Chapter 2

Application Layer

A note on the use of these ppt slides:

Were making these slides freely available to all (faculty, students, readers).
Theyre in PowerPoint form so you can add, modify, and delete slides
(including this one) and slide content to suit your needs. They obviously
represent a lot of work on our part. In return for use, we only ask the
following:
If you use these slides (e.g., in a class) in substantially unaltered form,
that you mention their source (after all, wed like people to use our book!)
If you post any slides in substantially unaltered form on a www site, that
you note that they are adapted from (or perhaps identical to) our slides, and
note our copyright of this material.

Computer Networking:
A Top Down Approach,

4th edition.
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley, July
2007.

Thanks and enjoy! JFK/KWR

All material copyright 1996-2007
J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved

2: Application Layer

Chapter 2: Application layer

2.1 Principles of

network applications
2.2 Web and HTTP
2.3 FTP
2.4 Electronic Mail

2.6 P2P Applications

2.7 Socket programming

with TCP
2.8 Socket programming
with UDP

SMTP, POP3, IMAP

2.5 DNS

2: Application Layer

Chapter 2: Application Layer

Our goals:
conceptual,
implementation
aspects of network
application protocols
transport-layer
service models
client-server
paradigm
peer-to-peer
paradigm

learn about protocols

by examining popular
application-level
protocols

HTTP
FTP
SMTP / POP3 / IMAP
DNS

programming network

applications
socket API

2: Application Layer

Some network apps

e-mail

voice over IP

web

real-time video

remote login

conferencing
grid computing

P2P file sharing

multi-user network

instant messaging

games
streaming stored video
clips

2: Application Layer

Creating a network app

write programs that

run on (different) end

systems

communicate over network

e.g., web server software
communicates with browser
software

little software written for

devices in network core

application
transport
network
data link
physical

network core devices do

not run user applications
applications on end systems
allows for rapid app
development

application
transport
network
data link
physical

application
transport
network
data link
physical

2: Application Layer

Chapter 2: Application layer

2.1 Principles of

network applications
2.2 Web and HTTP
2.3 FTP
2.4 Electronic Mail

SMTP, POP3, IMAP

2.5 DNS

2.6 P2P file sharing

2.7 Socket programming

with TCP
2.8 Socket programming
with UDP
2.9 Building a Web
server

2: Application Layer

Application architectures
Client-server

Peer-to-peer (P2P)
Hybrid of client-server and P2P

2: Application Layer

Client-server architecture
server:
always-on host
permanent IP address
server farms for
scaling
clients:
client/server

communicate with server

may be intermittently
connected
may have dynamic IP
addresses
Clients do not
communicate directly with
each other
2: Application Layer
8

Pure P2P architecture

no always-on server

arbitrary end systems

directly communicate peer-peer

peers are intermittently
connected and change IP
addresses
Highly scalable but
difficult to manage

2: Application Layer

Hybrid of client-server and P2P

Skype
voice-over-IP P2P application
centralized server: finding address of remote
party:
client-client connection: direct (not through
server)
Instant messaging
chatting between two users is P2P
centralized service: client presence
detection/location
user registers its IP address with central
server when it comes online
user contacts central server to find IP
addresses of buddies
2: Application Layer

10

Processes communicating
Process: program running
within a host.
within same host, two
processes communicate
using inter-process
communication (defined
by OS).
processes in different
hosts communicate by
exchanging messages

Client process: process

that initiates
communication
Server process: process
that waits to be
contacted
Note: applications with

P2P architectures have

client processes &
server processes
2: Application Layer

11

Sockets
process sends/receives

messages to/from its

socket
socket analogous to door

sending process shoves

message out door
sending process relies on
transport infrastructure
on other side of door which
brings message to socket
at receiving process

host or
server

host or
server

process

controlled by
app developer

process
socket

socket
TCP with
buffers,
variables

Internet

TCP with
buffers,
variables

controlled
by OS

API: (1) choice of transport protocol; (2) ability to fix

a few parameters (lots more on this later)

2: Application Layer

12

Addressing processes
to receive messages,

process must have

identifier

host device has unique

32-bit IP address
Q: does IP address of
host on which process
runs suffice for
identifying the process?

2: Application Layer

13

Addressing processes
to receive messages,

process must have

identifier

host device has unique

32-bit IP address
Q: does IP address of
host on which process
runs suffice for
identifying the
process?
A: No, many
processes can be
running on same host

identifier includes both

IP address and port

numbers associated with
process on host.
Example port numbers:

HTTP server: 80
Mail server: 25

to send HTTP message

to gaia.cs.umass.edu web
server:

IP address: 128.119.245.12
Port number: 80

more shortly
2: Application Layer

14

App-layer protocol defines

Types of messages

exchanged,

e.g., request, response

Message syntax:
what fields in messages &
how fields are delineated
Message semantics
meaning of information in
fields

Public-domain protocols:
defined in RFCs
allows for
interoperability
e.g., HTTP, SMTP
Proprietary protocols:
e.g., Skype

Rules for when and how

processes send &

respond to messages

2: Application Layer

15

What transport service does an app need?

