Research Methodology

Lecture No :17
(

Research Paper -1 and

2)

Recap
Non Probability based sampling (
Precision
we
estimate
the
population parameter to fall within
a range, based on sample
estimate.

 Confidence is the certainty that our

estimate will hold true for the
population.
Roscoe (1975) rules of thumb for
determining sample size.
Some sampling designs are more
efficient than the others.
The knowledge about sampling is
used for different managerial
implications.

Objective
2 Research Papers
First Review Paper

 Second Empirical Study

Important
Information to be
noted
Title
Author(s)
Year of publication
Journal of publication
Key variables

( Independent, Dependent)

Relationships between

variables

 Model
Hypothesis

Method
Findings
Discussions
Implications
Future Directions
References

 Research Paper/ Thesis /

Research Report
Deliverables of Research
While

Qualitative Paper
Research Methodology

Lecture No :18
(Experimental Design)

Recap
Difference between
Research Paper Qualitative in
nature
Research paper Empirical

Objective
Experimental Design
Causal vs Correlations
Field Experiment vs Lab

Experiments

 When we want to find cause ?

Such as Absenteeism and
Incentives.
Some give bonus days , some
give cash and some
recognition.
22% of companies said that
their incentive where effective,
66% some what effective and
12% not effective
Question is which incentives
cause 22% companies to be
effective in reducing
absenteeism

Causal Vs
Correlation
What factor are related to

decrease in sales ?
What causes the decrease

in sales ?

To establish that X cases Y

three conditions need to

be meet.

 (A) Both X and Y should

covary
(B) X should precede Y
(C) No other Variable

should possibly be causing

the change in Y

Lab Experiment:
Tight Control on the

confounding variables hence

higher internal validity
Manipulation of independent

variable
Field Experiment:

 Less control on confounding

variable but good external

validity( Generalizability)
Manipulation of independent

variable

Research Methodology

Lecture No :19
(Experimental DesignCont)

Recap

 Causal vs Correlation
Field Study vs Field Experiment
Control and Treatment
Confounding variables
controllable un controllable

Factors effecting Internal Validity

(History, Maturation, Testing effect,
Instrument
,selection
Biases,
Mortality..)

Objective
Factors effecting External

Validity
When Experimental Design

is necessary

 Different types of

experimental Designs

When to Conduct
Experimental
Design
Control Group
Experimental Group
Expose (Treatment)
Pretest score (Instrument)
Post Test Score

(Instrument)
Difference

Pretest and Posttest

(Problem Instrument Effect)
Posttest
(Problem , Matching ,Mortality
Effect)
Pretest and Posttest
Experimental and Control Group
Randomized hence no effect of
history, maturation, testing,
instrument
(Problem of Mortaility)

Different internal validity

issues are taken care of

such as

 Pretest and posttest of

Group 2 allows to take care

of history, maturation,
instrumentation,
regression.
Group 3 remove the

testing effect

Recap
When to use experimental

designs

Pretest and Posttest

Experimental Group
Design

 Posttests only with

Experimental and Control

Group
Pretest and Posttest

Experimental and Control

Group Design

Solomon Four Group

Design
When to have lab

experiments and field

experiments
Issues of internal validity
Issues of external validity

 Certain experimental

design counter the effects

of internal validity
Research Methodology

Lecture No :20
(User Response to an Online
Information System: A Field
Experiment )

Recap
Experimental Design

 When to use experimental

designs
Pretest and Posttest

Experimental Group Design

Posttests only with

Experimental and Control

Group
Pretest and Posttest

Experimental and Control

Group Design
Solomon Four Group Design

Issues of internal validity

Issues of external validity

 Certain experimental

design counter the effects

of internal validity
Objective
Review a research article
which has applied an
experimental type of
methodology

Important Information to
be noted while reviewing
an article
Title
Author(s)
Year of publication

 Journal of publication
Key variables ( Independent,
Dependent)
Relationships between
variables
Model
Hypothesis

Method
Findings
Discussions
Implications
Future Directions
References

User Response to an
Online Information
System: A Field
Experiment
Experimental Design Research
Paper
Author(s): Charles R. Franz,
Daniel Robey and Robert R.
Koeblitz Source: MIS Quarterly,
Vol. 10, No. 1 (Mar., 1986),
pp. 29-42
Published by: Management
Information Systems Research
Center, University of
Minnesota

 Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/248
877
Accessed: 25/06/2013 07:40

Abstract
Problem / the issue
Literature support for the
problem
Literature Gap
Literature Support for
the Gap
Research methodology
Direction

Research Objectives /
Research Problem/
Research Question
Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis
1(1.1,1.2,1.3,1.4,1.5
,1.6)
Null Hypothesis
2(2.1,2.2,2.3)

Field Settings

Research Design
Measures
Measurement/Scales
Results
Research Methodology

Lecture No : 21
Data Preparation and Data Entry

Recap Lecture
In the last few lectures we discussed
about:
Research Design
The

purpose, investigation
type,
researcher
interference, study setting,
unit
of
analysis,
time
horizon, Measurement of
variables

 Sources of Data
Sampling
Experimental Design

Lecture Objectives
Getting the data ready for analysis
Data preparation
Coding, codebook,
coding rules
Data entry
Editing data
Data transformation

pre-coding,

Data Preparation and

Description
Data preparation includes editing,
coding, and data entry
It is the activity that ensures the
accuracy of the data and their
conversion from raw form to
reduced and classified forms that
are more appropriate for analysis.
Preparing a descriptive statistic
summary is another preliminary
step that allows data entry errors to
be identified and corrected.

