UNESCONIGERIATECHNICAL&VOCATIONAL

EDUCATIONREVITALISATIONPROJECTPHASEII

NATIONALDIPLOMAIN
BUILDINGTECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTIONTOSTUCTURALMECHANICS

COURSECODE:BLD108

YEARISEMESTERII
THEORY
Version1:December2008

Table of Contents

WEEK 1: NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

(1.1)

Newtons Laws of Motion and Their Application...................................

(1.1) First Law .......................................................................................
(1.1) Application...........................................................................
(1.1) Second Law...................................................................................
(1.1) Application...........................................................................
(1.1) Momentum ...........................................................................
(1.1) Change in Momentum .........................................................
(1.1) Rate of Change of Momentum.............................................
(1.1) Representation of the Second Law ......................................
(1.1) Third Law .....................................................................................
(1.1) Application...........................................................................

Exercises .....................................................................................................................

WEEK 2: NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

(1.1) Example 1 ........................................................................................................
(1.1) Example 2 ........................................................................................................
(1.1) Example 3 ........................................................................................................
(1.1) Example 4 ........................................................................................................
Exercises.....................................................................................................................

WEEK 3: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

(1.2) Impulse and Momentum ..................................................................................
(1.2) Impulse...................................................................................................
Law of Conservation of Momentum .........................................................................
(1.2) Example 1 ........................................................................................................
(1.2) Example 2 ........................................................................................................
(1.2) Example 3 ..............................................................................................................

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(1.2) Example 4 ...............................................................................................................

Exercises ..........................................................................................................................

WEEK 4: KINETIC ENERGY

(1.3) Kinetic Energy ..................................................................................................
Energy of a Pendulum ......................................................................................
(1.3) Example 2 .........................................................................................................
(1.3) Example 3 .........................................................................................................
(1.3) Example 4 .........................................................................................................
Exercises ....................................................................................................................

WEEK 5: KINEMATICS OF POINTS

(1.3) Kinematics ........................................................................................................
Motion ..............................................................................................................
Types of Motion ...................................................................................
Random Motion .......................................................................
Translational Motion ................................................................
Rotational Motion ....................................................................
Oscillatory Motion ...................................................................
Motion in a Straight Line .................................................................................
Equations of Uniformly accelerated Motion ....................................................
(1.4) Example 1 .........................................................................................................
(1.4) Example 2 .........................................................................................................
Exercises ....................................................................................................................

WEEK 6: RESOLUTION AND COMPOSITION OF VECTORS

(1.5) Resolution and Composition of Vectors ...........................................................
(1.6) Relative Velocity and Acceleration ..................................................................
(1.7) Representation of Vectors ................................................................................
Unit Vector...........................................................................................

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Equal Vectors .......................................................................................

Like Vectors .........................................................................................
Addition of Vectors..............................................................................
Parallelogram Law of Vectors .............................................................
Triangle Law of Vectors ......................................................................
Polygon Law of Vectors ......................................................................
(1.5) Example 1 .........................................................................................................
(1.6) Example 2 .........................................................................................................
(1.7) Example 2 .........................................................................................................
Exercises ....................................................................................................................

WEEK 7: LOAD AND TENSION AND COMPRESSION

(2.1) Load ..................................................................................................................
(2.2) Tension and Compression ................................................................................
(2.2) Tension ..................................................................................................
(2.2) Compression ..........................................................................................
(2.2) Example 1 .........................................................................................................
(2.2) Example 2 .........................................................................................................
(2.2) Example 3 .........................................................................................................
Exercises ....................................................................................................................

WEEK 8: RESOLUTION AND COMPOSITION OF VECTORS

(2.3) Stress and Strain ...............................................................................................
(2.3) Stress ........................................................................................................
(2.3) Strain ........................................................................................................
(2.4) Hookes Law.....................................................................................................
(2.5) Modulus of Elasticity........................................................................................
(2.3) Example 1 .........................................................................................................
(2.3) Example 2 .........................................................................................................
(2.3) Example 3 .........................................................................................................

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Exercises ....................................................................................................................

WEEK 9: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN IN

TENSION
(2.6) Relationship Between Stress and Strain in Tension .........................................
(2.6) Example 1 .................................................................................................
(2.7) Limit of Proportionality ....................................................................................
(2.7) Elastic Limit .....................................................................................................
(2.7) Yield Point........................................................................................................
(2.7) Ductility ............................................................................................................
(2.7) Brittleness .........................................................................................................
(2.7) Permanent Set ...................................................................................................
Exercises ....................................................................................................................

WEEK 10: SHEAR STRESS, SHEAR STRAIN , MODULUS OF RIGIDITY

AND STRAIN ENERGY
(2.8) Shear Stress.......................................................................................................
(2.8) Shear Strain.......................................................................................................
(2.8) Modulus of Rigidity..........................................................................................
(2.8) Strain Energy ....................................................................................................
(2.8) Example 1 .........................................................................................................
(2.8) Example 2 .........................................................................................................
Exercises ....................................................................................................................

WEEK 11: ANALYSIS OF A COMPOSITE BODY

(2.9) Analysis of a Composite Body .........................................................................
(2.9) Example 1 .........................................................................................................
(2.9) Example 2 .........................................................................................................
(2.9) Example 3 .........................................................................................................
Exercises ....................................................................................................................

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WEEK 12: EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES

(3.1) Relationship Between Stress and Strain in Tension .........................................
(3.1) Coplanar Forces........................................................................................
(3.1) Concurrent Coplanar Forces.....................................................................
(3.2) Polygon of Forces .............................................................................................
Exercises ....................................................................................................................

WEEK 13: ANALYSIS AND RESOLUTION OF FORCES

(3.3) Example 1 .........................................................................................................
(3.3) Example 2 .........................................................................................................
Exercises ....................................................................................................................

WEEK 14: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN IN

TENSION
(2.6) Relationship Between Stress and Strain in Tension .........................................
(2.6) Example 1 .................................................................................................
(2.7) Limit of Proportionality ....................................................................................
(2.7) Elastic Limit .....................................................................................................
(2.7) Yield Point........................................................................................................
(2.7) Ductility ............................................................................................................
(2.7) Brittleness .........................................................................................................
(2.7) Permanent Set ...................................................................................................
Exercises....................................................................................................................................

WEEK 15: REVISION

Example 1 ...................................................................................................................
Example 2 ...................................................................................................................
Example 3 ...................................................................................................................
Example 4 ...................................................................................................................
Example 5 ...................................................................................................................

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Example 6 ...................................................................................................................
Example 7 ...................................................................................................................

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1.1

NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION AND THEIR APPLICATION

There are three Newtons Laws of motion:

First Law: A body will continue to remain in its state of rest or if in a state of uniform
motion in a straight line, will continue to maintain its state of motion unless an external
force acts on the body which will alter that state of rest or of the uniform motion.
Application
The tendency of bodies to remain at rest allows the production of Maps of regions
and Layouts of towns and cities. Nigeria has always remained in its present position
so are other countries of the world. States within Nigeria and their towns will
continue to remain where they have always been.

Figure 1.1.1 Map of the World.

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Figure 1.1.2 Layout of a City

Object placed on a position will continue to maintain its position. Anytime the object
is needed, it will be found on that particular position. If the object was not found
where it was placed, somebody or
something altered the objects position.

Figure 1.1.3 Objects placed on a position.

A person riding an escalator feels at rest and will continue to move with uniform
motion in a straight line.

Figure 1.1.4 People on escalator

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Passengers in airplane feels impact only when the plane is taking-off or landing or
where there is a storm, when the plane reached its altitude and a uniform motion is
maintained, the passengers feel at rest and go on with their activities.

Figure 1.1.5 Passengers in airplane.

Second Law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
applied force and is acting in the direction in which the force acts.
MOMENTUM
Momentum of a body is defined as the product of the mass (m) of the body and the
velocity (v) the body is moving with. That is:
Momentum = mass x velocity (kgm/s)
CHANGE IN MOMENTUM
Mass of a body is the same everywhere on the earth; therefore, momentum change
of a body will only be as a result of change in the velocity of the movement.
If the first (initial) velocity is represented by u, the momentum of the body is mu.
If the second (final) velocity is represented by v, the momentum is mv.
Change in momentum = mv mu = m (v u).

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RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM

The rate of change of momentum of a body is the ratio of the change in momentum of the
body to the time taken for the change to occur. If the time taken is represented by t;
Rate of change of momentum = m (v u) / t.
REPRESENTATION OF THE SECOND LAW
If the applied force is represented by F, the second law is represented as;
F

m (v - u)
t

F=k

m (v - u)
t

The constant k is determined to be = 1. So that, in reality the constant of proportionality

is the mass (m) of the body.

And

F=

m (v - u)
t

(v - u)
= acceleration (a)
t

Therefore,

F = ma

A body moving with uniform motion has velocity v = u, so that,

Acceleration (a) =

u-u
= 0.
t

The applied force,

F=mx0=0
This implies that a body moving with uniform motion has no force acting on it.

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As an illustration of the definition, suppose a boy or girl on a bicycle, total mass 50 kg,
has a velocity of 1m/s and that, pedaling faster for 5 s, the velocity increases to 3 m/s. Then,
since rate of change means change per second,
Average force =

Momentum Change (50 x 3 - 50 x 1)kg m/s

=
Time
5s

= 20 kg m/s2.
1 kg m/s2 is the force acting on a mass of 1 kg which gives it an acceleration of 1 m/s2. By
definition, this force is the newton. Hence the force is 20 newtons. If the cyclist pedals harder, so
that his velocity increases from 1 m/s to 3 m/s in 2 s, the momentum change per second is greater
than before. The force is now given by
50 x 3 - 50 x 1
= 50 N
2
Suppose the cyclist, moving with a momentum of 150 units, applies the brakes slowly and comes
to rest steadily in 6s. Then the momentum change/s = 150/6 = 25 newtons. If the cyclist pulls up
sharply and comes to rest in s, the retarding force = 150/ = 300 newtons. The cyclist suffers
a more violent force in this case. For this reason, a person landing on his feet from a height is
well-advised to flex the knees, so as to provide a less rapid momentum change on coming to rest.

Application

In design of building subjected to dynamic vibrations such as earthquake resisting

structures, the Newtons second law of motion is applied.

Third Law: To every action there is equal and opposite reaction. If a body (first object)

exerts a force (action) on another body (second object), an equal but opposite force
(reaction) is exerted on the body (first object) by the other body (second object).

