Comprehensive Research Journal of Management and Business Studies (CRJMBS) Vol. 2(2) pp.

053 - 060 July, 2014

Available online http://crjournals.org/CRJMBS/Index.htm
Copyright 2014 Comprehensive Research Journals

Review

Evaluation of Training Effectiveness: A Case

Study of the Ministry of Interior, Thailand
Sununta Siengthai*1, Duangporn Boonkrob2, Malee Siengthai3
1

Visiting Faculty and Associate Professor of HRM/IR, School of Management, Asian Institute of Technology,
Pathumthani 12120, Thailand.
2
Director, Research and Development Division, Damrong Rajanubhap Research and Development Institute, Ministry of
Interior, Thailand.
3
Independent researcher, formerly librarian of Thammasat University Libraries
Accepted 15 September, 2013
Human resource development activities are human capital investment by organizations. Thus, it is important that the training
program assessment is conducted to obtain feedback for further improvement of the programs to develop the needed
competencies for participants and training effectiveness. This paper reviews issues related to training and evaluation in term of
its effectiveness as to provide some guidelines to the in-service training programs conducted in the public sector organizations
in Thailand. The Ministry of Interior in Thailand is taken as a case study. Based on the relevant literature review and some indepth interviews, we come up with some recommendations for strategic human resource development for the Ministry of Interior
and the public sector organizations in Thailand in general.
Keywords: In-service public personnel training, training effectiveness, evaluation, Ministry of Interior, Thailand.

INTRODUCTION
Human resource development activities are human
capital investment by organizations. Training is one of the
most universal methods for enhancing employee
productivity and reinforcing organizational objectives
(Arthur et al. 2003; Tharenou, 2007). Training in
organizations is an organized educational activity that
enhances learning and helps employees develop their
personal and organizational skills, knowledge, and
abilities. It is one of the most important functions of

*Corresponding

Author

E-mail: [email protected]

organizations human resource management because it

reflects organizations' recognition of the value of human
capital investment (Noe, 2005; Yang et al. 2009).
The implementation of training programs, whether for
employee development or organizational interventions,
has unequivocally become a growing industry and a
significant investment by organizations of all sizes. In
light of the regular investment of time and capital on the
part of the organizations for training intervention
development and implementation, it is essential that
organizations also have in place systems to ensure
acceptable returns on their investment; specifically
through training evaluation (Stoughton et al. 2011).

054 Compr. Res. J. Manag. Bus. Stud.

This paper aims to enhance the understanding of the

factors influencing the effectiveness of training on
organizational-level outcomes, the training evaluation as
well as measurement to be developed by organizations. It
first reviews some previous studies that have investigated
the relationship between training and organizational
outcomes. Then, it discusses the relevant issues in
training and evaluation. Finally, it presents briefly the
training evaluation objectives of the Ministry of Interior,
Thailand and how it can further improve its training
activities for training effectiveness.
The
Relationship
between
Organizational Outcomes

Training

and

It is suggested by Galbreath (2005) that organizational

assets, such as culture, human resource management
policies and corporate structure can significantly impact
on a firms success. Based on this resource-based view
approach, such assets should be carefully planned and
developed, particularly with respect to their synergistic
impact on the development and utilization of firm
capabilities. In our study, human resource development
and recuperation of such investment through utilization of
developed human resources is one of the critical success
factors of firms.
Tharenou et al. (2007) suggest that training is positively
related to human resource outcomes and organizational
performance. However, the effect is very weak in term of
financial outcomes. In addition, the relationship between
training and firm performance may be mediated by
employee attitudes and firm human capital. Furthermore,
training appears to be more strongly related to
organizational outcomes when it is matched with key
contextual factors such as organization capital intensity
and business strategy.
Evidently, the effect of contextual moderators on the
learningtransfer relationship is to be taken into account.
In addition to leader support and group climate, we need
to ask whether there are some other organizational,
group, and individual-level factors that increase the
likelihood that trainees would transfer learning to the work
context (e.g., compensation systems, team design
features, career stage). Moreover, there may be some
other factors such as the company policies or the posttraining processes through which learning outcomes
translate to effective transfer.
Research by Chen et al. (2005), for instance, suggests
that self-regulation processes, such as choice of goals
and effort allocated towards goal striving, help explain
why and how learning outcomes, and particularly
affective outcomes (efficacy beliefs), translate into
effective transfer at both the individual and team levels of
analysis. This suggests that contextual factors, such as
compensation and leadership practices, can facilitate
transfer through their impact on post-training motivation.