Getting the Data Ready for

Analysis
After data obtained through
questionnaire, they need to be
coded, keyed in, and edited.
Outliers, inconsistencies and blank
responses, if any, have to be
handled in some way.

Coding
Data coding involves assigning a
number
to
the
participants
responses so, they can be entered
into data base.

 In coding, categories are the

partitions of a data set of a given
variable. For instance, if the
variable is gender, the categories
are male and female.
Categorization is the process of
using rules to partition a body of
data.
Both closed and open questions
must be coded.

Coding Cont.

 Numeric coding simplifies the

researchers task in converting a
nominal variable like gender to a 1
or 2.

Code Construction
There are two basic rules for code
construction.
First, the coding categories should
be exhaustive, meaning that a
coding category should exist for all
possible responses.
For example, household size might
be coded 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 or more.

 The 5 or more category assures

all subjects of a place in a
category.

Code Construction Cont.

Second, the coding categories
should be mutually exclusive and
independent.
This means that there should be no
overlap among the categories to
ensure that a subject or response
can be placed in only one category.

Code Construction Cont.

Missing data should also
represented with a code.

be

 In the good old days of computer

cards, a numeric value such as 9
or 99 was used to represent
missing data.
Today,
most
software
will
understand that either a period or a
blank response represents missing
data.

Codebook
A codebook contains each variable
in the study and specifies the
application of coding rules to the
variable.

 It is used by the researcher or

research staff to promote more
accurate and more efficient data
entry.
It is the definitive source for
locating the positions of variables
in the data file during analysis.

Sample Codebook
Pre-coding

 Pre-coding
means
assigning
codebook codes to variables in a
study and recording them on the
questionnaire.
Or
you
could
design
the
questionnaire in such a way that
apart from the respondents choice
it also indicates the appropriate
code next to it.
With a pre-coded instrument, the
codes for variable categories are
accessible
directly
from
the
questionnaire.

Sample Pre-coded Instrument

Coding Open-Ended
Questions

 One of the primary reasons for

using open-ended questions is that
insufficient information or lack of a
hypothesis may prohibit preparing
response categories in advance.
Researchers
are
forced
to
categorize responses after the data
are collected.

Coding Open-Ended
Questions Cont.

 In the Figure on the next slide,

question 6 illustrates the use of an
open-ended
question.
After
preliminary evaluation, response
categories were created for that
item. They can be seen in the
codebook.

Coding Open-Ended
Questions Cont.
Coding Rules
Data Entry
After responses have been coded,
they can be entered into data base.
Raw data can be entered through
any software program.

 For example: SPSS Data Editor.

Data Entry Cont.

Editing Data
After data entered, the blank
responses, if any, have to be
handled in some way, and
inconsistent data have to be
checked and followed up.
Data editing deals with detecting
and
correcting
illogical,
inconsistent, or illegal data and
omissions in the information
returned by the participants of
study.

Editing Data Cont.

Field Editing

 Field Editing Review

Entry Gaps Callback
Validates Re-interviewing

Field Editing Review

In large projects, field editing
review is a responsibility of the field
supervisor.
It should be done soon after the
data have been collected.

 During the stress of data collection,

data collectors often use ad hoc
abbreviations and special symbols.

If the forms are not completed

soon, the field interviewer may not
recall what the respondent said.
Therefore, reporting forms should
be reviewed regularly.

Field Editing Cont.

Entry Gaps Callback

 When entry gaps are present, a

callback should be made rather
than guessing what the respondent
probably said.

Field Editing Cont.

Validates Re-interviewing
The field supervisor also validates
field results by re-interviewing
some
percentage
of
the
respondents on some questions to
verify that they have participated.
Ten percent is the typical amount
used in data validation.

Central Editing
Scale of Study Number of Editors
At this point, the data should get a
thorough editing.
For a small study, a single editor
will produce maximum consistency.
For large studies, editing tasks
should be allocated by sections.

Central Editing Cont.

 Wrong Entry Replacements

Sometimes it is obvious that an
entry is incorrect and the editor
may be able to detect the proper
answer
by
reviewing
other
information in the data set.
This should only be done when the
correct answer is obvious.
If an answer given is inappropriate,
the editor can replace it with a no
answer or unknown.

Central Editing Cont.

Fakery Open-ended Questions

 The editor can also detect

instances of armchair interviewing,
fake interviews, during this phase.
This is easiest to spot with openended questions.

Central Editing Cont.

Handling Dont Know
Responses

 When the number of dont know

(DK) responses is low, it is not a
problem. However, if there are
several given, it may mean that the
question was poorly designed, too
sensitive, or too challenging for the
respondent.
The best way to deal with
undesired DK answers is to design
better questions at the beginning.
If DK response is legitimate, it
should be kept as a separate reply
category.

Data Transformation

 Data transformation, a variation of

data coding, is a process of
changing the original numerical
representation of a quantitative
value to another value.
E.g: The data given is in per year
consumption and we need it for
each month.
Data are typically changed to avoid
problems in the next stage of data
analysis process.