Data loss
some apps (e.g., audio) can
tolerate some loss
other apps (e.g., file
transfer, telnet) require
100% reliable data
transfer
Timing
some apps (e.g.,
Internet telephony,
interactive games)
require low delay to be
effective

Bandwidth
some apps (e.g.,
multimedia) require
minimum amount of
bandwidth to be
effective
other apps (elastic
apps) make use of
whatever bandwidth
they get
Throughput
2: Application Layer

16

Transport service requirements of common apps

Data loss

Bandwidth

Time Sensitive

file transfer
e-mail
Web documents
real-time audio/video

no loss
no loss
no loss
loss-tolerant

no
no
no
yes, 100s msec

stored audio/video
interactive games
instant messaging

loss-tolerant
loss-tolerant
no loss

elastic
elastic
elastic
audio: 5kbps-1Mbps
video:10kbps-5Mbps
same as above
few kbps up
elastic

Application

yes, few secs

yes, 100s msec
yes and no

2: Application Layer

17

Internet transport protocols services

TCP service:

connection-oriented: setup

required between client and

server processes
reliable transport between
sending and receiving process
flow control: sender wont
overwhelm receiver
congestion control: throttle
sender when network
overloaded
does not provide: timing,
minimum bandwidth
guarantees

UDP service:
unreliable data transfer

between sending and

receiving process
does not provide:
connection setup,
reliability, flow control,
congestion control, timing,
or bandwidth guarantee
Q: why bother? Why is
there a UDP?

2: Application Layer

18

Internet apps: application, transport protocols

Application
e-mail
remote terminal access
Web
file transfer
streaming multimedia

Internet telephony

Application
layer protocol

Underlying
transport protocol

SMTP [RFC 2821]

Telnet [RFC 854]
HTTP [RFC 2616]
FTP [RFC 959]
proprietary
(e.g. RealNetworks)
proprietary
(e.g., Vonage,Dialpad)

TCP
TCP
TCP
TCP
TCP or UDP

typically UDP

2: Application Layer

19

Chapter 2: Application layer

2.1 Principles of

network applications

app architectures
app requirements

2.2 Web and HTTP

2.4 Electronic Mail
SMTP, POP3, IMAP

2.6 P2P file sharing

2.7 Socket programming

with TCP
2.8 Socket programming
with UDP

2.5 DNS

2: Application Layer

20

Web and HTTP

First some jargon
Web page consists of objects
Object can be HTML file, JPEG image, Java
applet, audio file,
Web page consists of base HTML-file which
includes several referenced objects
Each object is addressable by a URL
Example URL(uniform resource locator):
www.someschool.edu/someDept/pic.gif
host name

path name
2: Application Layer

21

HTTP overview
HTTP: hypertext
transfer protocol
Webs application layer

protocol
client/server model
client: browser that
requests, receives,
displays Web objects
server: Web server
sends objects in
response to requests
HTTP 1.0: RFC 1945
HTTP 1.1: RFC 2068

PC running
Explorer

Server
running
Apache Web
server
Mac running
Navigator

2: Application Layer

22

HTTP overview (continued)

Uses TCP:
client initiates TCP

connection (creates socket)

to server, port 80
server accepts TCP
connection from client
HTTP messages (applicationlayer protocol messages)
exchanged between browser
(HTTP client) and Web
server (HTTP server)
TCP connection closed

HTTP is stateless
server maintains no

information about
past client requests

aside

Protocols that maintain

state are complex!
past history (state) must
be maintained
if server/client crashes,
their views of state may
be inconsistent, must be
reconciled
2: Application Layer

23

HTTP connections
Nonpersistent HTTP
At most one object is
sent over a TCP
connection.
HTTP/1.0 uses
nonpersistent HTTP

Persistent HTTP
Multiple objects can
be sent over single
TCP connection
between client and
server.
HTTP/1.1 uses
persistent connections
in default mode

2: Application Layer

24

Nonpersistent HTTP
(contains text,
Suppose user enters URL
references to 10
www.someSchool.edu/someDepartment/home.index
jpeg images)

1a. HTTP client initiates TCP

connection to HTTP server

(process) at
www.someSchool.edu on port 80

2. HTTP client sends HTTP

request message (containing

URL) into TCP connection
socket. Message indicates
that client wants object
someDepartment/home.index

1b. HTTP server at host

www.someSchool.edu waiting
for TCP connection at port 80.
accepts connection, notifying
client

3. HTTP server receives request

message, forms response
message containing requested
object, and sends message
into its socket

time
2: Application Layer

25

Nonpersistent HTTP (cont.)

4. HTTP server closes TCP
5. HTTP client receives response

connection.

message containing html file,

displays html. Parsing html
file, finds 10 referenced jpeg
objects

time 6. Steps 1-5 repeated for each

of 10 jpeg objects

2: Application Layer

26

Non-Persistent HTTP: Response time

Definition of RTT: time to
send a small packet to
travel from client to
server and back.
Response time:
one RTT to initiate TCP
connection
one RTT for HTTP
request and first few
bytes of HTTP response
to return
file transmission time
total = 2RTT+transmit time

initiate TCP
connection
RTT
request
file
RTT

file
received
time

time to
transmit
file

time

2: Application Layer

27

Persistent HTTP
Nonpersistent HTTP issues:
requires 2 RTTs per object
OS overhead for each TCP
connection
browsers often open parallel
TCP connections to fetch
referenced objects
Persistent HTTP
server leaves connection
open after sending response
subsequent HTTP messages
between same client/server
sent over open connection

Persistent without pipelining:

client issues new request
only when previous
response has been received
one RTT for each
referenced object
Persistent with pipelining:
default in HTTP/1.1
client sends requests as
soon as it encounters a
referenced object
as little as one RTT for all
the referenced objects

2: Application Layer

28

HTTP request message

two types of HTTP messages:

request, response

HTTP request message:

ASCII (human-readable format)
request line
(GET, POST,
HEAD commands)

GET /somedir/page.html HTTP/1.1

Host: www.someschool.edu
User-agent: Mozilla/4.0
header Connection: close
lines Accept-language:fr

Carriage return,
line feed
indicates end
of message

(extra carriage return, line feed)

2: Application Layer

29

HTTP request message: general format

2: Application Layer

30

Uploading form input

Post method:
Web page often
includes form input
Input is uploaded to
server in entity body

URL method:
Uses GET method
Input is uploaded in
URL field of request
line:

www.somesite.com/animalsearch?monkeys&banana

2: Application Layer

31

Method types
HTTP/1.0
GET
POST
HEAD

asks server to leave

requested object out of
response

HTTP/1.1
GET, POST, HEAD
PUT

uploads file in entity

body to path specified
in URL field

DELETE
deletes file specified in
the URL field

2: Application Layer

32

HTTP response message

status line
(protocol
status code
status phrase)
header
lines

data, e.g.,
requested
HTML file

HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Connection close
Date: Thu, 06 Aug 1998 12:00:15 GMT
Server: Apache/1.3.0 (Unix)
Last-Modified: Mon, 22 Jun 1998 ...
Content-Length: 6821
Content-Type: text/html
data data data data data ...