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Application

Rocket Propulsion: The motion of a rocket is much like the motion of a balloon
losing air. When the balloon is sealed, the air inside pushes on the entire interior
surface of the balloon with equal force. If there is an opening in the balloons surface,
the air pressure becomes unbalanced, and the escaping air becomes a backward
movement balanced by the forward movement of the balloon.
Rockets produce the force that moves them forward by burning their fuel inside a
chamber in the rocket and then expelling the hot exhaust that results. Rockets carry
their own fuel and the oxygen used for burning their fuel. In liquid-fueled rockets, the
fuel and oxygen-bearing substance (called the oxidizer) are in separate compartments.
The fuel is mixed with the oxygen and ignited inside a combustion chamber. The
rocket, like the balloon, has an opening called a nozzle from which the exhaust gases
exit. A rocket nozzle is a cup-shaped device that flares out smoothly like a funnel
inside the end of the rocket. The nozzle directs the rocket exhaust and causes it to
come out faster, increasing the thrust and efficiency of the rocket.

Figure 1.6 Rocket Propulsion

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Exercises

1. Answer the following questions:

a. Two persons were inside a car, the driver who wore his seat belt and a passenger next
to him, who did not wear his seat belt. The car was running at a very high speed, then
suddenly the break was applied; the passenger was thrown out through the wind
screen as result while the driver remained in his seat. Applying the Newtons laws o f
motion explain what happened to the two persons inside the car .
b. Sand falls gently at a constant rate of 50 g/s onto a horizontal belt moving steadily at
40 cm/s. Find the force on the belt in newtons exerted by the sand.

2. Apply the Newtons laws of motion and explain the transition of the forces and acceleration
of a man travelling in an elevator

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EXAMPLE 1
A body of mass 2 kg undergoes a constant horizontal acceleration of 5 m/s2. Calculate the
resultant horizontal force acting on the body. What will be the resultant force on the body when
it moves with a uniform velocity of 10m/s?
Solution:
Data Given

Mass of body (m) = 2 kg

Acceleration (a) = 5 m/s2
Required:

(i)

Resultant Horizontal force (f) acting on the body

(ii)

Resultant Force (f) if body moves with uniform velocity of 10 m/s

Mass=2kg

Resultant Horizontal Force

From Newtons Second Law, F = ma

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F = 2 x 5 = 10N
Therefore, the resultant horizontal force on the body = 10N
Resultant Horizontal Force moving with Uniform Velocity

If the velocity is uniform,

Initial velocity (U) = Final velocity (V) so that
Acceleration (a) = 0
F=2x0=0
Therefore, the resultant horizontal force on the body = 0 N.

EXAMPLE 2
A car of mass 600 kg, moving with a forward acceleration of 5 m/s2 is acted upon by a constant
resistive force of 1000 N. Calculate the force exerted from the engine to maintain this forward
acceleration.
Solution:

Data Given
Mass of body (m) = 600 kg
Acceleration (a) = 5 m/s2
Resistive force (f0) = 1000 N
Required: Force exerted from engine of car (f)

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F0 = 1000N

Mass = 600kg
Let F be the force of the engine, Resultant force acting on the car will be equal to,
F 1000.

F 1000 = ma.
F 1000 = 600 x 5
F 1000 = 3000
F = 3000 + 1000 = 4000N
Therefore, F = 4000N = 4KN
Force exerted from the engine = 4KN.

EXAMPLE 3
A bullet of mass 0.045 kg is fired from a gun of mass 9 kg, the bullet moving with an initial
velocity of 200 m/s. Find the initial backward velocity of the gun.
Mass = 9kg

Mass = 0.045kg
u = 200 m/s

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Solution:

Data Given
Mass of bullet (mb) = 0.045 kg
Mass of gun (mg) = 9 kg
Initial velocity of bullet (ub) = 200 m/s2
Required: Initial velocity of gun (ug)

Let Fg stands for the force action of the gun, mg the mass of the gun and ag the
acceleration of the gun and,

Fb, mb and ab represent that of the bullet.

Fb = mb ab
ab = (200 0) / t = 200/t
Fb = 0.045kg x 200/t
Fb = 9/t
Fg = mg ag
Fg = 9(v/t)
According to Newtons third law, Fb = Fg
9/t = 9v/t

v = 1 m/s
Therefore the initial backward velocity of the gun = 1m/s.

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EXAMPLE 4
A body of mass 5 kg is to be given an acceleration of 20 m/s2. Calculate the force required when
the acceleration is vertically upwards. Take g = 10 m/s2.

Solution:

Data Given
Mass of body m = 5 kg
Needed acceleration (a) = 20m/s2.
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10m/s2.
Let F be the force required, expressed in newtons and applied vertically upwards in the direction
of acceleration.
The weight of the body mg acts downwards. Therefore, the resultant force on the body upwards
is:
F mg
Therefore, the equation of motion is F mg = ma
We have
F 5 x 10 = 5 x 20
F = 50 + 100
F = 150 N

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Exercises

3. A car of mass 500kg accelerates at 2m/s2. What is the force acting on the car?

4. Find the acceleration of an object of mass 200g when a force of 0.12N acts on it. If the object
is accelerated from rest, find the distance travelled in min.

5. A rocket expels gas at the rate of 0.5 kg/s. If the force produced by the rocket is 100 newtons,
what is the velocity with which the gas is expelled?

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1.2

IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

IMPULSE: Impulse of a body is defined as the product of force (F) that produced momentum

change in the body and the time taken for the change to occur. That is,
Impulse = force x time (Ns)

As earlier defined,
Momentum = mass x velocity (kgm/s)

Recall:
From Newtons second law:
F=

m ( v - u)
t

Ft = m(v - u)

The expression on the left hand side (Ft) defines impulse of a body.
Where as the expression on the right hand side (m (v u)) defines the change of momentum of a
body.
From the above equation, it can be seen that impulse of a body is the same as the
momentum change of the body.

Therefore, it could be stated that Ns is the same as kgm/s.

In other words, impulse of a body is as a result of the change in momentum of the body.

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There are many examples of momentum change caused by forces of action and reaction. The
reaction force was put to a very useful purpose by Whittle when he invented the jet aeroplane.
Here a jet of very hot gases issues from behind the aeroplane; the speed and mass per second of
the gas are so high that considerable momentum is imparted to the stream of gas (figure 1.2.1
(a)). An equal and opposite momentum is imparted to the aeroplane, which undergoes a forward
thrust. The same principle is used in rockets for launching satellites. Jets of hot gas issue
downwards; an equal opposite momentum is given to the rocket, which then moves upwards.
Sprinklers on lawns throw out water in one direction, thus giving it momentum, and themselves
rotate in the opposite direction owing to the equal and opposite momentum (figure 1.2.1. (b)).

(b)

(a)
Figure 1.2.1 Forces of Reaction

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

Newtons second and third laws enable us to formulate an important conservation law known as
the law of conservation of momentum.

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In a system of colliding objects the total

momentum is conserved, provided there is
no net external force acting on the system.

It can also be stated as follows:

The total momentum of an isolated or closed system of
colliding bodies remains constant.
Thus if two or more bodies collide in a closed
system, the total momentum before collision is equal to
the total momentum after collision.

By closed or isolated system, it is meant that the system where no external force act.
Let u1 and u2 and v1 and v2 be the initial and final velocities of two colliding bodies of masses m1
and m2. The conservation law can be stated as
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

EXAMPLE 1
A body of mass 5kg moving with a speed of 30m/s is suddenly hit by another body moving in
the same direction, thereby changing the speed of the former body to 60m/s. What is the impulse
received by the first body?
Solution:

Data Given
Mass of body (m) = 5 kg
Initial velocity of body (u) = 30 m/s
Final velocity of body (v) = 60 m/s

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Mass = 5kg

Mass = 5kg

u=30m/s

v=60m/s

Impulse = Change in momentum

= mv mu
= 5(60 30)
= 5 x 30
Therefore, impulse received by the first body = 150Ns.

EXAMPLE 2
A player hits a ball of mass 0.3kg which was moving eastwards with a velocity of 10m/s, causing
it now to move with a velocity 15m/s westwards. The force of the blow acts on the ball for 0.01s.
Calculate the average force exerted on the ball by the player.
Solution:

Data Given
Mass of ball (m) = 0.3kg
Initial velocity (u) = -10 m/s (eastwards assumed negative direction)
Final velocity (v) = 15 m/s (westwards assumed positive direction)
Time force acts on ball (t) = 0.01 s

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Required: Calculate average force (f).

m = 0.3kg
u = -10m/s
v = 15m/s
t = 0.01s
a = (v u)/t
a = (15 - -10)/ 0.01
a = 2500m/s
F = ma = 0.3 x 2500
F = 750N
Therefore, the average force exerted on the ball by the player = 750N (westwards)

EXAMPLE 3

Object A of mass 20kg moving with a velocity of 3m/s makes an head-on collision with object
B, mass 10kg moving with a velocity of 2m/s in the opposite direction. If A and B stick together
after the collision, calculate their common velocity v in the direction of A.

Solution:

Data Given
Mass of object A (mA) = 20kg

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Mass of object B (mB) = 10kg

Initial velocity of object A (uA) = 3m/s
Initial velocity of object B (uB) = 2m/s
Required: Common velocity (v)

uA = 3

uB = 2 m/s

Using mAuA + mBuB = v (mA + mB)

We have
20 x 3 + 10 x (-2) = v (20 + 10)
60 20 = 30v
v=

4m
3 s

Therefore their common velocity =

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Exercises

1. Two identical free-running trolleys are on a smooth horizontal runway. One trolley is at rest
and the other approaches it at a constant speed of 20 cm/s. After the impact the two trolleys
together move at 10 cm/s. Explain this result, stating the physical principal involved.

2. A ball of mass 100 g falls from a height of 3 m on to a horizontal surface and rebounds to a
height of 2 m. Calculate the change in momentum of the ball.

3. Define the impulse of a force. If a force of 6.0 N acts on a body for five seconds, what is the
change in momentum?

4. Explain why the velocity of a recoiling gun is lower than that of the ejected bullet.

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1.3

KINETIC ENERGY

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object, resulting from the motion of that object.
Kinetic energy is energy due to motion; in contrast, potential energy is the energy of a stationary
object due to level or position. The magnitude of the kinetic energy depends on both the mass
and the velocity of the object according to the equation

Ek = mv2
Where m is the mass of the object and
v2 is its velocity multiplied by itself.
A fast-moving cricket ball which crashes into a window pane hurls splinters of glass through big
distances. A moving train coming to rest at a station may compress powerful springs at the
buffers. Thus, since it can do work, these examples show that a moving object has energy. It is
this energy that is called kinetic energy.

Figure 1.31

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Energy of a Pendulum

A moving pendulum changes potential energy into kinetic energy and back again. When
the bob (weight on the end of string) is first released, it has potential energy due to its height, but
no kinetic energy since it is not yet moving. As the bob accelerates downward, potential energy
is traded for kinetic. At the bottom of its swing, the bob has no potential energy since it cannot
fall any further. The bob is moving quickly at this point since all of its former potential energy
has been transformed into kinetic energy.