Data Transformation Cont.

 For example, economists often use

a logarithmic transformation so that
the data are more evenly
distributed.
Data
transformation
is
also
necessary when several questions
have been used to measure a
single concept.
E.g: Intentions to leave is
measured through 10 questions
which need to be transformed into
a single value for a single
respondent

Recap
Questionnaire checking involves
eliminating
unacceptable
questionnaires.

 These questionnaires may be

incomplete,
instructions
not
followed,
missing
pages, past
cutoff date or respondent not
qualified.
Editing looks to correct illegible,
incomplete,
inconsistent
and
ambiguous answers.
Coding typically assigns alpha or
numeric codes to answers that do
not already have them so that
statistical techniques can be
applied.

Recap Cont.

 Cleaning
reviews
data
for
consistencies. Inconsistencies may
arise from faulty logic, out of range
or extreme values.
Statistical adjustments applies to
data that requires weighting and
scale
transformations.

Research Methodology

Lecture No : 22

Introduction to SPSS

Recap
Questionnaire checking involves
eliminating
unacceptable
questionnaires.
Editing looks to correct illegible,
incomplete,
inconsistent
and
ambiguous answers.
Coding typically assigns numeric
codes to answers that do not
already
have
them
so that
statistical techniques can be
applied.
Some times we need to treat the
missing
values.

Recap Cont.

 Cleaning
reviews
data
for
consistencies. Inconsistencies may
arise from faulty logic, out of range
or extreme values.
Statistical adjustments applies to
data that requires weighting and
scale
transformations.

objective
How to use SPSS for Data

entry

Defining variables
Assigning them values
Assigning sizes and

constraints

 Data entry using data from

coded Questionnaires
How to generate simple

descriptive summaries
Research Methodology

Lecture No :23
(Feel of the Data)

Recap Lecture

In the last lecture we discussed

about:
How to use SPSS for Data

entry
Defining variables
Assigning them values
Assigning sizes and

constraints
Data entry using data from

coded Questionnaires
How to generate simple

descriptive summaries
Lecture Objectives
Getting the feel for the data

 Frequencies
Bar charts and pie charts
Histogram
Stem and leaf display
Pareto diagram
Box plot
SPSS cross tabulation

Getting a Feel for the Data

 We can acquire the feel for the

data by obtaining a visual summary
or by checking the central tendency
and the dispersion of the variable.
We can also get to know our data
by examining the relationship
between two variables.

Getting a Feel for the Data

Cont.
Getting a feel for the data is thus
the necessary first step in all data
analysis.
Based on this initial feel, further
detailed
analysis
may
be
undertaken to test the goodness of
the data.

Frequencies
Frequencies simply refer to the
number
of
times
various
subcategories
of
a
certain
phenomenon occur,
Percentage and the cumulative
percentage of their occurrence can
be easily calculated.

Frequency Cont.
Frequency and Percentage
Example: Ad Recall

Bar Charts and Pie Charts

 Frequencies can also be visually

displayed
as
bar
charts,
histograms, or pie charts.
Bar charts, histograms, and pie
charts help us to understand our
data.

Bar Chart
In this slide, the same data are
presented in the form of a bar chart.
(Nominal Data)

Pie Chart
Data
may
be
more
readily
understood
when
presented
graphically. (Nominal Data)

Histogram
A histogram is a graphical bar chart
that groups continuous data values
into equal intervals, with one bar
for each interval. (Ratio Data)

Histogram Cont.
Stem-and-Leaf Display Cont.
The stem-and-leaf display is a
technique that is closely related to
the histogram. It shares some of
the histograms features but offers
several unique advantages.
(Continuous data/ Ratio scale)

 In contrast to histograms, which

lose information by grouping data
values into intervals, the stem-andleaf presents actual data values
that can be inspected directly,
without the use of enclosed bar or
asterisks as the representation
medium.

Stem-and-Leaf Display
(e.g. Annual Purchase)

Stem-and-Leaf Display Cont.

Visualization
advantage
displays.

is
of

the
second
stem-and-leaf

 The range of values is apparent at

a glance, and both shape and
spread impressions are immediate.
(56,56,56)
concentration
and
spread
Patterns in the data are easily
observed.
Each line or row in the display is
referred to as a stem, and each
piece of information on the stem is
called a leaf.

Pareto Diagram
Pareto
diagrams
represent
frequency data as a bar chart,
ordered from most to least, overlaid
with a line graph
(Nominal Data)

 The cumulative percentage at each

variable level is shown.
The percentages
percent.

sum

to

100

Pareto Diagram Cont.

Pareto Diagram Cont.
The data are derived from a
multiple-choice-single-response
scale,
For
multiple-choice-multipleresponse scale, or frequency
counts of words or themes from
content analysis. Nominal Scale
but muli-response e.g.

 Which soft drinks you consume:

Coke

Mrinda
Sprite
Amrit

Obs1 obs2obs3..Frequency
x

3
1

1
x

Boxplot Components
The boxplot, or box-and-whisker
plot, is another technique used
frequently in exploratory data
analysis.

 A boxplot reduces the detail of the

stem-and-leaf display and provides
a different visual image of the
distributions location,
spread,
shape,
tail length,
outliers.