2: Application Layer

33

HTTP response status codes

In first line in server->client response message.
A few sample codes:
200 OK

request succeeded, requested object later in this message

301 Moved Permanently

requested object moved, new location specified later in

this message (Location:)

400 Bad Request

request message not understood by server

404 Not Found

requested document not found on this server

505 HTTP Version Not Supported

2: Application Layer

34

Trying out HTTP (client side) for yourself

1. Telnet to your favorite Web server:
telnet cis.poly.edu 80

Opens TCP connection to port 80

(default HTTP server port) at cis.poly.edu.
Anything typed in sent
to port 80 at cis.poly.edu

2. Type in a GET HTTP request:

GET /~ross/ HTTP/1.1
Host: cis.poly.edu

By typing this in (hit carriage

return twice), you send
this minimal (but complete)
GET request to HTTP server

3. Look at response message sent by HTTP server!

2: Application Layer

35

Lets look at HTTP in action

telnet example

Ethereal example

2: Application Layer

36

User-server state: cookies

Example:
Susan always access
Internet always from PC
visits specific e1) cookie header line of
HTTP response message
commerce site for first
2) cookie header line in
time
HTTP request message
when initial HTTP
3) cookie file kept on
users host, managed by
requests arrives at site,
users browser
site creates:
4) back-end database at
unique ID
Web site
entry in backend
database for ID

Many major Web sites

use cookies
Four components:

2: Application Layer

37

Cookies: keeping state (cont.)

client
ebay 8734

cookie file
ebay 8734
amazon 1678

server
usual http request msg

usual http response

Set-cookie: 1678
usual http request msg

cookie: 1678

one week later:

ebay 8734
amazon 1678

usual http response msg

usual http request msg

cookie: 1678

usual http response msg

Amazon server
creates ID
1678 for user create

entry

cookiespecific
action

access

access

backend
database

cookiespectific
action
2: Application Layer

38

Web caches (proxy server)

Goal: satisfy client request without involving origin server
user sets browser:

Web accesses via

cache
browser sends all
HTTP requests to
cache

object in cache: cache

returns object
else cache requests
object from origin
server, then returns
object to client

origin
server

client

client

Proxy
server

origin
server
2: Application Layer

39

More about Web caching

cache acts as both

client and server

typically cache is
installed by ISP
(university, company,
residential ISP)

Why Web caching?

reduce response time
for client request
reduce traffic on an
institutions access
link.
Internet dense with
caches: enables poor
content providers to
effectively deliver
content (but so does
P2P file sharing)
2: Application Layer

40

Caching example
origin
servers

Assumptions
average object size = 1 M bits

avg. request rate from

institutions browsers to origin

servers = 15/sec
delay from institutional router
to any origin server and back
to router = 2 sec

Consequences
utilization on LAN = 15%

public
Internet

1.5 Mbps
access link
institutional
network

10 Mbps LAN

utilization on access link = 100%

total delay

= Internet delay +
access delay + LAN delay
= 2 sec + minutes + milliseconds

institutional
cache
2: Application Layer

41

crude calculation
Traffic intensity on the LAN=
(15 requests/sec) (1 Mbits/request)/(100 Mbps) = 0.15
Traffic on the access link ( between two routers =
(15 requests/sec) (1 Mbits/request)/(15 Mbps) = 1
A traffic intensity of 0.15 on a LAN typically results in a delay
of almost tens of milliseconds and
a delay on becomes very large and grows without bound since
traffic intensity is 1
One possible solution is to replace access link 100 Mbps to reduce
intensity to 0.15 and it will bring delay to tens of milliseconds
but is costly
Another possible solution is discussed on next transparency

2: Application Layer

42

Caching example (cont)

origin
servers

possible solution
increase bandwidth of access

link to, say, 10 Mbps

consequence

public
Internet

utilization on LAN = 15%

utilization on access link = 15%

= Internet delay +
access delay + LAN delay
= 2 sec + msecs + msecs
often a costly upgrade

10 Mbps
access link

Total delay

institutional
network

10 Mbps LAN

institutional
cache
2: Application Layer

43

Caching example (cont)

possible solution: install
cache
suppose hit rate is 0.4

consequence

origin
servers
public
Internet

40% requests will be

satisfied almost immediately

60% requests satisfied by
origin server
utilization of access link
reduced to 60%, resulting in
negligible delays (say 10
msec)
total avg delay = Internet
delay + access delay + LAN
delay = .6*(2.01) secs +
.4*milliseconds < 1.4 secs

1.5 Mbps
access link
institutional
network

10 Mbps LAN

institutional
cache
2: Application Layer

44

Conditional GET
Goal: dont send object if

cache has up-to-date cached

version
cache: specify date of
cached copy in HTTP request
If-modified-since:
<date>
server: response contains no

object if cached copy is upto-date:

