Sensors and Transducers

Simple standalone electronic circuits can be made to repeatedly flash a light or play a musical note, but in order
for an electronic circuit or system to perform any useful task or function it needs to be able to communicate with
the "real world" whether this is by reading an input signal from an "ON/OFF" switch or by activating some form of
output device to illuminate a single light. In other words, an electronic circuit or system must be able to "do"
something and Transducers are the perfect component for this.
The word "Transducer" is the collective term used for both Sensors which can be used to sense a wide range of
different energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant energy, thermal or magnetic energy etc,
and Actuators which can be used to switch voltages or currents.
There are many different types of both analogue and digital input and output devices available to choose from.
The type of input or output transducer being used, really depends upon the type of signal or process being
"Sensed" or "Controlled" but we can define a transducer as a device that converts one physical quantity into
another.
Devices which perform an "Input" function are commonly called Sensors because they "sense" a physical
change in some characteristic that changes in response to some excitation, for example heat or force and covert
that into an electrical signal. Devices which perform an "Output" function are generally called Actuators and are
used to control some external device, for example movement or sound.
Electrical Transducers are used to convert energy of one kind into energy of another kind, so for example, a
microphone (input device) converts sound waves into electrical signals for the amplifier to amplify (a process),
and a loudspeaker (output device) converts these electrical signals back into sound waves and an example of
this type of simple Input / Output (I/O) system is given below.

Simple Input / Output System using Sound Transducers

There are many different types of transducers available in the marketplace, and the choice of which one to use
really depends upon the quantity being measured or controlled, with the more common types given in the table
below.

Common Transducers

Quantity being
Measured

Input Device
(Sensor)

Output Device
(Actuator)

Light Level

Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)

Photodiode
Photo-transistor
Solar Cell

Lights & Lamps

LED's & Displays
Fibre Optics

Temperature

Thermocouple

Heater

Thermistor
Thermostat
Resistive temperature detectors (RTD)

Fan

Force/Pressure

Strain Gauge
Pressure Switch
Load Cells

Lifts & Jacks

Electromagnet
Vibration

Position

Potentiometer
Encoders
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch
LVDT

Motor
Solenoid
Panel Meters

Speed

Tacho-generator
Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler
Doppler Effect Sensors

AC and DC Motors
Stepper Motor
Brake

Sound

Carbon Microphone
Piezo-electric Crystal

Bell
Buzzer
Loudspeaker

Input type transducers or sensors, produce a voltage or signal output response which is proportional to the
change in the quantity that they are measuring (the stimulus). The type or amount of the output signal depends
upon the type of sensor being used. But generally, all types of sensors can be classed as two kinds,
either passive or active.
Active sensors require some form of external power to operate, called an excitation signal which is used by the
sensor to produce the output signal. Active sensors are self-generating devices because their own properties
change in response to an external effect producing for example, an output voltage of 1 to 10v DC or an output
current such as 4 to 20mA DC.
A good example of an active sensor is a strain gauge which is basically a pressure-sensitive resistive bridge
network. It does not generate an electrical signal itself, but by passing a current through it (excitation signal), its
electrical resistance can be measured by detecting variations in the current and/or voltage across it relating these
changes to the amount of strain or force being applied.
Unlike an active sensor, a passive sensor does not need any additional energy source and directly generates an
electric signal in response to an external stimulus. For example, a thermocouple or photodiode. Passive sensors
are direct sensors which change their physical properties, such as resistance, capacitance or inductance etc. As
well as analogue sensors, Digital Sensors produce a discrete output representing a binary number or digit such
as a logic level "0" or a logic level "1".

Analogue and Digital Sensors

Analogue Sensors
Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally proportional to the quantity
being measured. Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc are all
analogue quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature. For example, the temperature of a liquid can be
measured using a thermometer or thermocouple which continuously responds to temperature changes as the
liquid is heated up or cooled down.

Thermocouple used to produce an Analogue Signal

Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals that are changing smoothly and continuously over time. These
signals tend to be very small in value from a few mico-volts (uV) to serveral milli-volts (mV), so some form of
amplification is required. Then circuits which measure analogue signals usually have a slow response and/or low
accuracy. Also analogue signals can be easily converted into digital type signals for use in microcontroller
systems by the use of analogue-to-digital converters, or ADC's.

Digital Sensors
As its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a discrete output signal or voltage that is a digital representation of
the quantity being measured. Digital sensors produce a Binary output signal in the form of a logic "1" or a logic
"0", ("ON" or "OFF"). This means then that a digital signal only produces discrete (non-continuous) values which
may be outputted as a single "bit", (serial transmission) or by combining the bits to produce a single "byte" output
(parallel transmission).

Light Sensor used to produce an Digital Signal

In our simple example above, the speed of the rotating shaft is measured by using a digital LED/Opto-detector
sensor. The disc which is fixed to a rotating shaft (for example, from a motor or robot wheels), has a number of

transparent slots within its design. As the disc rotates with the speed of the shaft, each slot passes by the sensor
inturn producing an output pulse representing a logic "1" or logic "0" level.
These pulses are sent to a register of counter and finally to an output display to show the speed or revolutions of
the shaft. By increasing the number of slots or "windows" within the disc more output pulses can be produced for
each revolution of the shaft. The advantage of this is that a greater resolution and accuracy is acheived as
fractions of a revolution can be detected. Then this type of sensor arrangement could also be used for positional
control with one of the discs slots representing a reference position.
Compared to analogue signals, digital signals or quantities have very high accuracies and can be both measured
and "sampled" at a very high clock speed. The accuracy of the digital signal is proportional to the number of bits
used to represent the measured quantity. For example, using a processor of 8 bits, will produce an accuracy of
0.195% (1 part in 512). While using a processor of 16 bits gives an accuracy of 0.0015%, (1 part in 65,536) or
130 times more accurate. This accuracy can be maintained as digital quantities are manipulated and processed
very rapidly, millions of times faster than analogue signals.
In most cases, sensors and more specifically analogue sensors generally require an external power supply and
some form of additional amplification or filtering of the signal in order to produce a suitable electrical signal which
is capable of being measured or used. One very good way of achieving both amplification and filtering within a
single circuit is to use Operational Amplifiers as seen before.

Signal Conditioning
As we saw in the Operational Amplifier tutorial, op-amps can be used to provide amplification of signals
when connected in either inverting or non-inverting configurations. The very small analogue signal voltages
produced by a sensor such as a few mill-volts or even Pico-volts can be amplified many times over by a simple
op-amp circuit to produce a much larger voltage signal of say 5v or 5mA that can then be used as an input signal
to a microprocessor or analogue-to-digital based system. Therefore, an amplification of a sensors output signal
has to be made with a voltage gain up to 10,000 and a current gain up to 1,000,000 with the amplification of the
signal being linear with the output signal being an exact reproduction of the input, just changed in amplitude.
Then amplification is part of signal conditioning. So when using analogue sensors, generally some form of
amplification (Gain), impedance matching, isolation between the input and output or perhaps filtering (frequency
selection) may be required before the signal can be used and this is conveniently performed by Operational
Amplifiers.
Also, when measuring very small physical changes the output signal of a sensor can become "contaminated"
with unwanted signals or voltages that prevent the actual signal required from being measured correctly. These
unwanted signals are called "Noise". This Noise or Interference can be either greatly reduced or even eliminated
by using signal conditioning or filtering techniques as we discussed in the Active Filter tutorial.
By using either a Low Pass, or a High Pass or even Band Pass filter the "bandwidth" of the noise can be
reduced to leave just the output signal required. For example, many types of inputs from switches, keyboards or
manual controls are not capable of changing state rapidly and so low-pass filter can be used. When the
interference is at a particular frequency, for example mains frequency, narrow band reject or Notch filters can be
used to produce frequency selective filters.

Typical Op-amp Filters

Were some random noise still remains after filtering it may be necessary to take several samples and then
average them to give the final value so increasing the signal-to-noise ratio.Either way, both amplification and
filtering play an important role in interfacing microprocessor and electronics based systems to "real world"
conditions.
In the next tutorial about Sensors, we will look at Positional Sensors which measure the position and/or
displacement of physical objects meaning the movement from one position to another for a specific distance or
angle.

Position Sensors
In this tutorial we will look at a variety of devices which are classed as Input Devices and are therefore called
"Sensors" and in particular those sensors which are Positional in nature which means that they are referenced
either to or from some fixed point or position. As their name implies, these types of sensors provide a "position"
feedback.
One method of determining a position is to use either "distance", which could be the distance between two points
such as the distance travelled or moved away from some fixed point, or by "rotation" (angular movement). For
example, the rotation of a robots wheel to determine its distance travelled along the ground. Either way, Position
Sensors can detect the movement of an object in a straight line using. Linear Sensors or by its angular
movement using Rotational Sensors.

The Potentiometer.
The most commonly used of all the "Position Sensors", is the potentiometer because it is an inexpensive and
easy to use position sensor. It has a wiper contact linked to a mechanical shaft that can be either angular
(rotational) or linear (slider type) in its movement, and which causes the resistance value between the
wiper/slider and the two end connections to change giving an electrical signal output that has a proportional
relationship between the actual wiper position on the resistive track and its resistance value. In other words,
resistance is proportional to position.

Potentiometer
Potentiometers come in a wide range of designs and sizes such as the commonly available round rotational type
or the longer and flat linear slider types. When used as a positional sensor the moveable object is connected
directly to the shaft or slider of the potentiometer and a DC reference voltage is applied across the two outer fixed

connections forming the resistive element. The output voltage signal is taken from the wiper terminal of the
sliding contact as shown below.
this configuration produces a potential or voltage divider type circuit output which is proportional to the shaft
position. Then for example, if you apply a voltage of say 10v across the resistive element of the potentiometer the
maximum output voltage would be equal to the supply voltage at 10 volts, with the minimum output voltage equal
to 0 volts. Then the potentiometer wiper will vary the output signal from 0 to 10 volts, with 5 volts indicating that
the wiper or slider is at its half-way or centre position.

Potentiometer Construction

The output signal (Vout) from the potentiometer is taken from the centre wiper connection as it moves along the
resistive track, and is proportional to the angular position of the shaft.

Example of a simple Positional Sensing Circuit

While resistive potentiometer position sensors have many advantages: low cost, low tech, easy to use etc, as a
position sensor they also have many disadvantages: wear due to moving parts, low accuracy, low repeatability,
and limited frequency response.
But there is one main disadvantage of using the potentiometer as a positional sensor. The range of movement of
its wiper or slider (and hence the output signal obtained) is limited to the physical size of the potentiometer being
used. For example a single turn rotational potentiometer generally only has a fixed electrical rotation between
about 240 to 330o however, multi-turn pots of up to 3600o of electrical rotation are also available. Most types of
potentiometers use carbon film for their resistive track, but these types are electrically noisy (the crackle on a
radio volume control), and also have a short mechanical life.

Wire-wound pots also known as rheostats, in the form of either a straight wire or wound coil resistive wire can
also be used, but wire wound pots suffer from resolution problems as their wiper jumps from one wire segment to
the next producing a logarithmic (LOG) output resulting in errors in the output signal. These too suffer from
electrical noise.
For high precision low noise applications conductive plastic resistance element type polymer film or cermet type
potentiometers are now available. These pots have a smooth low friction electrically linear (LIN) resistive track
giving them a low noise, long life and excellent resolution and are available as both multi-turn and single turn
devices. Typical applications for this type of high accuracy position sensor are in computer game joysticks,
steering wheels and industrial and robot applications.