Boxplot Components Cont.

The ingredients of the plot are
The
rectangular
plot
that
encompasses 50% of the data
values.

 A center line--marking the median

and going through the width of the
box.
Consists of the median, the upper
and lower quartiles, and the largest
and smallest observations.

Boxplot Components Cont.

Boxplot Comparison
SPSS Cross-Tabulation
Cross-tabulation is a technique for
comparing data from two or more
categorical variables (Nominal
Data).

 It is used with demographic

(male/female) variables and the
studys target variables (taken
overseas assignment).
The technique uses tables having
rows and columns that correspond
to the levels or code values of each
variables categories.

SPSS Cross-Tabulation Cont.

Row and column totals, called

marginals, appear at the bottom

and right margins of the table.

 When tables are constructed for

statistical testing, we call them

contingency tables and the test
determines if the classification
variables are independent of
each other.

SPSS Cross-Tabulation Cont.

SPSS Cross-Tabulation Cont.
The figure is an example of a

computer-generated
crosstabulation. This table has two rows
for gender and two columns for
assignment selection.

 The

combination produces four

cells. Depending on what you
request for each cell, it can contain
a count of the cases of the joint
classification and also the row,
column,
and/or
the
total
percentages.

Percentages in CrossTabulation
Percentages serve two purposes in
data presentation.
They simplify the data by reducing
all numbers to a range from 0 to
100. (Standardize)

 They also translate the data into

standard form with a base of 100
for relative comparisons.

Percentages in CrossTabulation Cont.

Percentages in CrossTabulation Cont.
One can see in the figure that the
percentage of females selected for
overseas assignments rose from
15.8 to 22.5 percent of their
respective samples. (Female and
Yes)(Row %

Among all overseas selectees, in

the first study, 21.4% were women,
while in the second study, 37.5%
were women.

The tables verify an increase in

women
with
overseas
assignments, but we cannot
conclude that their gender had
anything to do with the increase.

Recap
Frequency refers to number of
times various sub categorizes
occur in the same pattern.
Frequencies can also be visually
displayed
as
bar
charts,
histograms, or pie charts.

 Histogram is graphical bar chart.

The stem-and-leaf presents actual
data values that can be inspected
directly.

Recap Cont.
A boxplot reduces the detail of the
stem-and-leaf display.
Cross-tabulation is a technique for
comparing data from two or more
categorical variables.
Percentages serve two purposes in
data presentation.

Research Methodology

Lecture No :24

Recap Lecture
In the last lecture we discussed
about:
Frequencies
Bar charts and pie charts
Histogram

 Stem and leaf display

Pareto diagram
Box plot
SPSS cross tabulation

Lecture Objectives
Getting the feel for the data
Measure of central tendency
Measure of Dispersion
Relationship Between Variables
Test

Lecture Objectives Cont.

Testing the goodness of data
Reliability
Cronbachs alpha
Split half
Validity
Factorial
Criterion
Convergent
Discriminant

Measure of Central Tendency

There are three measures of central
tendency

The mean

The median

The mode

Measure of Central Tendency

Cont.
The mean
The mean or the average, is a
measure of central tendency that
offers a general picture of the data.

 The mean or average of a set of,

say, ten observations, is the sum of
ten individual observations divided
by
ten
(the
total
no
of
observations).
(54+50+35+67+50)/5=51.2

Measure of Central Tendency

Cont.
The median
The median is the central item in a
group of observations when they
are arrayed in either an ascending
or a descending order.
35,50,50,54,67------50

Measure of Central Tendency

Cont.
The mode
In some cases, a set of
observations does not lend itself to
meaningful representation through
either the mean or the median, but
can be signified by the most
frequently occurring phenomenon.
54,50,35,67,50-----50

Measure of Dispersion
Dispersion is the variability that
exist in a set of observations.
Two sets of data might have the
same mean, but the dispersion
could be different.

Measure of Dispersion Cont.

The three measures of dispersions
connected with the mean are

The range

The variance

The standard deviation

Measure of Dispersion Cont.

The range
Range refers to the extreme values
in a set of observations.
54,50,35,67,50
(35,67)

Measure of Dispersion Cont.

The variance
The variance is calculated by
subtracting the mean from each of
the observations in the data set,
taking a square of this difference,
and dividing the total of these by
the number of observations.

Measure of Dispersion Cont.

The standard deviation
Another measure of dispersion for
interval and ratio scaled data,
offers an index of the spread of a
distribution or the variability in the
data.

 It is a very commonly used,

measure of dispersion, and is
simply square root of the variance.

Relationship Between
Variables
Parametric tests from testing
relationship between variables
such as Person Correlation using
interval and ratio scales
Nonparametric tests are available
to assess the relationship between
variables measured on a nominal
or an ordinal scale.
Spearmans rank correlation and
Kendalls rank correlation are used
to examine relationships between
interval and/or ratio variables.

Pearson Correlation
Rank Correlations
To test the strength and

direction of association that

exists between two variables
The variables are using

ordinal scale
E.g Students score in two

different exams i.e. English

and Math
Correlations (SPSS)
Bi vitiate
Spearman
Check for value of r and P

Relationship Between Nominal

Variables: Test
Sometimes we want to know if
there is a relationship between two
nominal variables or whether they
are independent of each other.
The test compares the expected
frequencies
(based
on
the
probability) and the observed
frequency.

