IPE-3209: METAL FORMING AND

SHEET METALWORKING

Nikhil R. Dhar, Ph. D

Professor, IPE Department
BUET

Course Outlines
Fundamental of Metal Forming: Overview of metal forming,
material behavior in metal forming, temperature in metal forming,
friction and lubrication in metal forming.
Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working:

Rolling and Other deformation processes related to rolling

Forging and Other deformation processes related to forging

Extrusion and Other deformation processes related to forging

Sheet Metal Working: Cutting operations, bending operations,

drawing, Other sheet metal forming operations, precision forming
processes; various features of different types of metal forming dies;
principles of powder forming.

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Suggested Reading
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials - S. Kalpakjian
& S. R. Schmid

Materials and Processes in Manufacturing - E.P. Degarmo, J.T.

Black & R.A. Kohser
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing - M.P. Groover
Processes and Design for Manufacturing - S.D.EI Wakil

Metal Cutting Principles - M. C. Shaw

Metal Cutting - E. Trent
Manufacturing Technology B. Kumar

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Marks Distribution
Total Marks: 100
Class Test
(20%)
1

10

10

10

10

Quiz-01
Quiz-02
Quiz-03
Quiz-04

Class Attendance
[10%]

Final Examination
[70%]

10%

70%

: Fundamental of Metal Forming

: Bulk Deformation Processes - Rolling
: Bulk Deformation Processes - Forging
: Sheet Metal Forming Processes

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LECTURE-01: FUNDAMENTAL OF
METAL FORMING

Nikhil R. Dhar, Ph. D

Professor, IPE Department
BUET

Introduction
Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic deformation is
used to change the shape of metal workpieces

The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed the yield
strength of the metal

The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of the die

Forming processes tend to be complex systems consisting

Independent Variables,

Dependent Variables, and

Independent-dependent Interrelations.

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Independent Variables: Independent variables are those aspects of the

process over which the engineer has direct control, and they are generally
selected or specified when setting up the process. Consider some of the
independent variables in a typical forming process:

Starting material : The engineer is often free to specify the chemistry

and condition. These may also be chosen for ease in fabrication or they
may be restricted by the final properties desired for the product.
Starting geometry of the workpiece: This may be dictated by previous
processing or it may be selected by the engineer from a variety of
available shapes. Economics often influence this decision.
Tool or die geometry : This are has many aspects such as the diameter
of a rolling mill roll, the die angle in wire drawing and the cavity
details when forging. Since tooling will produce and control the metal
flow, success or failure of a process often depends on tool geometry.

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Lubrication: Since lubricants also acts as coolants, thermal barriers,

corrosion inhibitors, and parting compounds, their selection is an
aspect of great importance. Specification includes type of lubricant
amount to be applied and the method of application.
Starting temperature: Many material properties vary greatly with
temperature, so its selection and control may well dictate the success
or failure of an operation.
Speed of operation: Since speed can directly influence the lubricant
effectiveness, the forces required for deformation and the time
available for heat transfer. It is obvious that its selection would be
significant in a forming operation.
Amount of deformation: While some processes control this variable
through die design, others, such as rolling permits its selection at the
discretion of the engineer.

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Dependent Variables: After the engineer specifies the independent

variables, the process then determine the nature and values for a second set
of variables. Known as dependent variables, these, in essence, are the
consequences of the dependent variable selection. Consider some of the
dependent variables in a typical forming process:
Force or power requirements: Engineers cannot directly specify the
force or power; they can only specify the independent variables and
then experience the consequences of the selection. The ability to
predict the forces or powers however is extremely important for only
by having this knowledge will the engineer be able to specify or select
the equipment for the process.
Material properties of the product: The customer is not interested in
the starting properties but is concerned with our ability to produce the
desired final shape with the desired final properties

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Exit (or Final) temperature: Engineering properties can be altered by

both the mechanical and thermal history of the material thus it is
important to know and control the temperature of the material
throughout the process

Surface finish and precision: Both are characteristics of the resultant

product that are dependent on the specific details of the process.

Nature of the material flow: Since properties depend on deformation

history, control here is vital the customer is satisfied only if the desired
geometric shape is produced with the right set of companion properties
and without surface or internal defects.

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Independent-Dependent Interrelations: The following Figure illustrate a major

problem facing the metal-forming engineer. On one side are the independent
variables, those aspect of the process for which control is direct and immediate. On
the other are the dependent variables, those aspects for which control is totally
indirect. It is the dependent variables that we want to control, but the dependent
variables are determioned by the process, as consequences of the independent
variable selection. If we want to change a dependent variable, we must determine
which independent variable is to be changed, in what manner, and by how much. Thus
it is important for us to develop a knowledge of the independent variable-dependent
variable interrelations.
Independen t variables

Schematic of the metal-forming system

showing
independent
variables,
dependent variables and the various
means of relating the two

Starting material

Starting geometry

Experience
Tool geometry

Lubrication
Experiment
Starting temperature Modeling

Speed of deformation

Amount of deformation

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Dependent variables

Forceor Power requirement

Product properties

Exit tempe rature

Surface finish

Dimensional precision

Material flow details

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The ability to predict and control dependent variables can be obtained in

three distinct ways:

Experience: This requires long time exposure to the process and is

generally limited to the specific materials, equipment and products
encountered in the realm of past contact.

Experiment: While possibly the least likely in error direct experiment

is both time consuming and costly.

Process modeling: Here one approaches the problem with a high speed
computer and one or more mathematical models of the process
numerical values are provided for the various independent variables
and the models are used to compute predictions for the dependent
variables . Most techniques rely on the applied theory of plasticity with
various simplifying assumptions.