EXAMPLE 1
A girl of mass 30kg is running with a speed of 4m/s. What is her kinetic energy?
Mass = 30kg

V = 4 m/s
Solution:

Given Data
Mass of girl (m) = 30kg
Speed of movement (v) = 4m/s.

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Required: Kinetic energy.

Ek = mv2
Ek = x 30 x 42
Ek = 240 J

Therefore, the kinetic energy of the boy = 240J

EXAMPLE 2
A bullet of mass 40g is moving with a speed of 216km/h. Calculate its kinetic energy.
Mass = 40g

V = 216 km/h

Solution:

Given Data
Mass of bullet (m) = 40g
Speed of movement (v) = 216km/h.
Required: Kinetic energy.

First convert all units to SI units.

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m = 40g = 40/100kg = 0.04kg

216km/h =

216 x 1000
m/s = 60m/s
60 x 60

Ek = x 0.04 x 602
Ek = 72 J

Therefore, the kinetic energy of the bullet is 72 J

EXAMPLE 3
A ball of mass 2kg falls from rest from a height of 200m. Calculate its kinetic energy after
falling a distance of 50m. (Neglect air resistance and take g = 10m/s2). See figure below.
50m

150m

Figure Example 3
Solution:

Given Data
Mass of ball (m) = 2kg
Height above ground (h) = 100m
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10m/s2.
Required: Kinetic energy after falling a distance of 50m.

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v2 = 2 x 10 x 50
v2 = 1000
Ek = mv2 = x 2 x 1000

Ek = 1000 J = 1 kJ
Therefore, the total kinetic energy at 50m free fall = 1 kJ

EXAMPLE 4
A body of mass 2kg falls from rest through a height of 20m and comes to rest having
penetrated a distance of 0.5m into sandy ground. Calculate the average force exerted by the
sand in bringing the body to rest. (Take g = 10m/s2).

Solution:

Given Data
Mass of body (m) = 2kg
Height above ground (h) = 20m.
Distance penetrated into ground (s) = 0.5m
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10m/s2.
Required: Average force exerted by sand in bringing body to rest.
If u is the velocity on reaching the ground, the conservation of energy gives:
mu2 = mgh

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= 2 x 10 x 20
= 400J
This kinetic energy is converted into work which is the done in penetrating a distance s = 0.5m
with an average force,
= F x s = 400
F x 0.5 = 400
F = 800N

EXAMPLE 5
A stationary sledge of mass 4 kg is acted on by a force of 8 N for 5 seconds. Calculate the energy
of the sledge.
Solution:
Given Data

Force (F) = 8 N.
Time (t) = 5 s.
Mass (m) = 4 kg.
Initial velocity (u) = 0 (stationary).
Required: Energy.
Acceleration (a) = Force / Mass
a = 8/4
a = 2 m/s2.
Velocity (v) in 5s = u + at

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v=2x5
v = 10 m/s
K.E. = mv2.
K.E. = x 4 x 102
Kinetic energy = 200 J.

Exercises

1)

A body of mass 0.5 kg, and initially at rest, is subjected to a force of 2 N for 1 second.
Calculate:
a) The change in momentum of the body during the second.
b) The change in kinetic energy of the body during the second.

2)

Niagara falls are 50 m high. Calculate the potential energy of 5 kg of water at the top,
relative to the bottom. What is the kinetic energy of this water just before it reaches the
bottom, and what happens to the energy after the water reaches the bottom?

3)

Calculate the kinetic energy of a trolley of mass 80 kg moving with a velocity of 6 m/s.

4)

A ball of mass 100 g falls from a height of 3 m on to a horizontal surface and rebounds to
a height of 2 m. Calculate the change:
a) In momentum.

b) In kinetic energy.

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1.4

KINEMATICS OF POINTS

Kinematics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of motion of a body or system

without reference to force and mass.

Motion involves a change of position of a body over a period of time.

Types of Motion
There are four types of motion:
1. Random Motion This motion has no pattern. It occurred in a disorder fashion, as in the
case of gaseous particles or a feather falling from the sky.
2. Translational Motion Any movement upwards, downwards or any other direction that
involves no rotation is referred to as a translational motion.
3. Rotational Motion This involves motion about a circular path about a center or an
axis, such as the motion of a spinning wheel or a rotating fan.
4. Oscillatory Motion This is a to and fro motion, as in the case of a swinging pendulum.

Motion in a Straight Line

Four parameters are required to describe motion in a straight line. These are: distance or
displacement, speed or velocity, acceleration and time.

Displacement (s) is defined as the distance travelled in a specified direction. The SI unit
of displacement is m.

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Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance.

Velocity (u or v) is defined is defined as the rate of displacement or the rate of change of
distance in a specified direction. The SI unit of velocity is m/s. If the rate of change of
displacement is constant, the velocity is said to be uniform.
Acceleration (a) is defined as the rate of change of velocity. The SI unit of acceleration is
m/s2. If the rate of change of velocity is constant the acceleration is said to be constant.

EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

1. V = U + at
2. S = Ut + at2
3. V2 = U2 2aS

Where V = final velocity,

U = initial velocity,
a = acceleration
t = time taken
S = distance covered

EXAMPLE 1
A train slows from 108km/h with a uniform retardation of 5m/s2. How long will it take to reach
18km/h, and what is the distance covered?
Solution:

U = 108km/h =

108 x 10000
m / s = 30m/s
60 x 60

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V = 18km/h =

18 x 1000
m / s = 5m/s
60 x 60

a = -5m/s2
Time taken

V = U + at
t = (V U)/a
t=

5 - 30
-5

t = 5s

Distance covered

V2 = U2 2aS
S = (V2 U2)/2a
S=

5 2 - 30 2
2x-5

S = 87.5m

EXAMPLE 2
A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly until it reaches a velocity of 30m/s after 5s. It
maintained the velocity reached for 15s and is then brought to rest in 10s with a uniform
retardation. Determine:
a) The acceleration of the car,
b) The retardation,

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c) The distance covered after 5s,

d) The total distance covered.

Solution:

The movement of the car can be broken into three stages:

First Stage

u=0
v = 30m/s
t = 5s
From v = u + at we have
a = (v u) / t
= (30 0) / 5
a = 6m/s2.
Acceleration = 6m/s2.

From v2 = u2 2as we have,

s = (v2 u2) / 2a
s = (302 02) / 2 x 6
s = 75m
Distance covered = 75m
Second Stage

Acceleration (a) is constant = 0

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u = 30m/s
t = 15s
From s = ut + at2 we have,
s = 30 x 15
s = 450m.
Third Stage

u = 30m/s
v=0
t = 10s
From v = u + at we have,
a = (v u) / t
a = (0 30) / 10
a = - 3m/s2.
Retardation = 3m/s2.

From v2 = u2 2as we have,

s = (v2 u2) / 2a
s = (02 302) / 2 x -3
s = 150m

a)

Acceleration (a) = 6m/s2 (From first stage)

b)

Retardation = 3m/s2. (From third stage)

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c)

The distance covered after 5s = 75m (From first stage)

d)

The total distance covered =

Distance covered in first stage + distance covered in second stage + distance covered in
third stage
= 75m + 450m + 150m
= 675m
Therefore, Total distance covered = 675m.

Using Velocity Time graph

3rd Stage

2nd Stage

1st Stage

VELOCITY

30m/ s

5s
TIME TAKEN

a)

20s

30s

Acceleration (a) is the slope of the curve at first stage of movement

a=

30 - 0 30
=
5-0
5

a = 6m/s2.

b)

Retardation (-a) is the slope of the curve at the third stage of movement

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a=

0 - 30
30
=30 - 20
10

a = - 3m/s2.
Retardation = 3m/s2.

c)

The distance covered after 5s is the area of the graph at the first stage.
= x 5 x 30
= 75m
Distance covered after 5s = 75m

d)

The total distance covered is the area under the graph

= (15 + 30) x 30
675m
The total distance covered = 675m

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Exercises

1) A train starts from rest from a station and travels with uniform acceleration 0.5 m/s2 for 20
seconds. It travels with uniform velocity for another 30 seconds, the brakes are then applied
so that a uniform retardation is obtained and the train comes to rest in further 10 seconds.
Sketch the velocity-time graph of this motion. Using your graph, calculate the total distance
travelled by the train.

2) A motor car is uniformly retarded and brought to rest from a velocity of 36 km/m in 5
seconds. Find the retardation and the distance covered during this period.

3) A body is dropped from rest at a height of 80 m. How long does it take to reach the ground?
(g = 10 m/2, ignore air resistance).

4) An object moves in a straight line, starting from rest. There are two stages in the journey:
a) It gains speed uniformly for 20 seconds and attains a speed of 8 m/s.
b) It continues at this speed for further 1.5 seconds.
Draw a sketch-graph of speed against time.
Find:
a) The acceleration in stage (a)
b) The acceleration in stage (b)
c) The total distance moved during stages (a) and (b)

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1.5

RESOLUTION AND COMPOSITION OF VECTORS

Essential to a study of structural behavior is knowing the net result of the interaction of several
vector forces acting on a body. This interaction can be studies in terms of the laws of vector
addition. These laws and fundamental postulates are base on experimental observation.
Historically, the first method of adding vector quantities was based on the parallelogram law. In
terms of force vectors, this proposition states that when the lines of action of two forces intersect,
there is a single force or resultant, exactly equivalent to these two forces, which can be
represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by using the force vectors as sides of the
parallelogram [see figure 1.5.1].

R
F1

F1

F2

F2
(b)

(a)
Figure 1.5.1

In general, a resultant force is the simplest force system to which a more complex set of forces
may be reduced and still produce the same effect on the body acted upon.

A graphic technique for finding the resultant force of several force vectors whose lines of action
intersect is illustrated in figure 2. The individual vectors, drawn to scale, are jointed in tip to tail
fashion. The order of combination is not important. Unless the resultant force is zero, the force

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polygon thus formed does not form a closed figure. The closure line is identical to the resultant
force of the several individual vectors (i.e. the resultant is that vector which would extend from
the tail of the first vector to the tip of the last vector in the group). The resultant closes the force
polygon. This general technique follows from the parallelogram law.

F1
F3

F2

F2
R

F2

F3
F1
F1
(a)

(b)

F3
(c)

Figure 2

A process that follows directly from the fundamental proposition of the parallelogram of forces
is that of breaking up a single force into two or more separate forces that form a force system
equivalent to the initial force. This process is usually referred to as resolving a force into
components. The number of components that a single force can be resolved into is limitless.
In structural analysis it is often most convenient to resolve a force into rectangular, or Cartesian,
components. By utilizing right angles, components can be found by using simple trigonometric
functions. When a force F is resolved into components on the x and y axes, the components
become
Fx = Fcos and

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Fy = Fsin
The process can be reversed if Fx and Fy are given and it is desired to know the resultant force F:
F = Fx2 + Fy2 And = tan -1

1.6

FY
FX

RELATIVE VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

Relative velocity compares the velocity of one moving object in relation to the velocity of
another moving object, so that their velocities combined can result in higher or lower velocity
value. Relative velocity changes the velocity of a moving object by comparing it with another
moving object
On the other hand, acceleration results in a change in the velocity of a moving object, by the
action of the object itself.
In Comparison, both relative velocity and acceleration results in changes in the values of
velocities, but while relative velocity results in change in velocity by comparing with another
velocity, acceleration result in change in velocity by the action of the body itself.