Similarly, there are plausible arguments that post-training

performance of individuals and teams can have a
powerful and beneficial impact on the organization as it
tends to create and sustain a learning oriented company
climate and culture (Ostroff et al. 2003).
Training Effectiveness
The effectiveness of training can be influenced by various
factors such as the input into the training activities which
include the participants skills, knowledge, and abilities;
the training instructor, the training content and methods.
The first two components depend largely on the
recruitment and selection processes of the organizations.
The latter two components depend on the interaction and
collaboration between the organization and the
instructors/trainers. The training activity plans should be
based on needs analysis conducted prior to the actual
organization of training activities. Once it is conducted,
the training content and methods could be a significant
factor enhancing the learning effects on the participants.
Yang et al. (2009) classify training contents into three
categories and use cross-cultural training as an example
to illustrate. The first category is cognitive contents. This
can be basic knowledge about certain job roles, tasks to
be performed or the know-why and know-what. Second,
skill-based content which is more of the know-how
content, how the actual task should be done, etc. Lastly,
most training programs need to touch attitudinal content
in areas of raising cultural awareness, changing attitudes
toward different cultures and customs, and assuring
trainees' confidence and self-efficacy values (Anderson,
1982; Bloom et al. 1964).
For training methods, it can be designed in such a way
that the training participants are motivated to learn and
apply the learned concepts (Woods, 1995). These
methods can be classified into three major categories:
presentation, hands-on, and group building (Noe, 2005;
Yang et al. 2009). Presentation methods refer to training
techniques in which trainees are passive recipients of
information including facts, processes, and problemsolving methods. Examples of presentation methods
include lectures and audiovisual techniques. Hands-on
methods refer to training processes in which the trainees
are actively involved in learning, such as, on-the-job
training,
self-directed
learning,
apprenticeship,
simulations, cases studies, business games, role play,
and behavior modeling. Group-building methods are
methods designed to improve team or group
effectiveness that include action learning, adventure
learning,
coordination
learning,
cross
training,
experiential learning, guidelines, team leader training,
and team training. In practice, training activities in
organizations utilize a wide variety of training methods
including lectures, video films, experiential exercises,
cultural assimilators, and behavior modification. Thus, we

Siengthai et al. 055

can say that training methods involve both cognitive and

behavioral approaches. It can be designed for both offthe-job and on-the-job training. Cognitive methods are
best for knowledge development and behavioral methods
for skills (Blanchard and Thacker, 1998). The decision
about what approach to take to training depends on
several factors that include the amount of funding
available for training, specificity and complexity of the
knowledge and skills needed, timeliness of training
needed, and the capacity and motivation of the learner.
Khattak et al. (2011) conducted the impact analysis of
the in-service teacher training programs of the testing
and evaluation sub-committee of the English Language
Teaching Reforms (ELTR) Project in Pakistan and found
that the following factors should be improved in order to
increase the impact of training on teacher performance.
These include (i) the more merit and need-based
recruitment and selection or nomination of trainees on
merit and need-based; (ii) the instructor and training
approach should be more practical and trainee-oriented;
(iii) the content and training environment must be tailored
to the trainees needs and abilities; (iv) the trainees
should be grouped according to their job position or level
to reduce diversity in needs and capacity and allow focus
of the training programs.
It is evident from various research that factors that
enhances the effectiveness of training especially in term
of learning and transfer to the workplace are found to
include individual learning readiness, supervisor support
of learning, and knowledge gain are predictive of training
transfer (Antle et al. 2008). There is also a notion of
involving stakeholder groups engaged in brainstorming to
generate
statements
to
assess
organizational
effectiveness. Some researchers have asserted that
cultural factors affect training effectiveness. This is
through the following dimensions: (1) contents and
methods, (2) selection of trainers, and (3) learners'
motivation, valence and learning style (Yang et al. 2009).
For example, in their study, Yang et al. (2009)
hypothesize the following. First, trainees in the
collectivistic cultures have higher extrinsic motivation
than trainees in individualistic cultures. Trainees in
individualistic cultures have higher intrinsic motivation
than trainees in collectivistic cultures. Along this line of
thinking, it is expected that in individualistic cultures,
trainees valence and training motivation are higher when
training is perceived to increase the competencies of
individuals than they are when training is perceived to
benefit the trainees groups and organizations.
However, in collectivistic cultures, trainees valence and
training motivation are higher when training is perceived
to benefit the group and organizations than they are in
individualistic cultures. Secondly, in term of learning style,
it is expected that trainees from a collectivistic culture are
more likely to adopt a concrete intuitive, and inductive
learning style. Trainees from individualistic culture are
more likely to adopt an abstract and deductive learning