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General Parameters
While much metal-forming knowledge is specific to a given process, there are
certain features that are common to all processes, and these will be presented
here.
Friction and Lubrication: An important consideration in metal
deformation processes is the friction developed between the tool and the
workpiece. For some processes, more than 50% of the input energy is
spent in overcoming friction. The surface finish and dimensional precision
of the product are often directly related to friction. Changes in lubrication
can alter the mode of material flow during forming and in so doing, create
or eliminate defects, or modify the properties of the final product.
Production rate, tool design, tool wear and process optimization all
depend on the ability to determine and control process friction.
Temperature Concerns: In general, an increase in temperature brings out
a decrease in strength, an increase in ductility, and a decrease in the rate
of strain hardening - all effects that would tend to promote ease of
deformation.
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Forming processes tend to be classified as hot working, cold working or warm

working based on both the temperature and the material being formed.
Hot Working:
Elevated temperatures bring about a decrease in the yield strength of a
metal and an increase in ductility. At the temperatures of hot working,
recrystallization eliminates the effects of strain hardening, so there is
no significant increase in yield strength or hardness, or corresponding
decrease in ductility.
The plastic deformation of metals
above their recrystallization
temperature; it is important to note, however, that the recrystallization
temperature varies greatly with different materials
In addition, the elevated temperatures promote diffusion that can
remove or reduce chemical inhomogeneities; pores can be welded shut
or reduced in size during the deformation; and the metallurgical
structure can often be altered through recrystallization to improve the
final properties.
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Structure and Property Modification by Hot Working: When metals

solidify, particularly in the large sections that are typical cast strands,
coarse structures tend to form with a certain amount of chemical
segregation. The size of the grains is usually not uniform, and
undesirable grain shapes can be quite common, such as the columnar
grains. Small gas cavities or shrinkage porosity can also form during
solidification.
Temperature Variations: The success or failure of a hot deformation
process often depends on the ability to control the temperatures with
the workpiece. To minimize problems, it is desirable to keep the
workpiece temperatures as uniform as possible.
Cold Working:
Plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization temperature
is known as cold working. The process is usually performed at room
temperature, but mildly elevated temperatures may be used to provide
increased ductility and reduced strength.

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Advantages of cold working:

No heating is required
Strength, fatigue and wear properties are improved through strain hardening
Superior dimensional control is achieved, so little, if any, secondary machining
is required
Better surface finish is obtained
Products possess better reproducibility and interchangeability
Directional properties can be imparted
Contamination problems are minimized
Disadvantages of cold working:
Higher forces are required to initiate and complete the deformation
Less ductility is available
Intermediate anneals may be required to compensate for the loss of ductility
that accompanies strain hardening
Heavier and more powerful equipment is required
Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free
Imparted directional properties may be detrimental
Undesirable residual stresses may be produced
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Warm Working:

Deformation produced at temperatures intermediate to hot and cold

working.
Compared to cold working, it offers the advantages of reduced loads on the
tooling and equipment, increased material ductility, and a possible
reduction in the number of anneals due to a reduction in the amount of
strain hardening.
Compared to hot forming, the lower temperatures of warm working
produce less scaling and decarburization, and enable production of
products with better dimensional precision and smoother surfaces.
The warm regime generally requires less energy than hot working due to
the decreased energy in heating the workpiece, energy saved through
higher precision and the possible elimination of post forming heat
treatments.
Tools last longer, for while they must exert 25 to 60% higher forces, there
is less thermal shock and thermal fatigue.

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Stresses in Metal Forming

Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually compressive
Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
However, some forming processes
Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
Still others apply shear stresses
Material Properties in Metal Forming
Desirable material properties:
Low yield strength
High ductility
These properties are affected by temperature:
Ductility increases and yield strength
temperature is raised
Other factors:
Strain rate and friction
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decreases

when

work

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Basic Types of Deformation Processes

Bulk deformation Processes
Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Wire and bar drawing
Sheet metalworking
Cutting or Shearing
Bending
Deep drawing
Miscellaneous processes

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Extrusion
Rolling

Forging

Shearing

Drawing

Bulk deformation Processes

Bending
Sheet Metalworking

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Drawing

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LECTURE-02: BULK DEFORMATION

PROCESSES - ROLLING

Nikhil R. Dhar, Ph. D

Professor, IPE Department
BUET

Rolling
Rolling is the most widely used deformation process. It consists of passing
metal between two rollers, which exert compressive stresses, reducing the
metal thickness. Where simple shapes are to be made in large quantity,
rolling is the most economical process. Rolled products include sheets,
structural shapes and rails as well as intermediate shapes for wire drawing or
forging. Circular shapes, I beams and railway tracks are manufactured using
grooved rolls.

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Practically all metals, which are not used in cast form are reduced to some
standard shapes for subsequent processing.

Manufacturing companies producing metals in form of ingots which are

obtained by casting liquid metal into a square cross section.

Slab (500-1800 mm wide and 50-300 mm thick)

Billets (40 to 150 sq mm)

Blooms (150 to 400 sq mm)

Sometimes continuous casting methods are also used to cast the liquid
metal into slabs, billets or blooms.

These shapes are further processed through hot rolling, forging or

extrusion, to produce materials in standard form such as plates, sheets,
rods, tubes and structural sections.
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Sequence of operations

Schematic layout of
various flat and shape
rolling processes
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Basic Principles of Rolling

When a piece of metal is rolled in between two rolls, the thickness is reduced
as a result of the compressive stresses exerted by the rolls and it can be treated
as a two-dimensional deformation in the thickness and length directions
neglecting the width direction. This is due to the fact that the length of contact
between the rolls and workpiece is generally much smaller than the width of
the sheet passing through and the undeformed material on both sides of the
roll gap is restraining the lateral expansion along the width direction.