1.7

REPRESENTATION OF VECTORS

A vector can be represented by a line in a diagram, say OA in figure 3. The magnitude of the
vector is represented by the length of the line. We can refer to the vector as OA, meaning that the
vector has magnitude equivalent to the length OA and acts from O to A. A vector of 40 units
may be represented on paper by any convenient length, say 5cm, so that 1cm represents 8 units.
The direction of the vector OA is represented by the angle which it makes with a given line,
say OX. The sense of the vector, that is form O to A rather than form A to O, is shown on the
diagram by an arrow.

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A 40 units
5cm

O
Figure 1.7.1

UNIT VECTOR: A vector, whose magnitude is unity, is known as a unit vector.

EQUAL VECTORS: The vectors, which are parallel to each other and have the same direction

(i.e. same sense) and equal magnitude, are known as equal vectors.
LIKE VECTORS: The vectors, which are parallel to each other and have sense but unequal

magnitude, are known as like vectors.

ADDITION OF VECTORS: Consider two vectors PQ and PS, which are required to be added

as shown in figure 1.7.2 (a). Take a point A, and draw line AB parallel and equal in magnitude to
the vector PQ to some convenient scale. Through B, draw BC parallel and equal to vector RS to
the same scale. Join AC which will give the required sum of vectors PQ and RS as shown in
figure 1.7.2 (b).
This method of adding the two vectors is called the Triangle Law of Addition of Vectors.
Similarly, if more than two vectors are to be added, the same may done first by adding the third
vector to the resultant of the first two and so on. This method of adding more than two vectors is
called Polygon Law of Addition of Vectors.

Figure 1.7.1 (a)

Figure 1.7.1 (b)

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PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF VECTORS: It states, If two vectors acting simultaneously

on a particle be represented, in magnitude and direction, by the two adjacent sides of a

parallelogram, their resultant may be represented, in magnitude and direction, by the diagonal of
the parallelogram passing through the point of their intersection.
TRIANGLE LAW OF VECTORS: It states, If two vectors acting simultaneously on a

particle be represented in magnitude and direction, by the two sides of a triangle taken in order,
their resultant may be represented, in magnitude and direction, by the third side of the triangle
taken in opposite order.
POLYGON LAW OF VECTORS: It states, If a number of forces acting simultaneously on a

particle be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in order, their
resultant may be represented, in magnitude and direction, by the closing side of the polygon
taken in opposite order.

EXAMPLE 1
A foolish boy removes a nail from a vertical wall by pulling on a string attached to the nail in a
direction 300 to the wall. If the tension in the string is 10 N, calculate the magnitude of the force
which is not effective in removing the nail and the effective force used in pulling out the nail. Is
it possible to remove the nail this way if the minimum force required is 7 N? Why is the foolish?

Nail

Solution:

10 sin 300

300

T = 10 N

10 cos 300

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From the diagram, the component of the force parallel to the wall = 10 cos300 = 5 3 N ; this
force is not effective.
The component perpendicular to the wall is the one which is effective in removing the nail. It has
a value of 10 sin 300 = 5 N.
The minimum force required is 7 N. Since this value is less than 7 N he cannot remove the nail
this way as long as the tension remains 10 N and the angle of inclination to the wall is less than
300.
The boy is foolish because if he had applied the of 10 N perpendicular to the wall the nail would
be removed easily.

EXAMPLE 2
A car travelling on a straight road at 100 km/h passes a bus going in the same direction at 60
km/h; calculate:
a) The velocity of the car relative to the bus.
b) The velocity of the car relative to the bus if the bus is now moving in opposite direction
to the car with the same velocity.
Solution:

(a)

The velocity of the car relative to the bus =

(-60 + 100) km/h
= 40 km/h.

(b)

The velocity of the car relative to the bus =

(60 + 100) km/h
= 160 km/h.

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EXAMPLE 3
a) A man travels 7.0 km due north then 10.0 km east. Find the resultant displacement.
b) If he travels 7.0 km 300 east of north then 10.0 km east, find the resultant displacement.
c) If he travels 7.0 km 400 west of north then 10.0 km east, find the resultant displacement.

Solution:

a)

10.0 km

7.0 km

Resultant
= 12.2 km
550
350

R=

7 2 + 10 2

R = 12.4 km
tan = 7/10 = 0.7
= 350.
R = 12.4 km, N 550E

N
10.0 km

b)

7.0 km
300

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Resultant
= 14.8 km

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL
MECHANICS

R2 = 72 + 102 - 2 x 7 x 10 x cos (30 + 90)

R2 = 149 + 70
R2 = 219
R = 14.8 km
14.8
7
=
sin 120 sin
sin =

7sin120
14.8

= 240
R = 14.8 km N 660E

c)

10.0 km

Resultant
7.0 km

40

= 7.7 km

R2 = 72 + 102 2 x 7 x 10 x cos 50
R2 = 149 90
R2 = 59
R = 7.7 km

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7.7
7
=
sin 50 sin
sin =

7sin50
7.7

= 440
R = 7.7 km, N 440E

Exercises

1. Find the resultant of the system of forces given in the figure.

6 N

4 N

45

2 2 N

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2.1

LOAD

Load could be defined as anything that has the tendency of generating internal stresses in a
structure. The weights of objects supported on other object constitute loads on the supporting
object. If the supporting object in turn is supported by another object, then its weight and the
weights of all objects its supports constitute load on the object that support them all.
Structures are designed and constructed to support weight of other objects. The effect of winds
on a structure also constitutes a load.
The loads imposed on a building are classified as either dead or live.
Dead loads include the weight of the building itself and all major items of fixed
equipment. Dead loads always act directly downward, act constantly, and are additive
from the top of the building down.
Live loads include wind pressure, seismic forces, vibrations caused by machinery,
movable furniture, stored goods and equipment, occupants, and forces caused by
temperature changes. Live loads are temporary and can produce pulsing, vibratory, or
impact stresses.
In general, the design of a building must accommodate all possible dead and live loads to
prevent the building from settling or collapsing and to prevent any permanent distortion,
excessive motion, discomfort to occupants, or rupture at any point.

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The plate and its content

constitute load on table.
Likewise the legs of the table
exert load action on the floor
or surface on which it is
placed.
Figure 1: Load on a table

The weight of the head constitute load on the arms that

supports it.
The weights of the arms and head they support constitute
load on the arm of chair that supports them.
The weight of the person on the surface of the chair
constitute load on the chair.
The toes of the person constitutes load on the surface they
were placed.
The legs of the chair exert load action on the surface that supports them.

Figure 2: Load on a chair

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2.2

TENSION AND COMPRESSION

Tension

A body is said to be in tension if the loads acting on it tends to stretch or elongate it.
Compression

A body is said to be in compression if the loads acting on it tends to shorten or crush it.

The figure illustrated the action of

tension and compression on a
prismatic bar.
The first diagram shows the body in
its original state before subjected to
loading.
The second diagram shows the body
under tension. The body elongates

Figure 3: Tension and Compression

under the action of tension.

The third diagram shows the body under compression. The body shortens under the
action of compression.

An example of tension is provided by the rope attached to a crane hook, and of compression the
leg of a table. In each case the load consist of two equal and opposite forces acting in line and
tending to fracture the member. The forces on the crane rope are the load being raised at the
other end and the pull of the winding gear at the other end, and on the table leg a portion of the
table weight on top and the reaction of the ground underneath.

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EXAMPLE 1

A prismatic bar of circular section is loaded by tensile forces P = 85kN figure EX.1. The bar has
length L = 3.0m and diameter d = 30mm. It is made of aluminium with modulus of elasticity E =
70kN/mm2 and Poissons ratio v =

1
. Calculate the elongation and the decrease in diameter
3

d of the bar.
P = 85 kN

d = 30mm

L = 30m

P = 85 kN

Figure EX. 1

Solution:

The longitudinal stress in the bar can be obtained from the equation

P
A
85 x 10 3
=
30 2
4

= 120.3N/mm2.

The axial strain may be obtained from Hookes Law,

=

E
=

120.3
70 x 10 3

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= 0.001718

The total elongation is

= L
= 0.001718 x 3 x 103
= 5.15mm

The lateral strain is obtained from Poissons Ratio

lateral = -v
= - x 0.001718
lateral = -0.0005726

The decrease in diameter equals numerically the lateral strain times the diameter
d = lateral x d
0.0005726 x 30mm
d = 0.0172mm

EXAMPLE 2

A steel rod 1 m long and 20 mm x 20 mm in cross-section is subjected to a tensile force of 40

kN. Determine the elongation of the rod, if modulus of elasticity for the rod material is 200
kN/mm2.

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Solution:
Given Data

Length (L) = 1 m = 1 x 103 mm;

Cross-sectional area (A) = 20 x 20 mm2. = 400mm2.
Tensile force (P) = 40 kN = 40 x 103 N.
Modulus of Elasticity (E) for the material = 200 kN/mm2. = 200 x 103 N/mm2.
Strain () =

Stress( )
Young ' s Modulus (E)

P
AE

L
L

Therefore, L = L
L =

PL
AE

(40 x 10 ) x (1 x 10 )
400 x (20 x 10 )
3

L = 0.5 mm.

EXAMPLE 3

A load of 5 kN is to be raised with the help of a steel wire. Find the minimum diameter of the
steel, if the stress is not to exceed 100 N/mm2.

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Solution:
Given Data

Load (P) = 5 kN = 5 x 103 N.

Stress () = 100 N/mm2.
Let d = Diameter of the wire in mm.
We know that stress in the steel wire (),
100 =

100 =

P
A

5 x 10 3

d2 =

x (d) 2

6.366 x 10 3
=
d2

6.336 x 10 3
= 63.66
100

d = 7.98 mm say 8 mm.

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Exercises

1) A hollow steel tube 3.5 m long has external diameter of 120 mm. In order to determine the
internal diameter, the tube was subjected to a tensile load of 400 kN and extension was
measured to be 2 mm. If the modulus of elasticity for the tube material is 200 kN/mm2,
determine the internal diameter of tube.

2) A straight bar of 500 mm length has its cross-sectional area of 500 mm2. Find the magnitude
of the compressive load under which it

3) A 25 mm square-cross-section bar of length 300mm carries an axial compressive load of 50

kN. Determine the stress set up in the bar and its change of length when the load is applied.
Take E for bar as 200 kN/mm2.
4) A steel tube, 25 mm outside diameter and 12 mm inside diameter, carries an axial tensile load
of 40 kN. What will be the stress in the bar? What further increase in load is possible if the
stress in the bar is limited to 225 MN/m2?

