoke cigarettes, pipes, or cigars. Dont chew tobacco or dip snuff.

Avoid smoke-filled rooms. The use of tobacco products is linked to many

cancers
Lose weight if you are overweight. Obesity is strongly linked to breast cancer
in older women and cancers of the endometrium, kidney, colon, and esophagus
Exercise regularly, at least 30 minutes per day for most days of the week.
Exercise by itself reduces the risk of colon and breast cancer
Avoid consuming large amounts of red and preserved meats, salt, and saltpreserved foods. These may increase the risk of colorectal and stomach cancers
Eat a daily diet that includes a variety of foods from plant sources, such as
fresh fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and whole grain breads and cereals.
Fruits and vegetables contain substances (e.g., antioxidants) that help defend
against toxic agents and disease.

Reducing Cancer Risks

Avoid too much sunlight, particularly if you are fair skinned, by avoiding

sun exposure at midday wearing protective clothing, and using sunscreen

Avoid viral or bacterial infections
Vaccination for viral infections
Chronic stomach problems should see a doctor
Repeated exposure to diagnostic X-rays could be harmful, talk to your
doctor about the need for each X-ray and the use of shields to protect other
parts of the body
Avoid contact with pesticides, insecticides
If you work in an environment with high exposures to fine particles, fibers,
or dusts, wear the appropriate protective mask over your nose and mouth
and make sure it fits properly and does not obstruct your view

Golden Rule for Cancer Treatment

Cancer Screening and Prevention for Women

BIOL 100

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Mukhtar

Chair, Department of Biotechnology
American University of Ras Al Khaimah, UAE

Virus vs Virion
Virus is a broad general term for any aspect of the infectious agent and

includes:
the infectious or inactivated virus particle
viral nucleic acid and protein in the infected cell
Virion is the physical particle in the extra-cellular phase which is able to

spread to new host cells; complete intact virus particle

Biological Aspects of Virus/Virion

Virus must get access to the cell without killing the host cells
Different entry mechanisms depends on
Host type Animal, plant, fungi, bacteria
type of viruses enveloped, non-enveloped

Common Properties of Viruses

Viruses have a nucleic acid genome of either DNA or RNA

Human Immunodeficiency virus

an RNA Virus

Common Properties of Viruses

Compared with a cell
genome, viral genomes are
small, but genomes of
different viruses range in
size by over 100-fold (c.
3000 nt to 1,200,000 bp)

Common Properties of Viruses

Vi r a l g e n o m e s a r e
associated with protein that
at its simplest forms the
virus particle, but in some
viruses this nucleoprotein is
surrounded by further
protein or a lipid bilayer.

Common Properties of Viruses

Viruses can only reproduce in living cells.
RNA Virus

DNA Virus

First Written Record of Virus Infection

1400 BC
The first written record of a virus
infection consists of a hieroglyph from
Memphis, the capital of ancient Egypt,
drawn in approximately 3700 BC,
which depicts a temple priest called
Ruma showing typical clinical signs of
paralytic poliomyelitis

Edward Jenner (17491823)

the Father of Vaccine
Smallpox
People who got this disease got severe scarring and

sometimes even died

As a doctor, Edward Jenner listened to what the
country people said about small pox
They believed that someone who caught a different
mild infection called cowpox from their cows would
not catch the much more serious smallpox.

Viral Infections

Zoonotic Viruses
Viral disease can be
transmitted to humans
from other non-human
livings

Emerging Viruses

Anemergingvirusanewly
discoveredvirus,onethatis
increasinginincidenceor
withthepotentialtoincrease
inincidence

Ebola Virus
Ebola virus disease (formerly known as Ebola hemorrhagic fever) is:
A disease caused by Ebola virus
Is sever fatality rate is ~90%
Affects humans and non-human primates

Ebola Virus An Emerging Virus

Zoonoticvirusbatsthemost

likely reservoir, although

speciesunknown
Spillover event from infected

wild animals (e.g., fruit bats,

monkey, duiker) to humans,
followed by humanhuman
transmission

Recent Outbreak of Ebola

A disease outbreak is the
occurrence of cases of
disease in excess of what
would normally be
expected in a defined
community, geographical
area or season