The metal piece experiences both vertical and horizontal stresses caused by the
compressive load from the rolls and the restrains by the portions of the metal
piece before and after the material in contact with the roll respectively.
As the rolls exert a vertical stress on the metal piece, the metal piece exerts the
same amount of stress back onto the rolls itself. As such the rolls are subjected
to elastic deformation due to this stress induced by the workpiece. As shown in
the figure below, the rolls in a 4-high rolling mill are subjected to four kinds of
deformation:
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Deflection of the back-up rolls,

Deflection of the work rolls,
Flattening of the work rolls caused by contact with the back-up rolls
and workpiece
Flattening of the back-up rolls caused by contact with the work rolls.

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Rolling is the process of reducing the thickess or changing the crosssection of a long workpiece by compressive forces applied through a set
of rolls. The rolling processes can be done by
Flat Rolling
Shape Rolling
Production of Seamless Tubing & Pipe
Flat Rolling:
Metal strip enters the roll gap
The strip is reduced in size by the metal rolls
The velocity of the strip is increased the metal strip is reduced in size
Factors affecting Rolling Process
Frictional Forces
Roll Force and Power Requirement

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Department of Industrial & Production Engineering

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Flat-Rolling Practice
Hot rolling
The initial break down of an ingot
Continuously cast slab
Structure may be brittle
Converts the cast structure to a wrought structure
Finer grains
Enhanced ductility
Reduction in defects
Continuous Casting
Is replacing traditional methods
Faster & better
Product of the first hot-rolling operation - Bloom or slab
Square cross section of 150mm (6in) on one side
Processed father by shape rolling
I-beams
Railroad rails
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Billets smaller than blooms and rolled into bars and rods
Cold rolling
carried out at room temperature
Produces sheet and strip metal
Better surface finish less scale
Pack rolling when two or more layers of metal are rolled together

Changes in grain structure during hot-rolling

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Rolling Defects in Sheets and Plates

The elastic deflection of the work rolls results in an uneven widthwise
distribution of the workpiece thickness in such a way where the thickness
is greater at the center of the width and smaller at the edges. In order to
solve the bending of the work rolls, several methods can be adopted.
Smaller work rolls are more prone to greater bending under high rollseparating forces from the vertical stresses induced by the workpiece.
As such, back-up rolls are often used to counter this phenomenon.
Another method to reduce or eliminate elastic roll deflection is to use
materials of high elastic modulus, such as sintered carbide, for the
work rolls.
A more common method to counter the effects of roll bending is the
usage of cambered rolls. The degree of cambering depends on the
width of the metal piece, flow stress of the material and the reduction
per pass. However certain problems arise with improper work rolls
cambering.
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Lack of camber or insufficient cambering of the work rolls results in

producing a workpiece that has a thicker center than the edge. The thicker
center implies that the edges are plastically elongated more than the center.
This induces a residual stress pattern of compression at the edges and tension
along the centerline of the workpiece (Figure a). The consequences of this
uneven distribution of stress within the workpiece can be centerline cracking
(Figure b), warping (Figure c) or edge wrinkling (Figure d) of the final metal
sheet.

Figure a

Figure d
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Figure b

Figure c
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In the case where the work rolls are over-cambered, the edges of the
workpiece will be thicker than the center and the residual stress pattern is
exactly the opposite of that of insufficient cambering, i.e. tension at the edges
and compression along the centerline (Figure e). Possible undesirable results
of the workpiece being produced in such a manner are edge cracking (Figure
f), splitting (Figure g) or centerline wrinkling (Figure h).

Figure e

Figure g
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Figure f

Figure h
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Schematic Illustration of Various Roll arrangements

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Schematic Illustration of various roll arrangements: (a) Two-high; (b) Three-high;

(c) Four-high; (d) Cluster mill
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Shape-Rolling Operations
Various shapes can be produced by shape rolling
Bars
Channels
I-beams
Railroad rails
Roll-pass design requires considerable experience in order to avoid
external and internal defects

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Stages in Shape Rolling of an H-section part. Various other structural

sections such as channels and I-beams, are rolled by this kind of process.

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Ring Rolling
A thick ring is expanded into a large diameter ring
The ring is placed between the two rolls
One of which is driven
The thickness is reduced by bringing the rolls together
The ring shaped blank my be produced by:
Cutting from plate
Piercing
Cutting from a thick walled pipe
Various shapes can be produced by shaped rolls
Typical applications of ring rolling:
Large rings for rockets
Gearwheel rims
Ball-bearing and roller-bearing races
Can be carried out at room temperature
Has short production time
Close dimensional tolerances
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Thread Rolling
Cold-forming process
Straight or tapered threads are formed on round rods by passing the pipe
though dies
Typical products include
Screws and Bolts
Threads are rolled in the soft condition
Threads may then be heat treated, and subjected to final machining or
grinding
Uncommon or special-purpose threads are machined

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Production of Seamless Pipe & Tubing

Rotary tube piercing (Mannesmann process)

Hot-working process

Produces long thick-walled seamless pipe

Carried out by using an arrangement of rotating rolls

Tensile stresses develop at the center of the bar when it is subjected to

compressive forces

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Department of Industrial & Production Engineering

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Continuous Casting & Integrated Mills and Minimills

Continuous casting
Advantages
Highly automated
Reduces product cost
Companies are converting over to this type of casting
Integrated Mills utilize everything from the production of hot metal to the
casting and rolling of the finished product
Minimills
Scrap metal is melted
Cast continuously
Rolled directly into specific lines of products
Each minimill produces one kind of rolled product
Rod
Bar
Structural steel
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Continuous Casting
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Salient Points about Rolling