Inductive Position Sensors.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer
One type of positional sensor that does not suffer from mechanical wear problems is the "Linear Variable
Differential Transformer" or LVDT for short. This is an inductive type position sensor which works on the same
principle as the AC transformer that is used to measure movement. It is a very accurate device for measuring
linear displacement and whose output is proportional to the position of its moveable core.
It basically consists of three coils wound on a hollow tube former, one forming the primary coil and the other two
coils forming identical secondarys connected electrically together in series but 180 o out of phase either side of
the primary coil. A moveable soft iron ferromagnetic core (sometimes called an "armature") which is connected to
the object being measured slides or moves up and down inside the tube. A small AC reference voltage called the
"excitation signal" (2 - 20V RMS, 2 20 kHz) is applied to the primary winding which in turn induces an EMF
signal into the two adjacent secondary windings (transformer principles).
If the soft iron magnetic core armature is exactly in the centre of the tube and the windings, "null position", the
two induced emf's in the two secondary windings cancel each other out as they are 180 oout of phase, so the
resultant output voltage is zero. As the core is displaced slightly to one side or the other from this null or zero
position, the induced voltage in one of the secondarys will be become greater than that of the other secondary
and an output will be produced.
The polarity of the output signal depends upon the direction and displacement of the moving core. The greater
the movement of the soft iron core from its central null position the greater will be the resulting output signal. The
result is a differential voltage output which varies linearly with the cores position. Therefore, the output signal has
both an amplitude that is a linear function of the cores displacement and a polarity that indicates direction of
movement.
The phase of the output signal can be compared to the primary coil excitation phase enabling suitable electronic
circuits such as the AD592 LVDT Sensor Amplifier to know which half of the coil the magnetic core is in and
thereby know the direction of travel.

The Linear Variable Differential Transformer

When the armature is moved from one end to the other through the centre position the output voltages changes
from maximum to zero and back to maximum again but in the process changes its phase angle by 180 deg's.
This enables the LVDT to produce an output AC signal whose magnitude represents the amount of movement
from the centre position and whose phase angle represents the direction of movement of the core.
A typical application of a linear variable differential transformer (LDVT) sensor would be as a pressure transducer,
were the pressure being measured pushes against a diaphragm to produce a force. The force is then converted
into a readable voltage signal by the sensor.
Advantages of the linear variable differential transformer, or LVDT compared to a resistive potentiometer are that
its linearity, that is its voltage output to displacement is excellent, very good accuracy, good resolution, high
sensitivity as well as frictionless operation. They are also sealed for use in hostile environments.

Inductive Proximity Sensors.

Another type of inductive sensor in common use is the Inductive Proximity Sensor also called an Eddy current
sensor. While they do not actually measure displacement or angular rotation they are mainly used to detect the
presence of an object in front of them or within a close proximity, hence the name proximity sensors.

Proximity sensors, are non-contact devices that use a magnetic field for detection with the simplest magnetic
sensor being the reed switch. In an inductive sensor, a coil is wound around an iron core within an
electromagnetic field to form an inductive loop.
When a ferromagnetic material is placed within the eddy current field generated around the inductive sensor,
such as a ferromagnetic metal plate or metal screw, the inductance of the coil changes significantly. The
proximity sensors detection circuit detects this change producing an output voltage. Therefore, inductive
proximity sensors operate under the electrical principle of Faraday's Law of inductance.

Inductive Proximity Sensors

An inductive proximity sensor has four main components; The oscillator which produces the electromagnetic
field, the coil which generates the magnetic field, the detection circuit which detects any change in the field when
an object enters it and the output circuit which produces the output signal, either with normally closed (NC) or
normally open (NO) contacts. Inductive proximity sensors allow for the detection of metallic objects in front of the
sensor head without any physical contact of the object itself being detected. This makes them ideal for use in
dirty or wet environments. The "sensing" range of proximity sensors is very small, typically 0.1mm to 12mm.

Proximity Sensor
As well as industrial applications, inductive proximity sensors are also used to control the changing of traffic lights
at junctions and cross roads. Rectangular inductive loops of wire are buried into the tarmac road surface and
when a car or other road vehicle passes over the loop, the metallic body of the vehicle changes the loops
inductance and activates the sensor thereby alerting the traffic lights controller that there is a vehicle waiting.
One main disadvantage of these types of sensors is that they are "Omni-directional", that is they will sense a
metallic object either above, below or to the side of it. Also, they do not detect non-metallic objects
althoughCapacitive Proximity Sensors and Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors are available. Other commonly
available magnetic position sensor include: reed switches, hall effect sensors and variable reluctance sensors.

Rotary Encoders.
Rotary Encoders resemble potentiometers mentioned earlier but are non-contact optical devices used for
converting the angular position of a rotating shaft into an analogue or digital data code. In other words, they
convert mechanical movement into an electrical signal (preferably digital).
All optical encoders work on the same basic principle. Light from an LED or infra-red light source is passed
through a rotating high-resolution encoded disk that contains the required code patterns, either binary, grey code
or BCD. Photo detectors scan the disk as it rotates and an electronic circuit processes the information into a
digital form as a stream of binary output pulses that are fed to counters or controllers which determine the actual
angular position of the shaft.
There are two basic types of rotary optical encoders, Incremental Encoders and Absolute Position Encoders.

Incremental Encoder

Encoder Disk
Incremental Encoders, also known as quadrature encoders or relative rotary encoder, are the simplest of the
two position sensors. Their output is a series of square wave pulses generated by a photocell arrangement as the
coded disk, with evenly spaced transparent and dark lines called segments on its surface, moves or rotates past
the light source. The encoder produces a stream of square wave pulses which, when counted, indicates the
angular position of the rotating shaft.
Incremental encoders have two separate outputs called "quadrature outputs". These two outputs are displaced at
90oout of phase from each other with the direction of rotation of the shaft being determined from the output
sequence.
The number of transparent and dark segments or slots on the disk determines the resolution of the device and
increasing the number of lines in the pattern increases the resolution per degree of rotation. Typical encoded
discs have a resolution of up to 256 pulses or 8-bits per rotation.
The simplest incremental encoder is called a tachometer. It has one single square wave output and is often used
in unidirectional applications where basic position or speed information only is required. The "Quadrature" or
"Sine wave" encoder is the more common and has two output square waves commonly called channel
A and channel B. This device uses two photo detectors, slightly offset from each other by 90 o thereby producing
two separate sine and cosine output signals.

Simple Incremental Encoder

By using the Arc Tangent mathematical function the angle of the shaft in radians can be calculated. Generally,
the optical disk used in rotary position encoders is circular, then the resolution of the output will be given
as: = 360/n, where n equals the number of segments on coded disk. Then for example, the number of
segments required to give an incremental encoder a resolution of 1 o will be: 1o = 360/n, therefore, n = 360
windows, etc. Also the direction of rotation is determined by noting which channel produces an output first, either
channel A or channel B giving two directions of rotation, A leads B or B leads A. This arrangement is shown
below.

Incremental Encoder Output

One main disadvantage of incremental encoders when used as a position sensor, is that they require external
counters to determine the absolute angle of the shaft within a given rotation. If the power is momentarily shut off,
or if the encoder misses a pulse due to noise or a dirty disc, the resulting angular information will produce an
error. One way of overcoming this disadvantage is to use absolute position encoders.

Absolute Position Encoder

Absolute Position Encoders are more complex than quadrature encoders. They provide a unique output code
for every single position of rotation indicating both position and direction. Their coded disk consists of multiple
concentric "tracks" of light and dark segments. Each track is independent with its own photo detector to
simultaneously read a unique coded position value for each angle of movement. The number of tracks on the
disk corresponds to the binary "bit"-resolution of the encoder so a 12-bit absolute encoder would have 12 tracks
and the same coded value only appears once per revolution.

4-bit Binary Coded Disc

One main advantage of an absolute encoder is its non-volatile memory which retains the exact position of the
encoder without the need to return to a "home" position if the power fails. Most rotary encoders are defined as
"single-turn" devices, but absolute multi-turn devices are available, which obtain feedback over several
revolutions by adding extra code disks.
Typical application of absolute position encoders are in computer hard drives and CD/DVD drives were the
absolute position of the drives read/write heads are monitored or in printers/plotters to accurately position the
printing heads over the paper.
In this tutorial about Position Sensors, we have looked at several examples of sensors that can be used to
measure the position or presence of objects. In the next tutorial we will look at sensors that are used to measure
temperature such as thermistors, thermostats and thermocouples.

Temperature Sensor Types

The most commonly used type of all the sensors are those which detect Temperature or heat. These types of
temperature sensor vary from simple ON/OFF thermostatic devices which control a domestic hot water system to
highly sensitive semiconductor types that can control complex process control plants.
We remember from our school science classes that the movement of molecules and atoms produces heat
(kinetic energy) and the greater the movement, the more heat that is generated. Temperature Sensors measure
the amount of heat energy or even coldness that is generated by an object or system, allowing us to "sense" or
detect any physical change to that temperature producing either an analogue or digital output.

There are many different types of Temperature Sensor available and all have different characteristics depending
upon their actual application. Temperature sensors consist of two basic physical types:

Contact Temperature Sensor Types - These types of temperature sensor are required to be in
physical contact with the object being sensed and use conduction to monitor changes in temperature. They can
be used to detect solids, liquids or gases over a wide range of temperatures.

Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types - These types of temperature sensor use convection
and radiation to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect liquids and gases that emit radiant
energy as heat rises and cold settles to the bottom in convection currents or detect the radiant energy being
transmitted from an object in the form of infra-red radiation (the sun).

The two basic types of contact or even non-contact temperature sensors can also be sub-divided into the
following three groups of sensors, Electro-mechanical, Resistive and Electronic and all three types are discussed
below.

The Thermostat
The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that basically consists of two
different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc, that are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic
strip. The different linear expansion rates of the two dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending movement
when the strip is subjected to heat. The bi-metallic strip is used as a switch in the thermostat and are used
extensively to control hot water heating elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water storage tanks as well as in
vehicle radiator cooling systems.

The Bi-metallic Thermostat

The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck together back to back. When it is cold the
contacts are closed and current passes through the thermostat. When it gets hot, one metal expands more than
the other and the bonded bi-metallic strip bends up (or down) opening the contacts preventing the current from
flowing.

On/Off Thermostat
There are two main types of bi-metallic strips based mainly upon their movement when subjected to temperature
changes. There are the "snap-action" types that produce an instantaneous "ON/OFF" or "OFF/ON" type action on
the electrical contacts at a set temperature point, and the slower "creep-action" types that gradually change their
position as the temperature changes.
Snap-action type thermostats are commonly used in our homes for controlling the temperature set point of ovens,
irons, immersion hot water tanks and they can also be found on walls to control the domestic heating system.
Creeper types generally consist of a bi-metallic coil or spiral that slowly unwinds or coils-up as the temperature
changes. Generally, creeper type bi-metallic strips are more sensitive to temperature changes than the standard
snap ON/OFF types as the strip is longer and thinner making them ideal for use in temperature gauges and dials
etc.
Although very cheap and are available over a wide operating range, one main disadvantage of the standard
snap-action type thermostats when used as a temperature sensor, is that they have a large hysteresis range from
when the electrical contacts open until when they close again. For example, it may be set to 20 oC but may not
open until 22oC or close again until 18oC. So the range of temperature swing can be quite high. Commercially
available bi-metallic thermostats for home use do have temperature adjustment screws that allow for a more
precise desired temperature set-point and hysteresis level to be pre-set.

The Thermistor
The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a combination of the words THERM-ally
sensitive res-ISTOR. A thermistor is a type of resistor which changes its physical resistance with changes in
temperature.

Thermistor
Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel, manganese or cobalt coated in
glass which makes them easily damaged. Their main advantage over snap-action types is their speed of
response to any changes in temperature, accuracy and repeatability.

Most types of thermistor's have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or (NTC), that is their
resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature but some with a Positive Temperature
Coefficient, (PTC), their resistance value goes UP with an increase in temperature are also available.
Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material using metal oxide technology such as
manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc. The semiconductor material is generally formed into small pressed discs or
balls which are hermetically sealed to give a relatively fast response to any changes in temperature.
Thermistors are rated by their resistive value at room temperature (usually at 25 oC), their time constant (the time
to react to the temperature change) and their power rating with respect to the current flowing through them. Like
resistors, thermistors are available with resistance values at room temperature from 10's of M down to just a
few Ohms, but for sensing purposes those types with values in the kilo-ohms are generally used.
Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means we need to pass a current through it to produce a
measurable voltage output. Then thermistors are generally connected in series with a suitable biasing resistor to
form a potential divider network and the choice of resistor gives a voltage output at some pre-determined
temperature point or value for example:

Example No1
The following thermistor has a resistance value of 10K at 25 oC and a resistance value of 100 at 100 oC.
Calculate the voltage drop across the thermistor and hence its output voltage (Vout) for both temperatures when
connected in series with a 1k resistor across a 12v power supply.