style. Thirdly, in term of training effectiveness, in high

uncertainty avoidance cultures, training tactics that show
established and proven training effectiveness are
associated with a higher level of valence. It is also
expected that a training program in a culture of high
power distance is more likely to use experts as trainers.
Trainees from a culture of low power distance are more
likely to accept peers as trainers than trainees from a
culture of high power distance. Fourthly, in term of
motivation, it is expected that in high power distance
cultures, trainees have stronger training motivation when
the training is implemented by using a top-down
approach. In low power distance cultures, training
motivation is higher than in higher power distance
cultures, when trainees participation in the decisionmaking process of the training is enhanced. In a
masculinity culture, the trainees valence and training
motivation are higher when training is perceived to
increase personal competencies than they are when
training is perceived to benefit the trainees interpersonal
relationship with other people.
In a culture of femininity, trainees valence and training
motivation are higher when training is perceived to
benefit the trainees interpersonal relationship with other
people than they are when training is perceived to
increase personal competencies. Finally, a training
program that is conducted in a culture where knowledge
is believed to be objective is more likely to focus on
cognitive content. Training in a culture where knowledge
is believed to be subjective is more likely to focus on skillbased and affective content.
When taking cultural values into consideration,
according
to
Hofstede
(1980;
http://geerthofstede.com/countries.html), Thailand has the following
characteristics along the five dimensions. The scores are
64 for power distance; 20 for Individualism; 34 for
masculinity; 64 for uncertainty avoidance and 56 for longterm orientation. Thus, it is considered a collectivistic,
high power distance, high femininity with high uncertainty
avoidance characteristics and somewhat long-term
orientation. Thus, as Yang et al. (2001) have
hypothesized, we expected that in the Thai context, in
term of learning style, it is expected that trainees are
more likely to adopt a concrete intuitive, and inductive
learning style. In term of motivation, trainees have
stronger training motivation when the training is
implemented by using a top-down approach and they will
have higher extrinsic motivation since training is
perceived to benefit the trainees groups and
organization.
As Thailand has somewhat high
uncertainty avoidance score, training tactics that show
established and proven training effectiveness are
expected to be of more value to the trainees. In addition,
it is also expected that a training program in a culture of
femininity, trainees valence and training motivation are
higher when training is perceived to benefit the trainees
interpersonal relationship with other people than they are

056 Compr. Res. J. Manag. Bus. Stud.

when training is perceived to increase mainly personal

competencies.
Organizational influences may also impact on
employee behaviors, although they are sometimes
measured as the perceptions of individual employees.
Noe (1986) proposes that organizational factors, or
environmental favorability, affects both trainees pretraining motivation to learn and their post-training
motivation to use new skills. According to Noe (1986),
environmental favorability may be broken down into task
and social components. The task component reflects the
availability of resources to support the use of what was
learned in training. Proper tools and materials and
sufficient time to perform newly learned skills exemplify
this component. Workload is another aspect of the task.
Workload may contribute to overuse of ones body. It may
also contribute to less transfer of new skills to the
workplace (if new skills take more time or attention, even
initially). In term of safety training, for example, workload
may overwhelm the effects of training, no matter what
type it is. Thus, the higher workload, the higher
propensity of workers injuries in spite of the training
received.
On the other hand, the social support component of
environmental favorability includes attitudes and actions
of peers, superiors, other workers, and family toward both
the training and the skills learned in training. When they
are supportive, training is more likely to be effective and
to be translated into workplace practice. There are also
some evidences of the mediating influence of the social
support construct on the relationship between training
and outcomes in the food service industry (Mathieu et al.
1992; Rouiller and Goldstein, 1993; Tracey et al. 1995;
Tracey and Cardenas, 1996). Both social support and
the availability of sufficient workplace resources to
perform new behaviors are thus important for the
development of transfer of training climate (Goldstein
1986; Rouillier and Goldstein, 1993).
Training Evaluation
Training evaluation is defined as the systematic collection
of descriptive and judgmental information necessary to
make effective decisions related to the selection,
adoption, value, and modification of a training
intervention (Goldstein and Ford, 2002). The information
gleaned from a training evaluation would then be
available to aid in effective revision of a training
intervention to achieve any number of multiple
instructional objectives. According to Goldstein and Ford
(2002), training evaluation is best viewed as an
information gathering technique that should have as its
goal to capture, to the best of its ability, the dynamic
flavor and objectives of a training program. They go on to
state that training program objectives can reflect
numerous goals ranging from individual trainee progress