Rolling is the most extensively used metal forming process and its share is
roughly 90%

The material to be rolled is drawn by means of friction into the two

revolving roll gap
The compressive forces applied by the rolls reduce the thickness of the
material or changes its cross sectional area
The geometry of the product depend on the contour of the roll gap
Roll materials are cast iron, cast steel and forged steel because of high
strength and wear resistance requirements
Hot rolls are generally rough so that they can bite the work, and cold rolls
are ground and polished for good work finish
In rolling the crystals get elongated in the rolling direction. In cold rolling
crystal more or less retain the elongated shape but in hot rolling they start
reforming after coming out from the deformation zone
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The peripheral velocity of rolls at entry exceeds that of the strip, which is
dragged in if the interface friction is high strip enough.

In the deformation zone the thickness of the strip gets reduced and it
elongates. This increases the linear speed of the strip at the exit.
Thus there exist a neutral point where roll speed and strip speeds are
equal. At this point the direction of the friction reverses.
When the angle of contact exceeds the friction angle the rolls cannot draw
fresh strip
Roll torque, power etc. increase with increase in roll work contact length
or roll radius

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LECTURE-03 :BULK DEFORMATION

PROCESSES - FORGING

Nikhil R. Dhar, Ph. D

Professor, IPE Department
BUET

Forging
Forging is a deformation process in which the work is compressed between
two dies, using either impact or gradual pressure to form the part. Today,
forging is an important industrial process used to make a variety of highstrength components for automotive, aerospace, and other applications. These
components include engine crankshafts and connecting rods, gears, aircraft
structural components, and jet engine turbine parts. In addition, steel and
other basic metals industries use forging to establish the basic forms of large
components that are subsequently machined to final shape and dimensions.
Either impact or gradual pressure is used in forging. The distinction derives
more form the type of equipment used than differences in process technology.
A forging machine that applies an impact load is called a forging hammer,
while one that applies gradual pressure is called a forging press. Another
difference among forging operations is the degree to which the flow of the
work metal is constrained by the dies. By this classification there are three
types of forging operations like
Open-die forging
Impression or Close die forging
Flashless Forging.
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Open-Die Forging
Most forging processes begin with open die forging. Open
die forging is hot mechanical forming between flat or
shaped dies in which the metal flow is not completely
restricted. The stock is laid on a flat anvil while the flat
face of the forging hammer is struck against the stock. The
equipment may range from the anvil and hammer to giant
hydraulic presses.
Open-die hot forging is an important industrial process.
Shapes generated by open-die operations are simple;
examples include shafts, disks, and rings. In some
applications, the work must often be manipulated (for
example, rotating in steps) to effect the desired shape
change. Open-die forging process is shown in the following
Figure. The skill of the human operator is a factor in the
success of these operations. Operations classified as opendie forging or related operations include:

Fullering
Edging, and
Cogging
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Fullering is a forging operation performed to

reduce the cross section and redistribute the metal
in a workpart in preparation for subsequent shape
forging. It is accomplished by dies with convex
surfaces. Fullering die cavities are often used
designed into multicavity impression dies so that
the starting bar can be rough formed before final
shaping.

Fullering

Edging

Edging is similar to fullering, except that the dies

have concave surfaces.
Cogging operation consists of a sequence of forging
compressions along the length of a workpiece to
reduce cross section and increase length. It is used
in the steel industry to produce blooms and slabs
from cast ingots. It is accomplished using open dies
with flat or slightly contoured surfaces. The term
incremental forging is sometimes used for this
process.
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Cogging

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Advantages and Limitations

Advantages
Simplest type of forging
Dies are inexpensive
Wide range of part sizes, ranging from 30-1000lbs
Good strength qualities
Generally good for small quantities
Limitations
Simple shapes only
difficult to hold close tolerances
machining necessary
low production rate
poor utilization of material
high skill required

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Impression or Close Die Forging

In
impression-die
forging,
so0metimes called closed die forging,
the die surfaces contain a shape or
impression that is imparted to the
work during compression, thus
constraining metal flow to a
significant degree as shown in
following Figure. In this type of
operation, a portion of the work metal
flows beyond the die impression to
form flash and must be trimmed off
later. The process is shown in the
following Figure as a three step
sequence. The raw workpiece is
shown as a cylindrical part similar to
that used in the previous open-die
operation.
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Advantages and Limitations

Advantages
Good utilization of material
Better properties than Open Die Forgings
Dies can be made of several pieces and inserts to create more advanced
parts
Presses can go up to 50,000 ton capacities
Good dimensional accuracy
High production rates
Good reproducibility
Limitations
High die cost
Machining is often necessary
Economical for large quantities, but not for small quantities

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Flashless Forging
Flashless forging is sometimes called closed-die forging in
industry terminology. However, there is a technical distinction
between impression-die forging and true closed-die forging. The
distinction is that in closed-die forging the raw workpiece is
completely contained within the die cavity during compression,
and no flash is formed. This process is shown in the following
figure. Flashless forging imposes requirements on process control
that are more demanding than impression-die forging. Most
important is that the work volume must equal the space in the die
cavity within a very close tolerance. If the starting blank is too
large, excessive pressures may cause damage to the die or even the
press. If the blank is too small, the cavity will not be filled.
Because of the special demands made on flashless forging, the
process lends itself best to part geometries that are usually simple
and symmetrical and to work materials such as aluminum and
magnesium and their alloys. Flashless forging is often classified as
a precision forging process.
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Advantages and Limitations