Ebola Virus Transmission in Humans

Viruspresentinhighquantityinblood,bodyuids,andexcretaof

symptomaticEVDinfectedpatients
Opportunitiesforhumantohumantransmission

Directcontact(throughbrokenskinorunprotectedmucousmembranes)withanEVDinfectedpatients

bloodorbodyuids
Sharpsinjury(withEVDcontaminatedneedleorothersharp)
DirectcontactwiththecorpseofapersonwhodiedofEVD
IndirectcontactwithanEVDinfectedpatientsbloodorbodyuidsviaacontaminatedobject(soiled
linensorusedutensils)
Possibly,contactwithsemenfromarecoveredmaleEVDpatient

EbolacanalsobetransmiMedviacontactwithblood,uids,ormeatofan

infectedanimal

LimitedevidencethatdogsbecomeinfectedwithEbolavirus
NoreportsofdogsorcatsbecomingsickwithortransmiMingEbola

Ebola - Human-to-Human Transmission

Infected persons are not contagious until onset of symptoms
Possible that the virus can be transmitted through semen of a man who

has survived EVD. Risk considered to be very low, likely decreases over
time.
Infectiousness of body fluids (e.g., viral load) increases as patient becomes

more ill
Remains from deceased infected persons are highly infectious

Human-to-human transmission of Ebola virus via inhalation (aerosols) has

not been demonstrated

Biological Samples Shipping

Influenza Virus Types, Subtypes, and Strains

Therearethreetypesofinuenzaviruses:A,B,andC.
InuenzaTypeA
InuenzaTypeB
InuenzaTypeC

Type A Influenza Viruses

Inuenza type A viruses can infect people, birds, horses, seals,

whales,andotheranimals,butwildbirdsarethenaturalhostsfor
theseviruses.
There are 15 dierent HA subtypes and 9 dierent NA subtypes.

ManydierentcombinationsofHAandNAproteinsarepossible.
H7N7andH3N8virusescauseillnessinhorses

Avian Influenza Virus Type A

The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

InuenzaAvirusesaredivided

into subtypes on the basis of

two proteins on the surface of
t h e v i r u s :
h e m a g g l u t i n i n ( H A ) a n d
neuraminidase(NA)
For example, an H7N2 virus
designatesaninuenzaAvirus
subtype that has an HA 7
protein and an NA 2 protein.
Similarly an H5N1 virus has
an HA 5 protein and an NA 1
protein

Why so Many Names

SubtypesofinuenzaAvirusarenamedaccordingtotheirHAandNA

surfaceproteins.Forexample,an
H7N2virusdesignatesaninuenzaAsubtypethathasanHA7
proteinandanNA2protein.

H5N1virushasanHA5proteinandanNA1protein.

Types B and C
Influenza Type B
Influenza B viruses are normally found only in humans. Unlike influenza A
viruses, these viruses are not classified according to subtype. Although
influenza type B viruses can cause human epidemics, they have not caused
pandemics.
Influenza Type C
Influenza type C viruses cause mild illness in humans and do not cause
epidemics or pandemics. These viruses are not classified according to
subtype

Avian Influenza Bird Flu

Viral disease affecting respiratory, enteric or

nervous system of many kinds of poultry

and birds
Most virulent is the acute, generalized

disease with short course and extremely high

mortality

Avian influenza viruses

Key contributors to the emergence of human influenza

pandemics
Thought to be limited in their ability to directly infect humans

until 1997 when an H5N1 influenza virus was directly

transmitted from birds in live poultry markets in Hong Kong to
humans

H5N1 Hong Kong Outbreak

18 people infected,
six of whom died

This avian virus exhibited high virulence in both avian and mammalian

species
First documented case where H5 subtype AI was directly transmitted to

humans causing respiratory problems and death

Human influenza A H5N1 virus related to a

highly pathogenic avian influenza virus
An influenza A H5N1 virus was isolated from a tracheal aspirate

of the boy

Preceding this incident, avian influenza outbreaks of high mortality

were reported from three chicken farms in Hong Kong, and the virus
involved was also found to be of the H5 subtype

Avian Flu Transmission

Like others u avian u

is transmiMed through
aerosolicroutes

Universal precautionary

measures

We Live in Well Connected World

Preventing Flu Transmission

Avoidclosecontact
Stayhomewhenyouaresick
Coveryoumouthandnose
Cleanyourhands
Avoidtouchingyoureyes,nose,mouth
Practiceothergoodhealthhabits

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

Human Immunodeficiency Virus
A unique type of virus (a retrovirus)
Invades the helper T cells (CD4 cells) in the body of the host (defense

mechanism of a person)
Weak Defense Mechanism and Viral Infections lead to Acquired Immune

Deficiency Virus Syndrome (AIDS)