HTTP/1.0 304 Not
Modified

server

cache
HTTP request msg
If-modified-since:
<date>

HTTP response

object
not
modified

HTTP/1.0
304 Not Modified

HTTP request msg

If-modified-since:
<date>

HTTP response

object
modified

HTTP/1.0 200 OK

<data>
2: Application Layer

45

Chapter 2: Application layer

2.1 Principles of

network applications
2.2 Web and HTTP
2.3 FTP
2.4 Electronic Mail

SMTP, POP3, IMAP

2.5 DNS

2.6 P2P file sharing

2.7 Socket programming

with TCP
2.8 Socket programming
with UDP
2.9 Building a Web
server

2: Application Layer

46

FTP: the file transfer protocol

user
at host

FTP
FTP
user
client
interface

file transfer

local file
system

FTP
server
remote file
system

transfer file to/from remote host

client/server model

client: side that initiates transfer (either to/from

remote)
server: remote host
ftp: RFC 959
ftp server: port 21

2: Application Layer

47

FTP: separate control, data connections

FTP client contacts FTP server

TCP control connection

port 21

at port 21, TCP is transport

protocol
TCP data connection
FTP
FTP
port 20
client authorized over control
client
server
connection (by providing
identification +password)
server opens another TCP
client browses remote
data connection to transfer
directory by sending commands
another file.
over control connection.
control connection: out of
when server receives file
band
transfer command, server
FTP server maintains state:
opens 2nd TCP connection (for
current directory, earlier
file) to client
authentication
after transferring one file,
server closes data connection.
2: Application Layer

48

FTP commands, responses

Sample commands:

Sample return codes

sent as ASCII text over

status code and phrase (as

control channel
USER username
PASS password

LIST return list of file in

current directory

RETR filename retrieves

STOR filename stores

(gets) file

(puts) file onto remote

host

in HTTP)
331 Username OK,
password required
125 data connection
already open;
transfer starting
425 Cant open data
connection
452 Error writing
file

2: Application Layer

49

Chapter 2: Application layer

2.1 Principles of

network applications
2.2 Web and HTTP
2.3 FTP
2.4 Electronic Mail

SMTP, POP3, IMAP

2.5 DNS

2.6 P2P file sharing

2.7 Socket programming

with TCP
2.8 Socket programming
with UDP
2.9 Building a Web
server

2: Application Layer

50

Electronic Mail

outgoing
message queue
user mailbox

user
agent

Three major components:

user agents
mail servers

mail
server

SMTP

simple mail transfer

protocol: SMTP

User Agent
Sometimes called as mail
reader
composing, editing, reading
mail messages
outgoing, incoming messages
stored on server

SMTP
mail
server

user
agent

SMTP

user
agent
mail
server

user
agent

user
agent

user
agent

2: Application Layer

51

Electronic Mail: mail servers

user
agent

Mail Servers
mailbox contains incoming

messages for user

message queue of outgoing
(to be sent) mail messages
SMTP protocol between mail
servers to send email
messages
client: sending mail
server
server: receiving mail
server

mail
server

SMTP
SMTP
mail
server

user
agent

SMTP

user
agent
mail
server

user
agent

user
agent

user
agent

2: Application Layer

52

Electronic Mail: SMTP [RFC 2821]

uses TCP to reliably transfer email message from client

to server, port 25
direct transfer: sending server to receiving server
three phases of transfer
handshaking (greeting)
transfer of messages
closure
command/response interaction
commands: ASCII text
response: status code and phrase

messages must be in 7-bit ASCII

2: Application Layer

53

Scenario: Alice sends message to Bob

4) SMTP client sends Alices
message over the TCP
connection
5) Bobs mail server places the
message in Bobs mailbox
6) Bob invokes his user agent
to read message

1) Alice uses UA to compose

message and to
[email protected]
2) Alices UA sends message
to her mail server; message
placed in message queue
3) Client side of SMTP opens
TCP connection with Bobs
mail server

1
user
agent

mail
server
3

mail
server
4

user
agent

2: Application Layer

54

Sample SMTP interaction

S:
C:
S:
C:
S:
C:
S:
C:
S:
C:
C:
C:
S:
C:
S:

220 hamburger.edu
HELO crepes.fr
250 Hello crepes.fr, pleased to meet you
MAIL FROM: <[email protected]>
250 [email protected]... Sender ok
RCPT TO: <[email protected]>
250 [email protected] ... Recipient ok
DATA
354 Enter mail, end with "." on a line by itself
Do you like ketchup?
How about pickles?
.
250 Message accepted for delivery
QUIT
221 hamburger.edu closing connection
2: Application Layer

55

Try SMTP interaction for yourself:

telnet servername 25
see 220 reply from server
enter HELO, MAIL FROM, RCPT TO, DATA, QUIT

commands
above lets you send email without using email client
(reader)

2: Application Layer

56

SMTP: final words

SMTP uses persistent

connections
SMTP requires message
(header & body) to be in 7bit ASCII
SMTP server uses
CRLF.CRLF to determine
end of message

Comparison with HTTP:

HTTP: pull
SMTP: push
both have ASCII

command/response
interaction, status codes

HTTP: each object

encapsulated in its own

response msg
SMTP: multiple objects
sent in multipart msg

2: Application Layer

57

Mail message format

SMTP: protocol for
exchanging email msgs
RFC 822: standard for text
message format:
header lines, e.g.,

To:
From:
Subject:

header

blank
line

body

different from SMTP

commands!
body

the message, ASCII

characters only
2: Application Layer

58

Message format: multimedia extensions

MIME: multimedia mail extension, RFC 2045, 2056
additional lines in msg header declare MIME content

type

MIME version
method used
to encode data

multimedia data
type, subtype,
parameter declaration
encoded data

From: [email protected]
To: [email protected]
Subject: Picture of yummy crepe.
MIME-Version: 1.0
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
Content-Type: image/jpeg
base64 encoded data .....
.........................
......base64 encoded data