Testing Goodness of Data

Goodness of data can be tested by
two measures
Reliability
Validity

Reliability
The reliability of a measure is
established by testing for both
consistency and stability.
Consistency indicates how well the
items measured a concept having
together as a set.

Reliability Cont.
Cronbachs alpha is a reliability
coefficient that indicates how well
the items in a set are positively
correlated to one another.
Cronbachs alpha is computed in
terms
of
the
average
intercorrelations among the items
measuring the concept.

 The closer Cronbachs alpha is to

one, the higher the internal
consistency reliability.

Reliability Cont.
Another measure of consistency
reliability used in specific situations
is the split half reliability coefficient.
Split half reliability is obtained to
test for consistency when more
than one scale, dimensions, or
factor is assessed.

Validity
Factorial
validity
can
be
established by submitting the data
for factor analysis.

 Factor analysis reveals whether the

dimensions are indeed tapped by
the items in the measure, as
theorized.

Validity Cont.
Criterion related validity can be
established by testing for the power
of the measure to differentiate
individuals who are known to be
different.

Validity Cont.
Convergent
validity
can
be
established when there is high
degree of correlation between two
different sources responding to the
same measure.

 Example: Both supervisors and

subordinates respond similarly to a
perceived reward system measure
administered to them.

Validity Cont.
Discriminant validity can be
established when two distinctly
different
concepts
are
not
correlated to each other .
Example: Courage and honesty,
leadership and motivation, attitudes
and behaviors.

SPSS
Cronbach Alpha

(Reliability)

Factor Analysis (Validity)

Recap
Goodness of data is measured by
reliability and validity.
Three
measures
of
central
tendency: mean, median and
mode.
Dispersion is the variability.
Three measures of dispersion are:
range, variance and standard
deviation.
Correlation
SPSS Cronbach Alpha (Reliability)
Factor Analysis (Validity)

Research Methodology

Lecture No :25
(Hypothesis Testing
Difference in Groups)

Recap
Goodness of data is measured
by reliability and validity.
Three measures of central
tendency: mean, median and
mode.
Dispersion is the variability.

 Three measures of dispersion

are: range, variance and
standard deviation.
Correlation
SPSS
Cronbach
(Reliability) Factor
(Validity)

Alpha
Analysis

Hypotheses Testing
Difference between groups
Relationship between variables

Types of Hypotheses
Choose Appropriate Tests

 Based on the number of

variables
i.e. two variables relationship
(Univariate)and
many variables (Multivariate)
statistical techniques.
The type of scales Nominal,
Ordinal(Non Metric) , Interval
and Ratio(Metric) used choose
appropriate tests
See page 338 of the text book.

Computer Outputs
See the output results of the
computer generated outputs
indicating the significance
level.

Testing for Statistical

Significance
Selected Group Difference
Cases
Group difference
Testing single mean
Testing two related means

(ratio)
Testing two related samples

when data is in ordinal /

nominal
Testing two in unrelated

means
Testing when more than two

groups on their mean scores

Testing a hypothesis
about a single mean
One sample t test
Mean of the population

from which a sample is

drawn is equal to
comparison standard.

i.e. we known that the in

general the students on an

average study for 32
hours.

 Now you want to test that

the students at V-CIIT

which are part of the
student population study
less.

So the sample of V-CIIT differ

from the rest of the population
needs to be tested.
Hypothesis generated would
be

 Ho: The number of study

hours of students V_CIIT is
equal to the number of hours
studied in general.(same)(no
difference)
Ha: The number of hours
students of V_CIIT is less
then the number of hours
studied in general (< )
SPSS
Analysis Compare means
One sample T Test.
Say you set the significance
level to 0.05 then

 See the output results of

generated from the software.
See if the differences are
significant or the relationship
significant. (lecture 6-7)
If the differences are not
significant then we accept the
null hypotheses other wise
accept the alternate
Out Put (T value and
significance level)

Testing hypotheses about

two related means
Paired samples t-test

 Examine the difference in the

same group before and after
the treatment
Performance before training
and after training
Two observation each
employee
Null hypothesis
There is no difference

between the performance of

before and after the training
SPSS
use pair t test and see the
value of t and its significance
level

 If the differences are not

significant then we accept the
null hypotheses other wise
accept the alternate
Meaning the before and after
training there was no change
i.e. Null hypothesis is accepted
There is no difference

between the performance of

before and after the training

Non Parametric Test for

paired sampled

 When population cannot be

assumed to be normally be
assumed distributed
Use Wilcoxon singed rank test
,
Use McNemars test for non
parametric and nominal data

Testing about two

unrelated means
Group difference when

groups are not related and

variable of interest data is
in interval and ratio scales.

E.g: Groups MBA and Non

MBA compared on sales

achieved.

 SPSS Analyze Compare

means Independent
samples T Test

If more than two groups

use ANOVA ( sales by

different level of
education(Metric, FA,
BA/BS,Masters )

SPSS excercises

Research Methodology

Lecture No :27
(Sample Research Project
Using SPSS Part -A)

Recap
Hypothesis testing the

relationship/Association
Correlations
Regression

Objective
Develop a research project

from the start

Problem definition
Importance of research
Gap
Research objective/

questions
Introduction and Literature

review
Theoretical framework
Methodology

Apply SPSS for Data

Analysis

Research Area and

Problem
Knowledge
Projects Knowledge
Senior Project Manager do

not share their knowledge

Importance of the
issue

 Experienced project

managers can pass on

their knowledge to their
juniors which allow them to
become better project
managers.
Training costs in millions

and yet the area focused is

seldom achieved but with
senior project managers
can deliver knowledge
which is very pertinent to
your customer and your
organization.

 Organization can gain

efficiency and have higher

success rate , etc..

Gap
A number of researcher

have conducted research

to find the antecedents to
knowledge sharing (ref
ref ..ref..)

 Among them some also

have explored the

knowledge sharing from
the cognitive level (ref .,
ref ..)
But just one has studied

knowledge sharing from

the project management
aspect and recommends
that more research is
needed (ref .)

Introduction
What is knowledge
What is a project
Role of Project manager

 Specifics of project

experience
Behavior and Intentions
Intentions formation
Theory of Reasoned Action

Theory of Reasoned
Action
Intentions are influenced

by attitude and subjective

norms

 The subjective norms

concept is operationalized
to have 2 sub dimensions
Norms Belief
Motivation to Comply

Literature Review

 Knowledge sharing can be

defined as a process of
conveying knowledge from
a person to another and
also to collect shared
knowledge through
information and
technology (Hwie Seo et
al., 2003)..

 Riege (2005) lists three

dozen of these barriers

which need to be
addressed in order to
implement a knowledge
management strategy. One
way to understand the
effect of these barriers is
through the Theory of
Reasoned Action (TRA).
TRA helps us understand
the cognitive process of
formation of intentions and
it has been successfully
used in numerous studies
to understand intentions
and predict behavior

(Sheppard et al., 1998)

One study by tried to

study the .knowledge

sharing of projects .. and
recommended more to be
conducted..

Objectives of
Research/ Research
Questions
To develop a better

understanding as to how
knowledge sharing
behavior is formed IN THE
PROJECT MANGERS.

 Through the cognitive

(mental)process of
intentions formation
Through studying intention

difference between different

demographic variables
To what extent does

attitude influence
intentions for sharing of
project knowledge ?
To what extent does

subjective norms influence

intentions for sharing of
project knowledge ?

 Does attitude for project

knowledge mediates the

relationship between
subjective norm and
intentions ?
Is there a difference

between the intentions to

share project knowledge
and the gender?

Theoretical
Framework

 The attitude towards a

specific action will lead to

formation of intentions ,
which will lead to the
behavior ..
Knowledge sharing is one

such act , if you have

attitude towards sharing
then you would also show
intent to share.

 The norms influences the

behavior, individual get

influenced by the people
around them specially the
people who they consider
important. If the norms of
the important people is to
share then and then
individuals are influenced
by that but it also
important that to note that
individuals motivation to
comply with the norm is
also important ins
determining the effect
norms in an
organization

 So we theorize that the

attitude for sharing ones

knowledge on certain
( types )projects would
lead to formation
intentions to share that
knowledge and ultimately
it would lead to actual
sharing.

 So we theorize that the

norms for sharing ones

knowledge on certain
(types) projects in an
organization by the
important people would
lead to formation of
intentions to share
provided the individual
also have motivation to
comply to the norms.

Norms have direct impact

on intentions and also

indirect impact through
attitude as well

Schematic Diagram
Hypotheses
H1: The higher the

attitude towards projects

knowledge sharing the
higher the intentions to
share PROJECT knowledge.

H2: The higher the

subjective norm of projects

knowledge sharing the
higher the intentions to
share projects knowledge.

 H3: The higher the

subjective norm the higher

the attitude to share
projects knowledge

H4: The attitude mediates

the relationship between

subjective norm and
intentions
H5: The women have

higher level of sharing

their knowledge about
projects then men

 H6: The project managers

permanent /temporary
positions at the company
would moderate the
relationship between
attitude and intentions

Methods
Population : Senior I.T

project managers in the

150 software house of
Islamabad.

Sample: Randomly select

50 companies and
approach around 150
senior managers to be part
of the study.

 A 5-point Likert scale

anchored by strongly
disagree (1) to strongly
agree (5) is used. It is
ensured that not more
than 3 responses per firms
are obtained.
Data collection: Adapted

Questionnaire from (ref )

personally administered or
Mailed

Feel of data ( Descriptive

Analysis- Mean,
Percentage)

 Goodness of Data

(Reliability and ValidityCron Bach, Factor Analysis)

Group Difference

( Independent sample T
test)

Inferential Statistics :

Correlations and
Regression Analysis

Instrument

Attitude Towards PROJECT Knowledge Sharing

[Adapted from Bock et al(2005)]

To me, sharing PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers is harmful..

To me, sharing PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers is good...

To me, sharing PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers is pleasant.

To me, sharing PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers is worthless...

To me, sharing PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers is wise

Affect of Subjective Norm Towards PROJECT

Knowledge sharing [Adapted from Bock et
al(2005)]

My CEO/Head of organization thinks I should share

PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers

My Boss thinks I should share PROJECT knowledge

with my co-worker

My colleagues thinks I should share PROJECT

knowledge with my coworkers
.

Generally Speaking, I accept and carry out my CEOs

policy and intentions

Generally Speaking, I accept and carry out my Boss

decision even though it is different form
mine .....................................

Generally Speaking, I respect and put in practice my

colleagues decisions

Intentions to
Share PROJECT
Knowledge
[Adapted from
Bock et al
(2005)]

If given
opportunity, I
would share
PROJECT
knowledge with
my co-workers

If given
opportunity, I
would share my
work experience
with my coworkers

..

If given
opportunity, I
would share
know-how or ticks
of the trade
with my coworkers

If given
opportunity, I
would share
expertise from
education
Or
training with my
coworkers

..

If given
opportunity, I
would share
know-why
knowledge from
work with my
coworkers

...

Demographic:
Please provide
some personal
Information
1. Your gender:
Male Female
2. Your age? ____
(in years)

3. Your level of
your education?
FA/FSc
Diploma
Bachelor
Masters PhD

4-Nature of your
Job : Software
Development/Sup
port
Networking
Other( Specify)_
___________

5- Your Name:
__________________
____(* optional)

6- Your
Organization:____
______________(*op
tional)

7- Your e-mail :
__________________
__ ( Interested in
receiving the
results of this
study) Yes No

8- How long have

you been working
in Information
Technology
Industry?
less than 1
year
1-3
years
4-6
years
over 6
years

9-. How long have

you been working
with this
organization?
less than 1
year
1-3
years
4-6
years
over 6
years

10- Your Position

at the company is
permanent of
contractual
Permanent
Contractual

THANK
YOU

Research Methodology

Lecture No :28
(Sample Research Project
Using SPSS Part -B)

Recap
Develop a research project

from the start

Problem definition

 Importance of research
Gap
Research objective/

questions
Introduction and Literature

review
Theoretical framework
Methodology

Apply SPSS for Data

Analysis
Descriptive and Reliability

Objectives

 Analysis using SPSS

Descriptive
Reliability (Cron Bach Alpha)
Validity ( Factor Analysis)
Correlations
Regression
Interpretations

Schematic Diagram
Instrument

Attitude Towards PROJECT Knowledge Sharing

[Adapted from Bock et al(2005)]

To me, sharing PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers is harmful..

To me, sharing PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers is good...

To me, sharing PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers is pleasant.

To me, sharing PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers is worthless...

To me, sharing PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers is wise

Affect of Subjective Norm Towards PROJECT

Knowledge sharing [Adapted from Bock et
al(2005)]
My CEO/Head of organization thinks I should share
PROJECT knowledge with my coworkers

My Boss thinks I should share PROJECT knowledge

with my co-worker

My colleagues thinks I should share PROJECT

knowledge with my coworkers
.

Generally Speaking, I accept and carry out my CEOs

policy and intentions

Generally Speaking, I accept and carry out my Boss

decision even though it is different form
mine .....................................

Generally Speaking, I respect and put in practice my

colleagues decisions

Intentions to
Share PROJECT
Knowledge
[Adapted from
Bock et al
(2005)]

If given
opportunity, I
would share
PROJECT
knowledge with
my co-workers

If given
opportunity, I
would share my
work experience
with my coworkers

..

If given
opportunity, I
would share
know-how or ticks
of the trade
with my coworkers

If given
opportunity, I
would share
expertise from
education
Or
training with my
coworkers

..

If given
opportunity, I
would share
know-why
knowledge from
work with my
coworkers

...

Demographic:
Please provide
some personal
Information
1. Your gender:
Male Female
2. Your age? ____
(in years)

3. Your level of
your education?
FA/FSc
Diploma
Bachelor
Masters PhD

4-Nature of your
Job : Software
Development/Sup
port
Networking
Other( Specify)_
___________

5- Your Name:
__________________
____(* optional)

6- Your
Organization:____
______________(*op
tional)

7- Your e-mail :
__________________
__ ( Interested in
receiving the
results of this
study) Yes No

8- How long have

you been working
in Information
Technology
Industry?
less than 1
year
1-3
years
4-6
years
over 6
years

9-. How long have

you been working
with this
organization?
less than 1
year
1-3
years
4-6
years
over 6
years

10- Your Position

at the company is
permanent of
contractual
Permanent
Contractual

THANK
YOU

Reliability
Validity (Factor
Analysis)
Correlation
Research Methodology

Lecture No :29
(Sample Research Project
Using SPSS Part -C)

Recap
Develop a research project

from the start

Problem definition

Importance of research

Gap

Research objective/
questions

Introduction and Literature

review

Theoretical framework

Methodology

Apply SPSS for Data Analysis

Descriptive and Reliability

Recap
Analysis using SPSS
Descriptive
Reliability (Cron Bach Alpha)
Validity ( Factor Analysis)
Correlations
Regression
Interpretations

Objectives
Moderation
Mediation
Group difference (Independent
Sample t Test)

Moderation
Scenario
Anxiety level effects the

depression level of the

individuals. But the
relationship is moderated by
Anxiety Free days.

 To test the moderation we

need to have develop

hierarchical regression
equations and see if there is
any change in the R-square.
If the change is significant
then we claim there is
moderation
Step 1 : Create a new

interaction variable Anxiety

level * Anxiety Free days

 Step 2: Due to the

multiplication of variables
there is a possibility of number
of problems such as multi co
linearity.
This can be avoided by

creating the Z scores of the

variables
The raw mean score is

subtracted from the mean

and divided by the std
So while running the

regression then the Z scores

are used instead of the raw
score.

 Step 3: SPSS (converting into Z

scores)
Analyze
Descriptive Statistics
Select the variables
Save standardized values

Step 4: SPSS (computing the

Interaction variable with z
scores)
Transform
Compute
New variable (Interaction)
Target Z score variables (*)
okay

Step 5: Regression Analysis

Linear

 Dependent Variable
(Depression)
Independent Variables
(Anxiety , Anxiety Free Days)
Next
Block 2/2
Enter the Interaction variable
Statistic tick Change in Rsquare
Okay
Results
Change in R-square and F
statistics and F significance

Schematic Diagram
Mediation
Barron & Kenny method

HC
c
PF
c=PF=f(HC)=0.374,P=0.0
03
Hc
a=cc= f(HC)

PF

b
b=Pf=f(cc)

cc
c=f(HC,CC)=0.12388,P=0
.2053
If

c becomes zero then full

mediation exists other wise it
will be partial mediation.

Preacher & Hayes

method
Generates confidence interval
between the 2 scenarios.
If the confidence interval include
zero it indicates a lack of
significance.
If zero is not included then
mediation is significant.
If

there exists zero between

upper and lower values then
there is no mediation.

Group Difference
Independent Sample T test

( Intentions and Gender)

 Anova ( intentions and

education levels)
Miscellaneous features
(SPSS)
Normal Distribution
Scatter Plots
Missing Values

Research Methodology

Lecture No :30

(Research Output Discussions

and Report Format)

Objectives
Findings and Discussion
section of the research
Research Report Layout

Two research articles and

their findings would be

discussed.

These article have already

been partially covered

 Now the focus is on the

Results/Findings section,
conclusion and
recommendation sections.
Research Report Layout
Title
Introduction
A brief literature review
Research Questions
Theoretical Framework
Hypothesis
Method section
Study Design (cross sectional ,
)
Population and Sample

 Variables and measures

Their reliability and Validity

Data Collection
Data Analysis
Discussion of Results
Recommendations

Research Methodology

Lecture No :31
(Revision Chapter
1,2,3,4,5,6,7)

Introduction
Objectives of the

course :

To understand and
develop a systematic
approach to business
research

To emphasis on the
relationship between
theory , research and
practice

To Integrate different
research activities in an
orderly fashion

Outcomes of the course

are :

To formulate research
questions

Develop theoretical
framework

Develop hypotheses

Learn to select from

different research
methodologies

Develop skills for data

analysis and
interpretation.

Research is a
Systematic effort to investigate a
problem

Types of research

 Applied (solve a current problem

of org)
Basic (improve understanding of
a problem)

Research Philosophical Choice

Deduction / Induction

Why managers should know

about research
Identify problems , discriminate
b/w good and bad research,
appreciate the multiple
influences of different factors
,etc.

Hall Marks of Scientific

Research.

 Purposive, Rigor, Testability,

Reliability,
Precision/confidence,
Objectivity, Generalizbility,
Parsimony
Building Blocks of Scientific
Research
Observation, identification of

problem area, Theoretical

Framework, Hypothesis,
Construct, Concepts
operations definitions,
Research Design, Data
Collection , Analysis,
Interpretation,
implementation/refinement
of theory

Problem/Literature/Question
Identification of the broad
problem area
Preliminary information

gathering through interviews

and literature survey
Problem definition

Literature Review involves

searching and documenting
There is a structure of

review (importance,
objectives, definitions,
relationships identified,
gaps)
There are different formats

of Documenting (APA)

 Based on the gaps identify

your research
objectives/problem
definition/research
questions

Theoretical Framework and

Variables
Theoretical framework is
representation of your
belief on how variables
related and why
Variables are of 4 different
kinds

 Independent, Dependent,

Moderating,
Mediating( Intervening)

Hypotheses
In order statistically respond to
the research questions we
develop the Hypotheses
statements.
These statements are stated in
such way that they can be
easily testable
Hypotheses statement are
written in directional, non
directional formats for testing
group differences, relationship
between variables.

 We develop null and alternate

hypotheses
Summarized Table of
Statistical Notations for
Hypotheses

Research Design
We covered some of the
research design elements
We talked about the research
purpose
(exploratory, descriptive,

hypothesis testing)
Type of investigation
(causal, correlations)

Extent of researcher's
interference

 (High, moderate, low)

Opertionalization
Measurement is necessary to
give answers or to the
research question , or to test
our hypotheses.

 The opeationalizing of certain

subjective variables are
necessary for measurement.
The abstract concepts are
broken down to dimensions
and its elements.
Questions are formulated on
them
Not to confuse dimensions
with antecedents

Research Question/Items
for the five Dimensions
Scales

 Measurement means that

scales are used.
Scales are a set of symbols or
numbers, assigned by rule to
individuals, their behaviors, or
attributes associated with
them
Nominal , Ordinal, Interval,
Ratio

Goodness of Data
Four types of scales are used
in research, each with specific
applications and properties.
The scales are

 Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio