genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 1

Important Atomic Models.

(1) Thomson's model
J.J. Thomson gave the first idea regarding structure of atom. According to this model.
(i) An atom is a solid sphere in which entire and positive charge and it's mass is uniformly
distributed and in which negative charge (i.e. electron) are embedded like seeds in watermelon.
Positively charged
sphere

Electron

Success and failure

Explained successfully the phenomenon of thermionic emission, photoelectric emission and
ionization.
The model fail to explain the scattering of - particles and it cannot explain the origin of
spectral lines observed in the spectrum of hydrogen and other atoms.
(2) Rutherford's model
Rutherford's -particle scattering experiment
Rutherford performed experiments on the scattering of alpha particles by extremely thin
gold foils and made the following observations
Number of scattered particles :

1
4

sin ( / 2)

r0
Nucleus

N(180
)

-particle
(energy E )

(i) Most of the -particles pass through the foil straight away undeflected.
(ii) Some of them are deflected through small angles.
(iii) A few -particles (1 in 1000) are deflected through the angle more than 90 o.
(iv) A few -particles (very few) returned back i.e. deflected by 180o.
(v) Distance of closest approach (Nuclear dimension)
The minimum distance from the nucleus up to which the -particle approach, is called the
1
Ze2
1
.
; E mv2 K.E. of -particle
distance of closest approach (r0). From figure r0
4 0 E
2
(vi) Impact parameter (b) : The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector ( v ) of the particle from the centre of the nucleus when it is far away from the nucleus is known as impact
parameter. It is given as

genius PHYSICS
2 Atomic Structure
b

Note

Ze2 cot( / 2)
1
b cot( / 2)
4 0 mv2
2

If t is the thickness of the foil and N is the number of -particles scattered in

a particular direction ( = constant), it was observed that

N
constant
t

N1 t1
.
N 2 t2
After Rutherford's scattering of -particles experiment, following conclusions were made as
regard as atomic structure :
Atom

(a) Most of the mass and all of the charge of an atom

concentrated in a very small region is called atomic nucleus.
15

(b) Nucleus is positively charged and it's size is of the order of 10

m 1 Fermi.

(c) In an atom there is maximum empty space and the

electrons revolve around the nucleus in the same way as the
planets revolve around the sun.

Nucleus

1015 m

1010 m
Size of the nucleus = 1 Fermi = 10
15
m
Size of the atom 1 = 1010 m

Draw backs
(i) Stability of atom : It could not explain stability of atom because according to classical
electrodynamic theory an accelerated charged particle should continuously radiate energy. Thus
an electron moving in an circular path around the nucleus should
also radiate energy and thus move into smaller and smaller orbits of
e
gradually decreasing radius and it should ultimately fall into nucleus.
(ii) According to this model the spectrum of atom must be
continuous where as practically it is a line spectrum.
(iii) It did not explain the distribution of electrons outside the
nucleus.

Instability of atom

(3) Bohr's model

Bohr proposed a model for hydrogen atom which is also applicable for some lighter atoms in
which a single electron revolves around a stationary nucleus of positive charge Ze (called
hydrogen like atom)
Bohr's model is based on the following postulates.
(i) The electron can revolve only in certain discrete non-radiating orbits, called stationary
orbits, for which total angular momentum of the revolving electrons is an integral multiple of
h
( )
2

h
mvr; where n = 1, 2, 3, ..= Principal quantum number
2

i.e. L n

(ii) The radiation of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one permitted orbit to
another.
When electron jumps from higher energy orbit (E1) to lower energy orbit (E2) then difference
of energies of these orbits i.e. E1 E2 emits in the form of photon. But if electron goes from E2 to
E1 it absorbs the sameE amount of energy.
E
1

E 1 E 2 = h

E2
Emission

E 1 E 2 = h

E2
Absorption

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Atomic structure 3

Note

According to Bohr theory the momentum of an e revolving in second orbit

of H 2 atom will be

For an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom in Bohr model, circumference of
orbit n ; where = de-Broglie wavelength.

Bohr's Orbits (For Hydrogen and H2-Like Atoms).

(1) Radius of orbit
For an electron around a stationary nucleus the electrostatics force of attraction provides the
necessary centripetal force
i.e.

1 (Ze)e mv2

4 0 r 2
r

also mvr

. (i)

nh
2

.(ii)

From equation (i) and (ii) radius of nth orbit

rn

n2h2
n2h2 0
n2

0
.
53

Z
4 2kZme2 mZe2

rn

Note

wherek

4 0

n2
Z
n

The radius of the innermost orbit (n = 1) hydrogen atom (z = 1) is called

Bohr's radius a0 i.e. a0 0.53 .

(2) Speed of electron
From the above relations, speed of electron in nth orbit can be calculated as
vn

2kZe2
Ze2
c Z
6 Z

m/ sec
. 2.2 10
nh
2 0nh 137 n
n
v

where (c = speed of light 3 108 m/s)

Note

The ratio of speed of an electron in ground state in Bohr's first orbit of

n

e2
1

hydrogen atom to velocity of light in air is equal to

(where c = speed
2 0 ch 137

of light in air)
(3) Some other quantities
For the revolution of electron in nth orbit, some other quantities are given in the following
table
Quantity
(1) Angular speed

Formula

vn mz2e4

rn
2 02n3h3

Dependency on n and Z

Z2
n3

genius PHYSICS
4 Atomic Structure
(2) Frequency

(3) Time period

(4) Angular momentum

n
mz2e4

2
4 02n3h3

Tn

2 3 3
1 4 0 n h

n
mz2e4

Tn

in e n

mz2e5

in

4 02n3h3

(6) Magnetic moment

n3
Z2

Z2
n3

Mn n

M n in A in rn2

(where

n3

Ln n

L n mvnrn n

(5) Corresponding current

Z2

eh
Bohr
4m

magneton)
(7) Magnetic field

0in m2 z 3e7 0

2rn
8 03n5h5

Z3
n5

(4) Energy
(i) Potential energy : An electron possesses some potential energy because it is found in
the field of nucleus potential energy of electron in nth orbit of radius rn is given by
(Ze)(e)
kZe2
U k.

rn
rn
(ii) Kinetic energy : Electron posses kinetic energy because of it's motion. Closer orbits
have greater kinetic energy than outer ones.
k.(Ze)(e)
mv2
kZe2 | U |

As we know

Kinetic
energy
rn
2rn
2
rn2

(iii) Total energy : Total energy (E) is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy i.e. E
=K+U

R ch

kZe2
2rn

also

rn

n2h2 0

mze2

Hence

2
me4 z 2
me4
.

ch z
E

2 2
2
8 2ch3
n2
0
8 0 h n

Z2
Z2

13
.
6
eV
n2
n2

where R

Note

me4
= Rydberg's constant = 1.09 107 per metre
8 02ch3

Each Bohr orbit has a definite energy

13.6
eV
n2
The state with n = 1 has the lowest (most negative) energy. For hydrogen atom it is
E1 = 13.6 eV.
Rch = Rydberg's energy ~
2.17 1018 J ~
31.6 eV .
For hydrogen atom (Z = 1) E n

U
.
2
(iv) Ionisation energy and potential : The energy required to ionise an atom is called
ionisation energy. It is the energy required to make the electron jump from the present orbit to
the infinite orbit.

E K

Z2
13.6Z2
Hence Eionisation E En 0 13.6 2
eV
n
n2

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Atomic structure 5

13.6(1)2
13.6 eV
n2
The potential through which an electron need to be accelerated so that it acquires energy
E
equal to the ionisation energy is called ionisation potential.
Vionisation ionisation
e
(v) Excitation energy and potential : When the electron is given energy from external
source, it jumps to higher energy level. This phenomenon is called excitation.
For H2-atom in the ground state Eionisation

The minimum energy required to excite an atom is called excitation energy of the particular
excited state and corresponding potential is called exciting potential.
EExcitation EFinal EInitial and VExcitation

E excitation
e

(vi) Binding energy (B.E.) : Binding energy of a system is defined as the energy released
when it's constituents are brought from infinity to form the system. It may also be defined as the
energy needed to separate it's constituents to large distances. If an electron and a proton are
initially at rest and brought from large distances to form a hydrogen atom, 13.6 eV energy will be
released. The binding energy of a hydrogen atom is therefore 13.6 eV.

Note

For hydrogen atom principle quantum number n

13.6
.
(B.E.)

(5) Energy level diagram

The diagrammatic description of the energy of the electron in different orbits around the
nucleus is called energy level diagram.
Energy level diagram of hydrogen/hydrogen like atom
n
n
n
n

Note

=
=
=
=

4
3
2

Infinite

Infinite

0 eV

0 eV

Fourth
Third
Second

Third
Second
First

E = 0 eV
E4 = 0.85 eV
E3 = 1.51 eV
E2 = 3.4 eV

n=1

First

Ground

E1 = 13.6 eV

13.6 Z 2

+ 13.6 eV

Principle
quantu
m
number

Orbit

Excited
state

Energy for H2

Energy for H2

atom

like atom

Ionisation
energy

0.85 Z
1.51 Z 2
3.4 Z 2

+ 0.85 eV
+ 1.51 eV
+ 3.4 eV

from this level

(for H2 atom)

:
In hydrogen atom excitation energy to excite electron
from ground state
to first excited state will be 3.4 (13.6) 10.2 eV .
and from ground state to second excited state it is [ 1.51 (13.6) 12.09 eV ].
In an H 2 atom when e makes a transition from an excited state to the ground
state its kinetic energy increases while potential and total energy decreases.
(6) Transition of electron
When an electron makes transition from higher energy level having energy E2(n2) to a lower
energy level having energy E1 (n1) then a photon of frequency is emitted
(i) Energy of emitted radiation
E2
n2

Rch Z2 RchZ2
1
2 1
13.6Z
E,,

E E 2 E1
2
n2 n2

n22
n
2
1
E1
n1
1

(ii) Frequency of emitted radiation

Emission

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6 Atomic Structure
E h

1
E E 2 E1
1

Rc Z 2 2 2
h
h
n1 n2

(iii) Wave number/wavelength

Wave number is the number of waves in unit length

1
1
1 13.6Z2 1
1
RZ2 2 2
2
2

hc n1 n2
n1 n2
(iv) Number of spectral lines : If an electron jumps from higher energy orbit to lower
energy orbit it emits raidations with various spectral lines.
If electron falls from orbit n2 to n1 then the number of spectral lines emitted is given by

NE

(n2 n1 1)(n2 n1 )
2

If electron falls from nth orbit to ground state (i.e. n2 = n and n1 = 1) then number of spectral lines
n(n 1)
emitted N E
2

Note

:
Absorption spectrum is obtained only for the transition from lowest energy
level to higher energy levels. Hence the number of absorption spectral lines will be
(n 1).
(v) Recoiling of an atom : Due to the transition of electron, photon is emitted and the
atom is recoiled
1
h
1
2
Recoil momentum of atom = momentum of photon hRZ 2 2

n1 n2
2

h
p2
(where m = mass of recoil atom)

2m 2m 2
(7) Drawbacks of Bohr's atomic model
(i) It is valid only for one electron atoms, e.g. : H, He+, Li+2, Na+1 etc.
(ii) Orbits were taken as circular but according to Sommerfield these are elliptical.
(iii) Intensity of spectral lines could not be explained.
(iv) Nucleus was taken as stationary but it also rotates on its own axis.
(v) It could not be explained the minute structure in spectrum line.
(vi) This does not explain the Zeeman effect (splitting up of spectral lines in magnetic field)
and Stark effect (splitting up in electric field)
(vii) This does not explain the doublets in the spectrum of some of the atoms like sodium
(5890 & 5896)
Also recoil energy of atom

Hydrogen Spectrum and Spectral Series.