2: Application Layer

59

Mail access protocols

user
agent

SMTP

SMTP

senders mail
server

access
protocol

user
agent

receivers mail
server

SMTP: delivery/storage to receivers server

Mail access protocol: retrieval from server

POP: Post Office Protocol [RFC 1939]

authorization (agent <-->server) and download
IMAP: Internet Mail Access Protocol [RFC 1730]
more features (more complex)
manipulation of stored msgs on server
HTTP: gmail, Hotmail, Yahoo! Mail, etc.
2: Application Layer

60

 POP3

IMAP

With these protocols user

This provides all the services

agent Bob can download his

messages to his local machine,
he can create mail folders and
move the download messages
into folders.
Bob then can delete messages,
move messages across folders
and search for messages.

of POP3 along with these it

provides the facility to the
user agent to maintain a
folder hierarchy on a remote
server that can be accessed
from any computer.
It basically provides facility
to create remote folders and
assign messages to folders

2: Application Layer

61

POP3 protocol
authorization phase
client commands:

user: declare username

pass: password
server responses
+OK
-ERR

transaction phase, client:

list: list message numbers

retr: retrieve message by

number
dele: delete
quit

S:
C:
S:
C:
S:

+OK POP3 server ready

user bob
+OK
pass hungry
+OK user successfully logged

C:
S:
S:
S:
C:
S:
S:
C:
C:
S:
S:
C:
C:
S:

list
1 498
2 912
.
retr 1
<message 1 contents>
.
dele 1
retr 2
<message 1 contents>
.
dele 2
quit
+OK POP3 server signing off
2: Application Layer

on

62

POP3 (more) and IMAP

More about POP3
Previous example uses
download and delete
mode.
Bob cannot re-read email if he changes
client
Download-and-keep:
copies of messages on
different clients
POP3 is stateless
across sessions

IMAP
Keep all messages in
one place: the server
Allows user to
organize messages in
folders
IMAP keeps user state
across sessions:

names of folders and

mappings between
message IDs and folder
name
2: Application Layer

63

Chapter 2: Application layer

2.1 Principles of

network applications
2.2 Web and HTTP
2.3 FTP
2.4 Electronic Mail

SMTP, POP3, IMAP

2.5 DNS

2.6 P2P file sharing

2.7 Socket programming

with TCP
2.8 Socket programming
with UDP
2.9 Building a Web
server

2: Application Layer

64

DNS: Domain Name System

People: many identifiers:

SSN, name, passport #

Domain Name System:

distributed database

application-layer protocol

Internet hosts, routers:

IP address (32 bit) used for addressing

datagrams
name, e.g.,
ww.yahoo.com - used by
humans

Q: map between IP
addresses and name ?

implemented in hierarchy of
many name servers
host, routers, name servers to
communicate to resolve names
(address/name translation)
note: core Internet
function, implemented as
application-layer protocol
complexity at networks
edge
2: Application Layer

65

DNS
DNS services
hostname to IP
address translation
host aliasing

Canonical, alias names

mail server aliasing

load distribution
replicated Web
servers: set of IP
addresses for one
canonical name

Why not centralize DNS?

single point of failure
traffic volume
distant centralized
database
maintenance
doesnt scale!

2: Application Layer

66

Distributed, Hierarchical Database

Root DNS Servers

com DNS servers

yahoo.com
amazon.com
DNS servers DNS servers

org DNS servers

pbs.org
DNS servers

edu DNS servers

poly.edu
umass.edu
DNS serversDNS servers

Client wants IP for www.amazon.com; 1st approx:

client queries a root server to find com DNS server
client queries com DNS server to get amazon.com
DNS server
client queries amazon.com DNS server to get IP
address for www.amazon.com
2: Application Layer

67

DNS: Root name servers

contacted by local name server that can not resolve name
root name server:

contacts authoritative name server if name mapping not known

gets mapping
returns mapping to local name server
a Verisign, Dulles, VA
c Cogent, Herndon, VA (also LA)
d U Maryland College Park, MD
g US DoD Vienna, VA
h ARL Aberdeen, MD
j Verisign, ( 21 locations)

e NASA Mt View, CA
f Internet Software C. Palo Alto,

k RIPE London (also 16 other locations)

i Autonomica, Stockholm (plus
28 other locations)
m WIDE Tokyo (also Seoul,
Paris, SF)

CA (and 36 other locations)

13 root name
servers worldwide
b USC-ISI Marina del Rey, CA
l ICANN Los Angeles, CA

2: Application Layer

68

TLD and Authoritative Servers

Top-level domain (TLD) servers:
responsible for com, org, net, edu, etc, and all
top-level country domains uk, fr, ca, jp.
Network Solutions maintains servers for com TLD
Educause for edu TLD

Authoritative DNS servers:

organizations DNS servers, providing
authoritative hostname to IP mappings for
organizations servers (e.g., Web, mail).
can be maintained by organization or service
provider

2: Application Layer

69

Local Name Server

does not strictly belong to hierarchy

each ISP (residential ISP, company,

university) has one.

also called default name server

when host makes DNS query, query is sent

to its local DNS server

acts as proxy, forwards query into hierarchy

2: Application Layer

70

DNS name
resolution example

root DNS server

Host at cis.poly.edu

wants IP address for

gaia.cs.umass.edu

iterated query:
contacted server

replies with name of

server to contact
I dont know this
name, but ask this
server

TLD DNS server

4

5
local DNS server
dns.poly.edu

requesting host

authoritative DNS server

dns.cs.umass.edu

cis.poly.edu
gaia.cs.umass.edu
2: Application Layer

71

DNS name
resolution example
recursive query:

root DNS server

puts burden of name

resolution on
contacted name
server
heavy load?

3
7

TLD DNS server

local DNS server
dns.poly.edu

requesting host

authoritative DNS server

dns.cs.umass.edu

cis.poly.edu
gaia.cs.umass.edu
2: Application Layer

72

DNS: caching and updating records

once (any) name server learns mapping, it

caches

mapping
cache entries timeout (disappear) after some
time
TLD servers typically cached in local name
servers
Thus root name servers not often visited

update/notify mechanisms under design by IETF

RFC 2136

http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/dnsind-charter.html

2: Application Layer

73

DNS records
DNS: distributed db storing resource records (RR)
RR format: (name,
Type=A
name is hostname
value is IP address
Type=NS
name is domain (e.g.
foo.com)
value is hostname of
authoritative name
server for this domain

value, type, ttl)

Type=CNAME
name is alias name for some
canonical (the real) name
www.ibm.com is really
servereast.backup2.ibm.com

value is canonical name

Type=MX
value is name of mailserver
associated with name
2: Application Layer

74

DNS protocol, messages

DNS protocol : query and reply messages, both with
same message format

msg header
identification: 16 bit #

for query, reply to query

uses same #
flags:
query or reply
recursion desired
recursion available
reply is authoritative

2: Application Layer

75

DNS protocol, messages

Name, type fields
for a query
RRs in response
to query
records for
authoritative servers
additional helpful
info that may be used

2: Application Layer

76

Inserting records into DNS

example: new startup Network Utopia
register name networkuptopia.com at DNS

(e.g., Network Solutions)

registrar

provide names, IP addresses of authoritative name server

(primary and secondary)
registrar inserts two RRs into com TLD server:

(networkutopia.com, dns1.networkutopia.com, NS)

(dns1.networkutopia.com, 212.212.212.1, A)

create authoritative server Type A record for

www.networkuptopia.com; Type MX record for

networkutopia.com
How do people get IP address of your Web site?
2: Application Layer

77

Chapter 2: Application layer

2.1 Principles of

network applications

app architectures
app requirements

2.2 Web and HTTP

2.4 Electronic Mail
SMTP, POP3, IMAP
2.5 DNS

2.6 P2P file sharing

2.7 Socket programming

with TCP
2.8 Socket programming
with UDP
2.9 Building a Web
server

2: Application Layer

78

P2P file sharing

Example
Alice runs P2P client
application on her
notebook computer
intermittently
connects to Internet;
gets new IP address
for each connection
asks for Hey Jude
application displays
other peers that have
copy of Hey Jude.

Alice chooses one of

the peers, Bob.

file is copied from
Bobs PC to Alices
notebook: HTTP
while Alice downloads,
other users uploading
from Alice.
Alices peer is both a
Web client and a
transient Web server.
All peers are servers =
highly scalable!
2: Application Layer

79

P2P: centralized directory

original Napster design
1) when peer connects, it
informs central server:

Bob
centralized
directory server

peers

IP address
content

2) Alice queries for Hey

Jude
3) Alice requests file from
Bob

1
3

1
2

Alice

2: Application Layer

80

P2P: problems with centralized directory

single point of failure
performance bottleneck
copyright infringement:

target of lawsuit is
obvious

file transfer is
decentralized, but
locating content is
highly centralized

2: Application Layer

81

Query flooding: Gnutella

fully distributed
no central server

public domain protocol

many Gnutella clients

implementing protocol

overlay network: graph

edge between peer X
and Y if theres a TCP
connection
all active peers and
edges form overlay net
edge: virtual (not
physical) link
given peer typically
connected with < 10
overlay neighbors
2: Application Layer

82

Gnutella: protocol
Query message

sent over existing TCP

connections
peers forward
Query message
QueryHit
sent over
reverse
Query
path

File transfer:
HTTP

Query
QueryHit

QueryHit

Scalability:
limited scope
flooding
2: Application Layer

83

Gnutella: Peer joining

joining peer Alice must find another peer in
Gnutella network: use list of candidate peers
2. Alice sequentially attempts TCP connections with
candidate peers until connection setup with Bob
3. Flooding: Alice sends Ping message to Bob; Bob
forwards Ping message to his overlay neighbors
(who then forward to their neighbors.)
peers receiving Ping message respond to Alice
with Pong message
4. Alice receives many Pong messages, and can then
setup additional TCP connections
Peer leaving: see homework problem!
1.

2: Application Layer

84

Hierarchical Overlay
between centralized

index, query flooding

approaches
each peer is either a
group leader or assigned
to a group leader.

TCP connection between

peer and its group leader.
TCP connections between
some pairs of group leaders.

group leader tracks

content in its children

ordinary peer
group-leader peer
neighoring relationships
in overlay network

2: Application Layer

85

Comparing Client-server, P2P architectures

Question : How much time distribute file
initially at one server to N other computers?
us: server upload
bandwidth

Server

us

File, size F
dN
uN

u1

d1

u2

ui: client/peer i
upload bandwidth
d2

di: client/peer i
download bandwidth

Network (with
abundant bandwidth)

2: Application Layer

86

Client-server: file distribution time

server sequentially

sends N copies:

NF/us time

client i takes F/di

time to download

Server

F
us
dN

u1 d1 u2

d2

Network (with
abundant bandwidth)

uN

Time to distribute F
to N clients using = dcs = max { NF/us, F/min(di) }
i
client/server approach
increases linearly in N
(for large N) 2: Application Layer