Threatening a global epidemic
Preventable, manageable but not curable

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

Persons with positive HIV serology who have ever had a CD4 lymphocyte
count below 200 cells/ml or a CD4 lymphocyte percentage below 14% are
considered to have AIDS

AIDS
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
HIV is the virus that causes AIDS
Disease limits the bodys ability to fight infection due to markedly

reduced helper T cells

Patients have a very weak immune system (defense mechanism)
Patients predisposed to multiple opportunistic infections leading to death

Two Types of HIV

HIV1andHIV2
HIV2islesseasilytransmiMed
HIV2developsAIDSveryslowly
MothertoChildTransmissionwithHIV2israte

Major modes of transmission of HIV in adults

Bodysecretions
Injectingdruguse
Bloodtransfusions
Mothertofetus/childtransmission

A Steady Increase in the Number of People

Living with HIV
As of 2013, the global
number of people living
with HIV is 35.0
million[33.2 million
37.2 million], compared
to 29.8 million [28.1
million31.9 million] in
2001

How to Prevent HIV Spread

Muslim social and cultural values (The Middle East and North Africa

(MENA) region has one of the lowest HIV prevalence rates in the world
(0.1 percent)
Proper check of blood in the hospitals
Reuse of syringes (Disposable syringes usage is reducing the chances of
disease transfer)

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Mukhtar

Chair, Department of Biotechnology
American University of Ras Al Khaimah, UAE

Bioterrorism
Use of biological agents to kill or sicken people, animals or plants
with the intent to intimidate or coerce a government or civilian
population to further political or social objectives
First act of bio-warfare in US (1763): Sir Jeffrey Amherst ordered
British troops to give blankets infected with smallpox virus to native
Indian tribes

Bioterrorism Threat
Bioweapons
Inexpensive
However,diculttoweaponize

Easytoobtain(some)
Inducefearofunknown
Canoverwhelmmedicalandpublichealthsystems
Potentialfordisseminationoverlargegeographicalarea

Bioterrorism Threat
WorldHealthOrganizationModeling
50kgofanthraxortularemiaaerosolizedoveranurbanpopulationof5
million
250,000personcontractdisease
Deaths
Anthrax100,000
Tularemia19,000

Terrorist Goal
Killafew,hurtmany,scareeveryone
Inducefear
Disruptsociety

Anthrax Letter Attack in USA

22 causalities
Microwaving letters

Bioterrorism
Attack may be overt or covert
Detection may be more difficult that chemical, radiological, conventional
Could be days until detected
Naturally occurring?
Salmonella in salad bars in US state of Oregon in 1984
Pandemic/H1N1

When to Suspect Bioterrorism

Single suspected case of an uncommon disease
Smallpox

Clusters of similar disease in same time frame in different locales

Unusual clinical, geographical, seasonal presentation
Flu season, in non flu season

Increased death in animal population

When to Suspect Bioterrorism

Clues from cows?
Sick and healthy cows

Agents with Potential for USE in

BIOTERRORISM
Varies according to source
NATO handbook lists 39 agents
World Health Organization (WHO) has another list
Center for Disease Control (CDC) lists biological agents in various categories, A, B, and

C
National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of

Health (NIH) also lists categories A, B, and C, but they differ somewhat from how CDC
categorizes agents and lists a greater number of agents
Others

Biological Threat
CategoryCAgentsClassicationbyCenterforDiseaseControl
Couldbeengineeredforfuturemassdissemination
Available,easytoproduceanddisseminate
Potentialforhighmorbidity/mortality
Emergingpathogens
>30newpathogensdiscoveredinpat25years
NipahvirusandHantavirus

Biological Threat
CategoryBAgents
Moderatelyeasytodisseminate
Moderatemorbidity/lowmortality

Biological Threat - Category B Agents

Bioterrorism Threat
CategoryAAgents
EasilydisseminatedortransmiYedfrompersontoperson
Highmortalityrates/Majorpublichealthimpact
Mightcausepublicpanicandsocialdisruption
Previousdevelopmentasbiologicalwarfareagents

High Threat Biological Agents

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)
Smallpox (Variola major)
Plague (Yersinia pestis)
Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)
Viral Hemorrhagic Fever (filoviruses [Ebola, Marbu] and areanaviruses

[Lassa, Machupo])
Botulism (Clostridium botulinum toxin)

Biological Agents
Bacteria
Anthrax,Plague,Tularemia

Viruses
Smallpox,viralhemorrhagicfevers

Toxins
Botulism

Anthrax
AnthraxLeYerstory

Anthrax as a Bioweapon
Grampositivesporeformingbacillus
Sverdlovsk,Russia1979
Accidentalreleasefromdryingplant
79humancases
68deaths
Someinfectedwithmultiplestrains
AlldownwindofplantBIOPREPARAT

Dispersion of spores
Aerosolized release
Scientists and engineers at the Edgewood Chemical

Biological Center (ECBC) develop technologies that can

detect and mitigate chemical or biological threats.
Ambient breeze tunnel (ABT) is one of the unique means

used to characterize aerosol clouds. The tunnel can

maintain at the same temperature and humidity as the
outside temperature, allowing testing to take place in
actual environmental conditions but within a controlled
space

Anthrax
Inhalation, cutaneous, gastrointestinal
Exists in soil as spore
Infects animals worldwide
Human cases in United States (1955 through 1999)
236 reported cases (224 cutaneous)
1976 last case before 2001
Exposure

of a home craftsman in California to imported yarns

Fall 2001: 22 cases, 5 of the 11 inhalational died

Anthrax - Inhalational
Incubationusually<1week
Maybeupto2months

Nopersontopersontransmission
Nonspeciculikesymptoms
Lowgradefever,nonproductivecough,malaise,fatigue,

myalgia,PRFOUNDsweats,chestdiscomfort
50%develophemorrhagicmeningitis

Anthrax - Cutaneous
Greekforcoal
15dayincubationperiod(canbelonger)
Painless,pruritic,smallpapule,progressestovesiclein12days,

ruptures leaving necrotic ulcer with surrounding erythema and

edema
Ulcer base turns black in 23 weeks, eschar separates and leaves
scar

Anthrax - Treatment
Treatment
Ciprofloxicin, doxycycline
Continue for 7-10 days
Will reduce erythema, systemic symptoms, but not change evolution of

skin lesions
Erythromycin alternative
In 2001, duration of treatment for cutaneous anthrax extended to 60

days because of concerns for simultaneous aersol exposure and risk of

reactivation of latent infection

Plague
Gramnegative,facultativeanaerobic,intracellularpathogen
Useasbioweapon
WorldWarIIJapaneseArmyestablishedsecretbiological

warfareresearchunitinManchuriaUnit731
Acquiredfrominfectedea,animal,human

Plague
Bubonic
Pneumonic (contagious person-to-person)

Tularemia
Rabbit Fever
Tick is principal reservoir
Small, non-motile, aerobic, gram-negative coccobacillus
Few hundred cases annually in US
Untreated mortality = 8%

Soviet developed as bio-warfare agent

Naturally occurring outbreak
Martha's Vineyard
Utah Lake June/July 2007
13

cases (2 confirmed)

Tularemia
Inhalational
Abrupt flu-like illness pulse temperature dissociation
Dry cough, chest pain or tightness, without objective signs of

pneumonia
Cutaneous (75%)
Ulceroglandular (75%)
Lesions on skin, mucous membrane (including conjunctiva) Lymph
nodes
Typhoidal (25%)
Smaller lymph nodes (<1 cm diameter), no skin or mucous membrane
involvement

Smallpox
Smallpox(vaiolapoxvirus)
Stableoutsidehost
Highlyinfective
Averageincubationperiod12days
Respiratorytransmission
Travelstoregionallymphnodes
Viremia
Rash

Smallpox
Smallpox (variola)
Fever, rigors, malaise, headache, vomitting, severe backache
Infects lymph, spleen, liver, bone, lung
Erythematous rash on face, hands, forearms

Smallpox - Treatment
Strict quarantine of expose
Respiratory isolation for 17 days for all contacts

Immunoprophylaxis
US government holds enough doses to vaccinate entire population

Monkey pox
Giant Gambian rat
Transmit monkey pox
Not a category A agent
Relative of variola
Clinically similar to smallpox
Limited person-to-person transmission

Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers

Ebola
Abrupt onset of fever, myalgia, headache
Abdominal pain, diarrhea, chest pain, cough, pharayngitis
Mortality approaches 90%
Hospitalized

patients
Hospital workers

Toxins
Botulism
A single gram of botulinum toxin dispersed evenly in a form that could

be inhaled would kill 1 million people

Toxin very unstable in environment so highly improbable to cause
millions of deaths
Gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms at the same time
Ventilator support

Properties of biological agents used in

bioterrorism
High infectivity
Small dose required to produce disease
Spread from person to person for secondary effects
Effect is fatal or highly incapacitating (injurious)
Can be dispersed and stable in environment once released
No effective preventive or treatment measures
Can genetically alter agent for the effect