At 25oC

At 100oC

by changing the fixed resistor value of R2 (in our example 1k) to a potentiometer or preset, a voltage output can

be obtained at a predetermined temperature set point for example, 5v output at 60 oC and by varying the
potentiometer a particular output voltage level can be obtained over a wider temperature range.
It needs to be noted however, that thermistor's are non-linear devices and their standard resistance values at
room temperature is different between different thermistor's, which is due mainly to the semiconductor materials
they are made from. The Thermistor, have an exponential change with temperature and therefore have a Beta
temperature constant ( ) which can be used to calculate its resistance for any given temperature point.
However, when used with a series resistor such as in a voltage divider network or Whetstone Bridge type
arrangement, the current obtained in response to a voltage applied to the divider/bridge network is linear with
temperature. Then, the output voltage across the resistor becomes linear with temperature.

Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).

Another type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is the Resistance Temperature Detector orRTD. RTD's
are precision temperature sensors made from high-purity conducting metals such as platinum, copper or nickel
wound into a coil and whose electrical resistance changes as a function of temperature, similar to that of the
thermistor. Also available are thin-film RTD's. These devices have a thin film of platinum paste is deposited onto
a white ceramic substrate.

RTD
Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike the thermistor their
output is extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of temperature. However, they have poor
sensitivity, that is a change in temperature only produces a very small output change for example, 1/ oC. The
more common types of RTD's are made from platinum and are calledPlatinum Resistance
Thermometer or PRT's with the most commonly available of them all the Pt100 sensor, which has a standard
resistance value of 100 at 0oC. The downside is that Platinum is expensive and one of the main disadvantages
of this type of device is its cost.
Like the thermistor, RTD's are passive resistive devices and by passing a constant current through the
temperature sensor it is possible to obtain an output voltage that increases linearly with temperature. A typical
RTD has a base resistance of about 100 at 0oC, increasing to about 140 at 100oC with an operating
temperature range of between -200 to +600oC.
Because the RTD is a resistive device, we need to pass a current through them and monitor the resulting voltage.
However, any variation in resistance due to self heat of the resistive wires as the current flows through it, I2R ,
(Ohms Law) causes an error in the readings. To avoid this, the RTD is usually connected into a Whetstone
Bridge network which has additional connecting wires for lead-compensation and/or connection to a constant
current source.

The Thermocouple
The Thermocouple is by far the most commonly used type of all the temperature sensing devices due to its
simplicity, ease of use and their speed of response to changes in temperature, due mainly to their small size.
Thermocouples also have the widest temperature range of all the temperature sensors from below -200oC to well
over 2000oC.
Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of two junctions of dissimilar metals, such as
copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together. One junction is kept at a constant temperature called
the reference (Cold) junction, while the other the measuring (Hot) junction. When the two junctions are at different

temperatures, a voltage is developed across the junction which is used to measure the temperature sensor as
shown below.

Thermocouple Construction

The operating principal of a thermocouple is very simple and basic. When fused together the junction of the two
dissimilar metals such as copper and constantan produces a "thermo-electric" effect which gives a constant
potential difference of only a few millivolts (mV) between them. The voltage difference between the two junctions
is called the "Seebeck effect" as a temperature gradient is generated along the conducting wires producing an
emf. Then the output voltage from a thermocouple is a function of the temperature changes.
If both the junctions are at the same temperature the potential difference across the two junctions is zero in other
words, no voltage output as V1 = V2. However, when the junctions are connected within a circuit and are both at
different temperatures a voltage output will be detected relative to the difference in temperature between the two
junctions, V1 - V2. This difference in voltage will increase with temperature until the junctions peak voltage level is
reached and this is determined by the characteristics of the two dissimilar metals used.
Thermocouples can be made from a variety of different materials enabling extreme temperatures of between
-200oC to over +2000oC to be measured. With such a large choice of materials and temperature range,
internationally recognised standards have been developed complete with thermocouple colour codes to allow the
user to choose the correct thermocouple sensor for a particular application. The British colour code for standard
thermocouples is given below.

Thermocouple Colour Codes

Thermocouple

Sensor

Colour

Extension and Compensating Leads

Code
Type

Conductors (+/-)

Nickel
Chromium
Constantan

Iron / Constantan

Sensitivity

-200 to 900oC

0 to 750oC

British
BS 1843:1952

Codes

Nickel
Chromium
Nickel Aluminium

Nicrosil / Nisil

0 to 1250oC

Copper / Constantan

-200 to 350oC

Copper / Copper Nickel

Compensating
for 0 to 1450oC
"S" and "R"

-200 to 1250oC

The three most common thermocouple materials used above for general temperature measurement are IronConstantan (Type J), Copper-Constantan (Type T), and Nickel-Chromium (Type K). The output voltage from a
thermocouple is very small, only a few millivolts (mV) for a 10 oC change in temperature difference and because
of this small voltage output some form of amplification is generally required.

Thermocouple Amplification

The type of amplifier, either discrete or in the form of an Operational Amplifier needs to be carefully selected,
because good drift stability is required to prevent recalibration of the thermocouple at frequent intervals. This
makes the chopper and instrumentation type of amplifier preferable for most temperature sensing applications.
Other types of Temperature Sensor not mentioned here include, Semiconductor Junction Sensors, Infra-red and
Thermal Radiation Sensors, Medical type Thermometers, Indicators and Colour Changing Inks or Dyes.
In this tutorial about Temperature Sensor Types, we have looked at several examples of sensors that can be
used to measure changes in temperature. In the next tutorial we will look at sensors that are used to measure
light quantity, such as Photodiodes, Phototransistors, Photovoltaic Cells and the Light Dependant Resistor.

Light Sensors
A Light Sensor generates an output signal indicating the intensity of light by measuring the radiant energy that
exists in a very narrow range of frequencies basically called "light", and which ranges in frequency from "Infrared"
to "Visible" up to "Ultraviolet" light spectrum. The light sensor is a passive devices that convert this "light energy"
whether visible or in the infrared parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light sensors are more

commonly known as "Photoelectric Devices" or "Photo Sensors" because the convert light energy (photons) into
electricity (electrons).
Photoelectric devices can be grouped into two main categories, those which generate electricity when
illuminated, such as Photo-voltaics or Photo-emissives etc, and those which change their electrical properties in
some way such as Photo-resistors or Photo-conductors. This leads to the following classification of devices.

Photo-emissive Cells - These are photodevices which release free electrons from a light sensitive
material such as caesium when struck by a photon of sufficient energy. The amount of energy the photons have
depends on the frequency of the light and the higher the frequency, the more energy the photons have converting
light energy into electrical energy.

Photo-conductive Cells - These photodevices vary their electrical resistance when subjected to
light. Photoconductivity results from light hitting a semiconductor material which controls the current flow through
it. Thus, more light increase the current for a given applied voltage. The most common photoconductive material
is Cadmium Sulphide used in LDR photocells.

Photo-voltaic Cells - These photodevices generate an emf in proportion to the radiant light energy
received and is similar in effect to photoconductivity. Light energy falls on to two semiconductor materials
sandwiched together creating a voltage of approximately 0.5V. The most common photovoltaic material is
Selenium used in solar cells.

Photo-junction Devices - These photodevices are mainly true semiconductor devices such as the
photodiode or phototransistor which use light to control the flow of electrons and holes across their PN-junction.
Photojunction devices are specifically designed for detector application and light penetration with their spectral
response tuned to the wavelength of incident light.

The Photoconductive Cell

A Photoconductive light sensor does not produce electricity but simply changes its physical properties when
subjected to light energy. The most common type of photoconductive device is the Photoresistorwhich changes
its electrical resistance in response to changes in the light intensity. Photoresistors are Semiconductor devices
that use light energy to control the flow of electrons, and hence the current flowing through them. The commonly
used Photoconductive Cell is called the Light Dependent Resistor or LDR.

The Light Dependent Resistor

Typical LDR
As its name implies, the Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made from a piece of exposed semiconductor
material such as cadmium sulphide that changes its electrical resistance from several thousand Ohms in the dark
to only a few hundred Ohms when light falls upon it by creating hole-electron pairs in the material.
The net effect is an improvement in its conductivity with a decrease in resistance for an increase in illumination.
Also, photo-resistive cells have a long response time requiring many seconds to respond to a change in the light
intensity.
Materials used as the semiconductor substrate include, lead sulphide (PbS), lead selenide (PbSe), indium
antimonide (InSb) which detect light in the infra-red range with the most commonly used of all photo-resistive
light sensors being Cadmium Sulphide (Cds). Cadmium sulphide is used in the manufacture of photoconductive
cells because its spectral response curve closely matches that of the human eye and can even be controlled
using a simple torch as a light source. Typically then, it has a peak sensitivity wavelength (p) of about 560nm to
600nm in the visible spectral range.

The Light Dependent Resistor Cell

The most commonly used photoresistive light sensor is the ORP12 Cadmium Sulphide photoconductive cell. This
light dependent resistor has a spectral response of about 610nm in the yellow to orange region of light. The
resistance of the cell when unilluminated (dark resistance) is very high at about 10M's which falls to about
100's when fully illuminated (lit resistance).
To increase the dark resistance and therefore reduce the dark current, the resistive path forms a zigzag pattern
across the ceramic substrate. The CdS photocell is a very low cost device often used in auto dimming, darkness
or twilight detection for turning the street lights "ON" and "OFF", and for photographic exposure meter type
applications.

Connecting a light dependant resistor in series with a standard resistor like this across a single DC supply
voltage has one major advantage, a different voltage will appear at their junction for different levels of light.
The amount of voltage drop across series resistor, R2 is determined by the resistive value of the light dependant
resistor, RLDR. This ability to generate different voltages produces a very handy circuit called a "Potential Divider"
orVoltage Divider Network.
As we know, the current through a series circuit is common and as the LDR changes its resistive value due to the
light intensity, the voltage present at VOUT will be determined by the voltage divider formula. An LDRs
resistance, RLDR can vary from about 100's in the sun light, to over 10M's in absolute darkness with this
variation of resistance being converted into a voltage variation at VOUT as shown.
One simple use of a Light Dependent Resistor, is as a light sensitive switch as shown below.

LDR Switch

This basic light sensor circuit is of a relay output light activated switch. A potential divider circuit is formed
between the photoresistor, LDR and the resistor R1. When no light is present ie in darkness, the resistance of
the LDR is very high in the Megaohms range so zero base bias is applied to the transistor TR1 and the relay is
de-energised or "OFF".
As the light level increases the resistance of theLDR starts to decrease causing the base bias voltage at V1 to
rise. At some point determined by the potential divider network formed with resistor R1, the base bias voltage is
high enough to turn the transistor TR1 "ON" and thus activate the relay which inturn is used to control some
external circuitry. As the light level falls back to darkness again the resistance of the LDR increases causing the
base voltage of the transistor to decrease, turning the transistor and relay "OFF" at a fixed light level determined
again by the potential divider network.
By replacing the fixed resistor R1 with a potentiometer VR1, the point at which the relay turns "ON" or "OFF" can
be pre-set to a particular light level. This type of simple circuit shown above has a fairly low sensitivity and its
switching point may not be consistent due to variations in either temperature or the supply voltage. A more
sensitive precision light activated circuit can be easily made by incorporating the LDR into a "Wheatstone Bridge"
arrangement and replacing the transistor with an Operational Amplifier as shown.

Light Level Sensing Circuit

In this basic dark sensing circuit, the light dependent resistor LDR1 and the potentiometer VR1 form one
adjustable arm of a simple resistance bridge network, also known commonly as a Wheatstone bridge, while the
two fixed resistors R1 and R2 form the other arm. Both sides of the bridge form potential divider networks across
the supply voltage whose outputs V1 and V2 are connected to the non-inverting and inverting voltage inputs
respectively of the operational amplifier.
The operational amplifier is configured as a Differential Amplifier also known as a voltage comparator with
feedback whose output voltage condition is determined by the difference between the two input signals or
voltages, V1 and V2. The resistor combination R1 and R2 form a fixed voltage reference at input V2, set by the
ratio of the two resistors. The LDR - VR1 combination provides a variable voltage input V1 proportional to the
light level being detected by the photoresistor.
As with the previous circuit the output from the operational amplifier is used to control a relay, which is protected
by a free wheel diode, D1. When the light level sensed by the LDR and its output voltage falls below the
reference voltage set at V2 the output from the op-amp changes state activating the relay and switching the
connected load. Likewise as the light level increases the output will switch back turning "OFF" the relay. The
hysteresis of the two switching points is set by the feedback resistor Rf can be chosen to give any suitable
voltage gain of the amplifier.

The operation of this type of light sensor circuit can also be reversed to switch the relay "ON" when the light level
exceeds the reference voltage level and vice versa by reversing the positions of the light sensor LDR and the
potentiometer VR1. The potentiometer can be used to "pre-set" the switching point of the differential amplifier to
any particular light level making it ideal as a simple light sensor project circuit.

Photojunction Devices
Photojunction Devices are basically PN-Junction light sensors or detectors made from silicon semiconductor
PN-junctions which are sensitive to light and which can detect both visible light and infrared light levels. Photojunction devices are specifically made for sensing light and this class of photoelectric light sensors include
the Photodiode and the Phototransistor.

The Photodiode.

Photo-diode
The construction of the Photodiode light sensor is similar to that of a conventional PN-junction diode except that
the diodes outer casing is either transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the PN junction for
increased sensitivity. The junction will respond to light particularly longer wavelengths such as red and infrared
rather than visible light.
This characteristic can be a problem for diodes with transparent or glass bead bodies such as the 1N4148 signal
diode. LED's can also be used as photodiodes as they can both emit and detect light from their junction. All PNjunctions are light sensitive and can be used in a photo-conductive unbiased voltage mode with the PN-junction
of the photodiode always "Reverse Biased" so that only the diodes leakage or dark current can flow.
The current-voltage characteristic (I/V Curves) of a photodiode with no light on its junction (dark mode) is very
similar to a normal signal or rectifying diode. When the photodiode is forward biased, there is an exponential
increase in the current, the same as for a normal diode. When a reverse bias is applied, a small reverse
saturation current appears which causes an increase of the depletion region, which is the sensitive part of the
junction. Photodiodes can also be connected in a current mode using a fixed bias voltage across the junction.
The current mode is very linear over a wide range.

Photo-diode Construction and Characteristics

When used as a light sensor, a photodiodes dark current (0 lux) is about 10uA for geranium and 1uA for silicon
type diodes. When light falls upon the junction more hole/electron pairs are formed and the leakage current
increases. This leakage current increases as the illumination of the junction increases. Thus, the photodiodes
current is directly proportional to light intensity falling onto the PN-junction. One main advantage of photodiodes
when used as light sensors is their fast response to changes in the light levels, but one disadvantage of this type
of photodevice is the relatively small current flow even when fully lit.
The following circuit shows a photo-current-to-voltage convertor circuit using an operational amplifier as the
amplifying device. The output voltage (Vout) is given as Vout = Ip Rf and which is proportional to the light
intensity characteristics of the photodiode. This type of circuit also utilizes the characteristics of an operational
amplifier with two input terminals at about zero voltage to operate the photodiode without bias. This zero-bias opamp configuration gives a high impedance loading to the photodiode resulting in less influence by dark current
and a wider linear range of the photocurrent relative to the radiant light intensity. Capacitor Cf is used to prevent
oscillation or gain peaking and to set the output bandwidth (1/2RC).

Photo-diode Amplifier Circuit

Photodiodes are very versatile light sensors that can turn its current flow both "ON" and "OFF" in nanoseconds
and are commonly used in cameras, light meters, CD and DVD-ROM drives, TV remote controls, scanners, fax
machines and copiers etc, and when integrated into operational amplifier circuits as infrared spectrum detectors
for fibre optic communications, burglar alarm motion detection circuits and numerous imaging, laser scanning
and positioning systems etc.

The Phototransistor

Photo-transistor
An alternative photo-junction device to the photodiode is the Phototransistor which is basically a photodiode
with amplification. The Phototransistor light sensor has its collector-base PN-junction reverse biased exposing it
to the radiant light source.
Phototransistors operate the same as the photodiode except that they can provide current gain and are much
more sensitive than the photodiode with currents are 50 to 100 times greater than that of the standard
photodiode and any normal transistor can be easily converted into a phototransistor light sensor by connecting a
photodiode between the collector and base.
Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar NPN Transistor with its large base region electrically unconnected,
although some phototransistors allow a base connection to control the sensitivity, and which uses photons of light
to generate a base current which inturn causes a collector to emitter current to flow. Most phototransistors are
NPN types whose outer casing is either transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the base junction
for increased sensitivity.

Photo-transistor Construction and Characteristics

In the NPN transistor the collector is biased positively with respect to the emitter so that the base/collector
junction is reverse biased. therefore, with no light on the junction normal leakage or dark current flows which is
very small. When light falls on the base more electron/hole pairs are formed in this region and the current
produced by this action is amplified by the transistor.
Usually the sensitivity of a phototransistor is a function of the DC current gain of the transistor. Therefore, the
overall sensitivity is a function of collector current and can be controlled by connecting a resistance between the
base and the emitter but for very high sensitivity optocoupler type applications, Darlington phototransistors are
generally used.

Photo-darlington
Photodarlington transistors use a second bipolar NPN transistor to provide additional amplification or when
higher sensitivity of a photodetector is required due to low light levels or selective sensitivity, but its response is
slower than that of an ordinary NPN phototransistor.
Photo darlington devices consist of a normal phototransistor whose emitter output is coupled to the base of a
larger bipolar NPN transistor. Because a darlington transistor configuration gives a current gain equal to a

product of the current gains of two individual transistors, a photodarlington device produces a very sensitive
detector.
Typical applications of Phototransistors light sensors are in opto-isolators, slotted opto switches, light beam
sensors, fibre optics and TV type remote controls, etc. Infrared filters are sometimes required when detecting
visible light.
Another type of photojunction semiconductor light sensor worth a mention is the Photo-thyristor. This is a light
activated thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier, SCR that can be used as a light activated switch in AC
applications. However their sensitivity is usually very low compared to equivalent photodiodes or
phototransistors. To increase their sensitivity to light photo-thyristors are made thinner around the gate junction.
The downside to this process is that it limits the amount of anode current that they can switch. Then for higher
current AC applications they are used as pilot devices in opto-couplers to switch larger more conventional
thyristors.

Photovoltaic Cells.
The most common type of photovoltaic light sensor is the Solar Cell. Solar cells convert light energy directly into
DC electrical energy in the form of a voltage or current to a resistive load such as a light, battery or motor. Then
photovoltaic cells are similar to a battery because they supply DC power. Unlike the other photo devices above
which use light intensity even from a torch to operate, photvoltaic cells work best using the suns radiant energy.
Solar cells are used in many different types of applications to offer an alternative power source from conventional
batteries, such as in calculators, satellites and now in homes offering a form of renewable power.

Photovoltaic Cell
Photovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon PN junctions, the same as photodiodes with a very large
light sensitive region but are used without the reverse bias. They have the same characteristics as a very large
photodiode when in the dark. When illuminated the light energy causes electrons to flow through the PN junction
and an individual solar cell can generate an open circuit voltage of about 0.58v (580mV). Solar cells have a
"Positive" and a "Negative" side just like a battery.
Individual solar cells can be connected together in series to form solar panels which increases the output voltage
or connected together in parallel to increase the available current. Commercially available solar panels are rated
in Watts, which is the product of the output voltage and current (Volts times Amps) when fully lit.

Characteristics of a typical Photovoltaic Solar Cell.

The amount of available current from a solar cell depends upon the light intensity, the size of the cell and its
efficiency which is generally very low at around 15 to 20%. To increase the overall efficiency of the cell
commercially available solar cells use polycrystalline silicon or amorphous silicon, which have no crystalline
structure, and can generate currents of between 20 to 40mA per cm2.
Other materials used in the construction of photovoltaic cells include Gallium Arsenide, Copper Indium Diselenide
and Cadmium Telluride. These different materials each have a different spectrum band response, and so can be
"tuned" to produce an output voltage at different wavelengths of light.
In this tutorial about Light Sensors, we have looked at several examples of devices that are classed asLight
Sensors. This includes those with and those without PN-junctions that can be used to measure the intensity of
light. In the next tutorial we will look at output devices called Actuators. Actuators convert an electrical signal into
a corresponding physical quantity such as movement, force, or sound. One such commonly used output device is
the Electromagnetic Relay.

Electrical Relays
Thus far we have seen a selection of Input devices that can be used to detect or "sense" a variety of physical
variables and signals and are therefore called Sensors. But there are also a variety of devices which are classed
as Output devices used to control or operate some external physical process. These output devices are
commonly called Actuators.
Actuators convert an electrical signal into a corresponding physical quantity such as movement, force, sound etc.
An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of physical quantity into another and is usually
activated or operated by a low voltage command signal. Actuators can be classed as either binary or continuous
devices based upon the number of stable states their output has.
For example, a relay is a binary actuator as it has two stable states, either energised and latched or de-energised
and unlatched, while a motor is a continuous actuator because it can rotate through a full 360 o motion. The most
common types of actuators or output devices are Electrical Relays, Lights,Motors and Loudspeakers and in
this tutorial we will look at electrical relays, also called electromechanical relays and solid state relays or SSR's.

The Electromechanical Relay

The term Relay generally refers to a device that provides an electrical connection between two or more points in
response to the application of a control signal. The most common and widely used type of electrical relay is the
electromechanical relay or EMR.

Electrical Relay
The most fundamental control of any equipment is the ability to turn it "ON" and "OFF". The easiest way to do this
is using switches to interrupt the electrical supply. Although switches can be used to control something, they have
their disadvantages. The biggest one is that they have to be manually (physically) turned "ON" or "OFF". Also,
they are relatively large, slow and only switch small electrical currents.
Electrical Relays however, are basically electrically operated switches that come in many shapes, sizes and
power ratings suitable for all types of applications. Relays can also have single or multiple contacts with the
larger power relays used for high voltage or current switching being called "contactors".
In this tutorial about electrical relays we are just concerned with the fundamental operating principles of "light
duty" electromechanical relays we can use in motor control or robotic circuits. Such relays are used in general
electrical and electronic control or switching circuits either mounted directly onto PCB boards or connected free
standing and in which the load currents are normally fractions of an ampere up to 20+ amperes.
As their name implies, electromechanical relays are electro-magnetic devices that convert a magnetic flux
generated by the application of a low voltage electrical control signal either AC or DC across the relay terminals,
into a pulling mechanical force which operates the electrical contacts within the relay. The most common form of
electromechanical relay consist of an energizing coil called the "primary circuit" wound around a permeable iron
core.
This iron core has both a fixed portion called the yoke, and a moveable spring loaded part called the armature,
that completes the magnetic field circuit by closing the air gap between the fixed electrical coil and the moveable
armature. The armature is hinged or pivoted allowing it to freely move within the generated magnetic field closing
the electrical contacts that are attached to it. Connected between the yoke and armature is normally a spring (or
springs) for the return stroke to "reset" the contacts back to their initial rest position when the relay coil is in the
"de-energized" condition, ie. turned "OFF".

Electromechanical Relay Construction

In our simple relay above, we have two sets of electrically conductive contacts. Relays may be "Normally Open",
or "Normally Closed". One pair of contacts are classed as Normally Open, (NO) or make contacts and another
set which are classed as Normally Closed, (NC) or break contacts. In the normally open position, the contacts
are closed only when the field current is "ON" and the switch contacts are pulled towards the inductive coil.
In the normally closed position, the contacts are permanently closed when the field current is "OFF" as the switch
contacts return to their normal position. These terms Normally Open, Normally Closed orMake and Break
Contacts refer to the state of the electrical contacts when the relay coil is "de-energized", i.e, no supply voltage
connected to the inductive coil. An example of this arrangement is given below.

The relays contacts are electrically conductive pieces of metal which touch together completing a circuit and
allow the circuit current to flow, just like a switch. When the contacts are open the resistance between the
contacts is very high in the Mega-Ohms, producing an open circuit condition and no circuit current flows.
When the contacts are closed the contact resistance should be zero, a short circuit, but this is not always the
case. All relay contacts have a certain amount of "contact resistance" when they are closed and this is called the
"On-Resistance", similar to FET's.
With a new relay and contacts this ON-resistance will be very small, generally less than 0.2's because the tips
are new and clean, but over time the tip resistance will increase.

For example. If the contacts are passing a load current of say 10A, then the voltage drop across the contacts
using Ohms Law is 0.2 x 10 = 2 volts, which if the supply voltage is say 12 volts then the load voltage will be
only 10 volts (12 - 2). As the contact tips begin to wear, and if they are not properly protected from high inductive
or capacitive loads, they will start to show signs of arcing damage as the circuit current still wants to flow as the
contacts begin to open when the relay coil is de-energized.
This arcing or sparking across the contacts will cause the contact resistance of the tips to increase further as the
contact tips become damaged. If allowed to continue the contact tips may become so burnt and damaged to the
point were they are physically closed but do not pass any or very little current.
If this arcing damage becomes to severe the contacts will eventually "weld" together producing a short circuit
condition and possible damage to the circuit they are controlling. If now the contact resistance has increased due
to arcing to say 1's the volt drop across the contacts for the same load current increases to 1 x 10 = 10 volts dc.
This high voltage drop across the contacts may be unacceptable for the load circuit especially if operating at 12
or even 24 volts, then the faulty relay will have to be replaced.
To reduce the effects of contact arcing and high "On-resistances", modern contact tips are made of, or coated
with, a variety of silver based alloys to extend their life span as given in the following table.

Contact Tip Materials

Contact
Material

Tip

Characteristics

Ag
(fine silver)

Electrical and thermal conductivity are the highest of all metals, exhibits low
contact
resistance,
is
inexpensive
and
widely
used.
Contacts tarnish through sulphur influence.

AgCu
(silver copper)

"Hard silver", better wear resistance and less tendency to weld, but slightly
higher contact resistance.

AgCdO
(silver cadmium oxide)

Very little tendency to weld, good wear resistance and arc extinguishing
properties.

AgW
(silver tungsten)

Hardness and melting point are high, arc resistance is excellent.

Not
a
precious
metal.
High
contact
pressure
is
required.
Contact resistance is relatively high, and resistance to corrosion is poor.

AgNi
(silver nickel)

Equals the electrical conductivity of silver, excellent arc resistance.

AgPd
(silver palladium)

Low
Expensive.

platinum,
gold
silver alloys

and

contact

wear,

greater

hardness.

Excellent corrosion resistance, used mainly for low-current circuits.

Relay manufacturers data sheets give maximum contact ratings for resistive DC loads only and this rating is
greatly reduced for either AC loads or highly inductive or capacitive loads. In order to achieve long life and high
reliability when switching AC currents with inductive or capacitive loads some form of arc suppression or filtering
is required across the relay contacts.

Extending the life of relay tips by reducing the amount of arcing generated as they open is achieved by
connecting a Resistor-Capacitor network called an RC Snubber Network electrically in parallel with the contact
tips. The voltage peak, which occurs at the instant the contacts open, will be safely short circuited by the RC
network, thus suppressing any arc generated at the contact tips. For example.

Relay Snubber Circuit

Relay Contact Types.

As well as the standard descriptions of Normally Open, (NO) and Normally Closed, (NC) used to describe
how the relays contacts are connected, relay contact arrangements can also be classed by their actions.
Electrical relays can be made up of one or more individual switch contacts with each "contact" being referred to
as a "pole". Each one of these contacts or poles can be connected or "thrown" together by energizing the relays
coil and this gives rise to the description of the contact types as being:

SPST
Single
SPDT
Single
DPST
Double
DPDT - Double Pole Double Throw

Pole
Pole
Pole

Single
Double
Single

Throw
Throw
Throw

with the action of the contacts being described as "Make" (M) or "Break" (B). Then a simple relay with one set of
contacts
as
shown
above
can
have
a
contact
description
of:

"Single Pole Double Throw - (Break before Make)", or SPDT - (B-M) .

Examples of just some of the more common contact types for relays in circuit or schematic diagrams is given
below but there are many more possible configurations.

Relay Contact Configurations

Where:

C is the Common terminal

NO is the Normally Open contact

NC is the Normally Closed contact

One final point to remember, it is not advisable to connect relay contacts in parallel to handle higher load
currents. For example, never attempt to supply a 10A load with two relays in parallel that have 5A contact ratings
each as the relay contacts never close or open at exactly the same instant of time, so one relay contact is always
overloaded.
While relays can be used to allow low power electronic or computer type circuits to switch a relatively high
currents or voltages both "ON" or "OFF". Never mix different load voltages through adjacent contacts within the
same relay such as for example, high voltage AC (240v) and low voltage DC (12v), always use separate relays
for safety.
One of the more important parts of any relay is the coil. This converts electrical current into an electromagnetic
flux which is used to operate the relays contacts. The main problem with relay coils is that they are "highly
inductive loads" as they are made from coils of wire. Any coil of wire has an impedance value made up of
resistance ( R ) and inductance ( L ) in series (RL Series Circuit).
As the current flows through the coil a self induced magnetic field is generated around it. When the current in the
coil is turned "OFF", a large back emf (electromotive force) voltage is produced as the magnetic flux collapses
within the coil (transformer theory). This induced reverse voltage value may be very high in comparison to the
switching voltage, and may damage any semiconductor device such as a transistor, FET or microcontroller used
to operate the relay coil.

One way of preventing damage to the transistor or any switching semiconductor device, is to connect a reverse
biased diode across the relay coil.
When the current flowing through the coil is switched "OFF", an induced back emf is generated as the magnetic
flux collapses in the coil.
This reverse voltage forward biases the diode which conducts and dissipates the stored energy preventing any
damage to the semiconductor transistor.
When used in this type of application the diode is generally known as a Flywheel Diode, Free-wheeling
Diode and even Fly-back Diode, but they all mean the same thing. Other types of inductive loads which require
a flywheel diode for protection are solenoids, motors and inductive coils.
As well as using flywheel Diodes for protection of semiconductor components, other devices used for protection
include RC Snubber Networks, Metal Oxide Varistors or MOV and Zener Diodes.

The Solid State Relay.

While the electromechanical relay (EMR) are inexpensive, easy to use and allow the switching of a load circuit
controlled by a low power, electrically isolated input signal, one of the main disadvantages of an
electromechanical relay is that it is a "mechanical device", that is it has moving parts so their switching speed
(response time) due to physically movement of the metal contacts using a magnetic field is slow.
Over a period of time these moving parts will wear out and fail, or that the contact resistance through the
constant arcing and erosion may make the relay unusable and shortens its life. Also, they are electrically noisy
with the contacts suffering from contact bounce which may affect any electronic circuits to which they are
connected.
To overcome these disadvantages of the electrical relay, another type of relay called a Solid State Relayor
(SSR) for short was developed which is a solid state contactless, pure electronic relay. It has no moving parts
with the contacts being replaced by transistors, thyristors or triacs. The electrical separation between the input
control signal and the output load voltage is accomplished with the aid of an opto-coupler type Light Sensor.
The Solid State Relay provides a high degree of reliability, long life and reduced electromagnetic interference
(EMI), (no arcing contacts or magnetic fields), together with a much faster almost instant response time, as
compared to the conventional electromechanical relay. Also the input control power requirements of the solid
state relay are generally low enough to make them compatible with most IC logic families without the need for

additional buffers, drivers or amplifiers. However, being a semiconductor device they must be mounted onto
suitable heatsinks to prevent the output switching semiconductor device from over heating.

Solid State Relay

The AC type Solid State Relay turns "ON" at the zero crossing point of the AC sinusoidal waveform, prevents
high inrush currents when switching inductive or capacitive loads while the inherent turn "OFF" feature of
Thyristors and Triacs provides an improvement over the arcing contacts of the electromechanical relays.
Like the electromechanical relays, a Resistor-Capacitor (RC) snubber network is generally required across the
output terminals of the SSR to protect the semiconductor output switching device from noise and voltage
transient spikes when used to switch highly inductive or capacitive loads. In most modern SSR's this RC snubber
network is built as standard into the relay itself reducing the need for additional external components.
Non-zero crossing detection switching (instant "ON") type SSR's are also available for phase controlled
applications such as the dimming or fading of lights at concerts, shows, disco lighting etc, or for motor speed
control type applications.
As the output switching device of a solid state relay is a semiconductor device (Transistor for DC switching
applications, or a Triac/Thyristor combination for AC switching), the voltage drop across the output terminals of
an SSR when "ON" is much higher than that of the electromechanical relay, typically 1.5 - 2.0 volts. If switching
large currents for long periods of time an additional heat sink will be required.

Input/Output Interface Modules.

Input/Output Interface Modules, (I/O Modules) are another type of solid state relay designed specifically to
interface computers, micro-controller or PIC's to "real world" loads and switches. There are four basic types of I/O
modules available, AC or DC Input voltage to TTL or CMOS logic level output, and TTL or CMOS logic input to an
AC or DC Output voltage with each module containing all the necessary circuitry to provide a complete interface
and isolation within one small device. They are available as individual solid state modules or integrated into 4, 8
or 16 channel devices.

Modular Input/Output Interface System.

The main disadvantages of solid state relays (SSR's) compared to that of an equivalent wattage
electromechanical relay is their higher costs, the fact that only single pole single throw (SPST) types are
available, "OFF"-state leakage currents flow through the switching device, high "ON"-state voltage drop and
power dissipation resulting in additional heat sinking requirements. Also they can not switch very small load
currents or high frequency signals such as audio or video signals although special Solid State Switches are
available for this type of application.
In this tutorial about Electrical Relays, we have looked at both the electromechanical relay and the solid state
relay which can be used as an output device (actuator) to control a physical process. In the next tutorial we will
continue our look at output devices called Actuators and especially one that converts a small electrical signal
into a corresponding physical movement using electromagnetism.

The Linear Solenoid

Another type of electromagnetic actuator that converts an electrical signal into a magnetic field is called
a Solenoid. The linear solenoid works on the same basic principal as the electromechanical relay (EMR) seen in
the previous tutorial and like relays, they can also be controlled by transistors or MOSFET. A Linear Solenoid is
an electromagnetic device that converts electrical energy into a mechanical pushing or pulling force or motion.

Linear Solenoid
Solenoids basically consist of an electrical coil wound around a cylindrical tube with a ferro-magnetic actuator or
"plunger" that is free to move or slide "IN" and "OUT" of the coils body.Solenoids are available in a variety of
formats with the more common types being the linear solenoid also known as the linear electromechanical
actuator (LEMA) and the rotary solenoid.

Both types, linear and rotational are available as either a holding (continuously energised) or as a latching type
(ON-OFF pulse) with the latching types being used in either energised or power-off applications. Linear solenoids
can also be designed for proportional motion control were the plunger position is proportional to the power input.
When electrical current flows through a conductor it generates a magnetic field, and the direction of this magnetic
field with regards to its North and South Poles is determined by the direction of the current flow within the wire.
This coil of wire becomes an "Electromagnet" with its own north and south poles exactly the same as that for a
permanent type magnet. The strength of this magnetic field can be increased or decreased by either controlling
the amount of current flowing through the coil or by changing the number of turns or loops that the coil has. An
example of an "Electromagnet" is given below.