to larger organizational-level goals, including overall

profitability (Goldstein and Ford, 2002). As training can
have such a wide variety of objectives (e.g., increasing
efficiency, teaching declarative knowledge, decreasing
the number of workplace accidents, skill-building and
development) and utilize such a wide range of modalities
(e.g., traditional classroom training, self-directed
workbook training, self-directed computer or Web-based
training, on-the-job training, virtual reality simulation), it is
necessary that training evaluation be flexible enough to
take a variety of different forms. Some examples of these
different forms may include skill-based tests (e.g.,
demonstrating the ability to properly operate forklift),
behavioral measures (e.g., utilizing newly-learned
leadership skills), job performance measures (e.g.,
effectively prioritizing work tasks), efficiency measures
(e.g., measuring how many more widgets were produced
per hour after the training intervention), and utility
analyses (e.g., how did this training intervention impact
the organizations bottom line).
The evaluation of training outcomes is complex and
multidimensional (Gilad et al. 2007; Erffmeyer et al. 1991;
Gentry et al. 1991; Scott, 1991). By far the most popular
approach to the evaluation of training in organizations
today is Kirkpatricks (1976) framework of four levels of
criteria (Bates, 2004; Antle et al. 2008). Kirkpatricks
(1976, 1994) training evaluation model delineates four
levels of training outcomes as follows: reaction, learning,
behavior, and results. Kirkpatrick's classic evaluation
model is a reference model specifying that any training
(traditional or e-learning) can be evaluated at four
progressive levels (Kirkpatrick 1998). According to this
model, Level I (Reaction) is a measure of learners'
reactions to the course. Evaluation at this level measures
how the participants in a training program feel about their
experience (affective) and whether they think they can
use the concept learned and training materials (utility).
The questions that might be asked are Are they satisfied
with what they learned?, Do they regard the material as
relevant to their work?, or Do they believe the material
will be useful to them on the job? This stage of
evaluation generally takes place while the training
program is being conducted.
Level One includes
assessment of training participants reaction to the
training program content, methods and instructors. Level
Two measures learning. Measures used for this level of
evaluation are quantifiable indicators of the learning that
has taken place during the course of the training.
Learning is a measure of what trainees have learned
(immediate learning) and is defined as the principles,
facts, and techniques that are understood and absorbed
by trainees (retention). Level Three behavioral outcomes
address either the extent to which knowledge and skills
gained in training are applied on the job or result in
exceptional job-related performance. Level three
(Transfer) is a measure of changes in trainees behavior
(behavior demonstration) when they return to the job after

Siengthai et al. 057

the training program. Quantitative learning objectives do

not typically indicate how the trainee will transfer that
learning to job performance. Change on-the-job behavior
is certainly the main goal of most corporate training
programs. However, measuring this change is a more
complex task than eliciting trainees' feelings or measuring
their direct learning through test scores.
Finally, Level Four outcomes are intended to provide
some measure of the impact that training has had on
broader organizational goals and objectives. Level four
(Results) is a measure of the business outcomes that
occur because they are doing their jobs differently (and
hence organizational impact). This level of evaluation is
generally very difficult if not impossible as each
organization has certain level of complexities in its
operations.
While reduced costs, higher quality,
increased production, and lower rates of employee
turnover and absenteeism are the desired results of
training programs, most companies do not address this
complex evaluation process.
The learning transfer factors diagnosis shows us the
factors which should be enhanced and the factors which
should be improved in order to make leadership training
programs more efficient so as to generate results for the
company. As various authors suggest (Holton and Bates,
2000; Burke and Hutchins, 2008), the results of the
diagnosis should be utilized to introduce positive changes
in the organization and to make training more efficient so
that the investments be recuperated.
It is important that the training program assessment is
conducted to obtain feedback for further improvement of
the programs to develop the needed competencies for
participants and training effectiveness. In recent practice,
the typical focus of these measures has been on
organizational level financial measures. Some studies
have added Level Five which is a measure of the return
on investment (ROI), the cost-benefit ratio of training. In
this level, the Level IV data are converted to monetary
values and then compared with the cost of the training
program to obtain ROI. These measures can include
profits, productivity, cost reduction and savings, customer
satisfaction and employee morale. A study by Alvarez et
al. (2004) found that evaluation measures that are found
to be related to post-training attitudes are cognitive
learning, training performance, and transfer performance.
In their study, the training effectiveness variables found to
be related to post-training attitudes are pre-training selfefficacy, experience, post-training mastery orientation,
learning principles, and post-training interventions.
In brief, based on the literature review above, factors
that enhance the training effectiveness include (1)
training contents and methods, (2) selection of trainers,
and (3) learners' motivation, valence and learning style;
(4) organizational support; and (5) organizational learning
culture. Training can have a wide variety of objectives
and utilize a wide range of modalities, it is necessary that
training evaluation be flexible enough to take a variety of