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2.3

STRESS AND STRAIN

Stress

Stress is defined as the internal resistance developed in a body when subject to loading.
Whenever a body is loaded, the fibers or particles that make up the body will tend to reorient
themselves in such a way that equilibrium is maintained with the applied load. These movements
will tend to distort the original shape of the body. The degree to which this distortion is noticed
depends on the strength of the material that makes up the body and the value of the applied load.
This internal resistance that tends to distort the body under load is what is referred to as Stress.
Stresses which are normal to the plane on which they act are called direct stresses, and are either
tensile or compressive.

Normal stress is represented by the symbol,

And the S.I. unit of stress is,

N/m2

Figure 1: Stresses in a material

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Across any section such as XX of the member represented in figure 1, the total force carried
must equal the load P. This is distributed among the internal forces of cohesion, which are called
stresses.
If the member is imagined cut through the section XX (figure 1), each portion is in equilibrium
under the action of the external load P and the stresses at XX.
The force transmitted across any section, divided by the area of that section, is called the
intensity of stress or more simply the stress (). If it is assumed that the load is uniformly
distributed over the section, then,

P
A

Where A is the cross-sectional area.

Strain

Strain is defined as the measure of deformation produced in a member subjected to loading. As

mentioned earlier, internal resistance of bodies under load will tend deform the material as
equilibrium is being maintained, the measure of this deformation is what is referred to as strain.
Direct stresses produce direct strain. Direct strain is represented by the symbol,

Direct strain () is defined as the ratio

Change in length (L)
Original length (L)

L
L

Where L is the change in length and

L is the original length.

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2.4

HOOKES LAW

Hookes law states that within the limit of proportionality strain is proportional to the stress
producing it.
Hookes law can be represented as,

Stress ( )
= Constant
Strain ( )
It may be noted that Hookes Law equally holds good for tension as well as compression.

2.5

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (Youngs Modulus)

Within the limit where Hookes law is obeyed, the ratio between stress and strain defines the
Modulus of Elasticity. The symbol for Modulus of Elasticity is E and its S.I. unit is N/m2.
That is,

= E

E is a constant of proportionality known as modulus of elasticity or Youngs Modulus

.Numerically, it is that value of tensile stress, which when applied to a uniform bar will increase
its length to double the original length if the material of the bar could remain perefectly elastic
throughout such an excessive strain.

EXAMPLE 1
A tie bar on a vertical pressing machine is 2m long and 4cm diameter. What is the stress and
extension under a load of 100kN? Take E as 205 kN/mm2.

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Solution:

P
100 3
=
A 40 2

The stress = 79.6 n/mm2.

Extension =

L
E

PL
AE

100 x 2 x 10 3
mm
2
205 x d
4

The extension = 0.78mm

EXAMPLE 2
A prismatic bar with rectangular cross section (20 x 40mm) and length L = 2.8m is subjected to
an axial tensile force of 70kN (figure Ex.2). The measured elongation of the bar is = 1.2mm.
Calculate the tensile stress and strain in the bar.
20mm
40mm
2.8m

Figure EX. 2

Solution:

Assuming that the axial forces at the centroids of the end cross sections, the tensile stress in the
bar can be calculated as thus:

P
70
=
A 20 x 40

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Therefore, the tensile stress in the bar = 87.5kN/mm2.

The tensile strain can be calculated as thus:

1.2
2.8 x 10 3

Therefore, the tensile strain in the bar = 429 x 10-6

EXAMPLE 3
Determine the stress in each section of the bar shown in Figure EX. 3 when subjected to an axial
tensile load of 20kN. The central section is 30mm square cross-section; the other portions are of
circular section, their diameters being indicated. What will be the total extension of the bar? For
the bar material E = 210 kN/mm2.

250mm

100mm

400mm

20kN

20kN

15mm

20mm
Figure EX.3

30mm

Solution:

Stress =

Load P
=
Area A

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20 x 10 3
Stress in section (1) =
(20 x 10 -3 ) 2
4

80 x 10 3
x 400 x 10 -6

Stress in section (1) = 63.66 MN/m2.

20 x 10 3
Stress in section (2) =
30 x 30 x 10 -6
Stress in section (2) = 22.2 MN/m2.

20 x 10 3
Stress in section (3) =
(15 x 10 -3 ) 2
4

80 x 10 3
x 225 x 10 -6

Stress in section (3) = 113.2 MN/m2.

Now extension of a bar can always be written in terms of the stress in the bar since,
E=

L
E

Extension of section (1) = 63.66 x 106 x

250 x 10 -3
210 x 10 9

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= 75.8 x 10-6 m

Extension of section (2) = 22.2 x 106 x

100 x 10 -3
210 x 10 9

= 10.6 x 10-6 m

Extension of section (3) = 113.2 x 106 x

400 x 10 -3
210 x 10 9

= 215.6 x 10-6 m

Therefore, total extension = (75.8 + 10.6 + 215.6)10-6 m = 0.302mm

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Exercises

1) A brass tube 5 cm diameter, 4 cm bore, and 30 cm long is compressed between two end
washers by a load of 25 kN, and the reduction in length measure is 0.2 mm. Assuming
Hookes Law to apply, calculate Youngs modulus.

2) A hollow cylinder 4 m long has outside and inside diameter of 75 mm and 60 mm

respectively. Find the stress and the deformation of the cylinder, when it is carrying an axial
tensile load of 50 kN. Take E = 100 kN/mm2.

3) A steel wire 1 mm diameter is freely hanging under its own weight. If the extension of the
wire should not exceed 2.5 mm, what should be its maximum length? Take E for the wire
material as 200 kN/mm2 and its specific weight as 78.5 kN/m3.

4) A brass rod 1.5 m long and 20 mm diameter was found to deform 1.9 mm under a tensile
load of 40 kN. Calculate the modulus of elasticity of the rod.

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2.6

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN IN TENSION

Figure 1: Tensile Test

The relationship between Stress and Strain in tension can be best described by carrying out an
experiment.
The figure above shows a graph of a test carried out on a mild-steel bar.
The test is carried out on a bar of uniform cross-section, usually circular, in a testing machine
which indicates the tensile load being applied. For the very small strains involved in the early
part of the test, the elongation of a measured length (called the gauge length) is recorded by an
extensometer or strain gauge".
The load is increased gradually,
At first the elongation, and hence the strain, is proportional to the load (and hence the
stress). This relation (i.e. Hookes law) holds up to a value of the stress known as the
limit of proportionality. This point is shown as A in figure 1.

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Hookes law ceases to be obeyed beyond this point although the material may still be
in the elastic state, in the sense if the load were removed, the strain would also return
to zero. This point is shown as B in figure 1.
If the material is stressed beyond this point, some plastic deformation will occur, i.e.
strain which is not recoverable if the load is removed. At this point, the material is
said to be permanently set.
The next important occurrence is the yield point C, at which the material shows an
appreciable strain even without further increase in load. With mild steel careful
testing will reveal a drop in load immediately yielding commences, so that there are
two values, known as upper and lower yield points.
After yielding has taken place, further straining can only be achieved by increasing
the load, the stress-strain curve continuing to rise up to the point D. The strain in the
region from C to D is in region of 100 times that from O to C, and is partly elastic by
mainly plastic.
At this state (D) the bar begins to form a local neck, the load falling off from the
maximum until fracture at E.
Although in design the material will only be used in the range O-A, it is useful to
examine the other properties obtained from the test.

The maximum or ultimate tensile stress is calculated by dividing the load at D by the original
cross-sectional area. Here it should be pointed that the true stress occurring in the necked portion
is much higher than this, and in fact reaches its greatest value at the breaking point, but it is the
stress which a member can stand distributed over its original area which interests the designer.

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EXAMPLE 1
The following results were obtained in a tensile test on a mild steel specimen of original diameter
2 cm. and gauge length 4 cm. At the limit of proportionality the load was 80 kN and the
extension 0.048 mm. The specimen yielded at a load of 85 kN, and the maximum load withstood
was 150 kN.
When the two parts were fitted together after being broken, the length between gauge points was
found to be 5.56 cm, and the diameter at the neck was 1.58 cm.
Calculate the Youngs modulus and the stress at the limit of proportionality, the yield stress, and
ultimate tensile stress; also the percentage elongation and contraction.
Solution:

Young modulus

Hookes law is obeyed up to the limit of proportionality.

E=

PL

Ax

P = 80 kN = 80000 kN
L = 4 cm = 40 mm
x = 0.048 mm
A=

d 2
4

20 2
4

A = 100 mm2
E=

80000 x 40
100 x 0.048

E = 213000 N/mm2

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Stress at Limit of Proportionality

P(at limit of proportionality)

A

80000
100

= 255 N/mm2

Yield Stress

P(at yield point)

A

85000
100

= 271 N/mm2

Ultimate Tensile Stress

P(maximum load)
A

150000
100

= 478 N/mm2

Percentage Elongation

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Percentage elongation =

Increase in Length
x 100 0/0
OriginalLength

5.56 - 4
x 100
4

Percentage elongation = 390/0

Percentage Contraction

Percentage contraction =

Decrease in Area
Original Area

2
2
2 - 1.58
= x
22
4

x 1000/0

Percentage contraction = 380/0

2.7.1

Limit of Proportionality: - This limit defines the maximum load a material can

support so that the ratio between stress and strain is constant, that is, maximum limit that
the strain in a material will remain a linear function of the stress. Within the limit of
proportionality, Hookes law is obeyed.

2.7.2

Elastic Limit: - The maximum stress that can be applied to a material without the

material becoming permanently deformed. Any additional loading beyond this limit,
irrecoverable deformation (strain) will remain in the material even if the entire load is
removed.

2.7.3

Yield Point: - The point where there is a considerable increase in strain without

corresponding increase in stress. At yield point, the material will exhibit appreciable
deformation with no increase in load.

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2.7.4

Ductility: - This is the ability of material to exhibit appreciable deformation

before failing. Ductile material will show remarkable deformation under load before
fracture.

2.7.5

Brittleness: - This is the ability of material to fail at a very low value of strain.

Brittle materials will fail under load without any noticeable deformation.

2.7.6

Permanent Set: - Permanent set is said to occur in a material when permanent

deformation remains in the material even when the loads that caused the deformation are
entirely removed.

Exercises

1) Mild steel bar deforms continuously under load at a constant load at certain point during a
tensile test. The bar continued to support extra load even after being highly deformed.
Explain the phenomenon involve in this transformation.

2) A material is loaded until a point is reached where deformation in the material is only
partially recovered when the load is removed. What is this transformation referred to and is
there tendency of recovering the deformation through other means?

