COLOR FORECASTING

Objectives

Appreciate color as a marketing tool.

Understand the process of forecasting

color, taking into account color evolution, social and economic trends, consumer preferences, and other influences.

Become aware of the techniques forecasters use to synthesize color direction

from cues, signs, hints, and traces in the
cultural environment.

Recognize color forecasting as a coordinating factor in the apparel supply

chain from fiber producer to retailer.

CASE: A COLORFUL SEASON

Whitney is design director for a large manufacturer of knit shirts-mainly Tshirts and polo shirts for both men and women. As design director, Whitney
coordinates the efforts of the design staff for several lines. One of her most
important functions is as a color forecaster because newness and fashion for
basic products are tied to color. As the company's fashion forecaster, she
scouts trade shows in the United States and Europe and participates in the
professional color forecasting organizations. The company also subscribes to
several color forecasting services.
For Whitney, the color forecast begins when she prepares for a brainstorming meeting with the other forecasters at an international meeting of color

.!.
116

FIGURE 4.1

The seasonal color

story will be translated into prints,
yarn-dyed fabrics,
and solids and coordinated across jackets, tops, skirts,
pants, and dresses
into a collection with
perhaps 200 separate
pieces.

}<'ASHIO:>l FORECASTING

professionals. Each participant creates a concept board proposing a direction

for colors that will dominate women's fashion two years in the future. Together the group will reach consensus on about 25 colors that will be reported
to all members of the organization, their companies or clients, and the media.
When Whitney returns to her company, she will synthesize all the information she has gathered, analyze color directions as they apply to her company's
line and target consumer, and develop the color story for each of the company's lines. This chapter provides information on the skills, techniques, and
approach that Whitney will use in developing her forecast.

DIMENSIONS OF THE COLOR STORY

Color decisions begin early in the product development cycle. For designers a
new collection begins with the selection of a color palette. From that first step,
it will be from six months to nearly one year before those colors appear as a
coordinated collection on the runway or in the showroom. The initial decision is critical to success because the eight to ten selected colors signal the personality of the collection. The color story (Figure 4.1) will be combined into
prints, yarn-dyed fabrics, and solids and coordinated across jackets, tops,

I o
~

COLOR FORECASTING

skirts, pants, and dresses into a collection with perhaps 200 separate pieces
(Allen, 1985).
Stimulating sales is the driving force behind color forecasting.~ ')
customers' attention, makes an emotional connection, and~le~a~d~s~t!.!h!!e~~~Ite-,~
-Woduct. Even when the baslCproduct stays die same;-c anging the color
gives a sense of something new. Color consultants help companies decide on
the right color story to sell the product. Some consultants specialize in advising on color. Others develop color forecasts as part of their overall product
development function. Some large companies have departments dedicated to
setting color directions for multiple lines. Professional color organizations
bring together experts to collaborate on forecasts for industries such as
women's wear, men's wear, children's wear, and residential and nonresidential interiors.
Forecasting for the American consumer began in 1915 with the fOUnding)
of the Textile Color Card Association of America, predecessor to today's
Color Association of the United States (CAUS). Begun by a group of manufacturers and retailers trying to keep up with the changing tastes of a consumer-orientedeconomy, the organization used textile industry specialists to
select fashion shades that would be popular in the future. The first forecast
was issued for Fall 1917-40 colors presented on cards with custom-dyed silk
and wool swatches. The focus of the forecast was women's apparel with basic
colors and fashion shades that might build volume sales in the future (Hope
& Walch, 1990).
By the 1950s, Dayton's Department Store had a small staff watching trends
and translating them into apparel (and later home furnishings) to be sold exclusively in their store (Lamb, 1997). The idea of forecasting trends in the
marketplace boomed in the years after World War II. Trend merchandising
entered the mass market in the early 1980s when trends became a coordinating factor for full product lines that extended beyond a single merchandise
category (Nichols, 1996). Today, trend merchandising and color forecasting
are an integral part of product development for both hard and soft goods.
Color forecasters work 18 to 24 months in advance of the season to provide input for the designer'Sdecis~. 10 work SOlar ahead, color experts
must combine knowledge of color theories and human behavior with acute
observational skills. They may spot new color directions at a trade show, on
the fashion runway, or in the street. By synthesizing the mood of the times
from all the diverse elements of the culture-the economic conditions; hapthat to thepenings in the ne arts; and music movies" nd TV s
'c arts-color forecasters trac trends and recognize new directions. Because
color looks different depending on the fabric, color forecasters also stay up to
date on new developments in fibers, yarns, and fabrications. To accomplish
the task the forecaster needs a background in the industry, a network of contacts, and the financial backing to travel the globe attending relevant trade
shows and shopping the locales where new ideas originate.

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FASHION FORECASTING

The financial backing comes from manufacturers and retailers who need
lead time to develop products for the consumer. Clients for color forecasting
services include companies in the apparel supply chain-fiber producers, mills
that produce yarn and fabrics, manufacturers of branded merchandise, retailers with private-label operations, and manufacturers who produce apparel in
great volume. These clients want to gauge the tastes and preferences of the
consumer far in advance of the selling season. Designers of couture collections
and the highest priced ready-to-wear are more likely to influence color directions rather that follow them. Even so, top designers also subscribe to color
forecasting services as a gauge of mass taste (Lannon, 1988).
Some people claim that color forecasters dictate colors in the marketplace,
but forecasters do not have that power. Color forecasters cannot just say that
chartreuse will be the new fashion color. Instead, they have to consider the
evolution of yellow-green over the previous seasons and figure out when the
consumer will be ready for chartreuse. Only a few consumers are innovative
enough to try new colors when they are first introduced. The rest become
used to the color over time, perhaps first trying it out in a print or multicolored knit or in an inexpensive accessory or T-shirt. Color experts forecast
when consumers are ready for the new color in certain product categories and
price points. Their forecasts help manufacturers and retailers keep product
lines fresh and new while avoiding lost sales caused by presenting products
that the consumer is not ready to buy.
Although a conspiracy does not exist among color forecasters to dictate
colors, color forecasters are in agreement the majority of the time. They attend the same fabric trade shows in Europe; shop the trendy boutiques and
watch st~hlOn in ~rope, Asia, and America; and track the same
media. They are memberSOfOne or more color associations and collaborate with other members to develop industry color forecasts (Lannon,
1988). It is in the interest of the entire apparel supply chain to have some
common ideas about color directions since color is rated as the most important aesthetic criteria in consumer preference (Eckman, Damhorst, &
Kadolph, 1990). For specific clients, forecasters fine-tune general forecasts
by selecting particular shades for the target market, product category, price
point, and selling venue.

Color in Marketing
Marketing fashion means positioning the product in the marketplace. Color
plays a major part in positioning apparel products by attracting attention, establishing the image of the product and the brand, and evoking symbolic associations. Marketers harness the psychological power of colors to
communicate with consumers through advertising, brand logos, packaging,
and product colors. A cons~er's first impression of a new product is largely

COLOR FORECASTING

mediated by the color. Some fashion companies have signature color ranges- )
think of Calvin Klein's muted neutrals and Tommy Hilfiger's bold primary
colors-but others follow seasonal color trends. The selling power of color
can be traced to two intertwined sources-emotional imagery associated with.
various hues and the desire fo individualit ~ ersonal expression through
se ectlOn.
"-.
A company's identity package often includes a color or color combination
that is immediately recognizable to consumers. This company symbolism will
appear in advertising and on logos and packaging. However, color is only one
element in establishing this identity. Most people cannot remember a specific
color for more than a few seconds or pick out a particular shade when pres~ several alternatives. The identity 0 a compan
.
is
*hieveA,. throug
e co
. ation of color, typography, p
.
c~~ What seems to be a simple problem-pair the right color, one with
the right associations, with the right product-is far from simple. Choosing
colors to symbolize a company can be risky because color connotations can
change with time-white letterin on bla k was considered elegant until used by supermarkets to adver . e en ric bran s The look later regained its cachet when it was used in high- as 1
parel advertising (Hope & Walch,
1990). The solution of this problem is increasingly important for multinational companies where instant recognition worldwide translates into profits.
In a 1995 landmark decision, the Supreme Court held that color is such a potent brand identifier that a particular shade is a legally defensible trademark
(Heath, 1997b).
Color also tends to identify the target market-for example, bold primaries
for children's products and trendy or whimsical colors to appeal to teens.
With influences from television, toy marketing, and computers, children's
preferences tend toward bright colors that adults avoid. In the 1990s, children
developed a love for neon colors, especially green and yellow (Heath, 1997b).
This segmentation by color preferences makes it important for product devel- \
opers and marketers to carefully observe the target market-watch consumers
in their natural habitat, read what they read, listen to their music, watch their
movies, and research their preferences.

4: ,.

Collect advertising that is aimed at different consumer segments-men, women,

teens, children, both upscale and midmarket. Compare the colors used in the images, the apparel, and the logos. Red is used in the logo of several top apparel
firms. How do the companies create a distinctive image while sharing this same
color signature? Which colors appear across all segments? Which are restricted to
a particular segment? How is color combined with other aesthetic considerations
to create a brand identifier?

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FASHION FORECASTING

Consumers and the Psychology of Color

The power of color comes from its symbolic meaning for people. Colors can
represent experiences, emotions, status, and other types of information that
are difficult to convey in written or spoken language. Color symbols enter
language and appear in pictures and poetry as metaphors-for example, the
connection between good fortune and gold at the end of the rainbow. Color
communicates emotionally by calling up all kinds of associations of which
people are only fleetingly aware. Some color symbols are part of a kind of primordial memory. Red signals arousal because it is associated with blood and
fire-signals of danger. Even overlaid with the trappings of modern life, red
still gets our attention by evoking ancient responses. Some color symbols have
religious origins, such as the depiction of the Virgin Mary in blue as a symbol
for truth and justice. Color can be used for sociological or political reasons as
in tribal identification, gang colors, and soldiers' uniforms. Individual colors
have symbolic meanings that evolve over time. The Green Man of Celtic
mythology was the god of fertility; today we talk about a gardener with a
green thumb. Red, the Christian symbol for suffering and regeneration, can
be inverted and applied to a "scarlet" woman and the "red-light district"
(Hope & Walch, 1990).
Human response to colors can be traced to physiological reactions. Warm
colors are associated with activity, cool colors with passivity. Psychologists
have recorded immediate and measurable reactions to color, but the total effect depends on the duration of the stimulus. Exposure to red initially results
in arousal, but the effect dissipates with continuous exposure over time. Another aspect mitigating the psychological impact of color is the strength of the
color-an electric green is more stimulating than a weak, dull red (Hope &
Walch, 1990).
Besides human reaction to color, psychologists are interested in the formation of color preferences. In 1941, Eysenck published a study showing a consistent order of color preferences in adults: the first choice was blue, followed
by red, green, purple, yellow, and orange. Later researc
d preference surveys have tended to support the finding of a
scale 0 olor with a
possible biological basis (Porter, 1994). Th Luscher Color tes first published in 1948, links color preference and persona 1 y.
.
t, the subject
is asked to arrange color chips (8 in the short form, 43 in the full test) in order
of preference. The results are interpreted using a key that considers both the
meaning of the color and the order of its selection (Luscher, 1969). These psychological explanations of color point to the power and impact of color, but
they are not very helpful to the color forecaster in predicting the success or
failure of specific color symbols.
Another approach is to trace the roots of color preference to cultural influence. Some color theorists argue that color transcends cultural and geographic
boundaries. To back up this "universalist" view, studies have shown that

COLOR FORECASTING

black, white, and red evoke similar responses in many parts of the world.
American researchers compared color words in 90 languages and discovered
broad, consistent rules in the cultural evolution of color. They found that the
most primitive cultures distinguish only between black and white; if a third
color is used, it is always red; the next two colors are yellow and green; then
blue is added, followed by all the subtler distinctions (Hope & Walch, 1990).
Color "relativists" argue for a local bias in the development of color terminology. They find that regional and environmental conditions playa major
role, citing the observation that Eskimos have more words for white because
it is so predominate in their world view (Hope & Walch, 1990). Polly Hope
(1990), an artist and writer who travels the world in her work, has observed a
similar phenomenon-colors as a representation of a country's personality.
She finds a distinctive "color conception of a place" that results from the
combination of the natural environment and the indigenous culture. As examples she cites the earth colors, silver, and turquoise of the American Southwest and the lapis blue, gray-green of cacti, and reds and yellows of folk
costumes as symbolic of Mexico.
\
Some color associations combine the universalist and relativist view: blUe)'
as a protective color to ward off evil spirits can be foun~dis
parate as the Middle East and Native Americans in the Southwest. With increasing glob~l communication and trade, there will be an inevitable increase
in the exchange of color concepts across territorial and cultural boundaries.
The color forecaster must constantly investigate the cultural symbolism and
the cross-cultural implications of color (Eiseman, 1997).
Surveys tend to support the idea that there is a relationship between color
preference and ethnic identity or geographic region. In a study of color preference among 5,000 consumers, participants were asked to rate colors that best
conveyed power. White consumers were more likely to select red, African
Americans black, and Hispanics bright blue (Heath, 1997b). Color preferences may even be associated with cultural status-lower socioeconomic consumers tend to prefer simple colors that can be described in two words; higher
income people prefer more complex colors (Kanner, 1989).
Color preferences can arise from personal experiences-for example, a person's positive or negative reaction to the colors parents chose for them as children. Color consultants cannot account for these individual differences.
Instead they concentrate on broad cultural preferences. In surveys of color
preferences among American consumers, mid-range blue is consistently selected as the favorite color (Heath, 1997a; Hope & Walch, 1990). However,
even strong cultural preferences can be overtaken by the mood of the times.
Green became important in all categories of products from T-shirts to automobiles to kitchen appliances when consumers became acutely aware of environmental issues in the early 1990s. Blue reasserted dominance by the 199711998
RoperlPantone Consumer Color Preference Study when 35 percent of participants chose blue as their favorite color, and green fell to second place (Heath,

121

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}<'AsmON FORECASTING

1997a). This swing in preference supports the view that there is a collective
color preference underlying the surface of seasonal fashion change.
Fashion color symbols arise from cultural norms that have consistent
meaning over time-red nails and red lips are powerful sexual signals in all
decades beginning in the 1920s. When dye technology permitted making only
a few colors, fashion colors persisted for decades and developed deep symbolic associations. Now it is possible to dye any color, and the multiplicity of
colors leads to seasonal change and color meanings that are more ephemeral
(Hope & Walch, 1990). In today's complex color landscape a single color can
have multiple symbolic meanings. In a 1995 survey, the color black signified
mystery to 30 percent and power to 27 percent of participants, 23 percent
considered it masculine, 20 percent found it depressing, and 18 percent considered it a conservative color (Heath, 1997b). Some colors declassify a product, extending its appeal to a broad audience; others classify a product as
belonging to a specific type of consumer or socioeconomic level (Kanner,
1989). Sensitivity to these multiple meanings enables the color forecaster to
target the right colors to the right consumer segment.
As predictors of color preference, categories such as age, ethnicity, income,
and gender play a part, but the preference segments are more complex than
simple demographics. The Cooper Marketing Group (Heath, 1997b; Jacobs,
1994) now divides consumers into three categories: color forwards, color prudents, and color loyals. The color-forward consumer enjoys being the first to try
a new color but may shop for color ideas at both discounters and upscale department stores. The color prudents are mainstream consumers and wait until a
color has more widespread acceptance before buying it. The color loyals play it
safe with color, sticking with classic blue or gray instead of choosing fashion
colors. Categories like these mirror the bell curve of consumer acceptance from
the relatively few innovators and early adopters through mass acceptance to the
fashion laggards and apply it to acceptance of color (Figure 4.2). Such mental
images can help color forecasters justify their color choices and clarify the fit between color selection, product category, and consumer target.

Be a color-forward consumer. Shop upscale department stores, discounters, and aU

the retail levels in between looking for new colors that are just beginning to be introduced into the marketplace. Do the colors differ at the various retail levels? Are
the new colors so simple that they can be described in two words or are they more
complex? Can you trace any of these colors back to their cultural roots? Analyze
the appeal of these new colors in terms of consumer preference categories like age,
ethnicity, income, and gender. What is your prediction for the future popularity of
these new colors?

COLOR }<'ORECASTING

12.3

FIGURE 4.2

The Cooper Marketing Group

(Heath, 1997; Jacobs, 1994) divides
consumers into three categoriescolor forwards, color prudents, and
color loyals. The definitions of these
groups correspond to fashion leaders, majority, and laggard segments
of a diffusion of innovation curve.
Laggards

TIME-----------------------------------------.

The Language of Color

The human eye can discern 350,000 colors, but the human memory for color
is poor. Most people cannot remember a specific color for more than a few
seconds (Hope & Walch, 1990). In everyday conversations about color, it is
sufficient to refer to a few colors by name-red, yellow, green, blue, white,
and black-and add a qualifier-light, dark, bright, and dull. Other terms in
general usage in discussing color (Designer's Guide to Color 2, 1984) are
those such as:
"Concentrated" to refer to intense, strong colors.
"Deep" to refer to rich, dark colors.
"Subdued" for colors neutralized through the addition of black, white,
gray, or color's complement.
"Clear" for colors without any neutralizing mix, colors such as the basic
colors of the color wheel.
General terms are not sufficient for communicating color information for
design and manufacturing. Exact identification, matching, and reproduction
of colors requires an effective system with colors arranged in sequential order
and identified with numbers and letters. Such systems are based on the basic
three characteristics of color-hue, saturation, and value (Figure 4.3). Hue
refers to the color-each color system designates a set of basic colors. Varying
the other two characteristics fills out the system. Saturation (also called intensity or chroma) refers to the strength or purity of the color and value to the
lightness or darkness of the color. The term tint applies to any color when
white is added. Shade refers to colors mixed with black. Tone describes a
grayed color.

124

FIGURE 4.3

Color systems are

based on the basic
three characteristics
of color-hue, saturation, and valueand how color can
be mixed to produce
tints, shades, and
tones.

FASHION FORECASTING

VALUE

INTENSITY

Light

Bright

Dark

Dull

+G=[J
+
=8
+
=8

Color systems provide notation systems for the reproduction of colors and
guidelines for harmonious color groupings. The color wheel (Figure 4.4) is the
simplest version of such a system. The primary colors are yellow, red, and
blue; secondary colors are mixed from two primaries (yellow + blue = green,
yellow + red = orange, red + blue = violet). Tertiary colors are mixed from
one primary color and one secondary color (yellow + green = yellow-green)_
Color combinations made from closely related colors adjacent on the color
wheel are called analogous. Colors directly across from each other on the
color wheel are termed complementary. When used in combination, complements intensify the impact of each other. Complex color combinations can be
developed using sets of complementary colors (double complements) and variations (split complements). Triads are color combinations with three colors
equally spaced on the color wheel-the primary triad is red, blue, and yellow;
the secondary triad is orange, green, and violet. An infinite number of color
combinations can be developed by varying the value and intensity of the colors (Davis, 1996).
Developing color stories means being able to select colors that share a common attribute so that they coordinate with each other. The temperature of
color-either warm or cool-serves as the coordinating principle for such systems. The Color Key Program and the seasonal approach to personal color
analysis provide consumers with guidance on color coordination.
Color Key Program
Developed by Everrett Brown, the Color Key Program allows a person to c0ordinate paint colors and apparel. The program designates Color Key 1 for
cool overtones and Color Key 2 for warm overtones and represents each key

125

COLOR FORECASTI]\iG

yellow
yellow

TRIAD

COMPLEMENT

PRIMARY

COLORS

DOUBLE
COMPLEMENT

red
violet

violet

blue
violet

SECONDARY
COLORS
TERTIARY
COLORS
SPLIT COMPLEMENT

Color systems provide guidelines for harmonious color groupings. The color wheel is the simplest version of such
a system. Color schemes are based on the position of colors on the color wheel.

in a fan of color chips. The basic idea is that people's personal coloring either
has cool or warm overtones and they will look and feel better when surrounded by colors in the same key (Brown, 1994).
Seasonal Color Analysis

In the 1980s, Gerrie Pinckney and Carole Jackson both wrote books elaborating on and popularizing the idea of a seasonal approach to personal color
analysis. In this system, color groupings (Figure 4.5) relate to nature's four
seasons-spring and autumn have a warm undertone, summer and winter
have a cool undertone. The seasons are further defined by the saturation of
the colors-spring and winter colors are clear, bright, and vivid; autumn and

126

FASHION FOREC","STING

WARM

COOL

FIGURE 4.5

The seasonal approach to personal color

analysis divided people into four groups depending on their coloring and suggested a set
of colors most likely to flatter each. Colors for
the four seasons varied in temperature (warm
or cool) and in saturation (vivid or subdued).

BRIGHT

LESS
INTENSE

Winter

Spring

Cool Undertone

Warm Undertone

Colors Clear & Bright

Colors Clear & Bright

Summer

Autumn

Cool Undertone

Warm Undertone

Colors Subdued

Colors Subdued

summer are more subdued and less intense. The goal was to provide consumers with insight into the "right" colors to enhance their personal coloring
and the "wrong" colors that should be avoided (Isbecque, 1990).
Color forecasters are trained experts who can look at colors, assess what they
see, and express the qualities of each color in terms of hue, value, and saturation.
They understand not only the individual colors but also the effect of colors in
combination. Because research shows clear patterns of consumer preference
linked to value, chroma, and color temperature, forecasters must also consider
these relationships (Radeloff, 1991). With this expertise, the forecaster follows
the subtle shifts in color trends, develops color stories for combining and coordinating colors, and predicts the significance of the colors for a product category.

Color Names
Changing the color of a product keeps the appeal of the new when the product itself does not change much. Think of the basic T-shirt presented anew
each season in a range of fashion colors. Evocative color names boost marketing appeal and encourage the sh~pper to refresh his or her wardrobe. The
color forecaster works in the two worlds of color naming-writing product
specifications using the notation of particular color systems and color marketing using color names that coordinate with a theme (Figure 4.6).
Naming a color for marketing means drawing attention to its attributes by
linking the color with the consumer's perceptions. Imagine a light brown
"cafe au lait" -no two people would visualize it the same way. But the theme
(a delicious and deluxe cup of coffee), the season (autumn), the color key
(warm), the color family (brown), and the value of the color (light) all are
conveyed by the color name. Even fashionability can be captured in the color

COLOR FORECASTING

FIGURE 4.6

In color marketing, a color range is

linked to a theme and each color is
given a name evocative of that theme
as a way to draw attention to the
newness of the colors and stimulate
consumer's interest in the colors.

name if it recalls cultural references. In the case of "cafe au lait," the reference
is to coffee bars and gourmet coffee as high-fashion concepts-new a fe~ seasons ago, they have now moved into the mainstream.
Naming colors takes imagination, sensitivity to fashion change across
product categories, an understanding of the customer's perception of colors,
and the insight to make connections between color and the product's end use.
Naming colors may also take a stack of reference books! Color description
moves from the universal color names (black, white, red, green) to adding
qualifiers (light, dark, bright, dull) to "looks like" names. Most color names
come from associations in the environment (Eiseman & Herbert, 1990):
Natural phenomena: sky blue, sunshine, grass green, snow white.
Flora: poppy red, moss green, mahogany, orchid.
Fauna: flamingo pink, robin's egg blue, dove gray.
Gemstones, minerals, and metals: amethyst, lapis, amber, slate gray,
copper.
Food and drink: caramel, apricot, champagne, burgundy.
Spices: cinnamon, paprika, curry
Dyes: indigo, cochineaJ.
Building materials: brick, adobe, terra-cotta, bronze.
Locations: Capri blue, Pompeian red.

127

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FASHION FORECASTING

Whatever the association, the goal is to depict a mood, paint a picture, and
evoke fantasy in the mind of a consumer. Selling with color names dates back
at least to the 1960s when green changed into avocado, olive, and lime
(Wilke, 1995). Today, the color forecaster, the manufacturer, and the retailer
routinely use color names to link fashion change to shifts in the culture-the
earth tones of the late 1990s shifted to more celestial hues in anticipation of
the millenium (Crispell, 1997).

Look for color in the background of advertisements and fashion editorial spreads.
Often these backgrounds provide a large sample of a fashion forward color. When
you have a dozen or so colors, trade samples with other people to increase your
color collection. When you have many colors to work with, create color swatches
by cutting out each in a square, rectangle, circle, triangle, or diamond shape. Analyze your swatches using the language of color. Describe their hue, saturation, and
value. Which are tints, shades, or tones? Describe their color temperature-warm
or cool? How would they fit in the seasonal approach to personal color analysis?
Arrange them according to the color wheel. What color combinations can you
make? Try naming the color~ using "looks like" names.

COLOR CYCLES
Color cycles refer to two phenomena: the periodic shifts in color preferences
and the patterns of repetition in the popularity of colors. Both depend on the
mechanism of boredom-people get tired of what they have and seek something new. New colors are introduced to the marketplace, available to consumers in product categories from fashion to interiors to automobiles. There
is a lag time between the introduction of a new color or new color direction
and its acceptance while people gain familiarity with the idea. Margaret
Walch of the Color Association of the United States identified one such time
lag-designer Stephen Sprouse introduced acid shades in the early 1980s but
they were not included in the forecast until 1989 because some colors take
longer to become trends. With acceptance, the color or color palette moves
into the mainstream. In time, interest in the colors wane, and they are replaced by the next new thing. This mechanism means that colors have somewhat predictable lifecycles (Danger, 1968; Jack & Schiffer, 1948; Nichols,
1996). It also means that colors that were once popular can be repositioned in
a future season-the harvest gold of the 1970s became the sunflower gold of
the 1990s (Nichols, 1996).
Beginning with the first color forecast for women's apparel in 1917, the cycles in colors can be accurately charted (Hope & Walch, 1990; Porter, 1994).

COLOR FORECASTING

That first forecast accurately identified the bright purples, greens, and blues,
shown by avant-garde couture designer Paul Poiret, that would move into
wider use. These colors were appropriated in the short dresses worn by 1920s
flappers as a badge of rebellion against traditional women's roles. In the
1930s, Jean Harlow vamped in slinky white dresses for Hollywood films
while those hit hard by the Depression preferred soil-resistant brown. In the
late 1930s, Schiaparelli mixed art and fashion and introduced "shocking
pink"-a radical repositioning of a traditionally pale color symbolizing sweetness and femininity. The years of World War II brought the withdrawal of
dyes and pigments from consumer products.
After the war, pent-up demand for fashion was satisfied in the lavish use of
fabrics and more vivid color palettes of the New Look by Dior. For less upscale consumers, the postwar period meant the practical, comfortable look of
American fashion epitomized by Claire McCardell-bright-colored clothes,
mix-and-match possibilities, and styles for a casual lifestyle. The stability of
the Eisenhower era (1953-1961) was reflected in the popularity of pastels and
American favorites, red and navy blue. With the 1960s came florescent, acid,
and hot colors associated with the youth movement and psychedelic drug experiences. In the 1970s, hippies in denim became fascinated with the authenticity of the American Southwest, beginning the domination of earthy colors
associated with the region.
The 1970s ended on a bright note influenced by the "punks" with their
bold clothing statements and green and purple hair. The color explosion continued into the 1980s with an upscale pastel phase, the postmodern influence
of Memphis designers on furnishings, and Nancy Reagan's signature red.
Lacroix reintroduced Schiaparelli's pink as a fashion color, but because of the
brights and neons of the 1960s, the color that had once been shocking was
now perceived as a soft, bright color. Concerns about the environment made
the 1990s the green decade, updating the color symbol for fertility from antiquity. Along with green came the "back to nature colors" of earthy browns
and terra-cotta.

Long Wave Cycles

The recurrences of color themes can be traced not just in decades but in centuries. In the Victorian era, Owen Jones chose rich, bright, primary colors for
London's Crystal Palace in 1851. He defended his choices saying that these
same colors had been used in the architecture of the ancient Greeks. To some
color historians, this comment illustrates the cycling of color through history,
specifically the periodic return to primary hues. The cycle begins with bright,
saturated, primary colors; this is followed by an exploration of mixed, less intense colors; then, it pauses in neutral until the rich, strong colors are rediscovered (Porter, 1994).

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1,'ASHlON FORECASTING

Researchers have confirmed a periodic swing (Figure 4.7) from high

chroma colors, to "multicoloredness," to subdued colors, to earth tones, to
achromatic colors (black, white, and gray), and back to high chroma colors.
In the period between 1860 and the 1990s, there were four marked color cycles lasting between 15 and 25 five years (Darmstadt, 1982, 1985). Analyzing
the color themes in a German home magazine, researchers confirmed the
cyclical recurrence of collective color trends (Koppelmann & Kuthe, 1987;
Oberascher, 1994). That cycle has been matched to color trends in recent
decades (Barry, 1999), as follows:
A high chroma phase (e.g., 1972-1974).
A darkening phase (e.g., 1974-1976).
Transition to autumnal colors in a brown phase (e.g., 1976-1979).
Lightning of colors toward beige, off-white, and pastels (e.g., 1979-1981).
An achromatic phase (e.g., 1984-1988)
A chromatic phase combining black and white with primary colors (e.g.,
1988-1991)
A purple phase (e.g., 1992)
A return to chromatic colors (e.g., beginning in 1991 and continuing).
Such long wave oscillations can be observed in color cycles through the
decades of the 20th century.

FIGURE 4.7

Researchers have
confirmed a periodic
swing from high
chroma colors, to
"multicoloredness, "
to subdued colors, to
earth tones, to achromatic colors (black,
white, and gray) and
back to high chroma
colors with purple
signaling a new color
cycle as an intermediary between achromatic and chromatic
phases.

High
Chroma

Purple
Phase

Subdued
Colors

Achromatic
Colors
Earth
Tones

COLOR FORECASTING

Several forecasts in the late 1990s pick up on the diagnostic effect of purple. The idea is that a purple phase occurs between achromatic and chromatic
phases and signals a new color cycle. David Wolfe, a trend forecaster for The
Donegar Group, predicted the "end of the color blackout in fashion" at the
~ational Retail Federation annual meeting in January 1998. He also predicted the beginning of a purple cycle that would continue for three to five
years. In the 1997/1998 RoperlPantone Consumer Color Preference Study,
purple appeared as the third favorite color behind blue and green and ahead
of red ("Results," 1997/1998). In forecasts for cosmetic colors for the Fall
1998 season purples and plums were the leading trend (Klepacki, 1998).

Color Cycles and Cultural Shifts

There are always subplots and digressions, eddies and currents in the seasonto-season changes. Color cycles can be sparked by new technology. This happened about ten years after the opening of the Crystal Palace in the
mid-1800s. One of the first synthetic dyes was introduced, a colorfast purple
called mauve by the French. The color became the rage-Queen Victoria
wore the color to the International Exhibition of 1862-and gave its name to
the Mauve Decade. Other strong synthetic dyes for red and green soon followed, allowing for a strong color story in women's clothing. Something similar happened in the 1950s when the first affordable cotton reactive dye for
turquoise led to a fad for the color and moved it from eveningwear into
sportswear (Hope & Walch, 1990; Porter, 1994).
Economic conditions also perturb color cycles and start new ones. When
recession or a steep drop in the stock market occurs, as it did in 1987, people's moods change and they curtail their spending habits. Japanese designers
signaled the shift with ominous black clothing and an austere, minimalist
look to begin the decade of the 1990s.
Color cycles can be associated with social change. A visible cycle was identified by June Roche, a corporate color analyst, in the mid-1980s-the shift between colors associated with femininity and those influenced by men's wear.
She characterized the end of the 1970s as a dark men's wear phase with dusty
colors that were called elegant, refined, and sophisticated. Use of these typical
grayed European colors was new for American women's fashion but coincided
with women's entry into fields such as finance, law, and medicine-fields formerly dominated by men. By the mid-1980s, those grayed colors looked dirty,
and there was a shift to feminine colors. As a forecaster, Roche asked herself
why the feminine colors were popular and how much longer that phase would
last (Lannon, 1988). The shift between ultra femininity and men's wear looks
has been part of the fashion scene since Coco Chanel first introduced women
to the concept of borrowing from men's closets in the 1920s.
Color cycles are also associated with nostalgic revivals of looks from previous decades (see Chapter 3). When the 1970s were revived in the mid-1990s,

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bright lime green came back with platform shoes, Brady Bunch reruns, and
polyester. The color was not a literal lift from the 1970s, but that decade did
provide a directional influence (Winter, 1996).

Forecasting with Color Cycles

When applying a color theory, the color forecaster has to take into account
the consumer type and membership in a cultural group. Lifestyles, values, and
attitudes all play a part in acceptance or rejection of collective color directions. Although mass media smoothes and integrates individual and cultural
tendencies, differences between segments remain. Additionally, some consumers are early adopters of fashion change, whereas other more traditional
consumers will adhere to traditional colors as color cycles come and go. Applying a color cycle theory takes insight and experience.
Complicating the process further, a color forecaster has more than one
color cycle theory to consider. Using the idea that color cycles through all the
phases from full primary hues to mixes to neutrals, the forecaster in the late
1990s would predict "a pause in neutral" prior to a rediscovery of full primary hues at the beginning of the new millenium (Porter, 1994). Everrett
Brown, who introduced the Color Key Program for apparel and paint selection, identified a cycle of approximately seven years during which the pendulum swings between warm-toned and cool-toned colors (Brown, 1994). Using
that theory, a color forecaster in the late 1990s would predict a shift from the
orange-based earthy tones of 1998 to "more celestial colors" in cool tones for
the turn of the millenium (Crispell, 1997). Which is correct? Perhaps both.
Today's color forecasts offer a proliferation of shades, and the color forecaster's job is to match color with consumer segments.
Besides the cycles based on hue, intensity, and color temperature, there are
other identifiable cycles. Some continuity is visible regardless of trends: nautical red, white, and blue appears in some form every spring; russets and tartan
plaids every autumn (Wrack, 1994).
During the 20th century the consumer has undergone a color education
that has changed visual perceptions. Still, the basic mechanism of color cycles
serves the color forecaster well. A new color direction is usually introduced
first by a high-profile industry and promoted as a theme. Based on mass marketing, other industries adapt the theme to fit their customers and promote
the same set of colors. After a few years, the color direction becomes established; the consumer is ready for a change, and the cycle begins again. While a
color trend remains in place, the theme used to promote it evolves-Southwestern colors transmute into a Mediterranean palette and then continue in
an Adirondack lodge color story (Kinning, 1994). The colors themselves
evolve from season to season. For the forecaster, it is important to monitor
consumer response and work through the color families from level to levelfrom red to a rosy tone to a coral (Tunsky, 1994).

COLOR FORECASTING

Research color cycles in the 20th century by comparing fashion magazines from
each decade. Check the holdings of the library and locate a fashion magazine with
copies going back at least four decades. To conduct fashion research, develop a
systematic way to sample the fashion content:
Choose a month-usually the early fall issues have the most pages of fashion.
Choose a year early, in the middle, or late in the decade.
To gather data, survey the issues in your sample looking for articles predicting
color or giving advice on wearing color. Also observe the colors pictured in this
issue. Make photocopies of the articles and a color photocopy of a characteristic
page in each issue. Did you detect evidence of color cycles?

COLOR RESEARCH
Cycles in color preferences apply across product categories to both hard
goods such as automobiles and appliances and soft goods such as apparel and
household linens. The timelines differ for each industry because the consumer's replacement rates differ. Industrial products may lag two to five years
behind fashion shades and require a shade modification, but if a color is popular in fashion, it is likely to end up on small appliances and other utilitarian
products. People buy clothes more often than automobiles; they redecorate
their image more often than their interior spaces. The colors for fashion can
show a marked change every two years but the replacement cycle for interior
design is between seven and twelve years (Linton, 1994).
Even to a color consultant specializing in a particular industry, the entire
world of color choices is important. Clothing designers look for inspiration in the decorative arts: interior design, architecture, and furniture
design. Home fashion designers look for inspiration from apparel and accessories. There is growing cross-pollination between industries regarding
color evolution.

Color Relationships across Product Categories

Where does a color trend start? That is a controversial question, and the answer depends on whom you ask and in what decade. In the past, some experts
claimed that new trends first show up in the array of colors offered by paint
manufacturers (Danger, 1968). Others believed that trends started in the automotive industry because autos require a longer product development cycle
(four to hve yearsr, and that industry is particularly sensitive to advances in
color technologies (Reynold, 1968). Still others expect new color trends to

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originate in the area of interiors. Today most agree that color trends start
with women's fashions (Birren, 1987;Rope &: Walch, 1~~O). whatever
<might have been the case III the past, Jean-Philippe Lenclos's (1994) international survey of color detected a fusing of color fashion across product categories in the mid-1970s. Until that time, color cycles had moved at different
speeds in different industries. Subsequently, there was more unification of
color trends across product categories.

Color in Cars. Buying a T-shirt or a pillow or a tube of lipstick may cost a

few dollars; buying a car represents a major investment. Still, the power of
color as a marketing tool applies across categories. Styling in cars follows the
same societal trends as other products. The confident-looking 1980s cars had
a straight-cut look that was replaced in the early 1990s by a sturdy, rounded,
egg-shaped silhouette, a sensibility that matched an era nervous about economic conditions and environmental issues (Ward, 1992).
The range of color choices changes with the times, too. Henry Ford was
quoted as saying that customers could buy a Model-Tin any color they
wanted "as long as it's black." In the color explosion of the mid-1950s, the
Chrysler Corporation offered a choice of 58 exterior colors either alone or in
86 two-tone combinations. Today, we have more color choices than in the
earliest era of the automobile but less than in the 1950s. Studies by DuPont
between 1959 and 1971 showed fluctuations in some car colors, relatively
stable popularity in others, and a link between popular clothing colors and
automobile colors (Hope & Walch, 1990). By the mid-1990s, dark forest
green was the most popular car color after an absence of 15 years, and purple
was the new color trend (Lacina, 1996; Nichols, 1996).
Just as in fashion, color and price are linked. The color image must match
the car image-a $50,000 car must look like money; what works for a Mercedes will not work for a sport utility vehicle. As paint technology continues
to develop, colorists predict that postmillennium cars will feature copper,
bronze, and pearlescent finishes that will reflect multiple shades, depending on
the lighting (Heath, 1997b).
Color in Interiors. Trends in interior design are defined by a lifestyle concept
and its associated colors-think of the long-running popularity of the country look and its evolving palette. Such concepts are said to last from 7 to 15
years (Lannon, 1988). Like the fashion industry, manufacturers and retailers
work together closely on developing new looks and directions. Also like
fashion, interior spaces reflect the personality and preferences of the individual owners, and color is a primary purchasing consideration. Because the investment in furnishings is generally more than in apparel, consumers feel
more restraint in deciding on a change, and even when they decide to change,
their choices tend to be rather conservative. Creative teams manage change

COLOR FORECASTING

by experimenting with style innovations and building on those with profit

potential (Sykes, 1994).

Color in Cosmetics. Cosmetic colors are the most closely allied to fashion appard. Fashion periods tend to take on an identifying image, and these changes
are paralleled by cosmetics (Hope & Walch, 1990). When sliding-tube lipsticks appeared in the 1920s, the flapper had a convenient way to paint her
6ps bright red. In the 1930s, emphasis shifted to the eyes with the popularity
of pale skin and unrouged cheeks. American actresses in the 1940s popularizrd the image of bright red lips again and added colored nails. The attention
sr::ayed on the mouth until the 1960s, when it shifted again to the eyes. Hippie
looks in the 1970s shifted tastes toward the natural look and more beige and
cutb-toned cosmetic colors. Disco dancing sparked a glittery dress-up phase
with eye shadows in metallic colors.
By the 1990s, cosmetic companies had begun to differentiate themselves
based on their approach to color-some focusing on following the fashion
colors of the runway, some on colors keyed to a person's skin, hair, and eye
color (Wood, 1990). Major cosmetics companies selling in department stores
usually have a core group of perennial sellers that stay in the line for years, a
smaller group of colors that follow color trends, and seasonal promotion of a
fashion color story (Sloan, 1988).
Also in the 1990s, professional makeup artists, models, and photographers
began to have more influence on trends in cosmetics. Some makeup artists
started cosmetic companies based on selling professional lines to the public
(Edelson, 1991). In the Fall of 1998, Max Factor used a tie-in promotion with
the blockbuster film Titanic and launched a Tina Earnshaw Color Collection
named for the makeup artist who received an Oscar nomination for her work
on the film (Klepacki, 1998).
Mass lines, those selling in discount stores and drugstores, may pursue a
dual strategy: lagging slightly behind the color trends to attract less fashiondriven customers, and including extreme fashion shades for the fashionforward customer seeking to satisfy the whim for a trendier image at a moderate price (Wood, 1990).
Cosmetics companies employ color marketers to chart the direction for
their lines. These executives research color trends just as specialists in other
product categories do: they travel, observe, sample popular culture, analyze
trends in lifestyles, and track shifts in consumers' tastes. Their color forecast
dovetails with the forecast in the apparel industry. In the Fall 1998 season,
color cosmetics lines featured plums and purples-the same colors highlighted
by David Wolfe in an apparel forecast for the National Retail Federation that
same year (Klepacki, 1998). Such a strong purple message recalls the role of
purple as an intermediary stage between achromatic and chromatic phases,
signaling the beginning of a new color cycle.

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FASHION FORECASTING

Leatrice Eiseman, Executive Director, Eiseman Center

& Pantone Color Institute
Leatrice Eiseman is a color specialist working with companies in helping them
make the most educated color choices fOl:,,,,pffldtrc~ment an co
ate
identification. She combines her background in s cholo
fashion, and interior
design to identify and analyze color trends. As an authority, she has been quote In
Elle, Vogue, The Wall Street Journal, The New York Times, USA Today, and
many other publications. She authored the books Alive with Color (1985) and Colors for Your Every Mood (1999), and co-authored The Pantone Book of Color
(1990) with Lawrence Herbert, president and CEO or Pantone, Inc. She is a member of The Fashion Group International, The American Society of Interior Designers, The Color Marketing Group Board of Directors, and the Color Association of
the United States. Her favorite color is "purple with a warm red undertone" because it is "dynamic and magical-a fabulous color to combine with other hues"
and also because it is "the color of creativity-something a color specialists needs a
lot of!" ("Pantone," 1998, page 2).
Like musical talent, Ms. Eiseman believes some people are born with "a wonderful ability to become an interior designer or fashion designer or any area where
color is inherent to the what they are doing" but that ability must be nurtured by
interest and training. Other people with less inborn color ability can learn about
color in the same way that people learn to play the piano-by taking lessons and
playing for enjoyment. People can hone their color abilities by "reading more
about it, observing more, and developing the nerve to venture forth, even if that
means making some mistakes."
As an author of books on color selection, Ms. Eiseman avoids "dogmatic color
systems because the psychological aspects of color is very important." Color preferences may be based on "a color remembered from childhood that is forever associated with happy thoughts or a special person or the wonderful affirmation of
getting compliments when wearing a certain color." Color systems that rely only
on consideration of complexion and eye color miss these important psychological
factors, connections people make between certain colors and positive and negative
thoughts. Ms. Eiseman's approach is to provide color guidelines as "a starting
point" with the expectation that the consumer will look for a color with the same
undertone, something that is similar but not exact.
According to Ms. Eiseman, a lifetime of associations plays into color preferences. When people over 50 look at yellow-green, "their mind immediately goes
back to the 1960s with the acid greens and the 1970s with avocado green when
that was all that was out there and it didn't make any difference whether the person liked the color or not. Young teens looks at strident yellow-green today and
have no problem with the color at all because they don't remember the 1960s and

COLOR FORECASTING

1970s, and they don't have the negative connotations with the color." Since "kids
love to do things that tweak the adults" they are attracted to a neon version of yellow-green "because its so bright and strident and sort of in-your-face, and because
Mom and Dad hate it." The reaction signals an important developmental stage
when "kids break away from parents' influence and want to stand out, be different,
and develop their own sense of color."
If color plays such an important psychological role, why is black so predominant
in fashion? Ms. Eiseman sees this as more of a social outcome rather than a color
choice: "I think that you see the pervasive use of black mostly in big cities to show
that you are part of a knowledgeable group that wears black as a sort of a badge of
honor. Even those who subscribe to black for the office workday probably introduce color on the weekends or when they exercise or in the evening when they put
on their pajamas. I don't think there is anyone who could live all the time with
black-black pajamas, black jeans, and T-shirt on the weekend. Like all trends, this
phenomenon will pass because of the mindset of today's consumer. Long skirts and
short skirts, full skirts and slim skirts, Lycra and loose-it's all out there and so is
color selection. The human eye is always searching for novelty, its part of the
human condition. We are all children in our psyches and we need the stimulation."
Flexibility in the use of color is a watchword for Ms. Eiseman who has spent
time studying what she calls "crossover colors-these colors are prevalent in nature
and can be used in many different ways." They include "all the basics like grays,
taupes, aubergine, hunter greens, and navy blues which are always found in fashion because they combine so well with so many other colors and because our eyes
are so accustomed to seeing them." Crossover colors tend to be "part of nature like
blue skies." As she explains, "People don't think of sk blue as a neutral color or 3
basi
and yet blue in na re is backdrop to a beau .
" The crossover
list has expanded with the addition of the teal family
blue gree because they
are a "kind of cu.:p~een the blues and greens." This co or family was "really
discovered in the~and people have learned to enjoy the color and find that it
works with just about every other color in the spectrum."
Col
fade away only to resurface later. Ms. Eiseman sees such a color cycle with green and its association WIt nature. n the beginning of the 1990s interesting things were happening-reawakening to ecology,
concern for the rainforest, worry about depleting resources, and a concern for preserving the earth. These issues first surfaced in the 1970s, subsided in the 1980s,
and came back very strong in the early 1990s." Because people most associate the
color green with nature, color forecasters "knew it was time for the greens to resurface-we hadn't seen them a lot during the 1980s but they were around a lot in the
1970s. With a 10 year rest, we were ready for green to be new again."
"Designers are responsible for creating the fashions and putting the colors on
those fashions. They are the first ones to be influenced by color cycles because they
are so tuned in to what's happening in the world, what's going on about them."

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Forecasters, too, are looking "further into the future, not just tomorrow or even
the next three to six months." To get this forward-looking perspective, Ms. Eiseman attends cutting edge trade shows "where you can see the colors that are being
shown and projected for the future." But seeing colors is only the first step. "You
have to know your audience. It could be that a color is going to be hot in Europe
but if your demographics embrace a certain area of the country where that color
has never done well, even if you think that ultimately the color will happen, it's a
little too soon to try it. The bottom line is that you really have to know who your
customer is." Cutting edge colors do "trickle down to the consumer level because
the consumer is also looking at the media, new films, and art collections that are
traveling around the country."
Membership in organizations for color professionals is another important part
of Ms. Eiseman's work as a forecaster. The organizations become a meeting
ground for color professionals from "various fields-cosmetics and fashion to automotive and plastics for the kitchen. The color pros discuss things that are happening in the world, the things they expect will be happening in the future, and
develop a color palette approximately two years ahead of the current market."
After returning to their jobs, the members "mayor may not choose to embrace the
colors in that palette but it helps them get a line on what others are doing in other
industries and to create a connection between related industries." Ultimately, the
connection between different industries "reduces confusion for the consumer shopping for related items because the color palettes are not terribly far apart."
Ms. Eiseman advises people interested in becoming color professionals to begin
in retailing where they can "hear what consumers say at point of purchase and how
they relate to the colors they are seeing." The retail store is also a good place to
study displays because "many of the stores have very talented display people who
are really tuned in to how to put colors together." Another training exercise is to be
a "comparison shopper, going to Target as well as Bloomingdales-see the way that
merchandise is presented, see some of the support materials like brochures and catalogs. Be a real user of everything that is out there. Most important-look at the big
picture, not just a particular segment of fashion but other influences, the big films
coming up, the television shows on the horizon, the technological breakthroughs,
anything with a color connection. That is what color forecasters do."
Source of quotes unless cited in text, author interview with Leatrice Eiseman, May
6,1999.
For more information, see the following:
Eiseman, Leatrice (1985). Alive with color. Washington, D.C.: Acropolis.
Eiseman, Leatirce (1999), Colors for your every mood. Sterling, VA: Capital.
Pan tone

Color

Institute

biographies.

Pantone

www.pantone.comlbios.html [1998, June 10].

[WEB],

pp.

Available:

COLOR FORECASTING

Sources for Color Ideas and Palettes

Color forecasters are like finely calibrated instruments-they register subtle
shifts in consumer preferences, sense when the time is right for a new direction, and pick up directional cues from myriad sources. Color forecasts
reflect the mood of the times, both the present and the hints about the future. To forecast color direction the forecaster must constantly participate
in the events that shape the cultural moment and monitor the running commentary of the media. Together the events and media shape the consumer's
preferences and mood. Color stylists look for ideas on the East and West
Coasts of the United States, in Europe, and in Asia. Colorists have an eye
for the new, the novel, the unique, and the fresh combination. Sources
include:
Social, economic, and political issues significant enough to affect the thinking, mood, and actions of people.
Magazines covering fashion, interiors, and entertainment, including those
published in Europe.
Newspapers, especially features on lifestyle, style, travel, entertainment,
and business.
Runways in the fashion capitals of Paris, Milan, London, and New York.
Trade shows and exhibitions.
The lifestyles of highly visible celebrities in entertainment and prominent
role models from other fields.
Color schemes featured in films, especially major films with exotic locales,
set in stylish time periods, or featuring distinctive costuming.
Styles worn by stars of popular television shows.
The world of music through the club scene, music videos, dance crazes,
and the style leadership of stars.
Theater, especially productions in which the costuming, set design, or
choreography are important elements.
Travel destinations that merge new sights and experiences or involve new
concepts in the hospitality industry.
Street fashion in urban areas, districts associated with the arts, and emerging shopping scenes with small, unique, independent businesses.
Flea markets in Paris and London and other inspiring open markets that
reflect the character of a specific location and culture.
Decorator houses and other showcases for trends in interior design and
architecture.
Museum shows focusing on artists, collections, archeological finds, photographers, or artisans, especially those with broad media coverage.

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FASHION FORECASTING

Museum shows, auctions, and sales featuring vintage fashion and famous
designers.
Auctions, especially those featuring the possessions of famous people.
Revival of interest in historic periods, especially the architecture, art, and
signature looks of those eras.
Fads and fashions in cuisine including shopping food markets for food
products, produce, and flowers characteristic of the locale.
Toys, games, and amusements for different age groups.
New electronic gadgets, computer applications, and breakthrough technologies.
Industrial design, graphic design, and package design because these fields
often foreshadow new visual directions.

aUTIn:g--J-

R:onsider it a strong directional sIgnal when the same trend IS visible

'the same time period from multiple sources (Eiseman, 1994). In such cases
style arbiters across industries reinforce the messages, widen the scope, and
\expandtheco~~~.~~------------------~~--________~~__-orecaster is always looking for clues to the next new color, the
adaptation of basic colors, themes, and directions for color stories. There are
some calendar dates that are especially important: the seasonal runway shows
and key trade shows. An important trade show for color forecasters is Premiere Vision, an international textile industry fair, held annually in Parts.
Fabric mills make presentations concerning the coming season, show organizers offer their own forecast, and color forecasts by European consultants are
on display in the Hall of Prediction. This show is the crossroads for designers,
manufacturers, and forecasters to see the latest in textile developments-a
place for scouting and networking. Forecasters combine trips to the runway
shows and fabric fairs with shopping the trendiest boutiques and watching
street fashion.
The forecaster returns from trips with many new ideas, some of which
have to be modified for the American market (Webb, 1994). In general, European colors are more complex, darker, and more neutral than the cleaner,
brighter colors preferred by American consumers. Two organizing principles
help to coordinate the new finds: the color cycle as it has evolved over the previous seasons, and the curve presenting diffusion of innovation across consumer segments (see Chapter 2). Usually the forecaster adds the new finds to
an existing library of ideas. The editing process begins by pinning color samples to a board to study relationships and color groups. At first this process
involves a free, open reaction to the colors. As the editing process continues,
the forecaster consults the work of previous seasons to maintain the visual
rhythm of color evolution. At some point in the process, the forecaster begins
to define the themes and concepts that link the colors in a color story. In the
final editing stage, the forecaster makes modifications and adjustmen~s based

COLOR FORECASTING

on the clients' target consumer, product category, and price point. The final
color board for the client provides overall color direction, color stories coordinated around visual themes, and specific color selection.

Find a bookstore with a large display of magazines covering many categories and
special interests from cuisine to pets, from bodybuilding to art, from fashion to interiors. Seek out the newest titles and the most esoteric subjects. Using the magazines as a source, explore some of the topics listed as sources for color ideas and
palettes. Discover one or more directions, themes, issues, or interests that will
shape the fashion future. Report your findings on a presentation board.

Techniques of Trend Analysis and Synthesis

The methods used by the Nippon Color and Design Research Institute
(NCD) illustrate the critical thinking process required to produce an accurate and justifiable forecast (Kobayashi, 1981). Their approach combines an
understanding of the psychology of color and a sense of the spirit of the
times. In their system, each color is assessed according to its position on
three scales-warm to cool, soft to hard, and clear to grayish. These scales
can be represented in a three-dimensional color space with individual colors
occupying a unique location. Using this Color Image Scale (Figure 4.8)
makes it easier to identify the similarities and contrasts between colors, their
relative position to each other, and the color patterns or groupings.

soft

FIGURE 4.8

gra ish
.:;;;::.:::..... ............. .................... ........................... .......... ...... . cool

'

............... ..................... .......................... ....... ........................::..~

c

hard

The Color Image

Scale makes it easier
to identify the similarities and contrasts
between colors, their
relative position to
each other, and color
patterns.

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FASHION FORECASTING

The method visualizes the colors of a season as pyramid. The broad base
represents the colors that are resistant to change. The tip represents the fastchanging fashion colors. The middle represents those colors linked to the
image and mood of the times---colors that may persist for two or three years
until the attention of the culture moves on to other interests and concerns.
Using this system it is possible to identify a range of colors from the basic ones
accepted with no resistance, to the colors that symbolize the times, to the fashion-driven trend colors. Such a balanced method is like taking a snapshot of a
color period. It allows the forecaster to create a color assortment for a range of
products targeted to different segments along the fashion cycle (Linton, 1994).
For each season, forecasters at the Nippon Color and Design Institute
(NCD) (1994) perform a step-by-step trend analysis.
Step 1: Analysis of current trends using information from newspapers, magazines, television, and other sources.
Step 2: Analysis of current colors in fashion across women's and men's apparel, interior design, and automobiles. Swatches of current colors are
arrayed using the Color Image Scale to detect relationships.
Step 3: Image analysis across women's and men's apparel, interior design,
and automobiles (sometimes including package design, corporate images, and environmental design). By collecting pictures of current images and arraying them using the categories of the Image Scale,
common images emerge.
Step 4: Synthesis of current and emerging lifestyle patterns. Looking for
agreement between the first three steps makes it possible to develop
hypotheses about the direction lifestyles and consumer tastes are
taking.
Step 5: Discovering patterns in color preferences using consumer research
methods. Researchers use questionnaires and color-projection techniques (color-word associations) to explore the psychology of color
and consumer preferences. Together with the other steps, this research allows the NCD to identify people's desired images and array
them using the same categories as in the other steps.
Step 6: Coordination of images, themes, and colors for the forecast. A word
or phrase and six to nine colors are identified to capture and communicate an image.
Consideration of political and economic conditions, special upcoming
events, and cyclical changes are all part of the final NCD forecast. This comprehensive approach is effective in color planning, product development, marketing, and merchandising. The forecasts can be fine-tuned to identify the
volume colors for mass marketing and fashion colors for other niches. The
system allows the NCD and clients to compare past results and track shifts in
color tastes across seasons.

COLOR FORECASTING

Although other forecasters may not systematize their methods to the degree achieved by the NCD, their processes are similar. Forecasters (Szwarce,
1994) track the social, economic, and psychological influences on consumers
and their reactions. They read all kinds of newspapers and magazines. They
travel. They keep up with what is selling at retail. They attend trade fairs and
fashion shows. They shop and watch people on the street. Wherever they are
they collect clippings, color swatches, and take photos for inspiration. While
preparing a forecast, they organize their observations on boards by product
category and color family.
Forecasters work intuitively, discovering techniques that work, refining
and reusing them. Some rely on their reading, observation, and networking.
Others add qualitative research, including interviews and focus groups with
potential customers.
Jean-Phillipe Lenclos (1994) of Atelier 3D Couleur in Paris developed a
regular monitoring system. Each season he monitors color on billboards, at
automobile shows, and window displays of selected fashion and furniture
stores in Paris, London, Tokyo, and New York.
Irene Zessler (1994) of Peclers Paris begins by spontaneously buying yarns,
ribbons, fabrics, books, and photos based on her experience as a designer. At
brainstorming sessions, each stylist in the company brings ideas and inspiration. These sessions rationalize the process because they provide a forum for
combining instincts, market knowledge, and a sense of fashion's evolution.
The process culminates in a color range to guide the company's work with the
textile industry and retail clients.
Forecasters may be asked to create a general forecast for an industry, for a
product category, or for a more specific purpose identified by a particular
client. Whatever the assignment, certain considerations must be factored into
the forecast. When forecasting for clients, those considerations become more
defined and specific. Forecasters consider the following (Eiseman, 1994; Verlodt, 1994a; Wrack, 1994):
Product life cycle-some products remain stable, others are quick to
change.
Production cycle-some products can be manufactured with short turnaround times, others involve longer lead times.
Product sensitivity to external influences such as changing demographics,
geographic and cultural conditions, and prices of raw materials-factors
affect all products but have more impact on some.
Design-driven change-changes in silhouette, fit, pattern, and texture influence product categories differently.
Product compatibility-how a product coordinates with other products.
Sales history-top selling colors can be moved into related products.
Competitors' color choices.

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FASHION FORECASTING

Consumers' preferences, psychological relationship to colors, and economic status.

Consumers' spending patterns and confidence in their economic situation.
Climate in the regions where the product will be sold, bought, and used.
Taking all these considerations into account, the forecaster identifies stable,
classic colors, fashion-driven colors, and new directional colors. For even the
most stable colors the forecaster must calculate the exact shade (Hope &
Walch, 1990). Does this season's black have a brown or blue undertone? Will
the red be more orange or more blue? Should the peach be pink or coral?
Search for color forecasts on the World Wide Web. Look at sites devoted to fashion, interiors, and automobiles. Sites often have a feature to keep you coming back
for periodic updates. Some sites feature a single color and update this color
monthly. Others are similar to magazines with new issues periodically. These magazine-like sites often have an archive of past issues. Be sure to check the archives for
recent color forecasts or directional information. Look at sites that archive designers' runway presentations from past seasons. Set up a personal "bookmarks" list of
color sites that you can check regularly to assist in developing color forecasts (see
the Resource Pointers section at the end of the chapter for suggested Web sites).

ORGANIZATIONS FOR PROFESSIONAL

COLOR FORECASTERS
Journalists looking for a good headline often call members of the professional
color organizations the "color mafia." But the purpose of color forecasting is
not to dictate but to discover and rediscover colors and relate them to
lifestyles of the present and near future. Color forecasters come to the profession from many backgrounds-textile design, art history, product development, and others. Many work independently, consulting on a particular
segment of the consumer market. A few consultants work across industry
lines developing forecasts for both apparel and interiors. Some color forecasters work for industry trade associations like Cotton Incorporated or the
American Wool Council. Others are employed by large fiber producers, fabric
manufacturers, or apparel manufacturers. Organizations for color forecasters
bring these professionals together to share ideas, inspiration, and resources.
Such networking facilitates the overall goal of color forecasting: to establish
future color directions for a given population, geographic location, and time
as a way for industries in the supply chain to coordinate their efforts.
Color marketing intensified after W orId War II with the increase in demand and availability of consumer goods. Marketers realized that just as
color sells apparel, it could be used to promote products across the spectrum

COLOR FORECASTING

of the marketplace. At the same time, the number of lines, size of assortments,
and number of doors selling ready-to-wear was expanding. Color provided a
way to satisfy many consumers with the same garment. The power of color as
a marketing tool and increased demand meant that color forecasting assumed
even greater economic significance. Today, the proliferation of colors, the advances in color technology, and increased demand by consumers for new colors has provided incentive for color forecasting.
By joining professional organizations, color forecasters continue to build
their skills and expertise, benefit from the different viewpoints and keen vision of others, and promote professionalism of the field. There are professional organizations for color forecasters in many countries around the globe.
These professional organizations restrict membership to those who focus on
color exclusively or who meet specific membership criteria. The two leading
professional color organizations in America are the Color Association of the
United States (CAUS) and the Color Marketing Group (CMG).

Color Association of the United States (CAUS)

The Color Association of the United States was founded in 1915 when textile
companies decided to coordinate their colors after being cut off from Paris by
the outbreak of World War I. Originally called the Textile Color Card Association of America (TCCA), they issued the first forecast in 1917, focusing on
women's fashions. The forecast was aimed at designers and stylists and suggested color grouping just as today's forecasts do. As consumer-oriented marketing accelerated after World War II, more specialized forecasts were
developed including:
Man-made fibers in the 1950s.
Men's wear in the 1960s.
Home furnishings in the 1970s.
Interior and environmental colors, children's wear, and activewear in the
1980s.
The association also publishes The Standard Color Reference of America, a
book showing color standards for wool, cotton, and silk industries in United
States. The original edition contained 106 shades, including those inspired by
the colors of nature's flora and fauna, college and university colors, and U.S.
Armed Forces shades on silk ribbons. Revised over ten editions, the number
of colors has doubled (Hope & Walch, 1994).
Based in Manhattan, CAUS is a not-for-profit trade association. Members
include corporations concerned with apparel, interiors and furnishings, paint,
and automobiles plus designers from all those fields. The cost of membershipseveral hundred dollars-brings with it services. Members receive the forecast
for one product category each season as a deck of silk-screened color cards, a
monthly newsletter, invitations to seminars, consultations including having a

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collection critiqued, and access to the CADS archives and research materials.
The archive includes color swatches for every year in the association's history.
CADS has an internship program for college students (Malarcher, 1995).
CADS members serve on committees specific to their interests and expertise.
Once on a committee, the member may serve for many years, providing stability to the process, but there are small changes in the committee makeup over
time. The Women's Committee meets two times each year for brainstorming
sessions during which they select 25 to 42 colors for women's apparel to appear
in the stores two years later (Figure 4.9). The members propose color directions
by bringing presentation boards to the meeting. The presentation boards may
show pictures of exotic travel locations, evocative images from historical
sources, materials gleaned from nature such as bark or wood or stones, or color
swatches. Over the course of the meeting, the members reach consensus on the
forecast colors. The process is not mysterious but it does involve awareness of
the mood of the times, preparation, and discussions where everybody contributes to defining the corning colors. Committees focusing on interiors, men's
wear, children's wear, and other product categories follow a similar process
when deciding by consensus on the forecast colors (Malarcher, 1995).
Color cards from the various committees may contain similar colors, but
they are fine-tuned for a specific market. The classic navy may be light on the
children's card, very blackened on the men's, closer to cobalt blue for interiors,
and a more traditional shade for women's (Lannon, 1988). Subtle differences
and color evolution are the tools of the color forecaster. Colors in combination

FIGURE 4.9
The Women's Forecasting Committee
meets two times each
year for brainstorming sessions to select
25 to 42 colors for
women's apparel that
will appear in the
stores two years
later. Photo courtesy
of The Color Association of the US, New
York City.

COLOR FORECASTING

important, too. If a certain red is in the forecast, its best complement in

also be there (Malarcher, 1995). It is this level of sophistication
.... apertise in color that makes the professional's advice valuable.
.Br

p!Ial must

Color :\Iarketing Group (CMG)

The Color Marketing Group, an international nonprofit association based in
Washington, D.C., area, was formed in 1962 to provide advanced color
....marion for industries from apparel to automobiles, from health care to
c....ate identity. Members' job titles range from designer, stylist, and prod~ developer to marketing manager and merchandiser, and the companies
IIIIIrr work for range from small independent studios to large corporations.
11Ir focus is on color as a marketing tool. Members share noncompetitive iniIiw"'wrion about trends and forecasts because they see the process as translat!lIB iDto profitable business decisions for their companies. In addition to
~ting in expert panels and workshops, members receive four color
,.'nres a year (the cost is much higher to nonmembers), a monthly newslet1Ir,. ~ access to the color library .
.. the CMG, workshops are aimed at the interests and specialties of members
liliJarobs, 1994; Verlodt, 1994b). The process begins with forecast workshops for
'GIIa" 40 product or end-use categories. The forecast workshops bring together an
'c::spen panel of members dealing with the same product category and whose
1I'OIdt. requires forecasting three or more years before the selling season.
The fashion industry panel meets in the winter and summer to develop the
~I palette. Eight weeks before the workshops members mail in color samples and their individual color directions forecast. Using these submissions as a
KUting point, participants negotiate to determine the set of forecast colors.
A representative from each expert panel participates in a final round of nepations to determine CMG's palette of new colors for consumer (fashion,
n:sidential, communications, etc.) and commercial (retail, hospitality, health
are) markets, including individual colors and color combinations.
For members whose forecast time frame is less than two years, there are
different workshop formats than the experts' panel, including the following:
Colors Current Workshops discuss colors that are or soon will be in the
marketplace.
Design Influences Workshops explore specific design trends as they relate
to shifts in consumer demographics and the economy.
Color Combinations Workshops explore combinations and blends of colors.
Marketing Workshops look at issues related to market research.
The goal of forecast workshops is not to predict specific hues but to indicate
color direction. According to the CMG, color direction is defined as an inclination, tendency, course, or trend. Members work year-round on committee assignments, but meeting schedules depend on the product category. The CMG

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148

FASHTON FORECASTI"'-C

tracks color by surveying its membership on the use of color in their industries
and analyzes findings on an industry-by-industry basis. The result is a kind of
continuing scorecard on color use across industries and product categories.

COLOR PLANNING INSIDE THE TEXTILE

AND APPAREL INDUSTRIES
Large companies often have a division responsible for developing trend information on colors and styles and reporting to the other divisions involved
in product development. Design groups or other executives may carry this
responsibility in smaller firms. Wherever the function is located on the organizational chart, executives use forecasts in conjunction with company sales
data (see Chapter 8) and in-house color tracking to prepare and present
company-specific forecasts. The decision process factors together color forecasts, information about street fashion, fashion collections in the United
States and Europe, and reports in trade publications and fashion magazines.
A design or marketing executive making decisions about color for a product category uses multiple forecasts. One or more will come from professional
color organizations to which the executive belongs. Others may come from
industry trade organizations. The executive probably subscribes to one or
more additional color forecasting services. The availability of multiple forecasts is valuable not because forecasters usually disagree in any major way
but because several forecasts tend to verify general color trends. In addition to
the color forecasts, the executive will likely subscribe to the services of other
forecasters who specialize in the fashion scene (see Chapter 6) or in discovering cultural trends (see Chapter 9).
This multiple forecast strategy applies within a company. Because the cost
of membership in one of the professional organizations is substantial, a company may belong to more than one and send different executives to the meetings. In that way, the company benefits from having executives active in the
workings of the organizations and obtains a multi lens view of color evolution. When there is lag time between meetings such as sometimes occurs between the organizations in Europe and America, one company executive may
participate in forecasting at the earlier meeting, and return to develop the seasonal colorways---color groups and combinations. Later, another company
executive may participate in the sessions of another color organization sharing the gist of the company forecast with other professionals. In this way,
color trends are often shared across national boundaries, organizations, and
companies. Forecasters' palettes for a particular season rarely disagree in any
major way even if the forecasts are developed independently-perhaps owing
partly to the evolutionary nature of the task, partly to the the movement of
the forecast through the supply chain (Webb, 1994)

COLOR FORECASTING

Interpreting color forecasts is far from a straightforward task. All forecasts

come with a disclaimer saying that they can be inaccurate. After all, a forecast
is used when complete information is missing; it cannot be expected to predict
the exact future. One complaint about color forecasts is that they include
every color. Color forecasters reply that the forecasts indicate the general direction, not an actual color. They become useful only when executives consider color direction in terms of hue, value, and intensity and consider context
and usage (Eiseman, 1994).
Even with several color forecasts in hand, the color planning decisions still
remain with the executive. The executive edits the information in the forecast
for the specifics of a product line targeted for a particular consumer segment.
Upscale, sophisticated markets are likely to relate well to a more European
color palette with its subtle, darker, and grayed look. A mass marketer
chooses a more immediately understandable color palette that is brighter and
more accessible to a broader market segment. For other lines, color decisions
depend on the geography, climate, and preferences where the products will be
sold or used. Tradition plays a key role in decision making-what is wellaccepted in society as well as what is typical for a particular manufacturer
(Stark & Johnson-Carroll, 1994). By having several forecasts, the executive
sees the overall color direction and taps into the expertise of several forecasters when selecting the exact colors for a product line.

Forecasts at the Beginning of the Pipeline

Large chemical companies make dyes to sell down the i e in where coloration actually takes place.
re t an 6,000 different synthetic dyes are
own to eXIst, an t e typical dye pro
fer about 600 in the
company's
. These companies need long lead times for productIOn
typlCa y four to nine months ahead of delivery to the dye house. These long
lead times mean that the chemical company needs early warning about color
demand so that it can provide the exact shades demanded by fashion. Often
forecasting information makes it to the fabric producer but does not flow
backward to the producers of the dye materials. Yet, when an order comes in
for a particular blue, the company is expected to deliver dye for that exact
color. In the past, meeting orders has meant holding high safety inventories in
hopes of avoiding a stock-out situation (Dransfield, 1994).
Some dye-producing companies are setting up an early warning system by
using fashion experts in Rome, London, Paris, and New York to predict color
trends at a generic level-such as reds are going to be in, for example. These
companies also need to know how dark the colors will be because very dark
colors can take ten times more dye than pale shades. With this early warning
system, a company can concentrate on 250 individual dyes t-o meet all color
requirements for all types of fibers and provide desirable fastness properties.
About 20 percent of key dyes are unique and cannot be mixed from other

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FASHION FORECASTlNG

dyes; the rest can. For that large portion of mixable colors, the company depends on the art of the master blender. With the early warning system and
partnerships with fabric producers and large textile retailers, the dye producer
can be aware of the color forecast in time to meet the demand for fashiondriven colors (Dransfield, 1994).

Apparel Manufacturer's In-House Forecast

When a once-hot company runs into dropping sales figures, it seems shocking
to point to color decisions. Yet that was the case with Eddie Bauer in 1998
when the CEO said that products in kiwi and orange were a major part of the
company's problems. As the vice-president of merchandising explained: "Our
heritage is classically based but when we saw the customer responding to
color, we simply went too far."
Designers, stylists, and product developers apply forecasts to a line of merchandise specifically for the target customer. In selecting colors for a line in a
given s son, executives make an error if they are:
Too brash, overreacting to the forecast by producing a line with fashion\ forward colors that do not sell.
Too conservative, ignoring the forecast in favor of playing it safe, missing
out on hot new colors that catch on with the consumer~
In lines where economies of scale limit changes in silhouette, use of detail, and
embellishment, color provides the visual power to attract customers.
Effective interpretation of the forecasts comes with experience managing
color decisions from season to season. After several seasons of brights, the
forecast shifts to newness in another color range as the color cycle continues.
Brights will still appear in the forecast but will be less dominant than in the
previous season. Brights that continue strong in sales figures may be modified
to midtones as a transition, allowing the customer to use these new variations
with the brights of the previous season (Calvert, 1994). It is never a good idea
to leap from one distinct palette to another totally different one.
In the product development stage, executives must go beyond color direction to forecast the significance of the color story and the quality of the trend.
Which colors are basic to the line? Which accent colors will signal fashionability and newness? Together with the marketers and merchandisers, they
must decide specific colors for each item in the line, the coordination of those
items within a group, and how many of each item to produce.
Forecasts arrive broken down into ranges of colors-darks, brights, midtones, pastels, and neutrals (Calvert, 1994). Each forecast may inc~ude as
many as 50 colors. Women's wear has the widest spectrum of color among
apparel products. If an executive works with four to six forecasts, that means
finding the color undercurrents across 200 to 300 colors. Using these colors
as a beginning point, the executive will develop five or six ranges of 12 to 20
colors as the in-house color range. Such a range of 75 to 100 colors allows for

COLOR FORECASTING

several in-store deliveries without repetition of the color. This color range will
include long-selling colors, perhaps paired in a new color combination. It may
recast classic color formulas like Spring's recurring red, white, and blue into a
newer coral, beige, and teal. Perennial best-selling colors such as black, white,
true red, navy, and ivory are so basic that they may not appear in any of the
forecasts but still may be used in the line.
The in-house color range will be applied to fabrics in solid colors and to
prints, plaids, and multicolor knit yarns. The newest colors are more likely to
appear in these multihue formats or in separates that provide an accent to a
group. To guide the product development stage and as a communication tool
to the other functional groups in the company, the executive will present the
in-house color range in the context of themes and imagery that relates to the
target customer (see Chapter 12).

Forecasting at the End of the Pipeline

Retailers take a risk in selecting merchandise because they are predicting future consumer demand. By gathering information from a variety of sources,
retailers seek to minimize risk (Kline & Wagner, 1994). Color is a very important part of merchandise selection. As one retailer put it (Noh, 1997):
"After years of observing customers selecting one item over another I learned
that color was their most important choice-often they selected a style that
was not their favorite just because the color was right-but very rarely did
they select a style or textile when the color was not what they wanted!"
Information is available for retailers through several channels. Small chains
and independent stores use buying offices that provide forecasting information or subscribe to fashion forecasting services. Larger chains rely on their
fashion director or corporate buyers who receive the forecast information and
fashions subscriptions and disseminate the information to others in the organization. Trade publications such as Women's Wear Daily (WWD) for
women's apparel and Daily News Record (DNR) for men's wear report on
presentations by color consultants at conferences and trade shows. Consumer
magazines and newspapers carry reports on color forecasting.
All this effort focuses on a single effect--consumers walking into a store receive a message about the color direction for the season. The merchandise
shows the basic and fashion colors for apparel and accessories and the related
colors in cosmetics. To be effective, the story must be read quickly and understood easily without verbal explanations. The message conveyed must satisfy
many needs and wants-a new look, novel but not intimidating, the promise
of complete makeovers, and carefully considered additions to existing
wardrobes. As merchandise deliveries arrive over the selling season, the floor
must continue to look coordinated even when groups from different delivery
dates are hanging together. If the coordinating function of color forecasting
has worked, colors on the selling floor show an underlying relationship that
seems coherent and comprehensible.

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FASHIOl\ FORECASTTM;

Color Specification Systems

Achieving a coherent and comprehensible color story each season begins with
the forecast and specification writing. Writing specifications is an essential
part of turning ideas and concepts into products. In today's global trade
arena, the same color may be fiber-dyed for blending into a sweater yarn,
yarn-dyed for use in a plaid shirt, and fabric-dyed for a skirt, all in different
countries, but all for the same apparel line (see Chapter 5). Yet the consumer
expects that all the pieces will come together into a coordinated outfit. To satisfy the consumers' expectations, all levels of the supply chain have to communicate precisely and objectively about color.
Apparel product developers have several problems associated with color
reproduction. It is difficult to accurately reproduce the same color on different
surface textures. Perception of a color can be changed by the amount of the
color used and by the colors surrounding it. In fabric dying, color can be affected by dye quality, mixing, and other manufacturing conditions. Because of
the difficulty in exact matching, product developers balance that need against
the economic necessity of achieving realistic price points.
Product developers try to resolve the various problems and challenges by
writing color specifications in a color system, one that arranges color so that
the color itself can be identified along with its value (darkness to lightness)
and its intensity (bright to subdued). Color systems allow these values to be
expressed in notation using a number or letter code. Various standardized
systems have been developed, but no one system has been universally accepted (Hope & Walch, 1990).
A color forecast is delivered with a set of color cards, fabric swatches, or
yarn samples. The designer working with the forecast can select colors for use
in the product line and sometimes order additional samples of those colors.
The designer needs a sample of the color to communicate the color specification to manufacturing. The designer sends a sample swatch of the color and a
description of the color using the notation of a color system. The two most
common systems used in the United States are (Hope & Walch, 1990):
The Munsell Color System, which includes a color atlas, the Munsell Book
of Color (1976), with about 1,600 chips arranged in equal steps of hue,
value, and chroma (intensity or saturation) and a notation for each.
The PANTONE Professional Color System, which includes a color atlas,
The Pantone Book of Color (1990), with 1,225 colors identified by name
and color code.
A color notation system may look incomprehensible at first glance but to
color professionals the system becomes a precise language for color identification. For example, in the Munsell System of Color Notation ("Munsell web,"
1998), hue, value, and chroma can describe any color. The Munsell system includes a series of 100 equally spaced hues. Numbers and letters designate

COLOR FORECASTING

153

each color. Value is designated on a continuum from zero for pure black to
ten for pure white. Chroma indicates the degree of difference between a color
and a neutral of the same value. The chroma scale starts at zero, but there is
no arbitrary end to the scale-light reflecting materials extend to 20, florescent materials to 30. The complete Munsell notation is written symbolically:
H(ue) V(alue)/C(hroma). For a vivid red, the notation would read SR 6114
(Figure 4.10). For finer definitions, decimals are used-S.3R 6.1114.4.
The problem of color matching is made more complicated by the use of
computer-aided design (CAD) and other computer-based functions. In the
past, checking for accurate color reproduction has involved having a color
stylist visit the manufacturing site to approve the colors or the exchange of
color samples between design and manufacturing in a series of approval
stages. With the advent of the Internet and companies' translation of the technology into their own Intranets (proprietary computer-based communication
systems), the approval process is moving online. The problem comes in color
matching-the on-screen color mayor may not match the specified color because it has been altered by the hardware or software used to create it on the
monitor. New software solutions are being developed to facilitate the designing and managing of colors on computers. These new solutions will increase
the accuracy of color when viewed on the computer (Chirls, 1997).

The product developer uses the notation of a color system

to write manufacturing specifications for
the exact color of an
item using the code
to indicate the hue,
value, and chroma.

INTERMEDIATE
HUES
PRINCIPLE
HUES

purple
blue

purple
red

25

48

65

85

red

yellow

green

blue

purple

YR

GY

10
NOTATION

NOTATION
FORM

VALUE

blue
green

green
yellow

yellow
red

FIGURE 4.10

BG

5R 6/14
HV/C

PB

PR
20

r
10

154

}<'ASHION FORECASTING

f\cfzVlfy +.7

CoW'L 5fU.5

Locate the reference materials on either the Munsell or the Pantone system in the
library. Using the color swatches from Activity 4.3, write the color specification
notation for each color.

Achromatic
Analogous
Chroma
Color Association of the
United States (CAUS)
Color Cycles
Color Key Program
Color Marketing Group
(CMG)
Color Palette
Color Story
Color Wheel

Colorways
Complementary
Computer-Aided Design
(CAD)
Double Complements
Hue
Intensity
Munsell Color System
Pantone Professional
Color System
Premiere Vision

Primary Colors
Saturation
Seasonal Color Analysis
Secondary Colors
Shade
Split Complements
Tertiary Colors
Tint
Tone
Triads
Value

Whitney is creating a concept board suggesting the color direction two years
in the future. First, she will present her board at a meeting of color forecasting
professionals. After they brainstorm together, they will develop a consensus
forecast that each can later use with clients. Use the following discussion
questions to review and summarize this chapter as you follow Whitney's
progress through this process.
Color ideas: The first stage in color forecasting requires openness to inspiration
from myriad sources. Review the list on sources for color ideas and palettes.
Which sources on the list are most likely to be active and influential at this
time?
How can Whitney tap into these sources and gather color information as
she travels? If she works from her home office?
What color relationships across product categories will be important in
guiding her during this first stage?
Color cycles: A forecaster must consider more than one kind of color cycle in
making color directions understandable.

COLOR FORECASTING

What looks in current fashion will continue to evolve into the next few seasons? Are these looks part of fashion's historic continuity? How will they
affect color evolution?
What long wave oscillations will effect the next few seasons? Is the current
cycle bright and saturated, multicolored, muted, earth tones, or neutral
and achromatic? What comes next?
Is there a cycle related to the influence of men's wear on women's clothes?
Is there a color temperature cycle that will affect the next few seasons?
Is there any new color technology that will influence change over the next
few seasons?
Color names and themes: Communicating color to the trade and to the consumer involves grouping colors around themes that are culturally and socially
relevant to the times and naming colors within those themes.
What themes are emerging that would be appropriate for organizing the
color story?
What sources for color names seem most applicable to the forecast of colors two years from now?
What elements should Whitney include on the board she takes to the meeting of her professional organization?
Analysis and synthesis: When Whitney participates in the brainstorming session, she will be involved in a critical thinking process aimed at creating an
accurate and justifiable forecast.
What techniques of analysis and synthesis will be in play during the session?
When Whitney returns from the meeting and begins working with her
clients, what technique of analysis and synthesis will she use?

Contrast and Compare Forecasts. Collect color forecasts from several color
forecasting services and industry trade groups for the same season (either the
current forecast or one for a season just past). Compare and contrast color
projections across the several forecasts. Are the color selections similar in
terms of hue, value, and intensity? Are the themes, color names, and grouping
of colors similar? How closely do the forecasts agree? Where do they diverge?
Can the differences between the forecasts be explained by a different focus on
product category or target market? Discuss how an executive would make decisions about a product line using these several forecasts.
Backcast Color Innovations. Pick a color once considered fashion-forward that
is now mainstream (e.g., chartreuse, orange, or hot pink). Backcast the diffusion
of this color innovation (backcasting is a method of tracing the development

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of fashion idea or trend backward to its origin point}. Use the fashion and trade
press as sources. Perform keyword searches in databases to locate references to
this color. When is the earliest mention of this color entering the fashion forecast? What happened to advance the color's evolution? When did the color appear in mainstream collections? Has the color reached its popularity peak and
begun to subside? What current fashion-forward color will replace it?

The Story of Black. Trace black as a fashion color. It has always had an important role in the fashion story. When did it dominate the marketplace?
What factors Were involved? Which designers became known for the dominant role of black in their collections? What associations make black so popular with consumers? How versatile is black in designs? Forecast the future of
black as a fashion color and as a basic color.
Think Local Color. Develop a distinctive "color conception of a place" based
on your area of the country. What combination of colors in the natural environment and colors associated with the history of the place symbolize the
area's color personality? How are these colors present in the apparel, interiors, architecture, and art of the region? Create a collage expressing this "color
conception of a place." Discuss the interaction between fashion colors proposed for national or international use and the distinctive colors of a region.
How could local color preferences affect sales of apparel? Is color marketing
becoming more or less responsive to local color preferences?

Web sites for professional color organizations:

Color Association of the United States-www.colorassociation.com
Color Marketing Group-www.colormarketing.org
Other Web sites with color forecasts:
AppareINews.net-www.apparelnews.netiarchive
Expofill-www.expofil.com
International Fashion Fabric Exhibitionwww.fabricshow.com.ifCwhats new.html
Web site archiving designers' lines:
First View-www.firstview.com
Web sites for color systems:
The Munsell Color System-www.munsell.com
The PANTONE Professional Color System-www.pantone.com