different forms. Thus, in general, for the effectiveness of

training evaluation, the following should be taken into
account: (1) reaction, (2) learning, (3) behavior (4)
results; and (5) if possible, return on investment (ROI).
Leadership Development Programs
One of the important human resource development
activities is management development or leadership
development program.
Leadership training is an
essential part of development plans in organizations.
Leadership training programs help managers become
more emotionally intelligent and equip them with tools to
manage teams more effectively. Carla et al. (2011) found
that the senior and middle managers exhibited a high
intent to transfer, trust that their effort would generate an
increase of their performance and they perceive no
supervisor sanctions when applying training to the work
place. These three factors act as facilitators to transfer.
They, however, found some important barriers to the
trainee applying the newly acquired skills to their
workplace. The most important barrier is the lack of or
low supervisor support which combined with the low
amount of coaching received hinders the trainees
applying of the learning. It is thus recommended that the
organization introduces human resources policies to
improve their transfer system and overcome these
barriers. Such concrete actions could consist of
implementing a competency-based management and
strengthening the leadership skills of the managers. The
personal results which are negative and the lack of
personal capacity to transfer also act as barriers and
could be overcome by means of following-up with the
trainees processes (coaching, follow-up sessions).
A Brief Sketch on Training and Evaluation at the
Ministry of Interior, Thailand
At the Ministry of Interior in Thailand, the in-service
training programs have been generally the training
programs to upgrade the knowledge and competencies of
the selected participants for future promotion. The
duration of the training programs can be from one-week
to three months depending on what types of skills,
knowledge and competencies to be developed. The
recruitment and selection of internal participants has
been through open calls for participation and
endorsement by the direct supervisor of each selected
participant. For high-level or executive development
programs, the design is usually a combination of both inclass learning and field trip to expose the participants to
some learning experiences in other countries and some
individual action-oriented management project. Thus, for
each of these programs, the length of the training will be
extended to usually more than one month. The

058 Compr. Res. J. Manag. Bus. Stud.

participants will need to go back to their workplace and

apply the concepts they learned in class to the small
action-oriented project and prepare the report to submit
to the Ministry of Interior for assessment.
The evaluation exercises of such leadership
development programs have been conducted to assess
the following aspects: (1) the managerial or
administrative capacity of the participants in terms of
knowledge, skills and job performance abilities; (2) The
quality of the training program with respect to training
objectives, structure, content, and methods; (3) the
achievement of the training program in term of
knowledge, understanding, applications of knowledge in
the participants job, work system improvement, and
innovation; (4) the networking ability of the executive
level participants after training program; (5) the
development of the future prototype of the training
program based on the training program assessment.
One of the Ministry officers in charge of training and
development programs said that: We cannot really say
that our leadership development programs have been the
compulsory requirement and hence main criterion for job
promotion. There have been cases of those who were
promoted without having gone through our middle-level
management training programs. However, many of them
did apply for such training after their appointment to the
higher job position. If we can have our training and
development programs accredited by the Civil Service
Commission, then, our training programs will become
more open to all public sector employees and certainly,
the quality assurance is one of the measures to achieve
such accreditation
Based on some interviews conducted with the key
informants who are in charge of the training activities for
the Ministry, it is suggested that the direct supervisors of
the training participants should be engaged and involved
throughout the training process such as from the design
stage of the program to monitoring the effectiveness of
the programs by assessing the competencies of the
training participants after they get back to their
workplace.
This means that the training objectives must be clear to
each group of training program participants and their
direct supervisor. The learning environment must be
developed in such a way that not only the interaction
between the trainer/instructors and participants are taking
place but also the training program must allow and
encourage the interaction among the participants so that
learning from each other is also enriched throughout the
training program. The supervisory support for the training
program should be secured before the participants join
the training program. Action-oriented learning is found to
be more appropriate for adult learning. The organizational
learning culture in the workplace is also important in
developing its human resources. The contextual factors
such as compensation and leadership practices have
been found to facilitate the learning transfer through their

impact on post-training motivation. However, in the

public sector, it is more difficult to make use of
compensation as a motivational approach.
Effective leadership would be more feasible and
desirable. We have had in-depth interviews with the key
informants at the Ministry in several occasions when the
actual executive development programs were conducted
in the past 5 years. The Ministry has conducted these
programs and required each senior officer to do an
individual study or a small project that reflects how they
have been able to apply the learning in classroom to their
actual project at work. The individual study report is what
they have already done and written up as a case study
which reflects their understanding of the concept learned
to the actual experiences. Or, it can be a new proposal of
what they will be implementing after the training program
is completed. The latter will reflect how they apply the
learning to develop some action plans with tentative
resource management plan such as budget and time
estimation for the project completion. This application
part of the program ensures that individual trainee will
bring back with them what they plan to implement in their
job role to create impact on organization. Projects like
this indicate how they have learned in the training
program as well as what impact they can contribute to
their organization
Thus, the strategic human resource development
programs for the public sector organizations should take
into account the demand and support of the direct
supervisor on their subordinates competencies profiles
which would be aligned with the units strategies, the
design of the training program which should enhance
adult learning, and the follow-up or monitoring as well as
the encouragement of the learning behavior of the
participants by direct supervisors, trainers and peers or
co-workers of the trainees after the training should be
implemented to enable and sustain the desirable work
behavior.
Challenges Ahead of the Ministry of Interior
It seems to be the trend that the training and
development budget is gradually declining especially
after the great floods in Thailand in 2011. In addition, it is
observed that some people have got many opportunities
for training while some never received any. Thus, it is a
challenge for the Ministry of Interior to find a way to
enhance the learning of individuals and keep up with the
competencies demanded by the tasks and mission of the
Ministry in the near future within the budget constraints.
This concern is voiced by a key informant as follows:
Since we expect to have lower budget for training and
development in the near future, it is very important that
leaders at all levels and the HR division of the Ministry
pay more attention on how to develop and coach their
people to learn and become more competent in their

Siengthai et al. 059

current job and develop their potentials for the next level
jobs when they are needed. (Panissara, 2012)
CONCLUSION
Human resource development activities are human
capital investment by organizations. Thus, it is important
that the training program implementation and assessment
is conducted to obtain feedback for further improvement
of the programs to develop the needed competencies for
participants and training effectiveness. This study reviews
factors influencing training and evaluation effectiveness
based on previous studies as to provide some guidelines
to the in-service training programs conducted in the
public sector organizations in Thailand. The Ministry of
Interior in Thailand is taken as a case study. It is found
that as a system, the training effectiveness is dependent
on several factors such as the input into the training
programs, namely, participants and instructors skills,
knowledge and abilities, the training process itself which
depends on the contents and methods used in the
programs. The antecedents to the training effectiveness
include the organizations training design aligned to its
policies and strategies, the existing organizational culture
of learning, and the support from the direct supervisor of
participants in transferring the knowledge and learning
onto the workplace environment. Thus, organizations
can benefit more from their human capital investment if
they take these factors into account from the design
stage to implementation and assessment activities.
ENDNOTES
This paper is based on a conference prepared for the
11th World Congress of the International Federation of
Scholarly Associations of Management (IFSAM 2012)
Management Reimagined organized at the Kemmy
Business School , University of Limerick, Ireland, June 26
29, 2012. We are grateful to the Ministry of Interior key
informants especially Mr. Sa-nguan Teerakul, Ms.
Rungrawee Somhorm, Ms. Panisara Wongvanich for
their information relevant to this research. The views
presented and any remaining errors are our sole
responsibilities.
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