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2.8 SHEAR STRESS, SHEAR STRAIN, MODULUS OF RIGIDITY AND

STRAIN ENERGY

SHEAR STRESS

Shear stresses are stresses that act tangentially or parallel to the surface of the material, unlike
normal stresses that always act normal to the surface of the material. Instead of tending to
elongate or shorten a material, shear stresses tend to distort the shape of the material in an effort
to create a slip zone inside the material, so that one surface will tend to slide over the other.
The symbol used for shear stress is , and its S.I. unit is N/m2.

V
X

V
Figure 1a: A body under the action of Shear

V
X

V
Figure 1b: section X -

The average shear stress is obtained by dividing the total shear force V by the area A over
which it acts.

V
A

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SHEAR STRAIN

Under the action of shear stresses, a body deforms resulting in shear strains. In order to visualize
these strains, it should be noted first that shear stresses have no tendency to elongate or to
shorten the element in the x, y and z directions; in other words, the lengths of the sides of the
element do not change. Instead, the shear stresses produce a change in the shape of the element,
as shown in figure 2b below. The original element is deformed into an oblique parallepiped, and
the front face pqrs of the element becomes a rhomboid.
The angles between the faces at points q and s, which were
reduced by a small angle to (

(900) before deformation, are

- ). At the same time, the angles at p and r are increased to (

2
2
+ ). The angle is a measure of the distortion, or change in shape, of the element and is called
the shear strain. The unit of shear strain is the radian.

Figure2a

s
Figure2b

MODULUS OF RIGIDITY

For many materials, the initial part of the shear stress-strain diagram is a straight line, just as in
tension. For this linearly elastic region, the shear stress and stress strain are directly proportional,
and we have the following equation for Hookes law in shear:

= G
G is the modulus of rigidity

In other words, the modulus of rigidity G, of a material is defined as,

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G=

STRAIN ENERGY

The strain energy (U) of a material subjected to loading is defined as the work done by the load
in straining the material. When an elastic material deformed under load, if the load is removed,
the deformation will disappear if its elastic limit is not exceeded. Obviously the deformation is as
a result of the applied load, but the restoration is as a result of energy stored inside the material.
This stored energy is what is referred to as the strain energy.

When a tensile or compressive load P is applied to a bar there is a change in length x which, for
an elastic material, is proportional to the load (Figure 3). The strain energy (U) of the bar is
defined as the work done by the load in straining it.

P
L
o
a
d
Extension

Figure 3

For gradually applied or static load the work done is represented by the shaded area in figure 3,
giving
U = Px

--------------------------------------- (1)

To express the strain energy in terms of the stress and dimensions, for a bar of uniform section A
and length L, substitute P = A and x = L/E in equation (1), giving
U = x A x L/E
U=

2
2E

x AL ------------------------------------ (2)

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But AL is the volume of the bar; hence equation (2) can be stated: The strain energy per
unit volume (usually called resilience) in simple tension or compression is

2
2E

EXAMPLE 1:
The coupling shown in figure EX.1 is constructed from steel of rectangular cross-section and is
designed to transmit a tensile force of 50 kN. If the bolt is of 15 mm diameter calculate:
a) The shear stress in the bolt;
b) The direct stress in the plate;
c) The direct stress in the forked end of the coupling

25 kN
50 kN

50 kN

50 kN
25 kN

(a)

(b)

Figure EX. 1
Solution:

(a)
The bolt is subjected to double shear, tending to shear it as shown in figure EX.1 (b).
There is thus twice the area of the bolt resisting the shear.
Shear stress in bolt =

P
2A
=

50 x 10 3 x 4

2 x 15 x 10 -3

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100 x 10 3

(15 x 10 -3 )

= 141.5 MN/m2.
(b)

The will be subjected to a direct tensile stress given by

=
=

P
A

50 x 10 3
50 x 6 x 10 -6

= 166.7 MN/m2.
(c)
The force in the coupling is shared by the forked end pieces, each being subjected to a
direct stress

=
=

P
A

25 x 10 3
50 x 6 x 10 -6

= 83.3 MN/m2.

EXAMPLE 2:
An axial pull of 20 kN is applied on a steel rod 2.5 m long and 1000 mm2 in cross-section.
Calculate the strain energy, which can be absorbed in the rod. Take E = 200 kN/mm2.

Solution:

Given Data
Axial pull on the rod (P) = 20 kN = 20 x 103 N.
Length of rod (L) = 2.5 m = 2.5 x 103 mm;
Cross-sectional area of rod (A) = 1000 mm2.
Modulus of elasticity (E) = 200kN/mm2 = 200 x 103 N/mm2.

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P
A

20 x 10 3
=
1000
= 440 N/mm2.
Volume of the rod = L x A
= (2.5 x 103) x 1000
= 2.5 x 106 mm3.
Therefore, Strain energy which can be absorbed in the rod,
U=

2
2E

xV

(40)2
3

2 x (200 x 10 )

x 2.5 x 10 6 N - mm

U = 10 x 103 N-mm = 10 kN-mm

Exercises

1) A rod 1 m long is 10 cm2 in area for a portion of its length and 5cm2 in area for the
remainder. The strain energy of this stepped bar is 40% of that of a bar 10 cm2 in area in 1 m
long under the same maximum stress. What is the length of the portion 10 cm2 in area?
2) Compare the strain energies of two bars of the same material and length and carrying the
same gradually applied compressive load if one is 25mm diameter throughout and the other
is turned down to 20 mm diameter over half of its length, the remainder being 25 mm
diameter.
3) The vertical load P acting on the wheel of a travelling crane is 53 kN. What is the average
shear stress average in the 38 mm axle?

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2.9

ANALYSIS OF A COMPOSITE BODY

A composite body is made from two or more materials. Example is reinforced concrete, where
steel and concrete are used together to support load.
Analysis of composite body is quite different in the sense that the different materials have
different load carrying capacities.

EXAMPLE 1

A compound bar figure EX.1 is made up of a rod of area A1 and modulus E1 and a tube of equal
length of area A2 and modulus E2. If the compressive load P is applied to the compound bar, find
how the load is shared.

Figure EX.1
Solution:

Since the road and tube are of the same initial length, and must remain together, then the strain in
each part must be the same. The total load carried is P, and let it be shared P1 and P2.

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Compatibility Equation:

P2
P1
=
A1 E1 A2 E 2

Equilibrium Equation: P1 + P2 = P

------------------------------------------------- (1)

------------------------------------------------------- (2)

1 =

P1
and
A1

2 =

P2
----------------------------------------------------- (4)
A2

-------------------------------------------- (3)

From equation (3) we have

P1 = 1A1 -------------------------------------------- (5)
And from equation (4) we have
P2 = 2A2 ------------------------------------------------------------- (6)
Substituting for the values of P1 and P2 in equation (2) we have
P = 1A1 + 2A2

-------------------------------------------------- (7)

Substituting equations (3) and (4) in equation (1) we have

1
E1

2
E2

---------------------------------------- (8)

From equation (6) we have,

2=

1 E2
E1

------------------------------ (9)

Substituting equation (9) in equation (7) we have,

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P = 1A1 +

1E2
E1

A2

PE1 = 1A1E1 + 1A1E2

1 (A1E1 + A1E2) = PE1
1 =

PE1
A1 E 1 + A 2 E 2

-------------------------------- (10)

Substituting equation (8) in equation (7) we have,

2 =

PE 2
A1 E 1 + A 2 E 2

-------------------------------- (11)

Equations (10) and equation (11) defines the stresses in the different materials.
The load carried by the individual materials can be obtained by substituting equations (10) and
(11) in equations (5) and (6) which gives,

P1 =

PE1 A1
and
A1 E 1 + A 2 E 2

P2 =

PE 2 A2
A1 E 1 + A 2 E 2

EXAMPLE 2

A reinforced concrete column, 500mm square, is reinforced with four steel rods, each 25mm in
diameter, embedded in the concrete near the corners of the square. If Youngs Modulus for steel
is 200kN/mm2 and for concrete is 14kN/mm2, estimate the compressive stresses in the steel and
concrete when the total thrust on the column is 1000kN.

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500mm
25mm
500mm

Solution:

Suppose subscripts c and s refer to concrete and steel respectively.

The cross-sectional area of steel is,
x 25 2
AS = 4

AS = 1960mm2.
And the cross-sectional area of concrete is,
AC = 5002 - AS
AC = 250000 1960
AC = 248040mm2.

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From equations (10) and (11) we have

S =

PE S
AS E S + A C E C

C =

PE C
AC E C + A S E S

S =

1000 x 10 3 x 200 x 10 3
N mm 2
1960 x 200 x 10 3 + 248040 x 14 x 10 3

and

S = 51.76 N/mm2.

C =

1000 x 10 3 x 14 x 10 3
N mm 2
3
3
1960 x 200 x 10 + 248040 x 14 x 10

C = 3.62 N/mm2

Therefore the compressive stress in the steel is 51.76N/mm2 and the

Compressive stress in the concrete is 3.62N/mm2.

EXAMPLE 3

A reinforced concrete circular section of 50, 000 mm2 cross-sectional area carries 6 reinforcing
bars whose total area is 500 mm2. Find the safe load, the column car carry, if the concrete is not
to be stressed more than 3.5 MPa. Take modular ratio for steel and concrete as 18.

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Solution:

Given Data
Area of column = 50, 000 mm2;
Number of reinforcing bars = 6;
Total area of bars (AS) = 500 mm2;
Maximum stress in concrete (C) = 3.5 MPa = 3.5 N/mm2.
E
Modular Ratio S
EC

= 18

We know that area of concrete,

AC = 50,000 500 = 49, 500 mm2.
And stress in steel,
E
S = S x C
EC

S = 18 x 3.5
S = 63 N/mm2.

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Exercises

1. A load of 270 kN is carried by a short concrete column 250 mm x 250 mm in size. The
column is reinforced with 8 bars of 16 mm diameter. Find the stresses in concrete and steel,
if the modulus of elasticity for the steel is 18 times that of concrete.

2. A reinforce concrete column of 300 mm diameter contain 4 bars of 22 mm diameter. Find the
total load, the column can carry if the stresses in steel and concrete are 50 MPa and 3 MPa.

3. A uniform beam weighing 500 N is held in a horizontal position by three vertical wires, one
attached to each end of the beam, and one at the mid-length. The outer wires are of brass of
diameter 0.125cm, and the central wire is of steel of diameter 0.0625 cm. If the beam is rigid
and wires are of the same length, and unstressed before the beam is attached, estimate the

Brass

Steel

Brass

stresses in the wires. Young modulus for brass is 85 kN/m2 and for steel is 200 kN/mm2.

500 N

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EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES

Coplanar forces: - These are forces that act on one plane. The plane could be either x-y plane,

x-z plane or y-z plane.

For coplanar forces, there are three equations of equilibrium.
The equilibrium equations are:
Fy = 0
Fx = 0
Mz = 0

Concurrent Coplanar forces: - Coplanar forces are said to be concurrent if their lines of action

coincide. In this case, there is no relative moments between the forces so that the equilibrium
equations reduces to,
Fy = 0
Fx = 0

A body is in equilibrium when the force system acting on the body tends to produce no net
translation or rotation of the body. It is in a state of balance. Equilibrium exists in concurrent
force systems which act on a point or particle when the resultant of the force system equals zero.
A concurrent force system having a resultant force may be put in equilibrium by applying
another force (typically called an equilibrant) equal in magnitude, of the same line of action, but
of opposite sense (see figure 1).

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The resultant of a system of concurrent forces can be found by considering force components
and using
R = ( FX ) 2 + ( FY ) 2 , if the force system is in equilibrium its net resultant must be zero
(i.e. R = 0), and it follows that FX = 0 and FY = 0. Thus, the algebraic sum of all components
of the forces applied to a particle in the x-direction must be zero, likewise for the y-direction. x
and y need not be horizontal and vertical. The statement is true for any orthogonal set of axes, no
matter their orientation.

Resultant (R)

Resultant (R)

Forces

Equilibrating force (equal to R

but opposite in sense)

Figure 1

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POLYGON OF FORCES

Forces acting on a structure are vector quantities. That is, they have both magnitude and
direction. Rather than resolving them into x, y and z components, we could simply say that, for
equilibrium, the force vectors must sum to zero. This leads to the simple graphical method
known as the force polygon. Figure 2(a) shows three forces acting on a body. A force polygon
can be constructed by plotting end-to-end vectors parallel to the forces and with lengths
proportional to the magnitudes of the forces. If the polygon closes, as in figure 2(b), then the
forces are in equilibrium, since their vectors sum to zero. If it does not close (figure 2 (c)), then
the force required to produce equilibrium is the vector P4 required to close the polygon.
Alternatively, it can be said that the force vectors P1 to P3 can be replaced by a single resultant
force PR, which is equal to P4.

P3
P1

P3
P2
P3

P2

P4

P2

P1
(b)

(a)

P1
(c)

Figure 2

Equilibrium of a Particle

You are standing in an elevator, ascending at a constant velocity, what is the resultant force
acting on you as a particle?

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The correct response is zero: For a particle at rest, or moving with constant velocity relative to an
inertial frame, the resultant force acting on the isolated particle must be zero, must vanish. We
usually attribute this to the unquestionable authority of Newton.
The essential phrases in the question are constant velocity, resultant force and particle. Other
words like standing, elevator, ascending, and you seem less important, even distracting,
but they are there for a reason: The world that you as an engineer will analyze, re-design, and
systematize is filled with people and elevators, not isolated particles, velocity vectors, or
resultant forces or at least, not at first sight. The latter concepts are abstractions which you
must learn to identify in the world around you in order to work effectively as an engineer, e.g., in
order to design an elevator. The problems that appear in engineering text books are a kind of
middle ground between abstract theory and everyday reality. We want you to learn to read and
see through the superficial appearances, these descriptions which mask certain scientific
concepts and principles, in order to grasp and appropriate the underlying forms that provide the
basis for engineering analysis and design.
The key phrase in Newtons requirement is isolated particle: It is absolutely essential that you
learn to abstract out of the problem statement and all of its relevant and irrelevant words and
phrases, a vision of a particle as a point free in space. Its best to render this vision, this
abstraction hard by drawing it on a clean sheet of paper. Here is how it would look.

An Isolated Particle
You in an elevator.

An Isolated Particle
All forces acting.

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This is a non-trivial step, akin to a one month olds apprehension that there are other egos in the
world. You are to take the dot drawn as the representation of a thing, all things that can be
thought of as an isolated particle.
Now show all the forces acting on the particle. We have the force due to gravity, W=Mg, acting
vertically down, toward the center of the earth.... (Who said the elevator was oriented vertically?
Who said it was on the surface of the earth? This information is not given; indeed, you could
press the point, arguing that the question is not well posed. But is this information essential? We
return to this point at the end of this chapter). We have the reaction force of the elevator floor
acting vertically upward on you, on you as an abstraction, as an isolated particle. This is how our
particle looks with all forces acting upon it.
The resultant force is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the isolated particle. For static

equilibrium of the isolated particle, the resultant of the two forces W acting downward and R
acting upward must be zero.
RW=0
This leads to the not very earth shaking conclusion that the magnitude of the reaction force,
acting up, must equal the weight.

R=W
This apparently trivial result and simplicity of the problem, if indeed it can be called a problem,
ought not to be allowed to deceive us: The introduction of the reaction of the floor on you, the
passenger in the elevator, is characteristic of the most difficult step in applying the requirement
of static equilibrium to an isolated particle. You will find it takes courage, as well as facility with
the language of engineering mechanics, to venture forth and construct reaction forces out of thin
air. They are there, hidden at the interface of your particle with the rest of the world. Some, like
gravity, act at a distance, across all boundaries you may draw.

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Exercises

1) Determine the forces in the various members of a pin-jointed frame as shown in figure.
Tabulate the result stating whether they are in tension or compression.

1.5 kN

1.5 kN

1m

1m
C

A
1.5 m

2) A truss of span 10 meters is loaded as shown in the figure. Find the forces in all the members
of the truss.

5 kN
6 kN

600

600

600

300

10 m

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2.9

ANALYSIS AND RESOLUTION OF FORCES

EXAMPLE 1
Determine the forces in the plane pin-jointed framework shown below:

5kN

600

Solution:

Assume all unknown forces in each member are in tension, i.e. the internal force in each member
is pulling away from its nearest joint.
Isolate joint A and consider equilibrium around the joint,

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F1
300

F2

5kN

Resolving forces vertically

FY = 0
5 + F2 cos30 = 0
Therefore F2 = -5/cos30
F2 = -5.77kN (compression)

The negative sign for F2 indicates that this member is in compression.

Resolving forces horizontally
FX = 0
F1 + F2sin30 = 0
/F1 = -F2sin30
F1 = 2.887kN (tension)

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The force diagram is as shown below:

2.89kN

-5.77kN

5kN

600

Another method of determining the internal forces in the truss is through the use of the triangle
of forces. For this method, the magnitude and the direction of the known force, namely the 5kN
load in this case, must be drawn to scale.
300

F2

5kN

600
F1

To complete the triangle, the directions of the unknown forces, namely F1 and F2 must be drawn
as shown above. The directions of these forces can then be drawn by adding the arrow heads to
the triangle so that the arrowheads are either all in clockwise direction or, alternatively, all in a
counter-clockwise direction.
Applying the sine rule to the triangle of forces above,
F
5
= 1
sin 60 sin 30

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F1 =

5 x 0.5
0.866

F1 = 2.887kN
Similarly by applying the sine rule
F
5
= 2
sin 60 sin 90

F2 =

5
0.866

F2 = 5.77kN

These forces can now be transferred to the point A of the pin-jointed truss below, where it can be
seen that the member with load F1 is in tension, and that the member with the load F2 is in
compression

5 kN

F1

F2

This is known as the free body diagram.

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EXAMPLE 2
The truss shown ABC shown in figure EX.2 has a span of 5 meters. It is carrying a load of 10 kN
at its apex. Find the forces in the members AB, AC and BC.

10 kN
A

600

300

5m
Figure EX.2
Solution:

From geometry of the truss, we find that the load of 10 kN is acting at a distance 1.25 m from the
left hand support i.e. , B and 3.75 m from C.
Taking moments about B and equating the same,
RC x 5 = 10 x 1.25
RC x 5 = 12.5
RC = 2.5 kN
RB = 10 2.5 = 7.5 kN

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First of all consider joint B. Let the directions of FAB and FBC be assumed to be acting in tension.

FAB
B

600
FBC

7.5 kN
Resolving the forces vertically and equating the same,
FAB sin 600 + 7.5 = 0
FAB = -7.5 / sin 600
FAB = -8.66 kN (Compression)
Resolving the forces horizontally and equating the same,
FBC + FAB cos 600 = 0
FBC = -FAB cos 600
FBC = 8.66 cos 600
FBC = 4.33 kN (Tension)

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Now consider joint C.

FAC
0

30
FBC

2.5 kN

Resolving the forces vertically and equating the same.

FAC sin300 + 2.5 = 0
FAC sin 300 = -2.5
FAC = -2.5/sin 300
FAC = -5 kN (Compression)

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Exercises

1. A force of P defined by the X = 750 to the horizontal acts through a point. What are the
components of this force on the x and y axes?

2. The following three force on the act concurrently through a point: a force P acting to the right
at X = 300 to the horizontal, a force P acting to the right at X = 450 to the horizontal and a
force P acting to the right at X = 600 to the horizontal. Find the single resultant force that is
equivalent to this three-force system.

3. The components of a force on the x and y axes are 0.5 P and 1.5P, respectively. What is the
magnitude and direction of the force?

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2.9

ANALYSIS AND RESOLUTION OF FORCES

EXAMPLE 1
For each of the three force systems shown below, estimate the magnitude of the resultant, of F1
and F2. What is the direction of the resultant in each case?

F1

F1
10N

10N

F2
10N

10N

F1

10N

10N

F2

F2

For the force system at the left, the vertical component of the resultant force must be zero since
the vertical components of the two forces are equal but one is positive (upward) and the other
negative (downward). The symmetry with respect to the horizontal also leads to the result that
the horizontal component of the resultant will be the sum of the two (equal) horizontal
components of the two forces. I estimate this sum to be 8 Newtons since the angle looks to be
something less than 30o. The resultant is directed horizontally to the right.
For the system in the middle, the resultant is zero since the two forces are equal but oppositely
directed. If we were concerned with the static equilibrium of these three systems, only this
system would be in equilibrium.

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For the system at the far right, with the two forces symmetric with respect to the vertical, we now
have that the horizontal component of the resultant force must be zero while the vertical
component of the resultant will be the sum of the two (equal) vertical components of the two
forces. I estimate this sum to be 16 ~ 18 Newtons. The resultant is directed vertically upward as
shown above.

EXAMPLE 2
Using the method of joints, determine the member forces of the plane pin-jointed truss of the

5 kN

figure below.

3 kN

6 kN
1.155 m
D

1.155 m
A

300

300

300

C
8m

RA

HB

RB

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Solution:

Assume all unknown internal forces are in tension, because if they are in compression, their sign
will be negative.
As each joint must only have two unknown forces acting on it, it will be necessary to determine
the values RA, RB and HB, prior to using the method of joints.

Resolving the forces horizontally

Forces to the left = Forces to the right
HB + 3 = 0
HB = 3 kN

Taking moments about B

Clockwise moments = Counter-clockwise moments
RA x 8 + 3 x 2.311 = 5 x 3 + 6 x 2
Therefore, RA = 25.07/8 = 3.13 kN

Resolving forces vertically

Upwards forces = Downward forces
RA + RB = 5 + 6
RB = 11 RA
RB = 7.87 kN

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Joint A

FAD

300

FAC

3.13 kN

Resolving forces vertically

Upwards forces = Downward forces
3.13 + FAD sin 30 = 0
FAD = -6.26 kN (Compression)
The negative sign for this force denotes that this member is in compression, and such a member
is called a strut.

Resolving forces horizontally

Forces to the right = Forces to the left
FAC + FAD cos 30 = 0
FAC = 6.26 x 0.866
FAC = 5.42 KN (Tension)
The positive sing for this force denotes that this member is in tension, and such a member is
called a tie.

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It is now possible to analyze joint D, because FAD is known and therefore the joint has only two
unknown forces acting on it,
FDE
Joint D
D

FDC

FAD

Resolving forces vertically

Upwards forces = Downward forces
FDE sin 30 = FAD sin 30 + FDC sin 30
FDE = -6.26 + FDC

----------------------- (1)

Resolving forces horizontally

Forces to the right = Forces to the left
FAD cos 30 = FDE cos 30 + FDC cos 30
FDE = -6.26 FDC ------------------------- (2)
Equating equation (1) and (2)
-6.26 + FDC = -6.26 FDC
FDC = 0 ------------------------- (3)
Substituting equation (3) in (1)
FDE = -6.26 kN (Compression)

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It is now possible to examine joint E, as it has two unknown forces acting on it, as shown:

5 kN

Joint E

3 kN

FDE

FEF
FCE

Resolving forces horizontally

Forces to the right = Forces to the left
FDE cos 30 = FEF cos 30 + 3
FEF = -6.26 3/0.866
FEF = - 9.72 kN (Compression)

Resolving forces vertically

Upwards forces = Downward forces
0 + 5 + FDE sin 30 + FCE + FEF sin 30
FCE = -5 + 6.26 x 0.5 + 9.72 x 0.5
FCE = 3 kN (Tension)

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It is now possible to analyze either joint F or joint C, as each of these joints has only got two
unknown forces acting on it. Consider joint F,

5 kN
FAD

Joint F

F
FBF
FCF

Resolving forces horizontally

Forces to the right = Forces to the left
FEF cos 30 + FCF cos 30 = FBF cos 30
Therefore FBF = - 9.72 + FCF --------------------------- (4)

Resolving forces vertically

Upwards forces = Downward forces
FEF sin 30 = FCF sin 30 + FBF sin 30 + 6
FBF x 0.5 = -9.72 x 0.5 0.5 FCF 6
FBF = -21.17 FCF -------------------------------- (5)
Substituting equation (4) and (5)

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-9.72 + FCF = -21.72 FCF

Therefore, FCF = -6 kN (Compression) ---------------------- (6)
Substituting equation (6) in equation (4)
FBF = -9.72 6
FBF = -15.72 kN (Compression)

Consider joint B to determine the remaining unknown force, namely FBC,

Joint B
FBF

FBC

8.732

Resolving forces horizontally

Forces to the right = Forces to the left
FBF cos 30 + FBC + 3 = 0
Therefore, FBC = - 3 + 15.72 x 0.866
FBC = 10.61 kN (Tension)

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Here are the magnitudes and directions of the internal forces in this truss:

5
3

-9.72

-6.26

3
0

-6.26

-15.72

-6

5.42

5.42

3.13

8.732

Exercises

Determine the forces in the pin-jointed trusses in shown in the figures below.

b
300
a

10 kN

600
(a)

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10 kN

300

600

(b)

b
c

1.5 m

a
(c)

2m

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1m

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10 kN

2 m
600

450
b

Rb

Ra
(d)

5 kN

2 m
600

450
b

Rb

Ra
(e)

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REVISION

EXAMPLE 1
A body of mass 2 kg undergoes a constant horizontal acceleration of 5 m/s2. Calculate the
resultant horizontal force acting on the body. What will be the resultant force on the body when
it moves with a uniform velocity of 10m/s?
Solution:
Data Given

Mass of body (m) = 2 kg

Acceleration (a) = 5 m/s2
Required:

(i)

Resultant Horizontal force (f) acting on the body

(ii)

Resultant Force (f) if body moves with uniform velocity of 10 m/s

Resultant Horizontal Force

Mass=2kg

From Newtons Second Law, F = ma

F = 2 x 5 = 10N

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Therefore, the resultant horizontal force on the body = 10N

Resultant Horizontal Force moving with Uniform Velocity

If the velocity is uniform,

Initial velocity (U) = Final velocity (V) so that
Acceleration (a) = 0
F=2x0=0
Therefore, the resultant horizontal force on the body = 0 N.

EXAMPLE 2

A body of mass 2kg falls from rest through a height of 20m and comes to rest having penetrated
a distance of 0.5m into sandy ground. Calculate the average force exerted by the sand in bringing
the body to rest. (Take g = 10m/s2).

Solution:

Given Data
Mass of body (m) = 2kg
Height above ground (h) = 20m.
Distance penetrated into ground (s) = 0.5m
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10m/s2.
Required: Average force exerted by sand in bringing body to rest.

If u is the velocity on reaching the ground, the conservation of energy gives:

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mu2 = mgh
= 2 x 10 x 20
= 400J
This kinetic energy is converted into work which is the done in penetrating a distance s = 0.5m
with an average force,
= F x s = 400
F x 0.5 = 400
F = 800N

EXAMPLE 3
d) A man travels 7.0 km due north then 10.0 km east. Find the resultant displacement.
e) If he travels 7.0 km 300 east of north then 10.0 km east, find the resultant displacement.
f) If he travels 7.0 km 400 west of north then 10.0 km east, find the resultant displacement.

Solution:

a)

10.0 km

7.0 km

Resultant
= 12.2 km
550
350

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R=

7 2 + 10 2

R = 12.4 km
tan = 7/10 = 0.7
= 350.
R = 12.4 km, N 550E

b)

N
10.0 km

7.0 km
300

Resultant
= 14.8 km

R2 = 72 + 102 - 2 x 7 x 10 x cos (30 + 90)

R2 = 149 + 70
R2 = 219
R = 14.8 km
14.8
7
=
sin 120 sin
sin =

7sin120
14.8

= 240
R = 14.8 km N 660E

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c)

10.0 km

Resultant
7.0 km

40

= 7.7 km

R2 = 72 + 102 2 x 7 x 10 x cos 50
R2 = 149 90
R2 = 59
R = 7.7 km
7.7
7
=
sin 50 sin
sin =

7sin50
7.7

= 440
R = 7.7 km, N 440E

EXAMPLE 4

A train slows from 108km/h with a uniform retardation of 5m/s2. How long will it take to reach
18km/h, and what is the distance covered?

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Solution:

U = 108km/h =

V = 18km/h =

108 x 10000
m / s = 30m/s
60 x 60

18 x 1000
m / s = 5m/s
60 x 60

a = -5m/s2
Time taken

V = U + at
t = (V U)/a
t=

5 - 30
-5

t = 5s

Distance covered

V2 = U2 2aS
S = (V2 U2)/2a
S=

5 2 - 30 2
2x-5

S = 87.5m

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EXAMPLE 5
Determine the stress in each section of the bar shown in Figure EX. 3 when subjected to an axial
tensile load of 20kN. The central section is 30mm square cross-section; the other portions are of
circular section, their diameters being indicated. What will be the total extension of the bar? For
the bar material E = 210 kN/mm2.

250mm

100mm

400mm

20kN

20kN

15mm

20mm
30mm

Figure EX.3

Solution:

Stress =

Load P
=
Area A

Stress in section (1) =

20 x 10 3
(20 x 10 -3 ) 2
4

80 x 10 3
x 400 x 10 -6

Stress in section (1) = 63.66 MN/m2.

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20 x 10 3
Stress in section (2) =
30 x 30 x 10 -6
Stress in section (2) = 22.2 MN/m2.

Stress in section (3) =

20 x 10 3
(15 x 10 -3 ) 2
4

80 x 10 3
=
x 225 x 10 -6
Stress in section (3) = 113.2 MN/m2.

Now extension of a bar can always be written in terms of the stress in the bar since,

E=

L
E

Extension of section (1) = 63.66 x 106 x

250 x 10 -3
210 x 10 9

= 75.8 x 10-6 m

Extension of section (2) = 22.2 x 106 x

100 x 10 -3
210 x 10 9

= 10.6 x 10-6 m

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400 x 10 -3
Extension of section (3) = 113.2 x 10 x
210 x 10 9
6

= 215.6 x 10-6 m

Therefore, total extension = (75.8 + 10.6 + 215.6)10-6 m = 0.302mm

EXAMPLE 6:
The coupling shown in figure EX.1 is constructed from steel of rectangular cross-section and is
designed to transmit a tensile force of 50 kN. If the bolt is of 15 mm diameter calculate:
d) The shear stress in the bolt;
e) The direct stress in the plate;
f) The direct stress in the forked end of the coupling

25 kN
50 kN

50 kN

50 kN
25 kN

(a)

(b)

Figure EX. 1
Solution:

(a)
The bolt is subjected to double shear, tending to shear it as shown in figure EX.1 (b).
There is thus twice the area of the bolt resisting the shear.

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Shear stress in bolt =

P
2A
50 x 10 3 x 4

2 x 15 x 10 -3

100 x 10 3

(15 x 10 -3 )

= 141.5 MN/m2.
(b)

The will be subjected to a direct tensile stress given by

=
=

P
A

50 x 10 3
50 x 6 x 10 -6

= 166.7 MN/m2.
(c)
The force in the coupling is shared by the forked end pieces, each being subjected to a
direct stress

=
=

P
A

25 x 10 3
50 x 6 x 10 -6

= 83.3 MN/m2.

EXAMPLE 7:

An axial pull of 20 kN is applied on a steel rod 2.5 m long and 1000 mm2 in cross-section.
Calculate the strain energy, which can be absorbed in the rod. Take E = 200 kN/mm2.

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Solution:

Given Data
Axial pull on the rod (P) = 20 kN = 20 x 103 N.
Length of rod (L) = 2.5 m = 2.5 x 103 mm;
Cross-sectional area of rod (A) = 1000 mm2.
Modulus of elasticity (E) = 200kN/mm2 = 200 x 103 N/mm2.
=

P
A

20 x 10 3
1000

= 440 N/mm2.
Volume of the rod = L x A
= (2.5 x 103) x 1000
= 2.5 x 106 mm3.
Therefore, Strain energy which can be absorbed in the rod,
U=

2
2E

xV

(40)2
3

2 x (200 x 10 )

x 2.5 x 10 6 N - mm

U = 10 x 103 N-mm = 10 kN-mm

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