UNIT

ENVIRONMENTAL

Structure
21.1

Introduction
Objectives

21.2

Agriculture and Conservation of Resources

Innovative Agricultural Technologies
Energy Conservation and Agriculture
Water Conservation and Agriculture
Government Agricultur.al Policy

21.3

Urbanisation and Conservation

Challenge of Housing
Strategy for Environmentally Compatible Human Settlements
Strategy for Sustainable Industrial Development

'21.4

Future Energy Needs

Conservation and Energy
Conventional and Non-Conventional Energy Sources
Development of Non-Polluting Energy Systems
Solid Waste Management

21.5
21.6
21.7

211

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

INTRODUCTIQN

You have gone through some aspects of environmental conservation in Unit 20.
There, we discussed goals and principles of eqvironmental conservation, conservation
of endangered species of plants and animals, conservation strategies and planning for
biological conservation. Now we come to the last unit of this block in which we extend
these ideas on environmental conservation, to the conservation of the physical
components of environment-land, water, air and energy.
Environmental conservation is an issue which has arisen from man's activities, his
functional role in the biosphere, and his relationship to nature. Therefore,
conservation of physical resources has to be studied in relation to his activities
especially in the field of agriculture, urbanisation, industrialisation, and energy
generation.
Conservation, in general, means restricting the actual demand for resource needs as
well as reducing the amount used through greater efficiency and substitution of the
resources. In the following pages, we would also be dealing with measures for
conservation of physical resources in relation to some human activities, namely,
agriculture, housing, industry, energy generation and land use.

Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to:
account for the changes in agricultural practices which can bring about effective
utilisation of available resources, and help in their conservation.
identify the problems arising from urbanisation and devise new ways of planning
for environmentally compatible human settlements.
correlate the problems arising from location of industries near urban centres with
migration of rural &ople to' cities.
distinguish between the conventional and non-conventional sources of energy and
,.suggest various.means of conservation of energy.
suggest means of recycling and reuse of solid wastes produced by cities and
industries.

Management of Environment-l

21.2 AGRICULTURE AND CONSERVATION OF

RESOURCES
, Agriculture is the maillstay of millions of Indians constituting about 60 per cent of

the total population. Agriculture constitutes nearly 40 per cent of the net national
product and accounts for nearly 30 per cent of the country's skilled manpow&.
Despite India being a predominantly agricultural country, food scarcity, widespread
hunger and malnutrition have been major problems until the recent past.

The dismal situation of Indian agriculture owes its state to the irrational use of
physical resources. For example, there has been wasteful use of land resources
through overgrazing and deforestation for fuel and timber. Vast areas have been
cleared in shifting cultivation, mainly in the hilly and mountainous regions, leading
to destruction of protective vegetation cover of the soil. Indulgence in intensive
irrigation has left large tracts of Indian agricultural soils either salt-affected or
water-logged. You have read in Unit 8 that excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides
has led to micronutrient deficiency in some instances and poisoning of the water
bodies in others.
This state of affairs could change dramatically through the introduction of a sound
land use policy, water conservation measures, application of solar technology in
agriculture and various measures which may be classified as innovations in the field
of agricultural technology.

21.2.1 Innovative Agricultural ~echnol@es

Conservation of cultivable lands is achieved not only through preventive and remedial
measures to control soil erosion (about which you have read in Unit 12), but also
through the application of innovative agricultural technol~gies.Some of these
innovations involve the use of:
Green Manures (Organic farming)
Biofertilisers
Biological Pest Control
Nitrification inhibitors
Windmills for irrigation
Solar energy for drawing ground water
Bio-gas for cooking and Spent slurry for fertilisation
We will discuss the last three technologies under the section on Non-Conventional
Energy Systems. Let us become familiar with the first four conservation technologies
here.
i)

Organic Farming: No modem agricultural system is completely self-contained,

and all have to rely on some form of nutrient input if yields are to be sustained.
The provisior! of an input of nitrogen into soils from nitrogen fixation occurring
in the legume root nodules (see Green manuring Section 8 ~ 4 . 1of Block 2) offel
an attractive altemative nitrogen source for soils. Addition of organic forms of
fertilisercsuch as cow dung agricultural wastes improves the nutrient status of the
soils. This may also help reduce the toxic effects of prolonged usage of inorganic
nitrogen fertilisers in the past.

ii) BiofertiUsers: Micro-organisms are important constituents of fertile soils. They

participate in the development of soil structure, add to the available nutritional
elements and improve the soil's physical condition. If an important
micro-organism is absent from a soil it may be necessary to introduce or inoculate
that organism into the soil. Sometimes, inoculation may also be used in an
attempt to supplant an indigenous organism, which is of poor quality. This is
more difficult to achieve. The introduction of root nodule bacteria into soils,
usually by sticking a carrier substance onto the legume seeds, represents the
initial attempts at the use of biofertilisers.

Toclay, a large variety d micre-o-rganisms, mounted on suitable camer

substances, are used as biofertilisers, to improve the nutritional status of crop
fields. The advantage of using biofertilisers over chemical fertilisers is that they
generate fertili~erright on the spot where the nutrient is needed. This is unlike

chemical fertilisers which have to be manufactured in a factory and khen

,,
transported to agricultural fields. Moreover, biofertilisers generate only requisite
quantities and make such quantities available to the plants in the field. Whereas,
in case of chemically fertilised fields, the unused fertiliser is leached out and
causes eutrophication of water bbdies.
Once established in a field, biofertilisers need no subsequent inoculations, while
chemical fertilisers have to be added with each crop and perhaps in increasing
quantities every year. Use of biofertilisers may afford biological control of plant
root pathogens but chemical fertilisers being non-living, do not provide the crop
plants with protection from pathogens. Biofertilisers thus provide an
environmentally safe alternative over chemical fertilisers for the modern
agro-ecosystems.,
ii;' 13iological Pest Control: Another application of microbiology finds its place in

defending the plants against pests. Pests usually have enemies in nature but they
remain inoperative because excessive agricultural production inordinately
.
encourages the growth of pests. Biological pest control seeks to establish this
ecological tool to play down the chances of survival of pest populations, through
biological agents.
Care is taken to see that the agent should be specific to the pest, i.e., it should
destroy only the pest concerned and not harm any other organism living in the
surroundings, You have seen in Section 8.4.2,how non-specificity of chemical pest
control agents leads to death of non-target organisms. Biological pest control
does not carry any such dangers. A good point about biological control is that
the biological agents die a natural death within a short span of time. You have
seen, again in Section 8.4.2, that chemical pesticides are not biodegradable and
remain active long after destroying their target-pests and prove harmful to
mankind in the long run. Which means chemical agents continue to cause damage
to the environment for years to come. Moreover, they are likely to enter the food
chain and poison human beings whereas biological agents are not likely to harm
mankind on this account.. Biological control of pests is therefore an ecologically
sound alternative to chemical pest control.
The first real application of biological control of pests was the discovery of milky
disease of Japanese beetles. The disease involves the spores of a bacterium that
contain a toxin lethal to this beetle. More recent researches have resulted in
commercialisation of the spores of this bacterium containing a crystalline
endotoxin that is the active ingredient for control of beetle larvae.
Another group of toxins made by a subspecies of this bacterium also kill
mosquitoes and blackflies. Some 1,500 naturally occurring micro-organisms or
microbial by-products have been identified as potentially useful insecticidal
agents. Thus, biological control of pests is an age-old practice and should now be
adopted by our indigenous farmers.
In the race to save agricultural plants from pests higher organisms are also as effective
as micro-organisms. Some examples are as follow^: The first large-scale use of
biological control was carried out against an accidentally introduced pest of citrus
fruit. This pest, the Cottony-cushion scale (Iceryapurchasi) threatened the citrus
fruit industry seriously. In this case a beetle was introduced in 1888 as a predator.
The effects of this predator were that the pest was virtually eliminated within two
years. The name of the control agent is ladybird beetle, and this agent continues
to control the pest as effectively even today.
Another example is the recovery of 20 million ha of Australian pasture land
overrun by prickly pear cactus. An insect moth was introduced to control this
weed. The larvae of this moth feed on the fleshy leaves of the cactus and
populations of the moth were established within a few years. After sometime
much of the cactus weed had been destroyed, permitting the land to be used once
more for agriculture.
Increasing use of biological.control methods has become inevitable. You have
read about the harmful effects of chemical qontrol of pests in Section 8.4.2. The
likelihood of successful manipulation of pest bopulations using biological control
methods should now be put to practice.

Environmental conservation-11

Management or ~nvironm~nt-I

iv) Nitrification inhibitors: The use of nitrogen fertilisers has increased rapidly
during the past 30 years. There is increasing concern that intensive use of
nitrogenous fertilisers may lead to two undesirable nitrogen transformations:
a) higher concentration of nitrate (NO3) in surface and groundwater bodies,
through a process known as nitrification, (you have read about nitrification
in Block 1 under nitrogen cycle) followed by leaching.
Urea (Organid
N-fertilisers)

Nitrification

Leaching to.ground
water as nitrate
solution

Nitrates

b) Apart from the above, losses of applied nitrogen occur due to volatalisation
of organic and inorganic nitrogenous fertilisers in the form of ammonia,
through urea hydrolysis.
urea

~~h10r0.64~chlormethyl)
P Y * ~ * Dfdh dbdand terrazde b 5-e-y-3
(trlellloro~~&fl) 1,2,4

Urease

Escapca to atomoaphere
as gas (volataliaation)

Ammonia
NH3

Both these phenomena are mediated by bacteria and take place in nahue under
conditions suitable for microbial growth. When the concentratiop of nitrogen
containing compounds in the crop fields is increased artificially through'addition of
chemical fertilisers, the rates of volatalisation and nitrification rise sharply. Control
over rates of urea hydrolysis and of nitrification in soils offers one appdach to
rkducing the losses of nitrogen from inorganic nitrogen fertilisers to both
groundwaters and the atmosphere. This can be achieved through the use of chemical
as well as biological inhibitors of nitrogen transformations. The most interesting is
urease inhibitor PPD (phenyl phorodiamidate). It slows down the hydrolysis of urea
into ammonia gas, that is, reaction (b) listed above. Thus, the applied fertiliser
remains available to the plants in the soil for a long time, and ultimately much less
portions of the fertiliser are lost to atmosphere as gases. This improves the efficiency
of utilisation of the applied h s e .

c ~ c a ~itrapyrln
~ y
b

thiadw.

Another method to meet this end is to check nitrification, that is, reaction (a) listed
above. This is achieved through the use of Nitrapyrin, Didin, or Terrazole. These are
three different compounds to achieve the same end. These compounds are useful in
reducing the losses of nitrogen from organic fertilisers, through inhibition of
nitrification and their leakage to groundwater as nitrate solution.

You may now try the following SAQ.

SAQ 1
State whether the following statements are true or false.

a) Biofertilisers are environmentally safe replacement for inorganic fertilisers.

b) Pests usually have naturalenemies, but, excessive agricultural production offsets
this device of nature to check the multiplication of pests.
c) The Japanese beetle is deadly crop pest. Biologists seek to control this pest by
inducing milky disease in it.
d) Nitrapyrin is different from PPD because the latter is a urease inhibitor whereas
nitrapyrin inhibits nitrification. Both these, however, cut down upon losses of
nitrogen fertilisers to crops.
--

21.2.2 Energy Conservation and Agriculture

One of the natural assets of our country is abundant sunshine. The total solar
radiation received in India is about 60 x 1013MWh with 250-350days of useful
sunshine per year in most parts of the country. Th'e daily average direct radiation at
places in the central parts of the country is 5-7k~h/rn',read as kilo watt hours per
square metre. There is thus a vast potential for harvesting this resource.

It is knbwn, however, that only 0.1per cent of the incoming solar radiation on earth's
surface (3 x ld4 Jlyear) is utilised in the production of organic matter (3 x ldl
Jlyear) by photosynihesis. The total energy consumption in the world in year 1970
was 3 x '0
1 J which is equivalent to only 10 per cent of the total organic matter

3 x lo2' Jlyear) produced by photosynthesis. Only 0.5 per cent of the organic matter
is utilised for food production by the world population. In terms of carbon fixation
by photosynthesis, the fossil fuel reserves (4.3 x 10" Jlyear) of the world would
account for 5.2 days of sunshine. While the total energy used in the whole year 1970
would account for just 53 minutes.

Environmenlsl conservation-n

These data show vast potential of photosynthetic process as also the tremendous
scope for increasing the total utilisation of organic matter and that for increasing the
photosynthetic efficiency. The basis of biological utilisation of solar energy is through
the process of photosynthesis. Organic-chemical solar energy conversion operates at
a very low efficiency 0.1 0.2 per cent, in other words, for every light quantum used,
1000-500quanta are reflected back by the vegetation. However, research on a green
algae, chlorella, has shown that this efficiency can be increased to about 0.6 per cent.

On the basis of extensive experimentation, the practically achievable yield of

"chlorella farms" has been estimated to be of the order of 78 metric tons of dry algae
per hectaie. This compares favourably with agricultural yields of 4.5 - 5.6 metric tons
per hectare by building large algal farms on non-arable ground. The solar energy
presently absorbed by bare soil, could be increasingly utilised for the production of
organic matter, for food and for conversion into synthetic liquid fuels.

21.2.3 Water Conservation and Agriculture

Irrigation is the single most important factor in our achieving a fair measure of
self-sufficiency in food production. In 1947, the total irrigated area was a little over
20 Mha which in the last decade became 47 Mha. Nearly 25 per cent of the cultivated
area is irrigated, which is 115th of the total irrigated area in any country of the world.
You know that storage of water by building large dams is regarded by irrigation
engineers as a crucial component of water management system. In India, too, such
a high level of irrigation potential was achieved through building of large dams.
Though the benefits of these big river valley projects were three-fold, namely,
(a) generation of hydro-electricity,(b) irrigation and floold control, and (c) industrial
and municipal water supply; the adverse ecological implications are manyfold:
deforestation, landslides, sedimentation, soil erosion, seismic activity, displacement
of inhabitants and epidemic eruption of water-borne diseases are only a few of them.
It is a paradox, however, that as a result of installation of major river valley projects,
the total flood prone area of India instead of decreasing has actually doubled from
20 Mha to 40 Mha in the last decade.
Since Independence, more than 700 dams have been constructed. If Government
programmes go ahead as scheduled, there will be hardly any free flowing river left
in the country by the time the implementation of these programmes is achieved. One
alternative to the big river valley projects is to construct smaller reservoirs of water
and mini-hydel units for irrigation, power and city supply. This will help avoid
large-scale tampering with ecological balance. Smaller units can be built, maintained
and operated by local communities. The adverse side effects of these units would,
certainly, be lesser. There would also be reduced chances of accidents, to which the
major river valley projects are very prone. The size of these mini-projects should be
such that the perennial flow of river remains undisturbed.

21.2.4 Government Agricultural Policy

The Government Policy, includes the cultivation of high yielding varieties over larger
areas, development of irrigation facilities, balanced use of fertilisers and need-based
plant protection measures.
India is undergoing a rapid agricultural change, wherein the whole agricultural
process is yet to find its roots and adopt innovations. Barring some stabilised systems
of the irrigated, subsidised and semi-commercial areas in the States like Punjab,
Haryana and Tamil Nadu, most of the Indian agriculture has yet to respond to the
changes that are taking place in the field of appropriate technology, especially
technology suited to rural Indian conditions.
Even knowing fully the importance of conservation and preservation of the
environment, authorities are sometimes reluctant to support environmentally sound
innovations
because of various reasons. In the -Seventh
Five Year Plan
(1985-86)
..
.. . .

of manure,'fertilisers, pesticides, insecticides and greater utilisation of improved

agricultural implements and machinery were identified as the main means for
achieving the stipulated target of 4 per cent increase in annual agricultural production.
But experience has shown that major increase in yields in agricultural production can
be achieved through the improvement of lands hitherto classified as degraded and
wastelands, through adoption of water conservation measures and through the
incorporation of innovative and imaginative changes in rural agricultural technologies.
Planners have recently begun to incorporate an ecological perspective into rural
development activities, such as the use of non-conventional sources of energy, use of
biological control of pests and insects, use of biofertilisers, use of innovative methods
of fertility regeneration suited to Indian conditions, reclamation of additional land
through soil and water conservation measures, etc. In addition, tackling the twin
problems of rural poverty and prevention of environmental degradation requires that
good crop lands be reserved for crop regeneration. This will reduce pressure on
ecologically fragile marginal lands, about which you have read in Unit 7, which tend
to degrade rapidly if exploited beyond their carrying capacity.
Villagers must be motivated to plant new trees and help speedy implementation of
afforestation programmes related to environment. They must be made to understand
that environmental improvement will be a great boon to their e ~ t f r living
e
style and
its degradation will begin a great vicious circle for them.
Excessive use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides must be curbed; instead, methods
of biological control should be sought and resorted to in solving the problems of
pathogenic pets, rodents and insects. All essential steps must be taken to minimise
the adverse effects of excessive irrigation. Methods should be devised to achieve
prudent management of water bodies.
After going through energy conservation and agriculture you may now like to attempt
the following SAQ.
1

SAQ 2
a) State whether the following statements are true or false by putting T/F in the
boxes provided.
i) Only 0.1 per cent of the incoming solar radiation on earth's surface
is utilised in the production of organic matter by photosynthesis.
ii) India has 115th of the total irrigated land in the world and also the
largest imgated area in any country of the world.
iii) The dismal situation of Indian agriculture could change through
introduction of sound land reform policy, water conservation
measure and application of enery saving technologies in
agriculture.
iv) Biological control of pathogenic pests, rodents and insects is a better
method over the excessive use of chemical fertilisers and
pesticides from conservation point of view.
b) Fill in the blanks using appropriate words:
i) Though the benefits of big river valley projects are threefold, their adverse
ecological effects are many; for example, deforestation, ........................
sedimentation, ................................................, seismic activity,,
............................................... and eruption of ........................
diseases.
ii) As a result of installation of major river valley projects, the total floodprone area has ........................from 20 Mha to 40 Mha in the ................
decade.

21.3 URBAMSATION AND CONSERVATION

Urbanisation is a global phenomenon with Its firm roots in the developed
communities of the world. As a continuing spatial process, it is now taking a steady
. . . . . ......... ,, 1 s.....
>! .....

..-L--:--&:---

...!&L!--

!E..

economic systems of these communities is often taken to be synonymous with

development. Hence, the degree of urbanisation has increased tremendously, which
means that:
i) the proportion of urban population has increased,
ii) the population density of towns has increased, and
iii) the percentage growth of population in the decade (1971-81 in case of India) has
increased.
These three parameters which are known as volume, spatial spread and decadal
growth, respectively, form the three indices of degree of urbanisation. In case of
India, the increase in the degree of urbanisation is largely due to a steady migration
of rural population from rural to urban areas. However, there are big lacunae in
urban planning whereby there is inability to keep pace with the increasing demand,
resulting in a haphazard growth of urban settlements.

One important aspect regarding development is the controversy concerning place

versus people development. Congregation of a large number of families, and their
settlement in areas surrounding the city, bads to the formation of million plus cities,
that is, cities having a population of more than one million or 10 lakhs. The million
plus cities have experienced a sharp increase in their population. According to 1971
Census there were 9 such cities in India, whereas their number has gone upto 12 in
1981and the population of these cities has increased from nearly three crores to over
four crores within these ten years.'~able21.1 shows the population and its growth
rate in 12 major cities of India. Table 21.1 : Population of Some MqJor Cltler of Indla (In Iakha)

t
I

Cltler

Populptlon In Lab
1971
1W1

Calcutta
Bombay

70.3
59.7

30.3
37.8

Delhi

36.5

57.1

56.6

Madras
Bangalore
Hyderabad
Ahmedabad
Kanpur

31.7
M.5
18.0

42.8
29.1
25.3

34.9
76.2
40.7

17.4
12.7
11.3

25.1
16.9
16.8

44.1
33.0
48.6

Pune

iI

91.6
82.3

PercentageInerewe over
pa8t ten yearn

Nagpur
Lucknow

9.3

13.0

39.8

8.2

10.1

23.2

iaipur

6.2

10.1

58.7

The main reason for heavy concentration of urban population in large metropolitan
cities is that they are the centres of m a r industrial and commercial activities, besides
being the seats of administration. ,As such they offer much attraction for migration
of people and this accounts for a rapid increase in their population.
You have read about effects of unplanned urbanisation in Unit 12. The rapid rate of
urbanisation has led to concentration of about 80 per cent of the industrial activities
in big cities. For example, you have seen that in Bombay alone 3000 industries are
located. This leads to migration of rural people to the cities in search of jobs, resulting
in overcrowding and formation of unplanned hutments and slums. The shortage of
houses in urban areas has resulted in growth of such areas where sanitation facilities
are poor, there is acute water and electricity shortage often resulting in the spread of
' water borne and air pollution diseases.

21.3.1 Challenge of Housing

As cities grow in size, the facilities which they provide for their inhabitants become
a matter of concern for planners. In India, the situation seems to be more alarming
due possibly to the clustered pattern of urbanisation and migration of rural
population specially into the million plus cities. Tliis results in increased burden on

Envlronmcntal Cotucrvatlon-11

.the carrying capacity of the city ecosystem. As'a result, the public expenences an
acute shortage of houses. There was a paucity of about 4.8 million urban houses in
1981which is expected to rise to about 7.2 million by the end of 1991. The challenge
of housing comprises in providing potable water, electricity and sanitation facilities
to these sections of the society.
The fact remains that agricultural land cannot support all the population living in the
rural areas. Wewould like you to read Section 8.3.1 again where we have described
how the destruction of small-scale traditional occupations leads to further
deforestation at an increased pace. The need, therefore, is for exploring alternate
avenues of employment for rural population like small-scale industries, handicraft
such as potteries, textile printing, weaving, sculpturing and the like. Sufficient
incentives should be provided to the rural poor to find job opportunities based on
small-scale viIlage based occupations such as honey collection, basket making,
sericuiture, collection of medicinal plants, lac, amber and other non-destructive forest
produce, so that they do not need to migrate to the cities.

21.3.2 Planning for Environmentally Compatible Human Settlements

To provide environmentally compatible human habitations, a multipronged approach
for conservation of urban environment should be followed. Some of the points which
may be kept in mind are:
1) In all urban areas sufficient green area must be demarcated and maintained

around construction sites to compensate the heating effect of concrete buildings.

If some trees are felled, new trees must be planted to maintain the balance.
Wherevet land is available, people must be encouraged to plant and nurture trees.

2) Illegal encroachments should never be regularised and if such encroachments

have been at the cost of cutting of trees, stringent action against the party
involved must be taken. You will read about the legislative measures which have
been taken to stop encroachment on fertile, productive lands in Unit 23.
3) Prior to the approval of city water supply scheme, a linked drainage scheme
should be provided for all new constructions and buildings.
4) Since cities are suffering from the polluted exhausts and effluents emanated by
industrial establishments located in their close proximity, separate water
treatment facilities must be used for commercial and residential water supply.
Similarly, their discharges should be collected separately. The industrial effluents
must be given special treatment before being discharged into receiving waters.

5) Commercial activities which can generate hazardous liquid waste, such as

electroplating, metal finishing, plastic and polyvinyl products, paints and ink
factories, should not be allowed to encroach on residential areas.
6) Sewage recycling projects must be initiated in all big cities of India. This will help
in quick and safe disposal of sewage and at the same time help recover the energy
content of organic residues resulting from household activities. You will read
about this in another section.

21.3.3 Strategy for Sustainable Industrial Development

The rapid industrialisation process has led to serious deterioration of environment
both on the peripheral regions and within the city. There is a clear trend towards
increase in concentration of industries on the fringes of cities in India. About 80 per
cent of the total industrial production is accounted for by industries located only in
12 big cities. The industrial pollution affects not only the lives of 162 million city
dwellers but also the forests and trees growing in the vikinity of the city resorts and
metropolices.
\

T o contain and control the adverse effects of industrialisation on environment,

regulation of land Use measures must be undertaken. In addition to the existi_ng
million plus cities, a few Satellite cities should be created around the million plus
cities. While catering to the local needs of the satellite cities, this will enable each
region to make use of the infrastructural services of the big city, such as transport,
recreation and communication system.
Industries must be classified into different categories and an effort must be made to
ensure that water-intensive industries like paper industry, are located in areas with

plenty of water. \FIIh~rc;l\~in areas of water scarcity only such industries must be
allowed which are not water-based, like electronics. Industries must also have a
separate cell to safeguard against environmental pollution. Such cells must undertake
continuous study of the level of environmental pollution, suggest appropriate
measures and force the concerned industrial units to take adequate measures for .
environmental protection. This means that the industries ought to make necessary
changes in their equipment in harmony with eco-balance. The technological change
should complement the spirit of sustainable development, i.e. it should enhance the
current and future potential of resources to meet human needs and aspirations.
After reading about the challenges of housing and strategy for sustainable industrial
development, let us attempt the following SAQ.
SAQ 3

a) Match the terms given in column A with the definitions given in column B.
Column A

Column B

i)

Million plus cities

1.

The number of people living in a unit area of

ofthe city.

ii)

Migration

2.

The percentage growth in population over a

decade (ten years).

iii)

Decadal grpwtn

3.

Mass movement of people from one place of

settlement to another.

iv)

Spatial spread

4.

Cities having a population of more than one

million people.

b) Fill in the blank spaces using appropriate words and compare your answers with
those given at the end of this unit:
i) Congregation of a large number of families and their settlement in areas
surrounding the city leads to formation of ................... 3 ....................

............................................................................

ii) The three indices of increase in degree of urbanisation are, increase in

.................... spatial spread and .......................................
iii) According to 1971 Census, the number of million plus cities in India has gone
up from 9 to 12. The three cities which have become million plus in this
period are Nagpur, ....................and Jaipur.
iv) In all urban areas sufficient green areas must be demarcated and maintained
around construction sites to compensate the .....................................

21.4 FUTURE ENERGY NEEDS

Energy is an essential input for industrial development. Energy is produced from
commercial sources like coal, petroleum, hydroelectric schemes as well as from
non-commercial sources like cowdung, fuelwood and agricultural wastes. Per capita
consumption of commercial energy is sometimes used as an index of the economic
advancement that a country has attained. India's per capita consumption of
commercial energy, however, is very low, It is only one eighth of the world average.
Commercial energy accounts for a little over half of the total energy used in the
country, the rest coming from non-commercial sources. Share of agriculture in
commercial energy consumption has risen rapidly over the past two-and-a-half
decades. Industry consumed about 78 per cent of the coal and 62 per cent of the
electrical energy in the country in 1985-86. The transport sector accounted for 56 per
cent of the total oil consumption during the year 1989. The energy consumption of
these sectors as well as the household sector are increasing rapidly. The energy
strategy, therefore, has to plan not only for an increase in indigenous availability but
also aim at its efficient utilisation.

21.4.1 Conservation and Energy

Energy generation and environmental conservation are the twin issues arising from
exploitative interaction of man with natural resources. A 1987 report of the

Management of Environment-l

International Energy Agency contains a simple but remarkable statement:

"Investment in energy conservation at the margin provides a better return than
investment in energy supply." Now, what do we mean by this? This means that
conservation of a unit of energy is cheaper and environmentally more desirable than
to generate an additional unit. For, it is estimated that generation of every additional
kilowatt hour of energy requires an investment of Rs. 7,000 to 12,000 in the form of
new energy generation equipments.
Excessive utilisation of coal and oil for generation of electricity leads to the muitiple
problems of acid rain, and rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. There are
also political and economic implications like the increasing tension in the Persian Gulf
which is the major petroleum exporting area, and falling international
competitiveness. All these threaten to strangle the world economy in a stagnation.
Let us see how some steps taken to resolve these complex problems have tangled the
issues further.
To reduce dependence on oil for generation of electricity by burning coal and oil,
hydroelectric power stations and atomic energy stations were advocated. Huge dams
can make substantial contributions to economic development in electricity-short
developing countries like India, but as in any large-scale electricity generating option,
there are trade-offs. Reservoirs inundate forests, farmland and wildlife habitats and
uproot entire communities of indigenous people. A million people will be forced from
their homes in Central India if a project to build all the small and big dams in the
Nannada Valley is pursued; The setting up of hydroelectric power stations, also
known as hydel plants, upsets the isostatic balance of the area, submerges the
surrounding animal and planj populations, renders the local inhabitants jobless
and homeless. Thus, hasty solutions to a given problem may create more
complications rather than solving it.

In the recent past, countries have been expanding their energy budget presumably'
thinking that energy expenditure was the only way to development, but today the
perspective has changed. One of the greatest challenges facing poor countries is to
meet their energy needs without repeating the mistakes made by the rich countries.
A goal of reducing national energy expenditure, if pursued rigorously, can lead to a
strong emphasis on energy efficiency, improve economic competitiveness, andslimit
oil dependence. A policy of Polluter pays must be adopted. In effect this means
specificdisincentives are required to ensurz that industries do not become too heavily
dependent on fossil fuels that threaten life-support systems. The need of the day
is to "insist on industries adopting clean technologies wherever aiailable".
The answer to the country's energy needs can only lie in adopting non-conventional
sources of energy. A beginning is being made by Government of India to give the
same type of resources and support to developing alternative sources of energy as
have so far been extended to the development of conventional energy sources. The
latter, as experience has shown, pose a great danger to the environment. Many
environmentally safe alternatives have been found today, which await encouragemenr
from the Government for proper exploitation.

21.4.2 Conventional and Non-Conventional Energy Sources

Energy is produced mainly from non-renewable sources such as petroleum, natural
gas, coal and lignite. They are usually referred to as non-renewable, because
extraction from the stock depletes the usable quantity remaining. And even if some
is being formed, the rate of formation is too slow compared to thetime scale of their
utilisation. The non-renewable sources are also called fund or stock resources. They
are also called conventional sources as they use aqe-old technologies for energy
generation.
Energy can also be produced from other natural resources, such as living organisms
and their products, by trapping solar radiation. These resources are called renewable
resources or flow resources because they involve organic growth and reproduction,
also because they are relatively quickly recycled or renewed in nature, as in case of
water in the hydrologic cycle. The renewable sources of energy are also called
non-conventional sources of energy because the techniques for their exploitation have
been developed comparatively recently. These are also referred to as alternate
sources of energy because they offer an abternative to conventional sources of energy.

The energy sources and their manner of use may be categorised as conventional and
non-conventional or commercial and non-commercial, renewable and non-renewable,
and terrestrial or solar, etc., but the environmental impact of these energy sources
cannot be readily understood in isolation. However, one thing is certain that energy
efficient systems will have to be developed to make the goal of self-reliance a reality.
The means of conserving energy are by nature fragmented and unglamorous. Use of
biogas plants, draught power, bullock-carts, insulated mud houses, collection of rain
water on house tops, conservation of polyethylene packets, recycling of solid wastes
(Section 21.4.4, p. 69), and so on are not perhaps intrinsically as captivating as atomic
power stations or orbiting solar collectors. But, we should not forget that, infatuation
with such grandiose energy supply options has got us into our current predicament.
We should now concentrate upon simple but useful alternatives of energy sources
which are environmentally compatible and economically within our reach.
In the following sections we will study some of the important means of energy
conservation through the incorporation of innovative and imaginative alternatives
within oonventional rural agricultural technologies.
,

21.4.3 Development of Non-Polluting Energy Systems

In developing countries like India, the energy needs of rural poor are mostly met with
by burning firewood. Traditional methods of cooking are very unhealthy for the cook,
as they emit a lot of smoke. Also the heat releusad in burning is not efficiently
utilised. Indian energy scientists have come up with smokeless (chulhae) stoves
specially designed for Indian conditions. These 'Chulhas' are smokeless, permit
shorter cooking time and there is also saving of fuel.

I. Smokeless Chulhas: The fuel in smokeless "chulhas' is renewable. Wood and straw
are packaged solar energy that is used by plants as they grow. In the process they
absorb carbon dioxide from the air and thus help reduce green bouse effect. When
plant parts are burnt as fuel, the carbon dioxide is released again ... but it will be
reabsorbed in an endless cycle as long as trees keep growing and fields are replanted.
The improved 'chulha' has invoked tremendous response and positive action from all
concerned. Nearly 3,000 villages have been rendered 'smokeless' in the sense that in
each house of these villages, either an improved 'chulha' or a biogas plant is used for
cooking food. A trained work force of more than 50,000 persons, mainly women, was
created to work as master craftsmen for constructing the improved chulhas.
11. Cobar Gas: Another alternative is biogas, also known as gobar gas. Gobar gas,
which is largely methane, can also be generated from wood and straw, in specially
built digesters. These can be afforded by any farmer who owns two to three cattle
heads. The dung is collected and diluted with water along with straw, wood shavings
or other agriculture or abattoir residues. The range of raw materials that can be
digested in gobar gas digesters is in fact very wide, kitchen wastes, human nightsoil,
piggery refuse, waste newspapers, city sewage. Almost any natural organic matter
you can think of can be digested to produce gobar gas (methane) which is collected
in the dome above the digester, from where it is taken to the kitchen through pipes
and burnt in gas burners for cooking.
T

Its other benefits include reduction of indiscriminate felling of trees for fuel,
improvement in sanitation, reduction in the incidence of eye disease among village
women and easy and efficient cooking. One of the greatest merits of gobar gas is its
versatility. It can be used for cooking, lighting and power generation, running
refrigerator, or tubewell pump sets. Another advantage of biogas digester is that the
material left over after digestion, which is known as spent slurry, is a good fertiliser,
i c h in NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium). The spent slurry, if applied to fields,
is known to increase yields because along with the NPK it contains significant number
of bacteria beneficial to the crops.

1
I

There is only one difficulty with biogas digesters; their efficiency goes down during
winters when the atmospheric temperature is low and the need for energy is acute.
However, in tropical countries like India, this may not pose a serious problem.
Moreover, this problem can be tackled by using initial traces of gas coming from the
dome in heating the digester itself.

Environmental Conservatiun-11

Mun~emmnlof f n\ironrnenl-l

The Government of India provides subsidy and extends technical know-how for
installation and running of the gobar gas digesters. In view of the large social benefits
of biogas energy, the National Project on Biogas Development (NPBD) was taken
up the promotion of biogas productidn in the country. Under this project 9,29,981
biogas plants were set up upto the end of 1989, the latest figures available. Of this,
Maharashtra has the maximum number of 2,46,216 family sized biogas plants.
111. Energy from City Sewage: The city sewage treatment plants use anaerobic

digestion units for extracting methane from human nightsoil which is in the form of
a sludge. The gas generated from the sludge is called sludge gas, which like biogas
consists largely of methane. The Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources
has supported setting up sewage based biogas plants in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and Delhi.
One large size urban waste recycling plant is already operating at Okhla, Delhi. The
plant comprises 15digesters connected to 15 gas collectors. The total gas generation
from the lant is about 0.6 million cubic feet per day having a heat value of 700-800
"BTU" p r cubic foot (equivalent to 500-570 cal per m3). The gas is being supplied
to about 800 households over an area of four kilometres. The gas is about 50 per cent
cheaper than the LPG gas. Another such project has been commissioned, recently at
Pandraune in UP. Plants are under construction at Ayodhya in UP, Eshaopur in
Delhi, and at Bhopal in MP. In Jabalpur, Municipal Corporation is setting up a
garbage-based power plant which will generate 7 MW electricity daily.

Many bioorganic wastes are released as by-products by distilleries in India. A new

technology for waste recycling and disposal has been introduced for the first time in
the country by a distillery in Gujarat. The technology, simultaneous with the
treatment of 45,000 litres of waste, will generate energy equivalent to that given by
10 tonnes of coal every days. The fuel is generated from the waste after fermenting
the ash with yeast in a suitable culture medium. The 10 million litre capacity distillery
can get 50 per cent of its fuel requirement from recycling its own waste. If all the 150
distilleries in the country adopt the technology there could be a saving of Rs 30 crores
or 5,00,000tonnes of coal annually. This will also result in an environmentally safe
disposal of wastes!
Similarly National Environmental Engineering Research Institute has installed
digestion units at Nagpur. The Commission for Additional Resources of Energy has
set up its units, one each at Chandigarh, Hyderabad, Bhopal, Ahmedabad, Lucknow
and Guwahati.
Plans are being made for setting up sewage gas plants in the riverside towns like
Varanasi, Allahabad, Agra, Kanpur and Bangalore. The Department of
Non-Conventional Energy Sources has been active in preparing plans for depolluting
the Ganga.
IV. Solar Energy: Biogas is a cheap and efficient fuel and its feedstock is renewable.
More recently, other renewable sources for energy generation are being explored.
Systematic efforts, for example, are being made to tap solar energy for meeting the
demands of our rural poor. It is a decentralised energy system, which can be used to
meet versatile needs of the Indian masses. Solar cooking, water heating, water
desalination, space heating, crop drying, etc. are some of the modes of thermal
conversion. Efforts are on to economically develop solar collectors for high
temperatvre applications. More than 380 solar water heating systems are operating
in the country. More than *1,000large capacity water heating systems are under
installation.

Solar energy can also be converted into electrical energy. Solar panels concentrate
large amounts of light energy on photovoltaic cells which charge the batteries that
serve as a source of electricity. This electricity can be used to run pumps, street
lighting system or even refrigerators. More than 160 solar photovoltaic pumps have
been installed in the rural areas providing water for drinking and imgation. Solar
photovoltaic street lighting systems have been provided by Govenment of India in
more than 150 villages on experimental basis. Installed in the remote villages, also
known as Urjagrams, far from power lines, solar energy makes electricity available
to people who would otherwise not be able to dream of thermal or hydel electrical
energy.

Environmental Conservation-I1

V. Wind Energy: Another renewable alternative source of energy is wind energy.

Wind energy holds promise for sy_stematicutilisation. The maximum exploitable

potential has been estimated at about 3.2 x lo8 Jlyear. It can be converted into
mechanical and electrical energies and would be particularly useful in remote areas.
Wind energy can be made to run turbine to generate electricity. According to Indian
Meteorological Department average annual wind density of 3 kwh/m2ldaY(read as
kilo watt hours per square metre per day) is prevalent at a number of places in
Peninsular and Central India. In some areas, the densities are higher than 10
kwh/m2/day during winter when energy requirements are very acute and 4
kwh/m2/day for 5-7 months in a year. At present this energy is being used to upwell
groundwater at four locations in Ajmer in Rajasthan. DNES has installed 924 wind
pumps throughout the country. Wind electricity generators at appropriate locations
(like Ladakh) are envisaged with aggregate capacity of 2 MW (Megawatts), for lighting
and pumping water in addition to devising chargingof batteries (see Table 21.2). In
the 8th Plan, some 85 new wind-powered mills are proposed to be installed at various
locations in India, where the aerodynamics of the area provides conditions suitable
for this venture.
Today, there are more than la manufacturers in the country engaged in the
production and development of different renewable energy systems and devices. It is
estimated that by the end of this'century, 20 per cent of the total energy demand will
be met from the following non-conventional energy sources listed in Table 21.2.
Tmbk 21.2 :New and Renewable harms of Energy (NmE)Systems and Devices Installed in the Country
Illhued
upto Feb. 87
-

Family size biogas plants*

CommunitylInstitutionalBiogas Projectsa*
Improved Chulhas
Domestic Solar Hot Water Systems

7,37.000
226

24,18,000
1,170

Solar Kilns
Non-domestic Solar Hot Water Systems

34

Solar Crop Driers

Solar Water Distillation Units
Water Pumping Windmills
Solar PV Street Lighting Systems
Solar Photovoltaic Pumps
Solar PV TV and Community PV Lighting Systems
PV Battery Charging Units
PV Medical Refrigerators

6,193
659
337

Aerogenerators .
Wind Fanns (Total capacity)
Domestic Lighting Systems

i
1

1,001
28
5,940
1.603

61 1
1
18
3.65 Mw
100

Average capacity of each plant 4 m"r

day.
** Average capacity per project 100 m3 per day.
PV = Photovoltaic
Source : Annual Report of Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources, 1986-87.

'

Try the following SAQ to see what you have understood of the various
non-conventional sources of energy. Compare your answers with those given at the
end of this unit.

SAQ4
a) What is the difference betiveen commercial and non-commercial sources of
energy?

..........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

Munuyemcnt of Entlr~~nn~ent-l

b) State whether the following statements are correctlincorrect. Indicate your

answer by putting a (V) of ( x ) in the boxes provided.
i) City sewage cannot be used for generation of biogas.
ii) Smokeless 'Chulhas' permit shorter cooking time along with
saving of fuel.
iii) Gobar gas or biogas can be used for cookihg, lighting and power
generation for running refrigerators or tubewell pump sets.
iv) Urjagrams are earmarked villages in which non-conventional
alternate energy generating systems have been installed by
Government on experimental basis.
c) Compare and contrast conventional versus alternate systems of energy
generation.

21.4.4 Solid Waste Management

We have mentioned under Section 21.4.2 that reuse and recycling of solid wastes can
also serve as a means for conservation of energy. In the light of this, let us see, what
are the principles guiding the management of solid wastes. Recognising that our
resources are finite and continued pollution will be difficult to rectify in coming times,
the management of solid wastes has become5mportant. Before disposal, a waste
should be considered for the following possibilities:
'
Reduction in raw materials and solid waste quantities
Reuse of waste materials
Materials recovery
Energy recovery
About these you have read in .Unit 17, at length.

I) Reduction in Raw Materials and Soiid Waste

Solid wastes are generttted at the start of the process beginning with the mining of
raw material. Thereafter, solid wastes are generated at every step in the process of
conversion of goods into products. The products are then used by the consumer
whence again wastes are generated. Clearly if a reduction in the usage of raw
materials is to occur the quantity of waste must be curtailed. This can be achieved by
i) reducing the amount of materials used in the manufacture of a product,
ii) increasing the life of the product, and
iii) reducing the amount of materials used for packing the consumer goods.

IJJ Reuse of Waste Materids

Reuse of waste materials now occurs most commonly in those situations where a
product has utility in more than one applications. For example, the paper bags used
to bring home groceries are used to store household wastes prior to placing them in
containers used for storage for collection. Soup and vegetable containers are used to
store cooking medium, like ghee or oil. Newspapers are used to start fires in
fireplaces; they are also tightly rolled and used as logs for burning. While all the
above reuses are important, their impact on generation of solid wastes is minimal. A
much*largerimpact wovld occur if this habit is encouraged on a large-scale, in urban
and town communities.

m> Materlal Recovery and Recycling

A number of materials present in munidpal and industrial wastes are suitable fbr
recovery and recycling about 10-15 per cent of solid waste are recoverable. Most
suitable candidates are the wastes generated by paper, cardboard, glass, ferrous
metab, tmihmw metah (muetly aluminium) and rubber. On the dntrary ,plastic&,
leather, textile and food wastes are unsuitable candidates for materials recovery. This
is why, it is advisable to'savc on the number of polyethylene packets, when
,
a
purchasing consumer pods.
I

Fly ash which is a dust like by-product of the thermal power plants, is produced in
huge quantities. Over 22 mt of fly ash from thermal power sector was available for
utilisation in 1985-86. It appears that the fly ash can be compressed into bricks as
such or in combination with cement etc., that can be used for building houses.

I
4

IV) Energy Recovery

After segregation of wastes in the above-mentioned categories, the remainder is
considered for the recovery of heat by burning (incineration). Because about 70 per
cent of the components that comprise solid waste are organic, the potential for
recovery of heat energy is high. The energy content in the waste matter is converted
to a form that can be used more easily. The remainder (ash) is also more compact
and weighs less, occupying a smaller volume.
A wide variety of waste constrllction materials, municipal sewage and industrial
by-products, forestry waste and urban waste (like rags, plastic bags, newspapers, etc.)
are generated by modem human activities..Such wastes can be used for incineiation
to recover their heat energy. Fot instance, about 10 per cent biomass produced in
pagdy fields forms rice grain, the remaining 90 per cent is usually burnt but can be
put tu good use. If burnt in skillfully managed incinerators, paddy straw turns out to
be far cheaper (about one third) than coal as a fuel for power generation. It has
substantial energy value ranging from 3,200 to 3,500 kcaykg. The availability of
paddy straw is also good. In Punjab alone, about 5 Mt paddy straw is available. In
remote areas, for power generation through small and medium units, the bulk of
power needs of the farm sector can be easily met by using paddy straw.
Conservation of Physical Resources
Man is an integral parf of the biosphere and therefore, is totally dependent on its
resources. His future and even his survival, depends upon the rational use and
conservation of the resources available to him.
If the environment is to continue to sustain life, it must be protected from the
consequences of our own actions. Breathable air, clean water, fertile soil, and
innumerable liSe forms, are all important resources that are vital to our own survival.
This is particularly important because physical resources are limited.

21.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we have tried to view the principles of conservation of physical resources,
and learnt that:
Degradation in physical resources such as land, water, air and soil results mainly
from exploitative activities of man in the fields of agriculture, .indhstry,
urbanisation and energy generation. ,
Conservation in agriculture can be affected by changes in land use patterns,
conservation of irrigation water and energy, minimisation of use of pesticides and'
fertilisers and implementation of innovative and sound environinental techniques
of agriculture.
Conservation of sources of energy is urgently needed as its excessive consumption
is not only costly but also leads to multiple problems. Moreover, dependence of
modem man on innovative and non-conventional sources of energy has become
the only alternative.
Management of city waste, with emphasis on minimisation, reuse and recycling, is
one of the best means of conservation of resources.

21.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

Compare the advastagesfdisadvantages of the use of biofertilisers with those of
the use of chemical fertilisers.

............. .........................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................

~nvlronmentslCon8ervstlon-11

2 ) Compare and discuss biological control of pests with chemical pest control agents.

3) Give two examples of changes in agricultural practices which can bring about
effective utilisation of available resources, and help in conservation of resources.

4) How does the location of industries near urban centres generate problems for
city dwellers?
I

5) What are the differences between conventional and non-conventional sources of

energy?

6) Suggest two non-conventional means of generating energy.

21.7 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
1. a. T b. T c. T. d. T
SAQ 2
a) i) True ii) True iii) True iv) True
b) i) landslides, soil erosion, displacement of inhabitants, water borne diseases
ii) doubled, last
SAQ 3
a) Column A
1

Column B
4

11

iii
iv

2
1

b) i)

million plus cities

ii) volume, decadal growth
iii) Lucknow
iv) heating effect

Environmental Conservation-I1

SAQ 4
a ) The sources of energy which are produced on a large-scale for the purpose of

I
t

sale are called commercial, such as coal, petroleum, electricity. Those sources
which serve only local needs and are not produced on a large-scale are called
non-commercial sources such as firewood, cowdung and agricultural wastes.
b) i ) ~i i ) ( V ) i d ) i v ) ( V )
c) Conventional systems of energy generation are less efficient, more polluting and
non-renewable. Whereas alternate sources of energy are innovations providing
clean and efficient means of energy generation using renewable resources.
Answers to Terminal Questions
1) Use of biofertilisers can replace the use of chemical fertilisers. The latter are
manufactured and transported to agricultural fields at high energy costs. Also,
they have to be added to fields every year in increasing quantities, thereby
causing increasing damage and decreasing returns with successive applications.
Whereas biofertilisers produce just the right quantities at their point of
utilisation, making use of solar energy without causing pollution problems.

2) Biological control of pests, is better than the use of pesticides because of the
following reasons:
-

I
I

I:

-- - -

S.No. Biological Agents

chemical Agents

1.

Are target-specific, narrow-range agents

Are not target-specific, broad-range agents

2.

Die natural death after destroying the pest

Remain active long after destroying the pest

3.

Do not cause environmental damage

Can cause food poisoning and enter human food chain

3) Use of solar farms and installation of small dams are two important changes in
agricultural practices which can save on energy and water resources respectively.
These two represent environmentally sourid aliematives to the present day energy
intensive, devastative practices of large-scale agricultural production.
4) Location of industries near urban centres leads to water and electricity shortage,

because industries compete with city dwellers for these resources. This leads to poor
sanitary conditions in cities and to spread of water borne diseases, air pollution
diseases and the like.

5) The conventional sources of energy such as coal, petroleum are non-renewable; they
make use of old technologies for energy generation and cause environmental
damage. Non-conventional sources of energy such as solar energy, energy from
biomass, are based on renewable resources; they make use of comparatively recent
technologies and cause minimum damage to the environment. Non-conventional
sources of energy are decentralised means of making energy available to rural poor
located in remote areas.
6) The two nonconventional methods of energy generation are: a) generation of
electricity through solar cells, and b) generation of electricity through wind power.
In the first case, solar panels collect solar radiation and reflect it on photovoltaic
cells, which becomq charged and can be used as battery of cells. The second makes
use of force of wind to .rotate a motor which generates electricity.

GLOSSARY
abbatoire: wastes generated by meat;processing industry.
B.T.U. (Brltish Thermal Unlt): a unit chosen for comparison of quantities of heat. It
is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by
1" F. 1 BTU = 252 cal.
catchment (area): an area from which water dtains to a particular location such as a
main river system or a lake.
chemkal fertilisers: compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus add potassium, when added
to soil stimulate growth of crops. Many of these are water soluble and if not taken
up by plants, are easily leached away. Leaching of nitrates may pose a health hazard
if they occur in food, particularly, leafy vegetables and drinking water.
climatology: study of climatic conditions, changes, effects, etc., that relate to the
general weather conditions of a place.
cyclonee: a cyclone is a violent storm in which air circulates rapidly in a clockwise
direction.
economics: the study of the production of wealth and the consumption of the goods
and services in a society, and the organisation of its money, industry and trade.
endotoxln: a toxin released by the degeneration or death (lysis) of bacterial cell.
epidemics: the occurrence of a disease which affects a very large number of people
living in an area and which spreads quickly to other people.
extinct: a specks of animals or plants which no longer has any living members.
geology: the scientific study of substances such as rocks and soil in Order to find the
origin, structure and history of the earth.
geomorphology: branch of science dealing with form and structure of earth.
Inter alla: Among others
light quantum: light is supposed to be made up of small packets of energy called
quantum (PI. quadta)
limnology: branch of science dealing with fish biology.
national park: a national.park is a large area of land which is protected by the Govt.
because of its natural beauty, plants or animals and which the public can usually visit.
nitrification: the conversion by aerobic bacteria of organic ,nitrogen compounds into
nitrates.
padyatra: journey on foot.
photovdtaic device: a device which uses photavoltaic cell for its source of energy. A
photovoltaic cell generates electriccurrent when exposed to radiant energy, sunlight.
It is made up of packets of energy called photons. When these photons strike the
surface of photosensitive material of the battery, some of these photons cause the
electrons in the material to move around. Since flow of electrons is, by definition, an
electric current, the cell acts as a source of electricity for the device.
satellite city: smaller city lying within the sphere of influence of a larger city, upon
which it is socially and economically dependent. A satellite city often located beyond
the ring of suburbs, is immediately continuous to the central city. Satellite cities are
usually cities for such actihies as manufacturing, trading, administration, education
or recreation.
seismic activity: shock waves generated by any transient disturbance of the earth.
smokelesschulhas: hearths designed to achieve maximum efficiency of heat utilisation
from burning of fuel wood.
sociology: study of human societies and of the relationships between groups in the$e
societies.
stratitIcat&mof atmosphew, the division into different layers of atmosphere,
depending upon temperature.
taxonomy: classification and naming of things such as animals and plants in groups
within a larger system according to their similarities and differences.