87

P2P: file distribution time

server must send one

Server

u1 d1 u2

d2
copy: F/us time
us
client i takes F/di time
Network (with
dN
to download
abundant bandwidth)
uN
NF bits must be
downloaded (aggregate)
fastest possible upload rate (assuming
all nodes sending file chunks to same
peer): us + Sui
i=1,N

dP2P = max { F/us, F/min(di) , NF/(us + Sui) }

i

i=1,N

2: Application Layer

88

Comparing Client-server, P2P architectures

Minimum Distribution Time

3.5
P2P
Client-Server

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

2: Application Layer

89

P2P Case Study: BitTorrent

P2P file distribution

tracker: tracks peers

participating in torrent

torrent: group of

peers exchanging
chunks of a file

obtain list
of peers
trading
chunks

peer
2: Application Layer

90

BitTorrent (1)
file divided into 256KB

chunks.

peer joining torrent:

has no chunks, but will accumulate them over time

registers with tracker to get list of peers,
connects to subset of peers (neighbors)
while downloading, peer uploads chunks to other
peers.
peers may come and go
once peer has entire file, it may (selfishly) leave or
(altruistically) remain

2: Application Layer

91

BitTorrent (2)
Pulling Chunks
at any given time,
different peers have
different subsets of
file chunks
periodically, a peer
(Alice) asks each
neighbor for list of
chunks that they have.
Alice issues requests
for her missing chunks
rarest first

Sending Chunks: tit-for-tat

Alice sends chunks to
four neighbors currently
sending her chunks at the

highest rate

re-evaluate top 4
every 10 secs
every 30 secs: randomly
select another peer,
starts sending chunks
newly chosen peer may
join top 4

2: Application Layer

92

P2P Case study: Skype

Skype clients (SC)

P2P (pc-to-pc, pc-to-

phone, phone-to-pc)
Voice-Over-IP (VoIP)
Skype
application
login server
also IM
proprietary
application-layer
protocol (inferred via
reverse engineering)
hierarchical overlay

Supernode
(SN)

2: Application Layer

93

Skype: making a call

User starts Skype

SC registers with SN
list of bootstrap SNs
SC logs in

Skype
login server

(authenticate)

Call: SC contacts SN will

callee ID

SN contacts other SNs

(unknown protocol, maybe
flooding) to find addr of
callee; returns addr to SC

SC directly contacts callee, overTCP

2: Application Layer

94

Chapter 2: Application layer

2.1 Principles of

network applications
2.2 Web and HTTP
2.3 FTP
2.4 Electronic Mail

2.6 P2P file sharing

2.7 Socket programming

with TCP
2.8 Socket programming
with UDP

SMTP, POP3, IMAP

2.5 DNS

2: Application Layer

95

Socket programming
Goal: learn how to build client/server application that
communicate using sockets
Socket API
introduced in BSD4.1 UNIX,

1981
explicitly created, used,
released by apps
client/server paradigm
two types of transport
service via socket API:
unreliable datagram
reliable, byte streamoriented

socket
a host-local,

application-created,
OS-controlled interface

(a door) into which

application process can
both send and
receive messages to/from
another application
process

2: Application Layer

96

Socket-programming using TCP

Socket: a door between application process and endend-transport protocol (UCP or TCP)
TCP service: reliable transfer of bytes from one
process to another
controlled by
application
developer
controlled by
operating
system

process

process
socket
TCP with
buffers,
variables

host or
server

internet

socket
TCP with
buffers,
variables

controlled by
application
developer
controlled by
operating
system

host or
server
2: Application Layer

97

Socket programming with TCP

Client must contact server
server process must first
be running
server must have created
socket (door) that
welcomes clients contact
Client contacts server by:
creating client-local TCP
socket
specifying IP address, port
number of server process
When client creates
socket: client TCP
establishes connection to
server TCP

When contacted by client,

server TCP creates new

socket for server process to
communicate with client
allows server to talk with
multiple clients
source port numbers
used to distinguish
clients (more in Chap 3)

application viewpoint

TCP provides reliable, in-order

transfer of bytes (pipe)
between client and server
2: Application Layer

98

Client/server socket interaction: TCP

Server (running on hostid)

Client

create socket,
port=x, for
incoming request:
welcomeSocket =
ServerSocket()

TCP

wait for incoming

connection request connection
connectionSocket =
welcomeSocket.accept()
read request from
connectionSocket
write reply to
connectionSocket
close
connectionSocket

setup

create socket,
connect to hostid, port=x
clientSocket =
Socket()
send request using
clientSocket

read reply from

clientSocket
close
clientSocket
2: Application Layer

99

Stream jargon
keyboard

monitor

output
stream

inFromServer

Client
Process
process

input
stream

outToServer

characters that flow into

or out of a process.
An input stream is
attached to some input
source for the process,
e.g., keyboard or socket.
An output stream is
attached to an output
source, e.g., monitor or
socket.

inFromUser

A stream is a sequence of

input
stream

client
TCP
clientSocket
socket
to network

TCP
socket

from network

2: Application Layer

100

Socket programming with TCP

Example client-server app:
1) client reads line from
standard input (inFromUser
stream) , sends to server via
socket (outToServer
stream)
2) server reads line from socket
3) server converts line to
uppercase, sends back to
client
4) client reads, prints modified
line from socket
(inFromServer stream)
2: Application Layer

101

Example: Java client (TCP)

import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
class TCPClient {
public static void main(String argv[]) throws Exception
{
String sentence;
String modifiedSentence;
Create
input stream
Create
client socket,
connect to server
Create
output stream
attached to socket

BufferedReader inFromUser =
new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
Socket clientSocket = new Socket("hostname", 6789);
DataOutputStream outToServer =
new DataOutputStream(clientSocket.getOutputStream());
2: Application Layer

102

Example: Java client (TCP), cont.

Create
input stream
attached to socket

BufferedReader inFromServer =
new BufferedReader(new
InputStreamReader(clientSocket.getInputStream()));
sentence = inFromUser.readLine();

Send line
to server

outToServer.writeBytes(sentence + '\n');

Read line
from server

modifiedSentence = inFromServer.readLine();
System.out.println("FROM SERVER: " + modifiedSentence);
clientSocket.close();
}
}
2: Application Layer

103

Example: Java server (TCP)

import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
class TCPServer {

Create
welcoming socket
at port 6789
Wait, on welcoming
socket for contact
by client
Create input
stream, attached
to socket

public static void main(String argv[]) throws Exception

{
String clientSentence;
String capitalizedSentence;

ServerSocket welcomeSocket = new ServerSocket(6789);

while(true) {
Socket connectionSocket = welcomeSocket.accept();
BufferedReader inFromClient =
new BufferedReader(new
InputStreamReader(connectionSocket.getInputStream()));
2: Application Layer

104

Example: Java server (TCP), cont

Create output
stream, attached
to socket

DataOutputStream outToClient =
new DataOutputStream(connectionSocket.getOutputStream());

Read in line
from socket

clientSentence = inFromClient.readLine();

capitalizedSentence = clientSentence.toUpperCase() + '\n';

Write out line
to socket

outToClient.writeBytes(capitalizedSentence);
}
}

End of while loop,

loop back and wait for
another client connection

2: Application Layer

105

Chapter 2: Application layer

2.1 Principles of

network applications
2.2 Web and HTTP
2.3 FTP
2.4 Electronic Mail

SMTP, POP3, IMAP

2.5 DNS

2.6 P2P file sharing

2.7 Socket programming

with TCP
2.8 Socket programming
with UDP
2.9 Building a Web
server

2: Application Layer

106

Socket programming with UDP

UDP: no connection between
client and server
no handshaking
sender explicitly attaches
IP address and port of
destination to each packet
server must extract IP
address, port of sender
from received packet

application viewpoint

UDP provides unreliable transfer

of groups of bytes (datagrams)
between client and server

UDP: transmitted data may be

received out of order, or
lost

2: Application Layer

107

Client/server socket interaction: UDP

Server (running on hostid)
create socket,
port=x, for
incoming request:
serverSocket =
DatagramSocket()

read request from

serverSocket
write reply to
serverSocket
specifying client
host address,
port number

Client
create socket,
clientSocket =
DatagramSocket()
Create, address (hostid, port=x,
send datagram request
using clientSocket

read reply from

clientSocket
close
clientSocket

2: Application Layer

108

Example: Java client (UDP)

input
stream

Client
process

monitor

inFromUser

keyboard

Process

Input: receives

packet (recall
thatTCP received
byte stream)

UDP
packet

receivePacket

packet (recall
that TCP sent
byte stream)

sendPacket

Output: sends

UDP
packet

client
UDP
clientSocket
socket
to network

UDP
socket

from network

2: Application Layer

109

Example: Java client (UDP)

import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;

Create
input stream
Create
client socket
Translate
hostname to IP
address using DNS

class UDPClient {
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{

BufferedReader inFromUser =
new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
DatagramSocket clientSocket = new DatagramSocket();
InetAddress IPAddress = InetAddress.getByName("hostname");
byte[] sendData = new byte[1024];
byte[] receiveData = new byte[1024];
String sentence = inFromUser.readLine();
sendData = sentence.getBytes();
2: Application Layer

110

Example: Java client (UDP), cont.

Create datagram
with data-to-send,
length, IP addr, port

DatagramPacket sendPacket =
new DatagramPacket(sendData, sendData.length, IPAddress, 9876);

Send datagram
to server

clientSocket.send(sendPacket);

Read datagram
from server

clientSocket.receive(receivePacket);

DatagramPacket receivePacket =
new DatagramPacket(receiveData, receiveData.length);

String modifiedSentence =
new String(receivePacket.getData());
System.out.println("FROM SERVER:" + modifiedSentence);
clientSocket.close();
}
}
2: Application Layer

111

Example: Java server (UDP)

import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;

Create
datagram socket
at port 9876

class UDPServer {
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
DatagramSocket serverSocket = new DatagramSocket(9876);

byte[] receiveData = new byte[1024];

byte[] sendData = new byte[1024];
while(true)
{

Create space for

received datagram

Receive
datagram

DatagramPacket receivePacket =
new DatagramPacket(receiveData, receiveData.length);
serverSocket.receive(receivePacket);
2: Application Layer

112

Example: Java server (UDP), cont

String sentence = new String(receivePacket.getData());

Get IP addr
port #, of
sender

InetAddress IPAddress = receivePacket.getAddress();

int port = receivePacket.getPort();
String capitalizedSentence = sentence.toUpperCase();
sendData = capitalizedSentence.getBytes();

Create datagram
to send to client

DatagramPacket sendPacket =
new DatagramPacket(sendData, sendData.length, IPAddress,
port);

Write out
datagram
to socket

serverSocket.send(sendPacket);
}
}

End of while loop,

loop back and wait for
another datagram

2: Application Layer

113

Chapter 2: Summary
our study of network apps now complete!
application architectures
client-server
P2P
hybrid
application service

requirements:

reliability, bandwidth,
delay

specific protocols:
HTTP
FTP
SMTP, POP, IMAP
DNS
P2P: BitTorrent, Skype
socket programming

Internet transport

service model

connection-oriented,
reliable: TCP
unreliable, datagrams: UDP

2: Application Layer

114

Chapter 2: Summary
Most importantly: learned about protocols
typical request/reply

message exchange:

client requests info or

service
server responds with
data, status code

message formats:
headers: fields giving
info about data
data: info being
communicated

Important themes:
control vs. data msgs

in-band, out-of-band
centralized vs.
decentralized
stateless vs. stateful
reliable vs. unreliable
msg transfer
complexity at network
edge

2: Application Layer

115