When hydrogen atom is excited, it returns to its normal unexcited (or ground state) state by
emitting the energy it had absorbed earlier. This energy is given out by the atom in the form of
radiations of different wavelengths as the electron jumps down from a higher to a lower orbit.
Transition from different orbits cause different wavelengths, these constitute spectral series
which are characteristic of the atom emitting them. When observed through a spectroscope,
these radiations are imaged as sharp and straight vertical lines of a single colour.
Photon of
wavelength
+

Spectrum

Emission
spectra

Spectral series
The spectral lines arising from the transition of electron forms a spectra series.
(i) Mainly there are five series and each series is named after it's discover as Lymen series,
Balmer series, Paschen series, Bracket series and Pfund series.

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 7

(ii) According to the Bohr's theory the wavelength of the radiations emitted from hydrogen
atom is given by
1
1
1
R 2 2

n1 n2
where n2 = outer orbit (electron jumps from this orbit), n1 = inner orbit (electron falls in this
orbit)

(iii) First line of the series is called first member, for this line wavelength is maximum ( max)
(iv) Last line of the series (n2 = ) is called series limit, for this line wavelength is minimum
(min)
Spectral
series

Transition

( )

Wavelength

n12n22
(n22 n12 )R

n12
n12
1 2
n2

Maximum
wavelength

n1 n and n2 n 1

Minimum
wavelength

n2 , n1 n
n2
R

(1)2 (1 1)2
4 n1 = n = 1

(2 1 1)R
3R min 1
R

n2 = 3, 4, 5

n1 = 2

n1 = n = 2, n2 = 2 + 1 =
3

n2 = 4, 5, 6

n1 = 3

n1 = n = 3, n2 = 3 + 1 =
4

n2 = 5, 6, 7

n1 = 4

n1 = n = 4, n2 = 4 + 1 =
5

n2 = 6, 7, 8

n1 = 5

n1 = = 5, n2 = 5 + 1 =
6

5.
Pfund
series

max

2.Balmer
series

4. Bracket
series

n2 (n 1)2
(2n 1)R

n2 = 2, 3, 4

n1 = 1

3. Paschen
series

max
1.
Lymen
series

max

max

max

min

min

36
5R

144
max
7R

400
9R

900
11R

max (n 1)2 Region

min (2n 1)

4
R

n1 = n = 3

min

9
R

n1 = n = 4

16
min
R

min

25
R

4
3

Ultraviolet
region

9
5

Visible
region

16
7

Infrared
region

25
9

Infrared
region

36
11

Infrared
region

genius PHYSICS
8 Atomic Structure

Quantum Numbers.
An atom contains large number of shells and subshells. These are distinguished from one
another on the basis of their size, shape and orientation (direction) in space. The parameters are
expressed in terms of different numbers called quantum number.
Quantum numbers may be defined as a set of four number with the help of which we can
get complete information about all the electrons in an atom. It tells us the address of the electron
i.e. location, energy, the type of orbital occupied and orientation of that orbital.
(1) Principal Quantum number (n) : This quantum number determines the main energy
level or shell in which the electron is present. The average distance of the electron from the
nucleus and the energy of the electron depends on it.

En

1
and
n2

rn n2

(in H-

atom)
The principal quantum number takes whole number values, n = 1, 2, 3, 4,..
(2) Orbital quantum number (l) or azimuthal quantum number (l)
This represents the number of subshells present in the main shell. These subsidiary orbits
within a shell will be denoted as 1, 2, 3, 4 or s, p, d, f This tells the shape of the subshells.
The orbital angular momentum of the electron is given as L

l(l 1)

h
2

(for a

particular value of n).

For a given value of n the possible values of l are l = 0, 1, 2, .. upto (n 1)
(3) Magnetic quantum number (ml) : An electron due to it's angular motion around the
nucleus generates an electric field. This electric field is expected to produce a magnetic field.
Under the influence of external magnetic field, the electrons of a subshell can orient themselves
in certain preferred regions of space around the nucleus called orbitals.
The magnetic quantum number determines the number of preferred orientations of the
electron present in a subshell.
The angular momentum quantum number m can assume all integral value between l to +l
including zero. Thus ml can be 1, 0, + 1 for l = 1. Total values of ml associated with a particular
value of l is given by (2l + 1).
(4) Spin (magnetic) quantum number (ms) : An electron in atom not only revolves
around the nucleus but also spins about its own axis. Since an electron can spin either in
clockwise direction or in anticlockwise direction. Therefore for any particular value of magnetic
quantum number, spin quantum number can have two values, i.e.
or

ms

1
2

ms

1
(Spin up)
2

(Spin down)

This quantum number helps to explain the magnetic properties of the substance.

Electronic Configurations of Atoms.

The distribution of electrons in different orbitals of an atom is called the electronic
configuration of the atom. The filling of electrons in orbitals is governed by the following rules.
(1) Pauli's exclusion principle

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 9

"It states that no two electrons in an atom can have all the four quantum number (n, l, ml
and ms) the same."
It means each quantum state of an electron must have a different set of quantum numbers
n, l, ml and ms. This principle sets an upper limit on the number of electrons that can occupy a
shell.
N max in one shell = 2n2; Thus Nmax in K, L, M, N . shells are 2, 8, 18, 32,

Note

The maximum number of electrons in a subshell with orbital quantum

number l is 2(2l + 1).

(2) Aufbau principle
Electrons enter the orbitals of lowest energy first.
As a general rule, a new electron enters an empty orbital for which (n + l ) is minimum. In
case the value (n l) is equal for two orbitals, the one with lower value of n is filled first.
Thus the electrons are filled in subshells in the following order (memorize)
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p,
(3) Hund's Rule
When electrons are added to a subshell where more than one orbital of the same energy is
available, their spins remain parallel. They occupy different orbitals until each one of them has at
least one electron. Pairing starts only when all orbitals are filled up.
Pairing takes place only after filling 3, 5 and 7 electrons in p, d and f orbitals, respectively.

Concepts

With the increase in principal quantum number the energy difference between the two successive energy
level decreases, while wavelength of spectral line increases.

E ' E ' ' E' ' '

' '' ' ''
E E' E'' E'''

E,
E,

1 1
1
1

' '' '''

E,

n=4
n=3
n=2

E,
n=1

Rydberg constant is different for different elements

R( =1.09 107 m1) is the value of Rydberg constant when the nucleus is considered to be infinitely massive
as compared to the revolving electron. In other words, the nucleus is considered to be stationary.
In case, the nucleus is not infinitely massive or stationary, then the value of Rydberg constant is given as
R'

R
1

where m is the mass of electron and M is the mass of nucleus.

Atomic spectrum is a line spectrum

genius PHYSICS
10 Atomic Structure
Each atom has it's own characteristic allowed orbits depending upon the electronic configuration. Therefore
photons emitted during transition of electrons from one allowed orbit to inner allowed orbit are of some
definite energy only. They do not have a continuous graduation of energy. Therefore the spectrum of the
emitted light has only some definite lines and therefore atomic spectrum is line spectrum.

Just as dots of light of only three colours combine to form almost every conceivable colour on T.V. screen,
only about 100 distinct kinds of atoms combine to form all the materials in the universe.

B
a
U

92
235

92
236

K
r

Rutherford's -scattering experiment established that the mass of atom is concentrated with small
positively charged region at the centre which is called 'nucleus'.
Nuclei are made up of proton and neutron. The number of protons in a
nucleus (called the atomic number or proton number) is represented by the
symbol Z. The number of neutrons (neutron number) is represented by N.
The total number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus is called it's mass
number A so A = Z + N.

Neutrons and proton, when described collectively are called nucleons.

Nucleus contains two types of particles : Protons and neutrons

Nuclides are represented as

ZX

; where X denotes the chemical symbol of the element.

Neutron.
Neutron is a fundamental particle which is essential constituent of all nuclei except that of hydrogen
atom. It was discovered by Chadwick.
(1) The charge of neutron : It is neutral
(2) The mass of neutron : 1.6750 1027 kg

A free neutron outside the nucleus is

unstable and decays into proton and
electron.

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 11

(3) It's spin angular momentum :

1 h

J -s
2 2

(4) It's magnetic moment : 9.57 1027 J/Tesla

(5) It's half life : 12 minutes
(6) Penetration power : High
(7) Types : Neutrons are of two types slow neutron and fast neutron, both are fully capable of
penetrating a nucleus and causing artificial disintegration.
Thermal neutrons
Fast neutrons can be converted into slow neutrons by certain materials called moderator's (Paraffin wax, heavy water, graphite) when
fast moving neutrons pass through a moderator, they collide with the molecules of the moderator, as a result of this, the energy of
moving neutron decreases while that of the molecules of the moderator increases. After sometime they both attains same energy.
The neutrons are then in thermal equilibrium with the molecules of the moderator and are called thermal neutrons.

Note

Energy of thermal neutron is about 0.025 eV and speed is about 2.2 km/s.

Nucleus.
(1) Different types of nuclei
The nuclei have been classified on the basis of the number of protons (atomic number) or the total
number of nucleons (mass number) as follows
(i) Isotopes : The atoms of element having same atomic number but different mass number are
called isotopes. All isotopes have the same chemical properties. The isotopes of some elements are the
following
1H

, 1H 2 , 1H 3

16
17
18
8 O , 8O , 8O

2 He

, 2 He4

17Cl

35

17Cl

37

92U

235

92U

238

(ii) Isobars : The nuclei which have the same mass number (A) but different atomic number (Z) are
called isobars. Isobars occupy different positions in periodic table so all isobars have different chemical
properties. Some of the examples of isobars are
1H

and 2 He3 ,

6C

14

and7 N 14 , 8 O17 and 9 F 17

(iii) Isotones : The nuclei having equal number of neutrons are called isotones. For them both the
atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) are different, but the value of (A Z) is same. Some examples are
9
4 Be

and 5 B10, 6 C 13 and 7 N 14, 8 O18 and 9 F 19, 3 Li 7 and 4 Be8 , 1 H 3 and 2 He4

(iv) Mirror nuclei : Nuclei having the same mass number A but with the proton number (Z) and
neutron number (A Z) interchanged (or whose atomic number differ by 1) are called mirror nuclei for
example.
1H

and 2 He3 , 3 Li 7 and 4 Be7

(2) Size of nucleus

(i) Nuclear radius : Experimental results indicates that the nuclear radius is proportional to A1/3, where
A is the mass number of nucleus i.e.

Note

R A1/ 3

R R0 A 1 / 3 , where R0 = 1.2 1015 m = 1.2 fm.

Heavier nuclei are bigger in size than lighter nuclei.

(ii) Nuclear volume : The volume of nucleus is given by V

4
4
R 3 R03 A V A
3
3

(iii) Nuclear density : Mass per unit volume of a nucleus is called nuclear density.

Nucleardensity
( )

Massof nucleus
mA

4
Volumeof nucleus
(R0 A1/ 3 )3
3

genius PHYSICS
12 Atomic Structure
where m = Average of mass of a nucleon (= mass of proton + mass of neutron = 1.66 1027 kg)
and mA = Mass of nucleus

3m
2.38 1017 kg/ m3
3
4R0

Note

is independent of A, it means is same of all atoms.

Density of a nucleus is maximum at it's centre and decreases as we move outwards from the
nucleus.

(3) Nuclear force

Forces that keep the nucleons bound in the nucleus are called nuclear
forces.
(i) Nuclear forces are short range forces. These do not exist at large
distances greater than 1015 m.
(ii) Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature.

(iii) These are attractive force and causes stability of the nucleus.

At low speeds, electromagnetic

repulsion prevents the collision
of nuclei

(iv) These forces are charge independent.

(v) Nuclear forces are non-central force.

At high speeds, nuclei come

close enough for the strong
force to bind them together.

Nuclear forces are exchange forces

According to scientist Yukawa the nuclear force between the two

nucleons is the result of the exchange of particles called mesons between the nucleons.

- mesons are of three types Positive meson (+), negative meson ( ), neutral meson (0)
The force between neutron and proton is due to exchange of charged meson between them i.e.
p n,

n p

The forces between a pair of neutrons or a pair of protons are the result of the exchange of neutral
meson (o) between them i.e.

p p'

and

n n' 0

Thus exchange of meson between nucleons keeps the nucleons bound together. It is responsible for
the nuclear forces.
Dog-Bone analogy
The above interactions can be explained with the dog bone analogy according to
which we consider the two interacting nucleons to be two dogs having a common
bone clenched in between their teeth very firmly. Each one of these dogs wants to
take the bone and hence they cannot be separated easily. They seem to be bound to
each other with a strong attractive force (which is the bone) though the dogs
themselves are strong enemies. The meson plays the same role of the common bone
in between two nucleons.
(4) Atomic mass unit (amu)
The unit in which atomic and nuclear masses are measured is called atomic mass unit (amu)
1 amu (or 1u) =

1
th of mass of
12

6C

12

atom = 1.66 1027 kg

Masses of electron, proton and neutrons

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 13

Mass of electron (me) = 9.1 1031 kg = 0.0005486 amu, Mass of proton (mp) = 1.6726 1027 kg =
1.007276 amu
Mass of neutron (mn) = 1.6750 1027 kg = 1.00865 amu, Mass of hydrogen atom (me + mp) = 1.6729 1027
kg = 1.0078 amu
Mass-energy equivalence
According to Einstein, mass and energy are inter convertible. The Einstein's mass energy relationship is given by

E mc2
If m = 1 amu, c = 3 108 m/sec then E = 931 MeV i.e. 1 amu is equivalent to 931 MeV or 1 amu (or 1 u) =
931 MeV
(5) Pair production and pair-annihilation
When an energetic -ray photon falls on a heavy substance. It is absorbed by some nucleus of the
substance and an electron and a positron are produced. This phenomenon is called pair production and
may be represented by the following equation

( photon)

The rest-mass energy of each of positron and electron is

E0 = m0c2 = (9.1 1031 kg) (3.0 108 m/s)2

0
1
(Positron)

0
1
(Electron)

+Ze

-photon

Nucleus

0
+1

0
1

= 8.2 1014 J = 0.51 MeV

Hence, for pair-production it is essential that the energy of -photon must be at least 2 0.51 = 1.02
MeV. If the energy of -photon is less than this, it would cause photo-electric effect or Compton effect on
striking the matter.
The converse phenomenon pair-annihilation is also possible. Whenever an electron and a positron
come very close to each other, they annihilate each other by combining together and two -photons
(energy) are produced. This phenomenon is called pair annihilation and is represented by the following
equation.
0
1
(Positron)

0
1
(Electron
)

( -photon)

( - photon)

(6) Nuclear stability

Among about 1500 known nuclides, less than 260 are stable. The others are unstable that decay to
form other nuclides by emitting , -particles and - EM waves. (This process is called radioactivity). The
stability of nucleus is determined by many factors. Few such factors are given below :

Ratio
Z

(i) Neutron-proton ratio

The chemical properties of an atom are governed entirely by the number of protons (Z) in the
nucleus, the stability of an atom appears to depend on both the number of protons and the number of
neutrons.

approximately equal (N Z) i.e.

N
1
Z

Neutron
number (N)

For lighter nuclei, the greatest stability is achieved when the number of protons and neutrons are

Heavy nuclei are stable only when they Stable

have more neutrons than protons. Thus heavy nuclei are
(Line
neutron rich compared to lighter nuclei (for nuclei
heavy
nuclei, more is the number of protons in the nucleus,
of stability)

N=Z
102030405060708090
Proton

genius PHYSICS
14 Atomic Structure
greater is the electrical repulsive force between them. Therefore more neutrons are added to provide the
strong attractive forces necessary to keep the nucleus stable.)

Figure shows a plot of N verses Z for the stable nuclei. For mass number upto about A = 40. For larger
value of Z the nuclear force is unable to hold the nucleus together against the electrical repulsion of the
protons unless the number of neutrons exceeds the number of protons. At Bi (Z = 83, A = 209), the
neutron excess in N Z = 43. There are no stable nuclides with Z > 83.

Note

The nuclide

83 Bi

209

is the heaviest stable nucleus.

A nuclide above the line of stability i.e. having excess neutrons, decay through emission

number N. In emission,

N
ratio decreases.
Z

A nuclide below the line of stability have excess number of protons.

It decays by emission, results in decreasing Z and increasing N.
In emission, the

Neutron
Number (N)

(neutron changes into proton). Thus increasing atomic number Z and decreasing neutron

N
ratio increases.
Z

N=Z

(ii) Even or odd numbers of Z or N : The stability of a nuclide is also

determined by the consideration whether it contains an even or odd number of
protons and neutrons.

Proton number (Z)

It is found that an even-even nucleus (even Z and even N) is more stable (60% of stable nuclide have
even Z and even N).
An even-odd nucleus (even Z and odd N) or odd-even nuclide (odd Z and even N) is found to be lesser
sable while the odd-odd nucleus is found to be less stable.
Only five stable odd-odd nuclides are known :

1H

, 3 Li 6 , 5 Be10, 7 N 14 and 75Ta 180

(iii) Binding energy per nucleon : The stability of a nucleus is determined by value of it's binding
energy per nucleon. In general higher the value of binding energy per nucleon, more stable the nucleus is

Mass Defect and Binding Energy.

(1) Mass defect (m)
It is found that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of masses of it's constituent
nucleons in free state. This difference in masses is called mass defect. Hence mass defect
m = Sum of masses of nucleons Mass of nucleus

Zmp (A Z)mn M Zmp Zme (A Z)mz M '

where mp = Mass of proton, mn = Mass of each neutron, me = Mass of each electron

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 15

M = Mass of nucleus, Z = Atomic number, A = Mass number, M = Mass of atom as a whole.

Note

The mass of a typical nucleus is about 1% less than the sum of masses of nucleons.

(2) Packing fraction

Mass defect per nucleon is called packing fraction
Packing fraction (f )

m M A

A
A

where M = Mass of nucleus, A = Mass number

Packing fraction measures the stability of a nucleus. Smaller

the value of packing fraction, larger is the stability of the nucleus.
(i) Packing fraction may be of positive, negative or zero
value.
(iii) At A = 16, f Zero

40
30
20
10
0
10
20

(3) Binding energy (B.E.)

Mass
A > 240 number
(A)

The neutrons and protons in a stable nucleus are held

together by nuclear forces and energy is needed to pull them infinitely apart (or the same energy is
released during the formation of the nucleus). This energy is called the binding energy of the nucleus.
or
The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy equivalent to the mass defect of the
nucleus.
If m is mass defect then according to Einstein's mass energy relation
Binding energy = m c2 = [{mpZ + mn(A Z)} M] c2
(This binding energy is expressed in joule, because m is measured in kg)
If m is measured in amu then binding energy = m amu = [{mpZ + mn(A Z)} M] amu = m 931
MeV
(4) Binding energy per nucleon
The average energy required to release a nucleon from the nucleus is called binding energy per nucleon.

Binding energy per nucleon

Total bind
ingenergy
m 931 MeV

Massnumber(i.e. totalnumberof nucleons)

A
Nucleon

Binding energy per nucleon Stability of nucleus

Binding Energy Curve.

It is the graph between binding energy per nucleon and total number of nucleons (i.e. mass number
Binding energy
per nucleon
(MeV)

A)

8.0 He

Fe56

26

6.0
4.0

Li

2.0 H2
0

10020 150
(1) Some nuclei with mass number56A <
have 200
large binding energy per nucleon than their

neighbour nuclei. For example

neighbours.

2 He

Mass number A

, 4 Be8 , 6 C 12, 8 O16 and 10 Ne20 . These nuclei are more stable than their

genius PHYSICS
16 Atomic Structure
(2) The binding energy per nucleon is maximum for nuclei of mass number A = 56 (26 Fe56) . It's
value is 8.8 MeV per nucleon.
(3) For nuclei having A > 56, binding energy per nucleon gradually decreases for uranium (A = 238),
the value of binding energy per nucleon drops to 7.5 MeV.

Note

When a heavy nucleus splits up into lighter nuclei, then binding energy per nucleon

of lighter nuclei is more than that of the original heavy nucleus. Thus a large amount of
energy is liberated in this process (nuclear fission).
When two very light nuclei combines to form a relatively heavy nucleus, then binding energy
per nucleon increases. Thus, energy is released in this process (nuclear fusion).
B.E.
A

Fusion
+

Fissio
n

Nuclear Reactions.

The process by which the identity of a nucleus is changed when it is bombarded by an energetic
particle is called nuclear reaction. The general expression for the nuclear reaction is as follows.
X

(Parentnucleus) (Incidentparticle)

(Compoundnucleus)

(Compoundnucleus) (Productparticles
) (Energy)

Here X and a are known as reactants and Y and b are known as products. This reaction is known as (a,
b) reaction and can be represented as X(a, b) Y
(1) Q value or energy of nuclear reaction
The energy absorbed or released during nuclear reaction is known as Q-value of nuclear reaction.
Q-value = (Mass of reactants mass of products)c2 Joules
= (Mass of reactants mass of products) amu
If Q < 0, The nuclear reaction is known as endothermic. (The energy is absorbed in the reaction)
If Q > 0, The nuclear reaction is known as exothermic (The energy is released in the reaction)
(2) Law of conservation in nuclear reactions
(i) Conservation of mass number and charge number : In the following nuclear reaction
2 He

Mass number (A)

7 N 14 8 O17 1H 1
Before the reaction
4 +14 = 18

Charge number (Z)

2+7=9

After the reaction

17 + 1 = 18
8+1=9

(ii) Conservation of momentum : Linear momentum/angular momentum of particles before the

reaction is equal to the linear/angular momentum of the particles after the reaction. That is p = 0
(iii) Conservation of energy : Total energy before the reaction is equal to total energy after the
reaction. Term Q is added to balance the total energy of the reaction.
(3) Common nuclear reactions
The nuclear reactions lead to artificial transmutation of nuclei. Rutherford was the first to carry out
artificial transmutation of nitrogen to oxygen in the year 1919.
2 He

7 N 14 9 F 18 8 O17 1 H 1

It is called (, p) reaction. Some other nuclear reactions are given as follows.

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 17

(p, n) reaction

1H

5 B11 6C 12 6C 11 0n1

(p, ) reaction

1H

3 Li 11 4 Be8 2 He4 2 He4

(p, ) reaction

1H

6C 12 7 N 13 7 N 13

(n, p) reaction

1
0n

7 N 14 7 N 15 6C 14 1H 1

(, n) reaction

1 H 2 1H 1 0n1

Nuclear Fission and Fusion.

Nuclear fission
The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of comparable masses (after
bombardment with a energetic particle) with liberation of energy is called nuclear fission.
The phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered by scientist Ottohann and F. Strassman and was
explained by N. Bohr and J.A. Wheeler on the basis of liquid drop model of nucleus.
(1) Fission reaction of U235
(i) Nuclear reaction :
92U

235

0n1

236
56Ba141 36Kr 92
92U
(unstable
nucleus)

30 n1 Q

(ii) The energy released in U235 fission is about 200 MeV or 0.8 MeV per nucleon.
(iii) By fission of

92U

235

, on an average 2.5 neutrons are liberated. These neutrons are called fast

neutrons and their energy is about 2 MeV (for each). These fast neutrons can escape from the reaction so
as to proceed the chain reaction they are need to slow down.
(iv) Fission of U235 occurs by slow neutrons only (of energy about 1eV) or even by thermal neutrons (of
energy about 0.025 eV).
(v) 50 kg of U235 on fission will release 4 1015 J of energy. This is equivalence to 20,000 tones of
TNT explosion. The nuclear bomb dropped at Hiroshima had this much explosion power.
(vi) The mass of the compound nucleus must be greater than the sum of masses of fission products.
(vii) The

Bindingenergy
of compound nucleus must be less than that of the fission products.
A

(viii) It may be pointed out that it is not necessary that in each fission of uranium, the two fragments
56 Ba

and

36 Kr

are formed but they may be any stable isotopes of middle weight atoms.

Same other U 235 fission reactions are

92 U

235

0n1 54 Xe140

38Sr

57La148

94

35 Br

20 n1

85

3 0n1

Many more
(ix) The neutrons released during the fission process are called prompt neutrons.
(x) Most of energy released appears in the form of kinetic energy of fission fragments.
B
aEnerg
y
Slow
Neutron

Energ
y
U235

92

(2) Chain reaction

U236

92

Energ
y
Energ
Kr y

genius PHYSICS
18 Atomic Structure
In nuclear fission, three neutrons are produced along with the release of large energy. Under
favourable conditions, these neutrons can cause further fission of other nuclei, producing large number of
neutrons. Thus a chain of nuclear fissions is established which continues until the whole of the uranium is
consumed.
Kr
U

Kr
n

Ba

U
Ba

Kr

U
Ba

In the chain reaction, the number of nuclei undergoing fission increases very fast. So, the energy
produced takes a tremendous magnitude very soon.
Difficulties in chain reaction
(i) Absorption of neutrons by U 238 , the major part in natural uranium is the isotope U238 (99.3%), the
isotope U 235 is very little (0.7%). It is found that U 238 is fissionable with fast neutrons, whereas U 235 is
fissionable with slow neutrons. Due to the large percentage of U 238, there is more possibility of collision
of neutrons with U 238 . It is found that the neutrons get slowed on coliding with U 238, as a result of it
further fission of U238 is not possible (Because they are slow and they are absorbed by U238). This stops the
chain reaction.
Removal : (i) To sustain chain reaction
obtained

92U

235

92 U

235

is separated from the ordinary uranium. Uranium so

is known as enriched uranium, which is fissionable with the fast and slow neutrons and

hence chain reaction can be sustained.

(ii) If neutrons are slowed down by any method to an energy of about 0.3 eV, then the probability of
their absorption by U 238 becomes very low, while the probability of their fissioning U 235 becomes high.
This job is done by moderators. Which reduce the speed of neutron rapidly graphite and heavy water are
the example of moderators.
(iii) Critical size : The neutrons emitted during fission are very fast and they travel a large distance
before being slowed down. If the size of the fissionable material is small, the neutrons emitted will escape
the fissionable material before they are slowed down. Hence chain reaction cannot be sustained.
Removal : The size of the fissionable material should be large than a critical size.
The chain reaction once started will remain steady, accelerate or retard depending upon, a factor
called neutron reproduction factor (k). It is defined as follows.

Rateof product
ion of neutrons
Rateof lossof neutrons

If k = 1, the chain reaction will be steady. The size of the fissionable material used is said to be the
critical size and it's mass, the critical mass.
If k > 1, the chain reaction accelerates, resulting in an explosion. The size of the material in this
case is super critical. (Atom bomb)
If k < 1, the chain reaction gradually comes to a halt. The size of the material used us said to be subcritical.
Types of chain reaction : Chain reactions are of following two types
Controlled chain reaction
Controlled by artificial method

Uncontrolled chain reaction

No control over this type of nuclear reaction

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 19

All neurons are absorbed except one

More than one neutron takes part into reaction

It's rate is slow

Fast rate

Reproduction factor k = 1

Reproduction factor k > 1

Energy liberated in this type of reaction is

always less than explosive energy

A large amount of energy is liberated in this

type of reaction

Chain reaction is the principle of nuclear

reactors

Uncontrolled chain reaction is the principle of

atom bomb.

Note

The energy released in the explosion of an atom bomb is equal to the energy

released by 2000 tonn of TNT and the temperature at the place of explosion is of the order
of 107 oC.

Nuclear Reactor.
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission can be carried out through a sustained and a controlled chain reaction. It is also
called an atomic pile. It is thus a source of controlled energy which is utilised for many useful purposes.
Cadmium
rods

Core

Coolant
Coolant out

Turbine

Concrete
wall

To electric
generator
Condenser

Moderator

Water
Heat
Coolant in exchanger

(1) Parts of nuclear reactor

Fuel elements

(i) Fissionable material (Fuel) : The fissionable material used in the reactor is called the fuel of the
reactor. Uranium isotope (U235) Thorium isotope (Th232) and Plutonium isotopes (Pu239, Pu240 and Pu241) are
the most commonly used fuels in the reactor.
(ii) Moderator : Moderator is used to slow down the fast moving neutrons. Most commonly used
moderators are graphite and heavy water (D2O).
(iii) Control Material : Control material is used to control the chain reaction and to maintain a stable
rate of reaction. This material controls the number of neutrons available for the fission. For example,
cadmium rods are inserted into the core of the reactor because they can absorb the neutrons. The
neutrons available for fission are controlled by moving the cadmium rods in or out of the core of the
reactor.
(iv) Coolant : Coolant is a cooling material which removes the heat generated due to fission in the
reactor. Commonly used coolants are water, CO2 nitrogen etc.
(v) Protective shield : A protective shield in the form a concrete thick wall surrounds the core of the
reactor to save the persons working around the reactor from the hazardous radiations.

Note

:
It may be noted that Plutonium is the best fuel as compared to other fissionable
material. It is because fission in Plutonium can be initiated by both slow and fast neutrons.
Moreover it can be obtained from U 238.

Nuclear reactor is firstly devised by fermi.

Apsara was the first Indian nuclear reactor.

(2) Uses of nuclear reactor

(i) In electric power generation.

(ii) To produce radioactive isotopes for their use in medical science, agriculture and industry.
(iii) In manufacturing of PU 239 which is used in atom bomb.
(iv) They are used to produce neutron beam of high intensity which is used in the treatment of cancer
and nuclear research.

genius PHYSICS
20 Atomic Structure

Note

:
A type of reactor that can produce more fissile fuel than it consumes is the breeder
reactor.
Nuclear fusion
In nuclear fusion two or more than two lighter nuclei combine to form a single heavy nucleus. The
mass of single nucleus so formed is less than the sum of the masses of parent nuclei. This difference in
mass results in the release of tremendous amount of energy

or

1H

1H 2 1H 3 1 H 1 4MeV

1H

1 H 2 2 He4 0n1 17.6 MeV

1H

1 H 2 2 He4 24MeV

For fusion high pressure ( 106 atm) and high temperature (of the order of 10 7 K to 108 K) is required
and so the reaction is called thermonuclear reaction.
Fusion energy is greater then fission energy fission of one uranium atom releases about 200 MeV of
energy. But the fusion of a deutron (1 H 2 ) and triton (1 H 3 ) releases about 17.6 MeV of energy. However
the energy released per nucleon in fission is about 0.85 MeV but that in fusion is 4.4 MeV. So for the same
mass of the fuel, the energy released in fusion is much larger than in fission.
Plasma : The temperature of the order of 10 8 K required for thermonuclear reactions leads to the
complete ionisation of the atom of light elements. The combination of base nuclei and electron cloud is
called plasma. The enormous gravitational field of the sun confines the plasma in the interior of the sun.
The main problem to carryout nuclear fusion in the laboratory is to contain the plasma at a
temperature of 108K. No solid container can tolerate this much temperature. If this problem of containing
plasma is solved, then the large quantity of deuterium present in sea water would be able to serve as inexhaustible source of energy.

Note

To achieve fusion in laboratory a device is used to confine the plasma, called

Tokamak.
Stellar Energy
Stellar energy is the energy obtained continuously from the sun and the stars. Sun radiates energy at
the rate of about 1026 joules per second.
Scientist Hans Bethe suggested that the fusion of hydrogen to form helium (thermo nuclear reaction)
is continuously taking place in the sun (or in the other stars) and it is the source of sun's (star's) energy.
The stellar energy is explained by two cycles
Proton-proton cycle
1H

1 H 1 H 1e Q1

1H

1H

1 H 1 2 He3 Q 2

7N

13

1H

1H

8O

15

1H

2 He

Carbon-nitrogen cycle

2 He3 2 He4 21H 1 Q3

4 1H 2He 2 1e 2 26.7 MeV

6C 12 7 N 13 Q1
6C 13

0
1e
14

6 C 13 7 N
7 N

14

8O

15

Q2
Q3

7 N 15 1e0 Q4

7 N 15 6 C 12 2 He4

4 1 H 1 2 He4 2 1e0 24.7 MeV

About 90% of the mass of the sun consists of hydrogen and helium.

Nuclear Bomb.

Based on uncontrolled nuclear reactions.

Atom bomb

Hydrogen bomb

Based on fission process it involves the fission

of U235

Based on fusion process. Mixture of deutron

and tritium is used in it

In this critical size is important

There is no limit to critical size

Explosion is possible at normal temperature and

pressure

High temperature and pressure are required

Less energy is released compared to hydrogen

bomb

More energy is released as compared to atom

bomb so it is more dangerous than atom bomb

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 21

Concepts

A test tube full of base nuclei will weight heavier than the earth.

The nucleus of hydrogen contains only one proton. Therefore we may say that the proton is the nucleus
of hydrogen atom.

If the relative abundance of isotopes in an element has a ratio n 1 : n2 whose atomic masses are m1 and
m2 then atomic mass of the element is

n1m1 n2m2
n1 n2

Example
Example
ss
Example: 1

A heavy nucleus at rest breaks into two fragments which fly off with velocities in the ratio 8 :
1. The ratio of radii of the fragments is
[EAMCET (Engg.) 2001]

(a) 1 : 2

(b) 1 : 4

Solution : (a)

v1

(d) 2 : 1

By conservation of momentum m1v1 = m2v2

m1

v1 8 m2

v2 1 m1

M
m2

v2

Example: 2

(c) 4 : 1

(i)

Also from r A1 / 3

The ratio of radii of nuclei

27
13 Al

and

125
52 Te

r1 A1

r2 A2

1/ 3

1/ 3

1
2

is approximately

[J & K CET 2000]

(a) 6 : 10

(b) 13 : 52

r1 A1

r2 A2

(c) 40 : 177

1/ 3

27

125

1/ 3

(d) 14 : 7

8 6

5 10

Solution : (a)

By using r A1 / 3

Example: 3

If Avogadros number is 6 1023 then the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in 14 g
of 6C14 are respectively

Solution : (a)

(a) 36 1023, 48 1023, 36 1023

(b) 36 1023, 36 1023, 36 1021

(c) 48 1023, 36 1023, 48 1021

(d) 48 1023, 48 1023, 36 1021

Since the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom of

respectively. As 14 gm of

6C

14

contains 6 10
14

6C
23

neutrons and electrons in 14 gm of

8 6 1023 48 1023 ,
Example: 4

14

are 6, 8 and 6

atoms, therefore the numbers of protons,

6 6 1023 36 1023 ,

are

36 1023 .

Two Cu64 nuclei touch each other. The electrostatics repulsive energy of the system will be
(a) 0.788 MeV

Solution : (c)

6 6 10

23

6C

(b) 7.88 MeV

1/ 3

Radius of each nucleus R R0(A)

(c) 126.15 MeV

1/ 3

1.2(64)

(d) 788 MeV

4.8 fm

Distance between two nuclei (r) = 2R

So potential energy U

k q2
9 109 (1.6 1019 29)2

126.15MeV.
r
2 4.8 1015 1.6 1019

genius PHYSICS
22 Atomic Structure
Example: 5

When

92U

235

undergoes fission. 0.1% of its original mass is changed into energy. How much
92U

energy is released if 1 kg of

235

undergoes fission

[MP PET 1994; MP PMT/PET 1998; BHU

2001; BVP 2003]

(a) 9 1010 J

(b) 9 1011 J

(c) 9 1012 J

(d) 9 1013 J

0.1

1 (3 108 )2 9 1013 J
100

Solution : (d)

By using E m c2 E

Example: 6

1 g of hydrogen is converted into 0.993 g of helium in a thermonuclear reaction. The energy

released is
[EAMCET (Med.) 1995; CPMT 1999]

(a) 63 10 J

(b) 63 10

Solution : (b)

10

(c) 63 10

14

(d) 63 1020 J

m = 1 0.993 = 0.007 gm
E = mc2 = 0.007 103 (3 108)2 = 63 1010 J

Example: 7

2
The binding energy per nucleon of deuteron (1
H ) and helium nucleus (4
2 He) is 1.1 MeV
and 7 MeV respectively. If two deuteron nuclei react to form a single helium nucleus, then
the energy released is

[MP PMT 1992; Roorkee 1994; IIT-JEE 1996; AIIMS 1997; Haryana PMT 2000; Pb PMT 2001; CPMT 2001; AIEEE 2004]

(a) 13.9 MeV

Solution : (c)

1H

(b) 26.9 MeV

(c) 23.6 MeV

(d) 19.2 MeV

1H 2 2He4 Q

Total binding energy of helium nucleus = 4 7 = 28 MeV

Total binding energy of each deutron = 2 1.1 = 2.2 MeV
Hence energy released = 28 2 2.2 = 23.6 MeV
Example: 8

The masses of neutron and proton are 1.0087 amu and 1.0073 amu respectively. If the
neutrons and protons combine to form a helium nucleus (alpha particles) of mass 4.0015
amu. The binding energy of the helium nucleus will be [1 amu= 931 MeV]
[CPMT 1986; MP PMT 1995; CBSE 2003]

(a) 28.4 MeV

Solution : (a)

(b) 20.8 MeV

(c) 27.3 MeV

(d) 14.2 MeV

Helium nucleus consist of two neutrons and two protons.

So binding energy E = m amu = m 931 MeV
E = (2 mp + 2mn M) 931 MeV = (2 1.0073 + 2 1.0087 4.0015) 931 = 28.4 MeV

Example: 9

A atomic power reactor furnace can deliver 300 MW. The energy released due to fission of
each of uranium atom U 238 is 170 MeV. The number of uranium atoms fissioned per hour
will be
[UPSEAT 2000]
(a) 5 1015

Solution : (c)

By using P

(b) 10 1020

W n E

t
t

(c) 40 1021

(d) 30 1025

where n = Number of uranium atom fissioned and E = Energy

n 170 106 1.6 1019

n = 40 1021
3600
Example: 10 The binding energy per nucleon of O16 is 7.97 MeV and that of O17 is 7.75 MeV. The energy
(in MeV) required to remove a neutron from O17 is
released due to each fission so

300 106

[IIT-JEE 1995]

(a) 3.52
Solution : (c)

(b) 3.64

(c) 4.23

(d) 7.86

O17 O16 0n1

Energy required = Binding of O17 binding energy of O16 = 17 7.75 16 7.97 = 4.23
MeV

Example: 11

A gamma ray photon creates an electron-positron pair. If the rest mass energy of an electron
is 0.5 MeV and the total kinetic energy of the electron-positron pair is 0.78 MeV, then the
energy of the gamma ray photon must be
[MP PMT 1991]

(a) 0.78 MeV

(b) 1.78 MeV

(c) 1.28 MeV

(d) 0.28 MeV

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 23

Solution : (b)

Energy of -rays photon = 0.5 + 0.5 +0.78 = 1.78 MeV

Example: 12

What is the mass of one Curie of U234

(a) 3.7 10

Solution : (c)

10

(b) 2.348 10

gm

(c) 1.48 10

gm

11

(d) 6.25 1034 gm

gm

1 curie = 3.71 1010 disintegration/sec and mass of 6.02 1023 atoms of U 234 234gm
Mass of 3.71 1010 atoms

Example: 13

[MNR 1985]
23

In the nuclear fusion reaction

234 3.71 1010

23

6.02 10
2
1H

1.48 1011gm

13 H 42 He n, given that the repulsive potential energy

between the two nuclei is 7.7 1014 J , the temperature at which the gases must be
heated to initiate the reaction is nearly [Boltzmanns constant k 1.38 1023 J /K ]
[AIEEE 2003]

(a) 109 K
Solution : (a)

(b) 107 K

(d) 103 K

Kinetic energy of molecules of a gas at a temperature T is 3/2 kT

To initiate the reaction

Example: 14

(c) 105 K

3
kT 7.7 1014 J
2

T = 3.7 109 K.

A nucleus with mass number 220 initially at rest emits an -particle. If the Q value of the
reaction is 5.5 MeV. Calculate the kinetic energy of the -particle
[IIT-JEE (Screening) 2003]

(a) 4.4 MeV

(b) 5.4 MeV

(c) 5.6 MeV

Solution : (b)

k2

p1

p2
m2 = 4

M = 220

Q-value of the reaction is 5.5 eV i.e. k1 k2 5.5 MeV

By conservation of linear momentum p1 p2

(d) 6.5 MeV

k1
m1 =
216

(i)
2(4)k2 k2 = 54 k1

2(216)k1

(ii)

On solving equation (i) and (ii) we get k2 = 5.4 MeV.

Example: 15

20
Let mp be the mass of a proton, mn the mass of a neutron, M1 the mass of a 10
Ne nucleus and

M 2 the mass of a

40
20 Ca

nucleus. Then

[IIT 1998; DPMT 2000]

(a) M 2 2M1

(b) M 2 2M1

(d) M 1 10(mn mp )

(c) M 2 2M1

Solution : (c, d) Due to mass defect (which is finally responsible for the binding energy of the nucleus), mass

of a nucleus is always less then the sum of masses of it's constituent particles
made

up

of

10

protons

plus

10

neutrons.

Therefore,

mass

20
10 Ne

of

20
10 Ne

nucleus

M 1 10(mp mn )
Also heavier the nucleus, more is he mass defect thus 20(mn mp) M 2 10(mp mn) M1
or

10(mp mn ) M 2 M 1

M 2 M1 10(mp mn) M 2 M 1 M 1

M 2 2M 1

Tricky example: 1

(b) W X + Z
(c) W 2Y

Binding
energy
nucleon in
MeV

Binding energy per nucleon vs mass number curve for nuclei is shown in the figure. W,
X, Y and Z are four nuclei indicated on the curve. The process that would release
energy is
[IIT-JEE 1999]
(a) Y 2Z

8.5
8.0
7.5
5.0

is

Z
30 60 90 120
Mass number of nuclei

genius PHYSICS
24 Atomic Structure
(d) X Y + Z
Solution : (c) Energy is released in a process when total binding energy of the nucleus (= binding
energy per nucleon number of nucleon) is increased or we can say, when total
binding energy of products is more than the reactants. By calculation we can see that
only in case of option (c) this happens.
Given W 2Y
Binding energy of reactants = 120 7.5 = 900 MeV
and binding energy of products = 2 (60 8.5) = 1020 MeV > 900 MeV

Radioactivity.
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiatons by heavy elements is called radioactivity. The elements which shows this
phenomenon are called radioactive elements.

(1) Radioactivity was discovered by Henery Becquerel in uranium salt in the year 1896.
(2) After the discovery of radioactivity in uranium, Piere Curie and Madame Curie discovered a new
radioactive element called radium (which is 106 times more radioactive than uranium)
(3) Some examples of radio active substances are : Uranium, Radium, Thorium, Polonium, Neptunium
etc.
(4) Radioactivity of a sample cannot be controlled by any physical (pressure, temperature, electric or
magnetic field) or chemical changes.
(5) All the elements with atomic number (Z ) > 82 are naturally radioactive.
(6) The conversion of lighter elements into radioactive elements by the bombardment of fast moving
particles is called artificial or induced radioactivity.
(7) Radioactivity is a nuclear event and not atomic. Hence electronic configuration of atom don't have
any relationship with radioactivity.
Nuclear radiatons
According to Rutherford's experiment when a sample of radioactive substance is put in a lead box and
allow the emission of radiation through a small hole only. When the radiation enters into the external
electric field, they splits into three parts

-rays
-rays

-rays

+
+
+
+
+

-rays

-rays

Magnetic

field
-rays

(i) Radiations which deflects towards negative plate are called -rays (stream of positively charged
particles)
(ii) Radiations which deflects towards positive plate are called particles (stream of negatively charged
particles)
(iii) Radiations which are undeflected called -rays. (E.M. waves or photons)

Note

Exactly same results were obtained when these radiations were subjected to

magnetic field.
No radioactive substance emits both and particles simultaneously. Also -rays are
emitted after the emission of or -particles.
-particles are not orbital electrons they come from nucleus. The neutron in the nucleus
decays into proton and an electron. This electron is emitted out of the nucleus in the form of

-rays.
Properties of , and -rays

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 25

- particles

Features
1. Identity

- particles

Helium nucleus or
doubly
ionised
helium atom (2He4)

Fast

+ 2e

Zero

4 mp

me

Massless

107 m/s

1% to 99% of speed of
light

Speed of light

4 MeV to 9 MeV

All
possible
values
between a minimum
certain value to 1.2 MeV

Between a minimum
value to 2.23 MeV

6. Penetration power (,

100

10,000

, )

(Stopped
paper)

(100 times of )

(100 times of upto

30 cm of iron (or Pb)
sheet

7. Ionisation power ( >

10,000

100

8. Effect of electric or
magnetic field

Deflected

Deflected

Not deflected

9. Energy spectrum

Line and discrete

Continuous

Line and discrete

10. Mutual
with matter

Produces heat

Produces heat

Produces,
photoelectric
effect,
Compton effect, pair
production

2. Charge
3. Mass 4 mp (mp = mass

moving

- rays

electron

Photons (E.M. waves)

or )

of proton = 1.87 10

27

4. Speed
5. Range
energy

of

kinetic

by

> )

interaction

11. Equation of decay

ZX

decay

Z 2 Y

ZX

A 4

ZX

2 He4

Z1Y

0
1e

zX

zXa

Z' X A

n (2n Z Z')

Z'Y A'

ZX

A' A
4

Radioactive Disintegration.
(1) Law of radioactive disintegration
According to Rutherford and Soddy law for radioactive decay is as follows.
"At any instant the rate of decay of radioactive atoms is proportional to the number of atoms present
at that instant" i.e.

dN
N
dt

dN
N . It can be proved that N = N0et
dt

This equation can also be written in terms of mass i.e. M = M0et

where N = Number of atoms remains undecayed after time t, N0 = Number of atoms present initially (i.e.
at t = 0), M = Mass of radioactive nuclei at time t, M0 = Mass of radioactive nuclei at time t = 0, N0 N =
Number of disintegrated nucleus in time t

dN
= rate of decay, = Decay constant or disintegration constant or radioactivity constant or
dt

Rutherford Soddy's constant or the probability of decay per unit time of a nucleus.

Note

:
depends only on the nature of substance. It is independent of time and any physical
or chemical changes.
N0
N = N0et

N
0

genius PHYSICS
26 Atomic Structure

(2) Activity
It is defined as the rate of disintegration (or count rate) of the substance (or the number of atoms of
any material decaying per second) i.e. A

dN
N N 0e t A0e t
dt

where A0 = Activity of t = 0, A = Activity after time t

Units of activity (Radioactivity)

It's units are Becqueral (Bq), Curie (Ci) and Rutherford (Rd)
1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration/sec,
1 Rutherford = 106 dis/sec,

1 Curie = 3.7 1011 dis/sec

Note

:
Activity per gm of a substance is known as specific activity. The specific activity of 1 gm
of radium 226 is 1 Curie.
1 millicurie = 37 Rutherford
The activity of a radioactive substance decreases as the number of undecayed nuclei decreases
with time.
1
Activity
Half life

(3) Half life (T1/2)

Time interval in which the mass of a radioactive substance or the number of it's atom reduces to half of it's initial value is called the
half life of the substance.

i.e.

if N

N0
then t T1 / 2
2

Hence from N N 0 e t

N0
loge 2 0.693
(T )
N 0e 1 / 2 T1/ 2

N0

Half life =
T
N0/2

Time (t)

Number of undecayed atoms

(N)
(N0 = Number of initial atoms)
N0

t=0
t = T1/2

N0/4
Remaining fraction
of
Fraction of atoms
active atoms (N/N0)0 1 decayed
(N0 N) /N0
2T 3T
t
probability of survival probability of decay
1
(100%)
0

1
2
1
4

N0
2
N
1 N0

02
2 2
(2)
N
1 N0

03
2 (2) (2)

t = 2(T1/2)
t = 3(T1/2)
t = 10 (T1/2)

N0

t = n (N1/2)

(2)10
N
(2)2

(25%)

1
8
1

2
1

1
2
3
4

(50%)

0.1%

(75%)

7
8

(12.5%)
10

(50%)

(87.5%)

99.9%

Useful relation
1

After n half-lives, number of undecayed atoms N N0

N0

t / T1 / 2

(4) Mean (or average) life ( )

The time for which a radioactive material remains active is defined as mean (average) life of that
material.
Other definitions
(i) It is defined as the sum of lives of all atoms divided by the total number of atoms
i.e.

Sumof thelivesof all theatoms 1

Total numberof atoms

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 27

N
N
(ii) From N N 0 e
slope of the line shown in the graph
N0
ln

N0
t
N
vs t curve is known as mean life ().
i.e. the magnitude of inverse of slope of ln
N0
t

ln

(iii) From N N 0 e t
If t

Slope =

1
1
1
N N 0 e N 0 0.37N 0 37% of N0.

i.e. mean life is the time interval in which number of undecayed atoms (N) becomes
times or 37% of original number of atoms.

or

It is the time in which number of decayed atoms (N0 N) becomes 1

63% of original number of atoms.

(iv) From T1 / 2

1
times or 0.37
e

times or 0.63 times or

0.693
1
1

.(t1/ 2 ) 1.44(T1/ 2 )

0.693

i.e. mean life is about 44% more than that of half life. Which gives us > T(1/2)

Note

:
Half life and mean life of a substance doesn't change with time or with pressure,
temperature etc.

Radioactive Series.
If the isotope that results from a radioactive decay is itself radioactive then it will also decay and so on.

The sequence of decays is known as radioactive decay series. Most of the radio-nuclides found in
nature are members of four radioactive series. These are as follows
Mass
Series (Nature) Parent Stable
and Integer Number
of
lost
number
product
n
particles
4n
Thorium
232
208
52
= 6, = 4
90 Th
82 Pb
(natural)
4n + 1
Neptunium
237
209
52
= 8, = 5
93 Np
83 Bi
(Artificial)
4n + 2
Uranium
238
206
51
= 8, = 6
92U
82 Pb
(Natural)
4n + 3
Actinium
227
207
51
= 7, = 4
89 Ac
82 Pb
(Natural)

Note

241
:
The 4n + 1 series starts from 94 PU
but commonly known as neptunium series
because neptunium is the longest lived member of the series.
The 4n + 3 series actually starts from 92U 235.

Successive Disintegration and Radioactive Equilibrium.

Suppose a radioactive element A disintegrates to form another radioactive element B which intern
disintegrates to still another element C; such decays are called successive disintegration.
A

dN1
1 N1 (which is also the rate of formation of B)
dt
dN2
Rate of disintegration of B
2 N 2
dt
Rate of disintegration of A

Net rate of formation of B = Rate of disintegration of A Rate of disintegration of B

= 1N 1 2N 2
Equilibrium

genius PHYSICS
28 Atomic Structure
In radioactive equilibrium, the rate of decay of any radioactive product is just equal to it's rate of production from the previous
member.

1N 1 = 2N 2

i.e.

Note

1 N 2 2 (T1 / 2 )

2 N 2 1 (T1/ 2 )1

In successive disintegration if N0 is the initial number of nuclei of A at t = 0 then

number of nuclei of product B at time t is given by N 2

1 N 0
(e1t e2t ) where 12
( 2 1 )

decay constant of A and B.

Uses of radioactive isotopes

(1) In medicine
(i) For testing blood-chromium - 51
(ii) For testing blood circulation - Na - 24
(iii) For detecting brain tumor- Radio mercury - 203
(iv) For detecting fault in thyroid gland - Radio iodine - 131
(v) For cancer - cobalt 60
(vi) For blood - Gold - 189
(vii) For skin diseases - Phospohorous - 31
(2) In Archaeology
(i) For determining age of archaeological sample (carbon dating) C 14
(ii) For determining age of meteorites - K 40
(iii) For determining age of earth-Lead isotopes
(3) In agriculture
(i) For protecting potato crop from earthworm- CO 60
(ii) For artificial rains - AgI (iii)
As
32
fertilizers - P
(4) As tracers - (Tracer) : Very small quantity of radioisotopes present in a mixture is known as tracer
(i) Tracer technique is used for studying biochemical reaction in tracer and animals.
(5) In industries
(i) For detecting leakage in oil or water pipe lines
(ii) For determining the age of planets.
Concept

If a nuclide can decay simultaneously by two different process which have decay constant 1 and 2, half life
T1 and T2 and mean lives 1 and 2 respectively then
= 1 + 2

1, T1, 1

T1T2
T1 T2

2, T2, 2

1 2
1 2

Example: 16 When 90Th228 transforms to 83Bi212 , then the number of the emitted and particles is,

respectively
(a) 8, 7
Solution : (d)

A 228
Z 90Th

(b) 4, 7

Z' 83Bi

(c) 4, 4

(d) 4, 1

[MP PET 2002]

A' 212

Number of -particles emitted n

A A' 228 212

4
4
4

Number of -particles emitted n 2n Z Z' 2 4 90 83 1.

Example: 17 A radioactive substance decays to 1/16 th of its initial activity in 40 days. The half-life of the
radioactive substance expressed in days is
[AIEEE 2003]

(a) 2.5

(b) 5
t / T1 / 2

(c) 10

(d) 20

40/ T1 / 2

N
1 1

T1 / 2 10 days.
N 0 16 2
Example: 18 A sample of radioactive element has a mass of 10 gm at an instant t = 0. The approximate
mass of this element in the sample after two mean lives is
Solution : (c)

By using N N 0

[CBSE PMT 2003]

(a) 2.50 gm

(b) 3.70 gm

(c) 6.30 gm

(d) 1.35 gm

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 29

1
10 1.359gm
e
215
Example: 19 The half-life of
At is 100 s. The time taken for the radioactivity of a sample of
decay to 1/16th of its initial value is
Solution : (d)

By using M M 0e

(2 )

M 10e

10e

[IIT-JEE (Screening) 2002]

(a) 400 s

(b) 6.3 s

(c) 40 s

t / T1 / 2

215

At to

(d) 300 s

t / 100

N
1
1
1
1

t = 400 sec.

16
N
2
2

2
0
Example: 20 The mean lives of a radioactive substance for and emissions are 1620 years and 405
years respectively. After how much time will the activity be reduced to one fourth
Solution : (a)

By using N N 0

[RPET 1999]

(a) 405 year

Solution : (c)

(b) 1620 year

(c) 449 year
(d) None of these
1
1
per year and
per year and it is given that the fraction of the remained

1620
405
A
1

activity
A0
4

1
1
1

peryear
1620 405 324
A
1
1
2
We know that A A0 e t t loge 0 t loge 4 loge 2 = 324 2 0.693 = 449

A
years.
Example: 21 At any instant the ratio of the amount of radioactive substances is 2 : 1. If their half lives
be respectively 12 and 16 hours, then after two days, what will be the ratio of the
substances
[RPMT 1996]
(a) 1 : 1
(b) 2 : 1
(c) 1 : 2
(d) 1 : 4
Total decay constant

Solution : (a)

By using N N 0

N1
(N0)1 (1 / 2)n1
2

N2 (N0)2 (1 / 2)n2
1

2
1

2 24
12
2 24
16

1
1

Example: 22 From a newly formed radioactive substance (Half-life 2 hours), the intensity of radiation is 64

times the permissible safe level. The minimum time after which work can be done safely
from this source is

[IIT 1983; SCRA 1996]

(a) 6 hours
Solution : (b)

(b) 12 hours
1

By using A A0

t
T1 / 2

(c) 24 hours

A
1 1

A0 64 2

(d) 128 hours

n=6

t 6 2 12 hours.

Example: 23 nucleus of mass number A, originally at rest, emits an -particle with speed v. The daughter

nucleus recoils with a speed

(a) 2v /(A 4)

Solution : (c)
A

[DCE 2000; AIIMS 2004]

(b) 4v /(A 4)
v

A4

(c) 4v /(A 4)

m
+

(d) 2v /(A 4)

4v
.
A4
Example: 24 The counting rate observed from a radioactive source at t = 0 second was 1600 counts
per second and at t = 8 seconds it was 100 counts per second. The counting rate
observed as counts per second at t = 6 seconds will be
Rest

According to conservation of momentum 4v (A 4)v'

v'

[MP PET 1996; UPSEAT 2000]

(a) 400

(b) 300

(c) 200

(d) 150

genius PHYSICS
30 Atomic Structure
Solution : (c)

By using A A0

1
100 1600
2

8 / T1 / 2

1 1

16 2

8 / T1 / 2

T1 / 2 2 sec
6/ 2

1
200.
Again by using the same relation the count rate at t = 6 sec will be A 1600
2
Example: 25 The kinetic energy of a neutron beam is 0.0837 eV. The half-life of neutrons is 693s and the
mass of neutrons is 1.675 1027 kg. The fraction of decay in travelling a distance of 40m
will be
(a) 103
(b) 104
(c) 105
(d) 106
Solution : (c)

2E

2 0.0837 1.6 1019

27

1.675 10

= 4 103 m/sec

Time taken by neutrons to travel a distance of 40 m

t'

40
3

4 10

10 2 sec

dN
dN
N
dt
dt
N

N
0.693
0.693
t
t
10 2 10 5
N
T
693
Example: 26 The fraction of atoms of radioactive element that decays in 6 days is 7/8. The fraction that
decays in 10 days will be
(a) 77/80
(b) 71/80
(c) 31/32
(d) 15/16
Fraction of neutrons decayed in t sec in

Solution : (c)

By using N N 0

Hence

t / T1 / 2

N
T1/ 2 loge 0
N
t
loge (2)

loge

t loge

N0

t1
N0

t2
N
N
loge 0
N

loge (8 / 1)
6
N
N
10

loge 0
loge (8) loge 32 0 32.
10 loge (N 0 / N)
N
6
N

So fraction that decays 1

1
31
.

32 32

Tricky example: 2
Half-life of a substance is 20 minutes. What is the time between 33% decay and 67%
decay
[AIIMS 2000]
(a) 40 minutes
(b) 20 minutes
(c) 30 minutes
(d) 25 minutes
Solution : (b) Let N0 be the number of nuclei at beginning
Number of undecayed nuclei after 33% decay = 0.67 N0
and number of undecayed nuclei after 67% of decay = 0.33 N0

0.33 N0

0.67N 0
~

and in the half-life time the number of undecayed nuclei

becomes half.

Exampl
Exampl
es
es
Example: 1

The ratio of areas within the electron orbits for the first excited state to the ground state
for hydrogen atom is
[BCECE 2004]

(a) 16 : 1

(b) 18 : 1

(c) 4 : 1

(d) 2 : 1

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 31

Solution : (a)

For a hydrogen atom

Radius r n2

Example: 2

r12

r22

n14
n24

r12
r22

n14
n24

A
A1 n14 24
16
4 4 16 1
A2
1
A2 n2 1

The electric potential between a proton and an electron is given by V V0 ln

r
, where r0
r0

is a constant. Assuming Bohrs model to be applicable, write variation of rn with n, n being

the principal quantum number
[IIT-JEE (Screening) 2003]

(a) rn n
Solution : (a)

(b) rn 1 / n

Potential energy U eV eV0 ln

Force F

r
r0

dU
eV0

. The force will provide the necessary centripetal force. Hence

dr
r

mv2 eV0
v

r
r

eV0
m

..(i)

mvr

and

nh

nh
2

..(ii)

m
or r n
eV0

Dividing equation (ii) by (i) we have mr

Example: 3

(d) rn 1 / n2

(c) rn n

The innermost orbit of the hydrogen atom has a diameter 1.06 . The diameter of tenth orbit
is
[UPSEAT 2002]

(a) 5.3

(b) 10.6

r2 n2

r1 n1

(c) 53

d2 n2

d1 n1

d2
10

1.06 1

Solution : (d)

Using r n2

Example: 4

Energy of the electron in nth orbit of hydrogen atom is given by En

or

(d) 106
d = 106

13.6
eV . The amount
n2

of energy needed to transfer electron from first orbit to third orbit is

[MH CET 2002; Kerala PMT 2002]

(a) 13.6 eV
Solution : (c)

(b) 3.4 eV

Using E

13.6
n2

For n = 1 , E1

(c) 12.09 eV

(d) 1.51 eV

eV

13.6
2

13.6 eV and for n = 3 E 3

13.6
32

1.51eV

So required energy E 3 E1 1.51 (13.6) 12.09eV

Example: 5

If the binding energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV, the energy required to
remove the electron from the first excited state of Li is
[AIEEE 2003]

(a) 122.4 eV
Solution : (b)

Using E n

(b) 30.6 eV

13.6 Z

n2

(c) 13.6 eV

(d) 3.4 eV

eV

For first excited state n = 2 and for Li , Z = 3

13.6 9
30.6 eV . Hence, remove the electron from the first excited
4
2
state of Li be 30.6 eV
E

Example: 6

13.6
2

32

The ratio of the wavelengths for 2 1 transition in Li++, He+ and H is

(a) 1 : 2 : 3

(b) 1 : 4 : 9

(c) 4 : 9 : 36

[UPSEAT 2003]

(d) 3 : 2 : 1

genius PHYSICS
32 Atomic Structure
1
1
1
1
1 1 1
RZ2 2 2 2 Li : : H : : 4 : 9 : 36
He

9 4 1
n
n
Z
2
1

Solution : (c)

Using

Example: 7

Energy E of a hydrogen atom with principal quantum number n is given by E

13.6
eV .
n2

The energy of a photon ejected when the electron jumps n = 3 state to n = 2 state of
hydrogen is approximately
[CBSE PMT/PDT Screening 2004]

(a) 1.9 eV
Solution : (a)
Example: 8

(b) 1.5 eV

(c) 0.85 eV

(d) 3.4 eV

1
5
1
E 13.6 2 2 13.6
1.9 eV
36
3
2
In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, let R, v and E represent the radius of the orbit, the
speed of electron and the total energy of the electron respectively. Which of the following
quantity is proportional to the quantum number n
[KCET 2002]

(a) R/E
Solution : (d)

(b) E/v

Rydberg constant R
Velocity v

(c) RE

(d) vR

2 2

0n h

mZe2

mZ2e4
Ze2
and energy E
2 0nh
8 02n2h2

Now, it is clear from above expressions R.v n

Example: 9

The energy of hydrogen atom in nth orbit is En, then the energy in nth orbit of singly ionised
helium atom will be
[CBSE PMT 2001]

(a) 4En

(b) En/4

13.6 Z 2

Z
EH
H
E He ZHe

(c) 2En
2

(d) En/2

E He 4E n .

Solution : (a)

By using E

Example: 10

The wavelength of radiation emitted is 0 when an electron jumps from the third to the
second orbit of hydrogen atom. For the electron jump from the fourth to the second orbit of
the hydrogen atom, the wavelength of radiation emitted will be

n2

[SCRA 1998; MP PET 2001]

(a)
Solution : (b)

16
0
25

(b)

20
0
27

(c)

(d)

25
0
16

Wavelength of radiation in hydrogen atom is given by

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
R 2 2
R 2 2 R

3
4
2
n1 n2
0
and

1
5

R
9
36

1
1
3R
1
1 1
R 2 2 R

16
4
4 16
2

From equation (i) and (ii)

Example: 11

27
0
20

..(i)

..(ii)

5R 16 20
20
0

27

36 3R 27

If scattering particles are 56 for 90o angle then this will be at 60o angle
[RPMT 2000]

(a) 224
Solution : (a)

(b) 256

Using Scattering formula

(c) 98

(d) 108

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 33

1
sin4 ( / 2)

N2

N1

sin 1
2

sin 2
2

N2

N1

sin

sin

90

2
60

sin45

sin30

N 2 4 N1 4 56 224
Example: 12

When an electron in hydrogen atom is excited, from its 4 th to 5th stationary orbit, the change
in angular momentum of electron is (Plancks constant: h 6.6 1034 J s )
[AFMC 2000]

(a) 4.16 1034 J - s (b) 3.32 1034 J -s

34

2.08 10

Solution : (c)

(d)

J -s

Change in angular momentum

L L 2 L1
Example: 13

(c) 1.05 1034 J -s

n2h n1h
h
6.6 1034

L
(n2 n1 )
(5 4) 1.05 10 34 J-s
2
2 3.14
2
2

In hydrogen atom, if the difference in the energy of the electron in n = 2 and n = 3 orbits is
E, the ionization energy of hydrogen atom is
[EAMCET (Med.) 2000]

(a) 13.2 E
Solution : (b)

(b) 7.2 E

(c) 5.6 E

Energy difference between n = 2 and n = 3;

E K

(d) 3.2 E

1
2

5
1 1

K
4
9
36

Ionization energy of hydrogen atom n1 1 and n2 ; E K

From equation (i) and (ii) E

Example: 14

..(i)

..(ii)

36
E 7.2 E
5

In Bohr model of hydrogen atom, the ratio of periods of revolution of an electron in n = 2 and n = 1
orbits is
[EAMCET (Engg.) 2000]

(a) 2 : 1

(b) 4 : 1

(c) 8 : 1

(d) 16 : 1

T2 n23 23 8

T1 n13 13 1

T2 8T1 .

Solution : (c)

According to Bohr model time period of electron T n3

Example: 15

A double charged lithium atom is equivalent to hydrogen whose atomic number is 3. The
wavelength of required radiation for emitting electron from first to third Bohr orbit in Li
will be (Ionisation energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV)
[IIT-JEE 1985; UPSEAT 1999]

(a) 182.51
Solution : (d)

(b) 177.17

(c) 142.25

(d) 113.74

Energy of a electron in nth orbit of a hydrogen like atom is given by

E n 13.6

Z2
n2

eV , and Z = 3 for Li

Required energy for said transition

E E 3 E1 13.6Z 2

Now

using

113.74

hc

1
2

8
19
108.8 eV 108.8 1.6 10 J
9

13.6 32

hc
E

6.6 1034 3 108

19

108.8 1.6 10

0.11374 107 m

genius PHYSICS
34 Atomic Structure
Example: 16

The absorption transition between two energy states of hydrogen atom are 3. The emission
transitions between these states will be
[MP PET 1999]

(a) 3
Solution : (d)

(b) 4

(d) 6

Number of absorption lines = (n 1) 3 = (n 1) n = 4

Hence number of emitted lines

Example: 17

(c) 5

n(n 1) 4(4 1)

6
2
2

The energy levels of a certain atom for 1st, 2nd and 3rd levels are E, 4E/3 and 2E
respectively. A photon of wavelength is emitted for a transition 3 1. What will be the
wavelength of emissions for transition 2 1
[CPMT 1996]

Solution : (d)

(a) /3

(b) 4/3

For transition 3 1

E 2E E

For transition 2 1

(d) 3

hc
hc
E

4E
hc
3hc
E
E
3

From equation (i) and (ii)

Example: 18

(c) 3/4

..(i)
..(ii)

Hydrogen atom emits blue light when it changes from n = 4 energy level to n = 2 level.
Which colour of light would the atom emit when it changes from n = 5 level to n = 2 level
[KCET 1993]

(a) Red
Solution : (d)

(b) Yellow

(c) Green

(d) Violet

In the transition from orbits 5 2 more energy will be liberated as compared to transition
from 4 2. So emitted photon would be of violet light.

Example: 19

A single electron orbits a stationary nucleus of charge +Ze, where Z is a constant. It requires
47.2 eV to excited electron from second Bohr orbit to third Bohr orbit. Find the value of Z
[IIT-JEE 1981]

(a) 2
Solution : (b)

(b) 5

(c) 3

(d) 4

Excitation energy of hydrogen like atom for n2 n1

E 13.6Z 2

n2
1

Z2

1
eV
n22

47.2 13.6Z 2

1
2

13.6

5 2
Z
36

47.2 36
24.98~
25
13.6 5

Z=5
Example: 20

The first member of the Paschen series in hydrogen spectrum is of wavelength 18,800 .
The short wavelength limit of Paschen series is
[EAMCET (Med.)
2000]

(a) 1215
Solution : (c)

(b) 6560

First member of Paschen series mean it's max

(c) 8225

144
7R

Short wavelength of Paschen series means min

Hence
Example: 21

(d) 12850

9
R

max 16
7
7

min
max
18,800 8225 .
min
7
16
16

Ratio of the wavelengths of first line of Lyman series and first line of Balmer series is
[EAMCET (Engg.) 1995; MP PMT 1997]

(a) 1 : 3

(b) 27 : 5

(c) 5 : 27

(d) 4 : 9

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 35

Solution : (c)

For Lyman series

1
1
3R
1
R 2 2
L1
4
2
1

..(i)

For Balmer series

1
1
5R
1
R 2 2
B1
36
3
2

..(ii)

From equation (i) and (ii)

Example: 22

L1
B1

5
.
27

The third line of Balmer series of an ion equivalent to hydrogen atom has wavelength of
108.5 nm. The ground state energy of an electron of this ion will be
[RPET 1997]

(a) 3.4 eV
Solution : (c)

Using

(b) 13.6 eV

(c) 54.4 eV

(d) 122.4 eV

1
1
1
1
1
1
RZ2 2 2
1.1 107 Z 2 2 2

9
n

108.5 10
5
2
1 n2

1
9

108.5 10

1.1 107 Z 2

21
100
2
4 Z=2
Z
9
100
108.5 10 1.1 107 21

Now Energy in ground state E 13.6Z 2 eV 13.6 22 eV 54.4 eV

Example: 23

Hydrogen (H), deuterium (D), singly ionized helium (He ) and doubly ionized lithium
(Li ) all have one electron around the nucleus. Consider n 2 to n 1 transition. The
wavelengths of emitted radiations are 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. Then approximately
[KCET 1994]

(a) 1 2 43 94 (b) 41 22 23 4 (c) 1 22 2 23 3 24

(d)

1 2 23 34
Solution : (a)

Using E Z 2

( n1 and n2 are same)

hc
Z 2 Z 2 constant 1 Z12 2 Z22 3 Z32 4 Z 4 1 1 2 12 3 22 4 33

1 2 4 3 9 4 .
Example: 24

Hydrogen atom in its ground state is excited by radiation of wavelength 975 . How many
lines will be there in the emission spectrum
[RPMT 2002]

(a) 2
Solution : (c)

(b) 4

Using

(c) 6

1
1
1
1
1
1
R 2 2
1.097 107 2 2 n = 4

10

975 10
n
1
n1 n2

Now number of spectral lines N

Example: 25

(d) 8

n(n 1) 4(4 1)

6.
2
2

A photon of energy 12.4 eV is completely absorbed by a hydrogen atom initially in the

ground state so that it is excited. The quantum number of the excited state is
[UPSEAT 2000]

(a) n =1
Solution : (c)

(c) n = 4

(d) n =

Let electron absorbing the photon energy reaches to the excited state n. Then using energy
conservation

Example: 26

(b) n= 3

13.6
2

13.6 12.4

13.6
n2

1.2 n2

13.6
12 n = 3.46 4
1.2

The wave number of the energy emitted when electron comes from fourth orbit to second
orbit in hydrogen is 20,397 cm1. The wave number of the energy for the same transition in
[Haryana PMT 2000]
He is

genius PHYSICS
36 Atomic Structure
(a) 5,099 cm1

(b) 20,497 cm1

(c) 40,994 cm1

2

1
1
1
Z

RZ2 2 2 Z 2 2 2
n

1 Z1
1 n2

(d) 81,998 cm1

4 2 4 81588cm1 .

Solution : (d)

Using

Example: 27

In an atom, the two electrons move round the nucleus in circular orbits of radii R and 4R. the
ratio of the time taken by them to complete one revolution is
(a) 1/4

Solution : (d)

(b) 4/1

Time period T

(c) 8/1

n3
Z2

For a given atom (Z = constant) So T n3 ..(i)

From equation (i) and (ii) T R
Example: 28

3/ 2

R
T
1 1
T2 R2

radius R n2

and
3/ 2

4R

3/ 2

..(ii)

1
.
8

Ionisation energy for hydrogen atom in the ground state is E. What is the ionisation energy of Li atom
in the 2nd excited state
(a) E

Solution : (a)

(d) 1/8

(b) 3E

(c) 6E

Ionisation energy of atom in nth state En

(d) 9E

Z2
n2

For hydrogen atom in ground state (n = 1) and Z = 1 E E 0

For Li atom in 2nd excited state n = 3 and Z = 3, hence E
From equation (i) and (ii)
Example: 29

32 E 0

..(ii)

E E .

(b) 6.75

(c) 14.45

(d) 0.85

The H-atom before the transition was at rest. Therefore from conservation of momentum
Photon

Precoil
Example: 30

E0

An electron jumps from n = 4 to n = 1 state in H-atom. The recoil momentum of H-atom (in eV/C) is
(a) 12.75

Solution : (a)

..(i)

momentum

Recoil

momentum

of

H-atom

or

E E1 0.85eV (13.6 eV)

h
eV
4

12.75
c
c
c
c

If elements with principal quantum number n > 4 were not allowed in nature, the number of
possible elements would be
[IIT-JEE 1983; CBSE PMT 1991, 93; MP PET 1999; RPET 1993, 2001; RPMT 1999, 2003; J & K CET 2004]

(a) 60
Solution : (a)

(b) 32

(c) 4

(d) 64

Maximum value of n = 4
So possible (maximum) no. of elements

N 2 12 2 22 2 32 2 4 2 2 8 18 32 60 .
Tricky example: 1
If the atom

257
100Fm

follows the Bohr model and the radius of

257
100Fm

is n times the Bohr

radius, then find n

[IIT-JEE (Screening) 2003]

(a) 100

Tricky example: 2

(b) 200

(c) 4

(d) 1/4

genius PHYSICS

Atomic structure 37

2
m2
(0.53) (n 0.53) m n
Solution : (d) (rm)

Z
Z

m = 5 for

257
100Fm

(the outermost shell) and z = 100

(5)2
1

100 4

An energy of 24.6 eV is required to remove one of the electrons from a neutral helium atom. The
energy (in eV) required to remove both the electrons from a neutral helium atom is
[IIT-JEE 1995]

(a) 79.0

(b) 51.8

(c) 49.2

(d) 38.2

Solution : (a) After the removal of first electron remaining atom will be hydrogen like atom.
So energy required to remove second electron from the atom E 13.6
Total energy required = 24.6 + 54.4 = 79 eV

22
54.4 eV
1