Magnetic Field produced by a Coil

When an electrical current is passed through the coils windings, it behaves like an electromagnet and the
plunger, which is located inside the coil, is attracted towards the centre of the coil by the magnetic flux setup
within the coils body, which inturn compresses a small spring attached to one end of the plunger. The force and
speed of the plungers movement is determined by the strength of the magnetic flux generated within the coil.
When the supply current is turned "OFF" (de-energised) the electromagnetic field generated previously by the
coil collapses and the energy stored in the compressed spring forces the plunger back out to its original rest
position. This back and forth movement of the plunger is known as the solenoids "Stroke", in other words the
maximum distance the plunger can travel in either an "IN" or an "OUT" direction, for example, 0 - 30mm.

Linear Solenoids
This type of solenoid is generally called a Linear Solenoid due to the linear directional movement of the plunger.
Linear solenoids are available in two basic configurations called a "Pull-type" as it pulls the connected load
towards itself when energised, and the "Push-type" that act in the opposite direction pushing it away from itself
when energised. Both push and pull types are generally constructed the same with the difference being in the
location of the return spring and design of the plunger.

Pull-type Linear Solenoid Construction

Linear solenoids are useful in many applications that require an open or closed (in or out) type motion such as
electronically activated door locks, pneumatic or hydraulic control valves, robotics, automotive engine
management, irrigation valves to water the garden and even the "Ding-Dong" door bell has one. They are
available as open frame, closed frame or sealed tubular types.

Rotary Solenoids
Most electromagnetic solenoids are linear devices producing a linear back and forth force or motion. However,
rotational solenoids are also available which produce an angular or rotary motion from a neutral position in either
clockwise, anti-clockwise or in both directions (bi-directional).

Rotary Solenoid
Rotary solenoids can be used to replace small DC motors or stepper motors were the angular movement is very
small with the angle of rotation being the angle moved from the start to the end position. Commonly available
rotary solenoids have movements of 25, 35, 45, 60 and 90 o as well as multiple movements to and from a certain
angle such as a 2-position self restoring or return to zero rotation, for example 0-to-90-to-0 o, 3-position self
restoring, for example 0o to +45o or 0o to -45o as well as 2-position latching.
Rotary solenoids produce a rotational movement when either energised, de-energised, or a change in the polarity
of an electromagnetic field alters the position of a permanent magnet rotor. Their construction consists of an
electrical coil wound around a steel frame with a magnetic disk connected to an output shaft positioned above the
coil. When the coil is energised the electromagnetic field generates multiple north and south poles which repel
the adjacent permanent magnetic poles of the disk causing it to rotate at an angle determined by the mechanical
construction of the rotary solenoid.

Rotary solenoids are used in vending or gaming machines, valve control, camera shutter with special high speed,
low power or variable positioning solenoids with high force or torque are available such as those used in dot
matrix printers, typewriters, automatic machines or automotive applications etc.

Solenoid Switching
Generally solenoids either linear or rotary operate with the application of a DC voltage, but they can also be used
with AC sinusoidal voltages by using full wave bridge rectifiers to rectify the supply which then can be used to
switch
the
DC
solenoid.
Small
DC
type
solenoids
can
be
easily
controlled
usingTransistor or MOSFET switches and are ideal for use in robotic applications, but again as we saw with
relays, solenoids are "inductive" devices so some form of electrical protection is required across the solenoid coil
to prevent high back emf voltages from damaging the semiconductor switching device. In this case the standard
"Flywheel Diode" is used.

Switching Solenoids using a Transistor

Reducing Energy Consumption

One of the main disadvantages of solenoids and especially the linear solenoid is that they are "inductive
devices" which convert some of the electrical current into "HEAT", in other words they get hot!, and the longer the
time that the power is applied to a solenoid coil, the hotter the coil will become. Also as the coil heats up, its
electrical resistance also changes allowing more current to flow.
With a continuous voltage input applied to the coil, the solenoids coil does not have the opportunity to cool down
because the input power is always on. In order to reduce this self generated heating effect it is necessary to
reduce either the amount of time the coil is energised or reduce the amount of current flowing through it.
One method of consuming less current is to apply a suitable high enough voltage to the solenoid coil so as to
provide the necessary electromagnetic field to operate and seat the plunger but then once activated to reduce
the coils supply voltage to a level sufficient to maintain the plunger in its seated or latched position. One way of
achieving this is to connect a suitable "holding" resistor in series with the solenoids coil, for example:

Reducing Solenoid Energy Consumption

Here, the switch contacts are closed shorting out the resistance and passing the full supply current directly to the
solenoid coils windings. Once energised the contacts which can be mechanically connected to the solenoids
plunger action open connecting the holding resistor, RH in series with the solenoids coil. This effectively connects
the resistor in series with the coil.
By using this method, the solenoid can be connected to its voltage supply indefinitely (continuous duty cycle) as
the power consumed by the coil and the heat generated is greatly reduced, which can be up to 85 to 90% using a
suitable power resistor. However, the power consumed by the resistor will also generate a certain amount of
heat, I2R (Ohm's Law) and this also needs to be taken into account.

Duty Cycle
Another more practical way of reducing the heat generated by the solenoids coil is to use an "intermittent duty
cycle". An intermittent duty cycle means that the coil is repeatedly switched "ON" and "OFF" at a suitable
frequency so as to activate the plunger mechanism but not allow it to de-energise during the OFF period of the
waveform. Intermittent duty cycle switching is a very effective way to reduce the total power consumed by the
coil.
The Duty Cycle (%ED) of a solenoid is the portion of the "ON" time that a solenoid is energised and is the ratio of
the "ON" time to the total "ON" and "OFF" time for one complete cycle of operation. In other words, the cycle time
equals the switched-ON time plus the switched-OFF time. Duty cycle is expressed as a percentage, for example:

Then if a solenoid is switched "ON" or energised for 30 seconds and then switched "OFF" for 90 seconds before
being re-energised again, one complete cycle, the total "ON/OFF" cycle time would be 120 seconds, (30+90) so
the solenoids duty cycle would be calculated as 30/120 secs or 25%. This means that you can determine the
solenoids maximum switch-ON time if you know the values of duty cycle and switch-OFF time.
For example, the switch-OFF time equals 15 secs, duty cycle equals 40%, therefore switch-ON time equals 10
secs. A solenoid with a rated Duty Cycle of 100% means that it has a continuous voltage rating and can therefore
be left "ON" or continuously energised without overheating or damage.
In this tutorial about solenoids, we have looked at both the Linear Solenoid and the Rotary Solenoid as an
electromechanical actuator that can be used as an output device to control a physical process. In the next tutorial
we will continue our look at output devices called Actuators, and one that converts a electrical signal into a
corresponding rotational movement again using electromagnetism. The type of output device we will look at in
the next tutorial is the DC Motor.

Electrical Motors
Electrical Motors are continuous actuators that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy in the form of a
continuous angular rotation that can be used to rotate pumps, fans, compressors, wheels, etc. As well as rotary
motors, linear motors are also available. There are basically three types of conventional electrical motor
available: AC type Motors, DC type Motors and Stepper Motors.

A Typical Small DC Motor

AC Motors are generally used in high power single or multi-phase industrial applications were a constant
rotational torque and speed is required to control large loads. In this tutorial on motors we will look only at simple
light duty DC Motors and Stepper Motors which are used in many electronics, positional control,
microprocessor, PIC and robotic circuits.

The DC Motor
The DC Motor or Direct Current Motor to give it its full title, is the most commonly used actuator for producing
continuous movement and whose speed of rotation can easily be controlled, making them ideal for use in
applications were speed control, servo type control, and/or positioning is required. A DC motor consists of two
parts, a "Stator" which is the stationary part and a "Rotor" which is the rotating part. The result is that there are
basically three types of DC Motor available.

Brushed Motor - This type of motor produces a magnetic field in a wound rotor (the part that rotates)
by passing an electrical current through a commutator and carbon brush assembly, hence the term "Brushed".
The stators (the stationary part) magnetic field is produced by using either a wound stator field winding or by
permanent magnets. Generally brushed DC motors are cheap, small and easily controlled.

Brushless Motor - This type of motor produce a magnetic field in the rotor by using permanent
magnets attached to it and commutation is achieved electronically. They are generally smaller but more
expensive than conventional brushed type DC motors because they use "Hall effect" switches in the stator to
produce the required stator field rotational sequence but they have better torque/speed characteristics, are more
efficient and have a longer operating life than equivalent brushed types.

Servo Motor - This type of motor is basically a brushed DC motor with some form of positional
feedback control connected to the rotor shaft. They are connected to and controlled by a PWM type controller
and are mainly used in positional control systems and radio controlled models.
Normal DC motors have almost linear characteristics with their speed of rotation being determined by the applied
DC voltage and their output torque being determined by the current flowing through the motor windings. The
speed of rotation of any DC motor can be varied from a few revolutions per minute (rpm) to many thousands of
revolutions per minute making them suitable for electronic, automotive or robotic applications. By connecting
them to gearboxes or gear-trains their output speed can be decreased while at the same time increasing the
torque output of the motor at a high speed.

The "Brushed" DC Motor

A conventional brushed DC Motor consist basically of two parts, the stationary body of the motor called
the Stator and the inner part which rotates producing the movement called the Rotor or "Armature" for DC
machines.
The motors wound stator is an electromagnet circuit which consists of electrical coils connected together in a
circular configuration to produce the required North-pole then a South-pole then a North-pole etc, type stationary
magnetic field system for rotation, unlike AC machines whose stator field continually rotates with the applied
frequency. The current which flows within these field coils is known as the motor field current.
These electromagnetic coils which form the stator field can be electrically connected in series, parallel or both
together (compound) with the motors armature. A series wound DC motor has its stator field windings connected
in series with the armature. Likewise, a shunt wound DC motor has its stator field windings connected
in parallel with the armature as shown.

Series and Shunt Connected DC Motor

The rotor or armature of a DC machine consists of current carrying conductors connected together at one end to
electrically isolated copper segments called the commutator. The commutator allows an electrical connection to
be made via carbon brushes (hence the name "Brushed" motor) to an external power supply as the armature
rotates.

The magnetic field setup by the rotor tries to align itself with the stationary stator field causing the rotor to rotate
on its axis, but can not align itself due to commutation delays. The rotational speed of the motor is dependent on
the strength of the rotors magnetic field and the more voltage that is applied to the motor the faster the rotor will
rotate. By varying this applied DC voltage the rotational speed of the motor can also be varied.

Conventional (Brushed) DC Motor

Permanent magnet (PMDC) brushed motors are generally much smaller and cheaper than their equivalent
wound stator type DC motor cousins as they have no field winding. In permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motors
these field coils are replaced with strong rare earth (i.e. Samarium Cobolt, or Neodymium Iron Boron) type
magnets which have very high magnetic energy fields. This gives them a much better linear speed/torque
characteristic than the equivalent wound motors because of the permanent and sometimes very strong magnetic
field, making them more suitable for use in models, robotics and servos.
Although DC brushed motors are very efficient and cheap, problems associated with the brushed DC motor is
that sparking occurs under heavy load conditions between the two surfaces of the commutator and carbon
brushes resulting in self generating heat, short life span and electrical noise due to sparking, which can damage
any semiconductor switching device such as a MOSFET or transistor. To overcome these
disadvantages, Brushless DC Motors were developed.

The "Brushless" DC Motor

The brushless DC motor (BDCM) is very similar to a permanent magnet DC motor, but does not have any
brushes to replace or wear out due to commutator sparking. Therefore, little heat is generated in the rotor
increasing the motors life. The design of the brushless motor eliminates the need for brushes by using a more
complex drive circuit were the rotor magnetic field is a permanent magnet which is always in synchronisation with
the stator field allows for a more precise speed and torque control. Then the construction of a brushless DC
motor is very similar to the AC motor making it a true synchronous motor but one disadvantage is that it is more
expensive than an equivalent "brushed" motor design.
The control of the brushless DC motors is very different from the normal brushed DC motor, in that it this type of
motor incorporates some means to detect the rotors angular position (or magnetic poles) required to produce the
feedback signals required to control the semiconductor switching devices. The most common position/pole
sensor is the "Hall Effect Sensor", but some motors also use optical sensors.

Using Hall effect sensors, the polarity of the electromagnets is switched by the motor control drive circuitry. Then
the motor can be easily synchronized to a digital clock signal, providing precise speed control. Brushless DC
motors can be constructed to have, an external permanent magnet rotor and an internal electromagnet stator or
an internal permanent magnet rotor and an external electromagnet stator.
Advantages of the Brushless DC Motor compared to its "brushed" cousin is higher efficiencies, high reliability,
low electrical noise, good speed control and more importantly, no brushes or commutator to wear out producing a
much higher speed. However their disadvantage is that they are more expensive and more complicated to
control.

The DC Servo Motor

DC Servo motors are used in closed loop type applications were the position of the output motor shaft is fed
back to the motor control circuit. Typical positional "Feedback" devices include Resolvers, Encoders and
Potentiometers as used in radio control models such as airplanes and boats etc. A servo motor generally
includes a built-in gearbox for speed reduction and is capable of delivering high torques directly. The output shaft
of a servo motor does not rotate freely as do the shafts of DC motors because of the gearbox and feedback
devices attached.

DC Servo Motor Block Diagram

A servo motor consists of a DC motor, reduction gearbox, positional feedback device and some form of error
correction. The speed or position is controlled in relation to a positional input signal or reference signal applied to
the device.

RC Servo Motor
The error detection amplifier looks at this input signal and compares it with the feedback signal from the motors
output shaft and determines if the motor output shaft is in an error condition and, if so, the controller makes

appropriate corrections either speeding up the motor or slowing it down. This response to the positional feedback
device means that the servo motor operates within a "Closed Loop System".
As well as large industrial applications, servo motors are also used in small remote control models and robotics,
with most servo motors being able to rotate up to about 180 degrees in both directions making them ideal for
accurate angular positioning. However, these RC type servos are unable to continually rotate at high speed like
conventional DC motors unless specially modified.
A servo motor consist of several devices in one package, the motor, gearbox, feedback device and error
correction for controlling position, direction or speed. They are widley used in robotics and models as they are
easily controlled using just three wires, Power, Ground and Signal Control.

DC Motor Switching and Control

Small DC motors can be switched "On" or "Off" by means of switches, relays, transistors or mosfet circuits with
the simplest form of motor control being "Linear" control. This type of circuit uses a bipolar Transistor as a
Switch (A Darlington transistor may also be used were a higher current rating is required) to control the motor
from a single power supply.
By varying the amount of base current flowing into the transistor the speed of the motor can be controlled for
example, if the transistor is turned on "half way", then only half of the supply voltage goes to the motor. If the
transistor is turned "fully ON" (saturated), then all of the supply voltage goes to the motor and it rotates faster.
Then for this linear type of control, power is delivered constantly to the motor as shown below.

Unipolar Transistor Switch

The simple switching circuit on the left, shows the circuit for a Uni-directional (one direction only) motor control
circuit. A continuous logic "1" or logic "0" is applied to the input of the circuit to turn the motor "ON" (saturation) or
"OFF" (cut-off) respectively.
A flywheel diode is connected across the motor terminals to protect the switching transistor or MOSFET from any
back emf generated by the motor when the transistor turns the supply "OFF".
As well as the basic "ON/OFF" control the same circuit can also be used to control the motors rotational speed.
By repeatedly switching the motor current "ON" and "OFF" at a high enough frequency, the speed of the motor
can be varied between stand still (0 rpm) and full speed (100%). This is achieved by varying the proportion of

"ON" time (tON) to the "OFF" time (tOFF) and this can be achieved using a process known as Pulse Width
Modulation.

Pulse Width Speed Control

The rotational speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the mean (average) value of its supply voltage and
the higher this value, up to maximum allowed motor volts, the faster the motor will rotate. In other words more
voltage more speed. By varying the ratio between the "ON" (t ON) time and the "OFF" (tOFF) time durations, called
the "Duty Ratio", "Mark/Space Ratio" or "Duty Cycle", the average value of the motor voltage and hence its
rotational speed can be varied. For simple unipolar drives the duty ratio is given as:

and the mean DC output voltage fed to the motor is given as: Vmean = x Vsupply. Then by varying the width
of pulse a, the motor voltage and hence the power applied to the motor can be controlled and this type of control
is called Pulse Width Modulation or PWM.
Another way of controlling the rotational speed of the motor is to vary the frequency (and hence the time period of
the controlling voltage) while the "ON" and "OFF" duty ratio times are kept constant. This type of control is
called Pulse Frequency Modulation or PFM. With pulse frequency modulation, the motor voltage is controlled
by applying pulses of variable frequency for example, at a low frequency or with very few pulses the average
voltage applied to the motor is low, and therefore the motor speed is slow. At a higher frequency or with many
pulses, the average motor terminal voltage is increased and the motor speed will also increase.
Then, Transistors can be used to control the amount of power applied to a DC motor with the mode of
operation being either "Linear" (varying motor voltage), "Pulse Width Modulation" (varying the width of the pulse)
or "Pulse Frequency Modulation" (varying the frequency of the pulse).

H-bridge Motor Control

While controlling the speed of a DC motor with a single transistor has many advantages it also has one main
disadvantage, the direction of rotation is always the same, its a "Uni-directional" circuit. In many applications we
need to operate the motor in both directions forward and back. One very good way of achieving this is to connect
the motor into a Transistor H-bridge circuit arrangement and this type of circuit will give us "Bi-directional" DC
motor control as shown below.

Basic Bi-directional H-bridge Circuit

The H-bridge circuit above, is so named because the basic configuration of the four switches, either electromechanical relays or transistors resembles that of the letter "H" with the motor positioned on the centre bar.
The Transistor or MOSFET H-bridge is probably one of the most commonly used type of bi-directional DC
motor control circuits. It uses "complementary transistor pairs" both NPN and PNP in each branch with the
transistors being switched together in pairs to control the motor.
Control input A operates the motor in one direction ie, Forward rotation while input B operates the motor in the
other direction ie, Reverse rotation. Then by switching the transistors "ON" or "OFF" in their "diagonal pairs"
results in directional control of the motor.
For example, when transistor TR1 is "ON" and transistor TR2 is "OFF", point A is connected to the supply
voltage (+Vcc) and if transistor TR3 is "OFF" and transistor TR4 is "ON" point B is connected to 0 volts (GND).
Then the motor will rotate in one direction corresponding to motor terminal A being positive and motor
terminal B being negative. If the switching states are reversed so that TR1 is "OFF", TR2 is "ON", TR3 is "ON"
and TR4 is "OFF", the motor current will now flow in the opposite direction causing the motor to rotate in the
opposite direction.
Then, by applying opposite logic levels "1" or "0" to the inputs A and B the motors rotational direction can be
controlled as follows.

H-bridge Truth Table

Input A

Input B

Motor Function

TR1 and TR4

TR2 and TR3

Motor Stopped (OFF)

Motor Rotates Forward

Motor Rotates Reverse

NOT ALLOWED

It is important that no other combination of inputs are allowed as this may cause the power supply to be shorted
out, ie both transistors, TR1 and TR2 switched "ON" at the same time, (fuse = bang!).
As with uni-directional DC motor control as seen above, the rotational speed of the motor can also be controlled
using Pulse Width Modulation or PWM. Then by combining H-bridge switching with PWM control, both the
direction and the speed of the motor can be accurately controlled. Commercial off the shelf decoder IC's such as
the SN754410 Quad Half H-Bridge IC or the L298N which has 2 H-Bridges are available with all the necessary
control and safety logic built in are specially designed for H-bridge bi-directional motor control circuits.

The Stepper Motor

Like the DC motor above, Stepper Motors are also electromechanical actuators that convert a pulsed digital
input signal into a discrete (incremental) mechanical movement are used widely in industrial control applications.
A stepper motor is a type of synchronous brushless motor in that it does not have an armature with a commutator
and carbon brushes but has a rotor made up of many, some types have hundreds of permanent magnetic teeth
and a stator with individual windings.

Stepper Motor
As it name implies, a stepper motor does not rotate in a continuous fashion like a conventional DC motor but
moves in discrete "Steps" or "Increments", with the angle of each rotational movement or step dependant upon
the number of stator poles and rotor teeth the stepper motor has.
Because of their discrete step operation, stepper motors can easily be rotated a finite fraction of a rotation at a
time, such as 1.8, 3.6, 7.5 degrees etc. So for example, lets assume that a stepper motor completes one full
revolution (360o in exactly 100 steps. Then the step angle for the motor is given as 360 degrees/100 steps = 3.6
degrees per step. This value is commonly known as the stepper motors Step Angle.
There are three basic types of stepper motor, Variable Reluctance,Permanent Magnet and Hybrid (a sort of
combination of both). A Stepper Motor is particularly well suited to applications that require accurate positioning
and repeatability with a fast response to starting, stopping, reversing and speed control and another key feature
of the stepper motor, is its ability to hold the load steady once the require position is achieved.
Generally, stepper motors have an internal rotor with a large number of permanent magnet "teeth" with a number
of electromagnet "teeth" mounted on to the stator. The stators electromagnets are polarized and depolarized
sequentially, causing the rotor to rotate one "step" at a time.
Modern multi-pole, multi-teeth stepper motors are capable of accuracies of less than 0.9 degs per step (400
Pulses per Revolution) and are mainly used for highly accurate positioning systems like those used for magnetic-

heads in floppy/hard disc drives, printers/plotters or robotic applications. The most commonly used stepper motor
being the 200 step per revolution stepper motor. It has a 50 teeth rotor, 4-phase stator and a step angle of 1.8
degrees (360 degs/(50x4)).

Stepper Motor Construction and Control

In our simple example of a variable reluctance stepper motor above, the motor consists of a central rotor
surrounded by four electromagnetic field coils labelled A, B, C and D. All the coils with the same letter are
connected together so that energising, say coils marked A will cause the magnetic rotor to align itself with that
set of coils. By applying power to each set of coils in turn the rotor can be made to rotate or "step" from one
position to the next by an angle determined by its step angle construction, and by energising the coils in
sequence the rotor will produce a rotary motion.
The stepper motor driver controls both the step angle and speed of the motor by energising the field coils in a set
sequence for example, "ADCB, ADCB, ADCB, A..." etc, the rotor will rotate in one direction (forward) and by
reversing the pulse sequence to "ABCD, ABCD, ABCD, A..." etc, the rotor will rotate in the opposite direction
(reverse).
So in our simple example above, the stepper motor has four coils, making it a 4-phase motor, with the number of
poles on the stator being eight (2 x 4) which are spaced at 45 degree intervals. The number of teeth on the rotor
is six which are spaced 60 degrees apart. Then there are 24 (6 teeth x 4 coils) possible positions or "steps" for
the rotor to complete one full revolution. Therefore, the step angle above is given as: 360o/24 = 15o.
Obviously, the more rotor teeth and or stator coils would result in more control and a finer step angle. Also by
connecting the electrical coils of the motor in different configurations, Full, Half and micro-step angles are
possible. However, to achieve micro-stepping, the stepper motor must be driven by a (quasi) sinusoidal current
that is expensive to implement.
It is also possible to control the speed of rotation of a stepper motor by altering the time delay between the digital
pulses applied to the coils (the frequency), the longer the delay the slower the speed for one complete revolution.

By applying a fixed number of pulses to the motor, the motor shaft will rotate through a given angle and so there
would be no need for any form of additional feedback because by counting the number of pulses given to the
motor the final position of the rotor will be exactly known. This response to a set number of digital input pulses
allows the stepper motor to operate in an "Open Loop System" making it both easier and cheaper to control.
For example, lets assume that our stepper motor above has a step angle of 3.6 degs per step. To rotate the
motor through an angle of say 216 degrees and then stop again at the require position would only need a total
of: 216 degrees/(3.6 degs/step) = 80 pulses applied to the stator coils.
There are many stepper motor controller IC's available which can control the step speed, speed of rotation and
motors direction. One such controller IC is the SAA1027 which has all the necessary counter and code
conversion built-in, and can automatically drive the 4 fully controlled bridge outputs to the motor in the correct
sequence. The direction of rotation can also be selected along with single step mode or continuous (stepless)
rotation in the selected direction, but this puts some burden on the controller. When using an 8-bit digital
controller, 256 microsteps per step are also possible

SAA1027 Stepper Motor Control Chip

In this tutorial about Rotational Actuators, we have looked at the brushed and brushless DC Motor, theDC
Servo Motor and the Stepper Motor as an electromechanical actuator that can be used as an output device for
positional or speed control. In the next tutorial about Input/Output devices we will continue our look at output
devices called Actuators, and one in particular that converts a electrical signal into sound waves again using
electromagnetism. The type of output device we will look at in the next tutorial is the Loudspeaker.

The Sound Transducer

Sound is the general name given to "acoustic waves" that have frequencies ranging from just 1Hz up to many
tens of thousands of Hertz with the upper limit of human hearing being around the 20 kHz, (20,000Hz) range. The
sound that we hear is basically made up from mechanical vibrations produced by a Sound Transducer used to
generate the acoustic waves, and for sound to be "heard" it requires a medium for transmission either through
the air, a liquid, or a solid.

Piezo Sound Transducer

Also, sound need not be a continuous frequency sound wave such as a single tone or a musical note, but may be
an acoustic wave made from a mechanical vibration, noise or even a single pulse of sound such as a "bang".
Sound Transducers include both sensors, that convert sound into and electrical signal such as a microphone,
and actuators that convert the electrical signals back into sound such as a loudspeaker. We tend to think of
sound as only existing in the range of frequencies detectable by the human ear, from 20Hz up to 20kHz (a typical
loudspeaker frequency response), but sound can also extend way beyond these ranges.
Sound transducers can also both detect and transmit sound waves and vibrations from very low frequencies
called infra-sound up to very high frequencies called ultrasound. But in order for a sound transducer to either
detect or produce "sound" we first need to understand what sound is.

What is Sound?
Sound is basically a waveform of energy that is produced by some form of a mechanical vibration such as a
tuning fork, and which has a "frequency" determined by the origin of the sound for example, a bass drum has a
low frequency sound while a cymbal has a higher frequency sound.
A sound waveform has the same characteristics as that of an electrical waveform which
areWavelength (), Frequency () and Velocity (m/s). Both the sounds frequency and wave shape are
determined by the origin or vibration that originally produced the sound but the velocity is dependent upon the
medium of transmission (air, water etc.) that carries the sound wave. The relationship between wavelength,
velocity and frequency is given below as:

Sound Wave Relationship

Where:

Wavelength is the time period of one complete cycle in Seconds.

Frequency is the number of wavelengths per second in Hertz.

Velocity is the speed of sound through a transmission medium in m/s-1.

The Microphone Transducer

The Microphone, also called a "mic", is a sound transducer that can be classed as a "sound sensor". This is
because it produces an electrical analogue output signal which is proportional to the "acoustic" sound wave
acting upon its flexible diaphragm. This signal is an "electrical image" representing the characteristics of the
acoustic waveform. Generally, the output signal from a microphone is an analogue signal either in the form of a
voltage or current which is proportional to the actual sound wave.
The most common types of microphones available as sound transducers are Dynamic, Electret
Condenser, Ribbon and the newer Piezo-electric Crystal types. Typical applications for microphones as a sound
transducer include audio recording, reproduction, broadcasting as well as telephones, television, digital computer
recording and body scanners, where ultrasound is used in medical applications. An example of a simple
"Dynamic" microphone is shown below.

Dynamic Moving-coil Microphone Sound Transducer

The construction of a dynamic microphone resembles that of a loudspeaker, but in reverse. It is a moving coil
type microphone which uses electromagnetic induction to convert the sound waves into an electrical signal. It has
a very small coil of thin wire suspended within the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. As the sound wave hits
the flexible diaphragm, the diaphragm moves back and forth in response to the sound pressure acting upon it
causing the attached coil of wire to move within the magnetic field of the magnet.

The movement of the coil within the magnetic field causes a voltage to be induced in the coil as defined
by Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction. The resultant output voltage signal from the coil is
proportional to the pressure of the sound wave acting upon the diaphragm so the louder or stronger the sound
wave the larger the output signal will be, making this type of microphone design pressure sensitive.
As the coil of wire is usually very small the range of movement of the coil and attached diaphragm is also very
small producing a very linear output signal which is 90o out of phase to the sound signal. Also, because the coil is
a low impedance inductor, the output voltage signal is also very low so some form of "pre-amplification" of the
signal is required.
As the construction of this type of microphone resembles that of a loudspeaker, it is also possible to use an
actual loudspeaker as a microphone. Obviously, the average quality of a loudspeaker will not be as good as that
for a studio type recording microphone but the frequency response of a reasonable speaker is actually better
than that of a cheap "freebie" microphone. Also the coils impedance of a typical loudspeaker is different at
between 8 to 16. Common applications where speakers are generally used as microphones are in intercoms
and walki-talkie's.

The Loudspeaker Transducer

Sound can also be used as an output device to produce an alert noise or act as an alarm, and loudspeakers,
buzzers, horns and sounders are all types of sound transducer that can be used for this purpose with the most
commonly used audible type actuator being the "Loudspeaker".

Loudspeaker Transducer
Loudspeakers are also sound transducers that are classed as "sound actuators" and are the exact opposite of
microphones. Their job is to convert complex electrical analogue signals into sound waves being as close to the
original input signal as possible.
Loudspeakers are available in all shapes, sizes and frequency ranges with the more common types being
moving coil, electrostatic, isodynamic and piezo-electric. Moving coil type loudspeakers are by far the most
commonly used speaker in electronic circuits, kits and toys, and as such it is this type of sound transducer we will
examine below.
The principle of operation of the Moving Coil Loudspeaker is the exact opposite to that of the "Dynamic
Microphone" we look at above. A coil of fine wire, called the "speech or voice coil", is suspended within a very
strong magnetic field, and is attached to a paper or Mylar cone, called a "diaphragm" which itself is suspended at
its edges to a metal frame or chassis. Then unlike the microphone which is pressure sensitive input device, this
type of sound transducer can be classed as a pressure generating output device.

The Moving Coil Loudspeaker

When an analogue signal passes through the voice coil of the speaker, an electro-magnetic field is produced and
whose strength is determined by the current flowing through the "voice" coil, which inturn is determined by the
volume control setting of the driving amplifier or moving coil driver. The electro-magnetic force produced by this
field opposes the main permanent magnetic field around it and tries to push the coil in one direction or the other
depending upon the interaction between the north and south poles.
As the voice coil is permanently attached to the cone/diaphragm this also moves in tandem and its movement
causes a disturbance in the air around it thus producing a sound or note. If the input signal is a continuous sine
wave then the cone will move in and out acting like a piston pushing and pulling the air as it moves and a
continuous single tone will be heard representing the frequency of the signal. The strength and therefore its
velocity, by which the cone moves and pushes the surrounding air produces the loudness of the sound.
As the speech or voice coil is essentially a coil of wire it has, like an inductor an impedance value. This value for
most loudspeakers is between 4 and 16's and is called the "nominal impedance" value of the speaker
measured at 0Hz, or DC It is important to always match the output impedance of the amplifier with the nominal
impedance of the speaker to obtain maximum power transfer between the amplifier and speaker with most
amplifier-speaker combinations having and efficiency rating as low as 1 or 2%.
Although disputed by some, the selection of good speaker cable is also an important factor in the efficiency of the
speaker, as the internal capacitance and magnetic flux characteristics of the cable change with the signal
frequency, thereby causing both frequency and phase distortion attenuating the input signal. Also, with high
power amplifiers large currents are flowing through these cables so small thin bell wire type cables can overheat
during extended periods of use.
The human ear can generally hear sounds from between 20Hz to 20kHz, and the frequency response of modern
loudspeakers called general purpose speakers are tailored to operate within this frequency range as well as
headphones, earphones and other types of commercially available headsets used as sound transducers.
However, for high performance High Fidelity (Hi-Fi) type audio systems, the frequency response of the sound is
split up into different smaller sub-frequencies thereby improving both the loudspeakers efficiency and overall
sound quality as follows:

Generalised Frequency Ranges

Descriptive Unit
Sub-Woofer
Bass
Mid-Range
Tweeter

Frequency Range
10Hz to 100Hz
20Hz to 3kHz
1kHz to 10kHz
3kHz to 30kHz

In multi speaker enclosures which have a separate Woofer, Tweeter and Mid-range speakers housed together
within a single enclosure, a passive or active "crossover" network is used to ensure that the audio signal is
accurately split and reproduced by all the different sub-speakers. This crossover network consists
of Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors, RLC type passive filters or op-amp active filters whose crossover or cutoff frequency point is finely tuned to that of the individual loudspeakers characteristics and an example of a multispeaker "Hi-fi" type design is given below.

Multi-speaker (Hi-Fi) Design

In this tutorial, we have looked at different Sound Transducers that can be used to both detect and generate
sound waves. Microphones and loudspeakers are the most commonly available sound transducer, but other lots
of other types of sound transducers available which use piezoelectric devices to detect very high frequencies,
hydrophones designed to be used underwater for detecting underwater sounds and sonar transducers which
both transmit and recieve sound waves to detect submarines and ships.

Summary of Transducers
Input Devices or Sensors

Sensors are "Input" devices which convert one type of energy or quantity into an electrical analog
signal.

The most common forms of sensors are those that detect Position, Temperature, Light, Pressure and
Velocity.
The simplest of all input devices is the switch or pushbutton.
Some sensors called "Self-generating" sensors generate output voltages or currents relative to the
quantity being measured, such as thermocouples and photo-voltaic solar cells and their output bandwidth
equals that of the quantity being measured.

Some sensors called "Modulating" sensors change their physical properties, such as inductance or
resistance relative to the quantity being measured such as inductive sensors, LDR's and potentiometers and
need to be biased to provide an output voltage or current.

Not all sensors produce a straight linear output and linearization circuitry may be required.

Signal conditioning may also be required to provide compatibility between the sensors low output signal
and the detection or amplification circuitry.

Some form of amplification is generally required in order to produce a suitable electrical signal which is
capable of being measured.

Instrumentation type Operational Amplifiers are ideal for signal processing and conditioning of a
sensors output signal.

Output Devices or Actuators

"Output" devices are commonly called Actuators and the simplest of all actuators is the lamp.

Relays provide good separation of the low voltage electronic control signals and the high power load
circuits.

Relays provide separation of DC and AC circuits (i.e. switching an AC current path via a DC control
signal or vice versa).

Solid state relays have fast response, long life, no moving parts with no contact arcing or bounce but
require heatsinking.

Solenoids are electromagnetic devices that are used mainly to open or close pneumatic valves,
security doors and robot type applications. They are inductive loads so a flywheel diode is required.

Permanent magnet DC motors are cheaper and smaller than equivalent wound motors as they have no
field winding.

Transistor switches can be used as simple ON/OFF unipolar controllers and pulse width speed control
is obtained by varying the duty cycle of the control signal.

Bi-directional motor control can be achieved by connecting the motor inside a transistor H-bridge.

Stepper motors can be controlled directly using transistor switching techniques.

The speed and position of a stepper motor can be accurately controlled using pulses so can operate in
an Open-loop mode.

Microphones are input sound transducers that can detect acoustic waves either in the Infra sound,
Audible sound or Ultrasound range generated by a mechanical vibration.

Loudspeakers, buzzers, horns and sounders are output devices and are used to produce an output
sound, note or alarm.