Advantages

Close dimensional tolerances

Very thin webs and flanges are possible
Very little or no machining is required
Little or no scrap after part is produced
Cheaper to produce from less finishing operations and faster
production
Typical applications are gears, connecting rods, and turbine blades
Common materials used in precision forging are aluminum,
magnesium alloys, steel, and titanium

Limitations

High forging forces

Thus higher capacity equipment is required
Intricate dies leading to increased die cost
Precise control over the Blanks volume and shape
Accurate positioning of the Blank in the die cavity

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Other Forging Operations

Coining: Coining is a forging
process by which very fine and
intricate details can be created
on the surface of a metal work
piece. Coining may be used to
control surface quality and
detail on parts. One common
use of coining, as the name
suggests, is in the production of
coins.
This is a flashless, precision forging operation, that due to the required
accuracy of the process, is performed cold. Lubrication is not used, since any
substance between the die and work would hinder the reproduction of the
most accurate details that are to be formed on the work's surface. In the
coining process, a large amount of force is exerted on the forging, over a short
distance. Mechanical presses are often used for these operations.
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Upsetting: Upsetting is a deformation operation in which a cylindrical

workpart is increased in diameter and reduced in length. However, as an
industrial operation, it can also be performed as closed-die forging, as shown
in the following Figure. Upsetting is widely used in the fastener industry to
form the heads of nails, bolts, and similar hardware products.

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Heading: The following Figure illustrates a variety of heading applications,

indicating various possible die configurations. Owing to these types of
applications, more parts are produced by upsetting than any other forging
operation. It is performed as a mass production operation - cold, warm, or
hot - on special upset forging machines, called headers or formers.
Care must be taken so that work piece does not buckle
Can be highly automated

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Swaging and Radial Forging: Swaging and radial forging are forging
processes used to educe the diameter of a tube or solid rod. Swaging is often
performed on the end of a workpiece to create a tapered section. The swaging
process shown is accomplished by means of rotating dies that hammer a
workpiece radially inward to taper it as the workpiece is fed into the dies.
Radial forging is similar to swaging in its action against the work and is
used to create similar shapes. The difference is that in radial forging the dies
do not rotate around the workpiece; instead , the work is rotated at it feeds
into the hammering dies.

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Roll Forging: Roll forging is a deformation process used to reduce the cross section
of a cylindrical (or rectangular) workpiece by passing it through a set of opposing rolls
that have grooves matching the desired shape of the part. The typical operation is
shown in the following Figure. Roll forging is generally classified as a forging process,
even though it utilizes rolls. The rolls do not turn continuously in roll forging, but
rotate through only a portion of one revolution corresponding to the desired
deformation to be accomplished on the part. Roll-forged parts are generally stronger
and possess favorable grain structure compared to competing processes, such as
machining, that might be used to produce the same part geometry.

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Forging Machines
Equipment used in forging consists of forging machines, classified as
forging hammers and presses, and forging dies, which are the
special tooling used in these machines. In addition, auxiliary equipment is
needed, such as furnaces to heat the work, mechanical devices to load and
unload the work, and trimming stations to cut away the flash in
impression-die forging.
Forging Hammers: Forging hammers operate by applying an impact
load against the work. The term drop hammer is often used for these
machines, owing to the means of delivering impact energy. Drop hammers
are most frequently used or impression-die forging. The upper portion of
the forging die is attached to the ram, and the lower portion to the anvil.
In the operation, the work is placed on the lower die, and the ram is lifted
and then dropped. When the upper die strikes the work, the impact energy
causes the part to assume the form of the die cavity.

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Drop hammers can be classified as

gravity drop hammers and power
drop hammers.
Gravity drop hammers achieve
their energy by the falling weight of a
heavy ram. The force of the blow is
determined by the height of the drop
and the weight of the ram.
Power drop hammers accelerate
the ram by pressurized air or steam.
One disadvantage of the drop
hammers is that a large amount of the
impact energy is transmitted through
the anvil and into the floor of the
building. This results in a great deal
of vibration for the surrounding area.
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Gravity drop
hammers

Power drop
hammers
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Forging Presses: Presses apply gradual pressure, rather than sudden

impact, to accomplish the forging operation. Forging presses include
Mechanical Presses
Hydraulic Presses, and
Screw Presses

Mechanical presses typically operate by means of eccentrics, cranks, or

knuckle joints, which convert the rotating motion of a drive motor into the
translational motion of the ram. These mechanisms are very similar to
those used in stamping presses. Mechanical presses typically achieve very
high forces at the bottom of the forging stroke.

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Eccentric Press

Crank Press

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Knuckle Joint Press

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Hydraulic presses: The basic working principles

of the hydraulic press are simple, and rely on
differences in fluid pressure. Fluid is pumped into
the cylinder below the piston, this causes the fluid
pressure
under
the
piston
to
increase.
Simultaneously fluid is pumped out of the top
channel, causing the fluid pressure above the piston
to decrease. A higher pressure of the fluid below the
piston than the fluid above it causes the piston to
rise. In the next step, fluid is pumped out from
below the piston, causing the pressure under the
piston to decrease. Simultaneously fluid is pumped
into the cylinder from the top, this increases the
fluid pressure above the piston. A higher pressure
of the fluid above the piston, than the fluid below it,
moves the piston downward.
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Screw Presses: Forging screw presses

use the rotational energy of a motor to
turn a large screw. Typically a friction disk
is used to translate the force from the
drive shaft to the screw's head. The screw
pushes a ram with great mechanical
advantage. Screw presses are similar to
hydraulic presses in that they are
relatively slow and require a longer
contact with the work. Screw presses are
also similar to hydraulic presses in that
they can produce a constant amount of
force over a long stroke. Some screw press
machines in modern industry can produce
31,000 tons, (62,000,000 lbs), of force.
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LECTURE-04: BULK DEFORMATION

PROCESSES - EXTRUSION

Nikhil R. Dhar, Ph. D

Professor, IPE Department
BUET

Extrusion Process
Extrusion is a process that forces metal or plastic to flow through a shaped
opening die. The material is plastically deformed under the compression in the
die cavity. The process can be carried out hot or cold depending on the ductility
of the material.
The tooling cost and setup is expensive for the extrusion process, but the
actual manufactured part cost is inexpensive when produced in significant
quantities.
Materials that can be extrudes are aluminum, copper, steel, magnesium, and
plastics. Aluminum, copper and plastics are most suitable for extrusion.

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Classification of Extrusion Processes

Depending on the ductility of the material used extrusions can be caries out
various ways:
Hot Extrusion: Extrusion carried out at elevated temperatures
Forward or direct extrusion and
Backward or indirect extrusion
Cold Extrusion: Extrusion carried out a ambient temperature. Often
combined with forging operations
Hydrostatic Extrusion: Pressure is applied by a piston through
incompressible fluid medium surrounding the billet

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Hot Extrusion
Extrusion is carried out at elevated temperatures-for metals and alloys that do not have
sufficient ductility at room temperature, or in order to reduce the forces required. In this
extrusion, die wear can be excessive and cooling of the hot billet in the chamber can be a
problem, which results in highly non-uniform deformation. To reduce cooling of the billet
and to prolong die life, extrusion dies may be preheated, as is done in hot forging
operations. Hot billet causes the following problems:
Because the billet is hot, it develops an oxide film unless heated in an inertatmosphere furnace. This film can be abrasive and it can affect the flow pattern of
the material.
It also results in an extruded product that may be unacceptable in cases in which
good surface finish is important.
In order to avoid the formation of oxide films on the hot extruded product, the dummy
block placed ahead of the ram is made a little smaller in diameter than the container. As a
result, a thin cylindrical shell, consisting mainly of the oxidized layer, is left in the
container. The extruded product is thus free of oxides; the skull is later removed from the
chamber. Hot extrusion can be done by
Forward or direct extrusion process
Backward or indirect extrusion process
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Direct Extrusion: In this extrusion process, the heated billet is placed in the container. A
ram towards the die pushes it. The metal is subjected to plastic deformation, slides along
the walls of the container and is forced to flow through the die opening. At the end of the
extruding operation, a small piece of metal, called butt-end scrap, remains in the container
and cannot be extruded.
Indirect Extrusion: For the production of solid part, the die is mounted on the end of a
hollow ram and enters the container as shown in the following Figure, the outer end of
container being closed by a closure plate. As the ram travels, the die applies pressure on the
billet and the deformed metal flows through the die opening in the direction opposite to the
ram motions and the product is extruded through the hollow ram. In indirect extrusion,
there is practically no slip of billet with respect to the container walls.

Extrusion

Direct Extrusion
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Indirect Extrusion
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Cold Extrusion
This process is similar to hot extrusion except that the metals worked possess the
plasticity necessary for successful forming without heating them. Usually, these metals
have a high degree of ductility. Cold extrusion is also done to improve the physical
properties of a metal and to produce a finished part. Cold extrusion is done mostly on
vertical mechanical presses because they are fast and simple. The method is fast,
wastes no or little materials and gives higher accuracy and tolerance. The widely
employed cold extrusion method is Impact extrusion. Impact extrusion is
performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes than conventional extrusion. It is for
making discrete parts. For making thin wall-thickness items by permitting large
deformation at high speed.

Backward impact extrusion

Forward impact extrusion Combined impact extrusion

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Hydrostatic Extrusion
With the hydrostatic extrusion the billet in the container is
surrounded with fluid media, is called also hydrostatics
medium. The container space is sealed on the stem side and
on the die side, so that the penetrating stem can compress the
hydrostatics medium on pressing power, without the stem
touches the billet. Also during extrusion the stem does not
touch the billet. The rate, with which the billet moves when
pressing in the direction of the die, is thus not equal to the
ram speed, but is proportional to the displaced hydrostatics
medium volume. For this process it is substantial that the
billet seals the container space on applying the pressing
power in the hydrostatics medium against the die, since
otherwise the pressing power cannot be developed.

It is thus a conical die and a careful sharpening billet a prerequisite of the process.
Since the billet does not touch the container's wall, but between billet and container
hydrostatics medium exists, prevails negligibly small friction of a liquid at the billet
surface. Only the friction between billet and die is of importance for the deforming
process. Likewise pressing of the billet is unnecessary at the press begin.
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Tube-Drawing
Tube-drawing operations, with and without an internal mandrel. Note that a variety of
diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced from the same initial tube stock.

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Extrusion Defects
Surface Cracking: Cracking on billet materials occurs due to
temperature, friction, punch speed.
High Temperatures
Crack from along the grain boundaries. Typically occur in
aluminum, magnesium, zinc alloys
Cold Temperatures
Caused by sticking of billet material at the die land
Known has the Bamboo Defect because of its similar appearance
to bamboo
Pipe: The metal-flow pattern tends to draw oxides and impurities toward
the center of the billet
Internal Cracking: Center of extruded product develops cracks.
Attributed to a state of hydrostatic tinsel stress
Cracks increase with increasing die angle, impurities, and decreasing
extrusion ratio and friction
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Advantages of Extrusion Processes

The range of extruded items is very wide. Cross-sectional shapes not possible by
rolling can be extruded, such as those with re-entrant sections.
No time is lost when changing shapes since the dies may by readily removed and
replaced.
Dimensional accuracy of extruded parts is generally superior to that of rolled ones.
In extrusion, the ductility of the metals is higher as the metal in the container is in
composite compression, this advantage being of particular importance in working
poorly plastic metals and alloys.
Very large reductions are possible as compared to rolling, for which the reduction
per pass is generally 2.
Automation in extrusion is simpler as items are produced in a single passing.
Small parts in large quantities can be made. For example, to produce a simple
pump gear, a long gear is extruded and then sliced into a number of individual
gears.
It does not need draft or flash to trim and needless machining as it is more accurate
than forging.
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Disadvantages of Extrusion Processes

Process waste in extrusion is higher than in rolling, where it is only 1 to 3%
In-homogeneity in structure and properties of an extruded product is
greater due to different flows of the axial and the outer layers of blanks.
Service life of extrusion tooling is shorter because of high contact stresses
and slip rates.
Relatively high tooling costs, being made from costly alloy steel.
In productivity, extrusion is much inferior to rolling, particularly to its
continuous varieties.
Cost of extrusion are generally greater as compared to other techniques

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Applications of Extrusion Processes

Extrusion is more widely used in the manufacture of solid and hollow
sections from poorly plastic non-ferrous metals and their alloys
(aluminum, copper, brass and bronze etc.)
Steel and other ferrous alloys can also be successfully processed with the
development of molten-glass lubricants.
Manufacture of sections and pipes of complex configuration.
Medium and small batch production
Manufacture of parts of high dimensional accuracy
The range of extruded items is very wide: rods from 3 to 250 mm in
diameter, pipes of 20 to 400 mm in diameter and wall thickness of 1 mm
and above and more complicated shapes which can not be obtained by
other mechanical methods.

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LECTURE-05: SHEET METAL FORMING

PROCESSES

Nikhil R. Dhar, Ph. D

Professor, IPE Department
BUET

Introduction
Sheet metal forming is a grouping of many
complementary processes that are used to
form sheet metal parts. One or more of these
processes is used to take a flat sheet of ductile
metal, and mechanically apply deformation
forces that alter the shape of the material.
Before deciding on the processes, one should
determine whether a particular sheet metal
can be formed into the desired shape without
failure. The sheet metal operations done on a
press may be grouped into two categories,
cutting (shearing) operations and
forming operations.
Sheet Metal Forming

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Cutting (Shearing) Operations

In this operation, the workpiece is stressed beyond its ultimate strength. The
stresses caused in the metal by the applied forces will be shearing stresses.
The cutting operations include:
Punching (Piercing)
Blanking
Notching
Perforating
Slitting
Lancing
Parting
Shaving
Trimming
Fine blanking

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Punching (Piercing): It is a cutting operation by which various shaped holes are

made in sheet metal. Punching is similar to blanking except that in punching, the
hole is the desired product, the material punched out to form the hole being waste.
Blanking: Blanking is the operation of cutting a flat shape sheet metal. The article
punched out is called the blank and is the required product of the operation. The
hole and metal left behind is discarded as waste.

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Notching: This is cutting operation by which metal pieces are cut from the edge of a sheet,
strip or blank.
Perforating: This is a process by which multiple holes which are very small and close
together are cut in flat work material.
Slitting: It refers to the operation of making incomplete holes in a workpiece.
Lancing: This is a cutting operation in which a hole is partially cut and then one side is bent
down to form a sort of tab. Since no metal is actually removed, there will be no scrap.
Parting: Parting involves cutting a sheet metal strip by a punch with two cutting edges that
match the opposite sides of the blank.

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Shaving: The edge of blanked parts is generally rough, uneven and unsquare.
Accurate dimensions of the part are obtained by removing a thin strip of metal
along the edges.
Trimming: This operation consists of cutting unwanted excess material from the
periphery of previously formed components.
Fine blanking: Fine blanking is a operation used to blank sheet metal parts with
close tolerances and smooth, straight edges in one step.

(a) Shaving a sheared edge. (b) Shearing and

shaving, combined in one stroke.

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Fine blanking
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Shearing Dies
Because the formability of a sheared part can be influenced by the quality of its sheared
edges, clearance control is important. In practice, clearances usually range between 2% and
8% of the sheets thickness; generally, the thicker the sheet, the larger is the clearance (as
much as 10%). However, the smaller the clearance, the better is the quality of the edge.
Some common shearing dies are describe below:
Punch and Die Shapes: As the surfaces of the punch and die are flat; thus, the punch
force builds up rapidly during shearing, because the entire thickness of the sheet is
sheared at the same time. However, the area being sheared at any moment can be
controlled be beveling the punch and die surfaces, as shown in the following Figure.
This geometry is particularly suitable for shearing thick blanks, because it reduces the
total shearing force.

Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.

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Compound Dies: Several operations on the same strip may be performed in one
stroke with a compound die in one station. These operations are usually limited to
relatively simple shearing because they are somewhat slow and the dies are more
expensive than those for individual shearing operations.

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Progressive Dies: Parts requiring multiple operations, such as punching,

blanking and notching are made at high production rates in progressive dies. The
sheet metal is fed through a coil strip and a different operation is performed at the
same station with each stroke of a series of punches.

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Transfer Dies: In a transfer die setup, the sheet metal undergoes different
operations at different stations, which are arranged along a straight line or a
circular path. After each operation, the part is transfer to the next operation for
additional operations.

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Forming Operations
In this operation, the stresses are below the ultimate strength of the metal. In this
operation, there is no cutting of the metal but only the contour of the workpiece is
changed to get the desired product. The forming operations include:

Bending: In this operation, the material in the form of flat sheet or

strip, is uniformly strained around a linear axis which lies in the
neutral plane and perpendicular to the lengthwise direction of the
sheet or metal. The bending operations include:
V-bending
Edge bending
Roll bending
Air bending
Flanging
Dimpling

Press break forming

Beading
Roll forming
Tube forming
Bulging
Stretch forming

Drawing: This is a process of a forming a flat workpiece into a hollow shape by means
of a punch, which causes the blank to flow into die cavity.
Squeezing: Under this operation, the metal is caused to flow to all portions of a die
cavity under the action of compressive forces.
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Bending of Flat Sheet and Plate

V-bending

Edge bending

Bending in 4-slide machine

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Roll bending

Air bending
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Flanging : Flanging is a process of bending the edges of sheet metals to 90o

Shrink flanging subjected to compressive hoop stress.
Stretch flanging subjected to tensile stresses

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Dimpling:

First hole is punched and expanded into a flange

Flanges can be produced by piercing with shaped punch
When bend angle < 90 degrees as in fitting conical ends its called
flanging

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Press Break Forming: Sheet metal or plate can be bent easily with simple
fixtures using a press. Long and relatively narrow pieces are usually bent in a press
break. This machine utilizes long dies in a mechanical or hydraulic press and is
suitable for small production runs. The tooling is simple and adaptable to a wide
variety of shapes.

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Beading: In beading the edge of the sheet metal is bent into the cavity of a die.
The bead gives stiffness to the part by increasing the moment on inertia of the
edges. Also, it improves the appearance of the part and eliminates exposed sharp
edges

(a) Bead forming with a single die

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(b) Bead forming with two dies, in a press brake.

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Roll Forming: For bending continuous lengths of sheet metal and for large
production runs, roll forming is used. The metal strip is bent in stages by passing it
through a series of rolls.

Roll-forming process

Stages in roll forming of a sheet-metal door frame. In Stage 6, the rolls may be shaped as in A or B.
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Bulging: The basic forming process of bulging involves placing tabular, conical or
curvilinear part into a split-female die and expanding it with, say, a polyurethane plug.
The punch is then retracted, the plug returns to its original shape and the part is
removed by opening the dies.

(b) Production of fittings for plumbing by

expanding tubular blanks with internal pressure.

(a) Bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug.

Water pitchers can be made by this method
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(c) Manufacturing of Bellows.

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Rubber Forming: In rubber forming , one of the dies in a set is made of flexible
material, such as a rubber or polyurethane membrane. Polyurethanes are used
widely because of their resistance to abrasion, long fatigue life and resistance to
damage by burrs or sharp edges of the sheet blank. In bending and embossing
sheet metal by the rubber forming method, as shown in the following Figure, the
female die is replaced with a rubber pad. Parts can also be formed with laminated
sheets of various nonmetallic material or coatings.

Examples of the bending and the embossing of sheet metal with a metal
punch and with a flexible pad serving as the female die.
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Hydroform Process: In hydroforming or fluid forming process, the pressure

over the rubber membrane is controlled throughout the forming cycle, with
maximum pressure reaching 100 Mpa. This procedure allows close control of the
part during forming to prevent wrinkling or tearing. Hydroforming processes have
the following advantages:
Low tooling cost
Flexibility and ease of operation
Low die wear
No damage to the surface of the sheet and
Capability to form complex shapes.

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Explosive Forming Process: Explosive forming, is distinguished from

conventional forming in that the punch or diaphragm is replaced by an explosive
charge. The explosives used are generally high explosive chemicals, gaseous
mixtures, or propellants. There are two techniques of high explosive forming such
as
Contact technique and
Stand -off technique.

Contact Technique: The explosive charge in the

form of cartridge is held in direct contact with the
work piece while the detonation is initiated. The
detonation builds up extremely high pressures (upto
30,000MPa) on the surface of the work piece
resulting in metal deformation, and possible
fracture. The process is used often for bulging tubes.

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Standoff Technique: The sheet metal work piece blank is clamped over a die
and the assembly is lowered into a tank filled with water. The air in the die is
pumped out. The explosive charge is placed at some predetermined distance from
the work piece. On detonation of the explosive, a pressure pulse of very high
intensity is produced. A gas bubble is also produced which expands spherically and
then collapses. When the pressure pulse impinges against the work piece, the
metal is deformed into the die with as high velocity as 120 m/s.

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Deep Drawing: Drawing operation is the process of forming a flat piece of

material (blank) into a hollow shape by means of a punch, which causes the blank
to flow into the die-cavity. Round sheet metal block is placed over a circular die
opening and held in a place with blank holder & punch forces down into the die
cavity. Wrinkling occurs at the edges.

Deep-drawing process on a circular sheet-metal blank

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Ironing Process: If the thickness of the sheet as it enters the die cavity is more
than the clearance between the punch and the die, the thickness will have to be
reduced; this effect is known as ironing. Ironing produces a cup with constant wall
thickness thus, the smaller the clearance, the greater is the amount of ironing.

Schematic illustration of the ironing process. Note that the cup wall
is thinner than its bottom. All beverage cans without seams are
ironed, generally in three steps, after being deep drawn into a cup.
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Redrawing Operations: Containers or shells that are too difficult to draw in one operation
are generally redrawn. In reverse redrawing, shown in following Figure, the metal is
subjected to bending in the direction opposite to its original bending configuration. This
reversal in bending results in strain softening. This operation requires lower forces than
direct redrawing and the material behaves in a more ductile manner.

Conventional redrawing
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Reverse redrawing.
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Beverage Can

Steps in
Manufacturing an
Aluminum Can

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Aluminum Two-Piece Beverage Cans

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THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering