UNIT 16 SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF

DEVELOPMENTAL PROJECTS
Structure
16.1

Introduction
Objectives

16.2 Developmental Projects

Production of Energy
Production of Goods
Employment Opportunities

16.3 Consequences of Developmental Activities

Changes in Employment Pattern
Changes in Economy
Changes in Living Styles
Displacement of Population and Migration
Formation of Slums
Rehabilitation of Displaced Persons

16.4 Summary
16.5 Terminai Questions
16.6 Answers

16.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previousunits o n "Health and Environment", we have discussed the health
implications of developmental activities. In this unit, we will tell you about the social
implications of developmental activities.
Planning for large-scale development is necessary for allround development of a
country. Since Independence, India has completed seven Five Year Plans which were
aimed a t increasing total production, national and per capita income, and
employment opportunities and providing basic minimum needs to all its citizens. The
plans included projects for increasing the production of food, energy and industrial
goods. Many of the projects have been completed, some are in progress, and quite a
few new ones are being plan1.:9, Undoubtedly, the country has greatly benefited
from such developmental projects. However, it is unfortunate that while planning
them, their negative effects on physical anQ social environment were not envisaged.
Generally, whenever a developmental project is initiated some agricultural o r forest
land is requisitioned for it. The population living there is displaced. The affected
persons have to leave their homes and profession and look for new jobs and a place
to live. This brings vast changes in living conditions, employment pattern and social
organisation of a large population.
In this unit, we will describe the sequence of events and circumstances that bring
about such changes. You will also learn how human settlements have increased
tremendously in the cities leading t o the formation of slums. In Unit 9, you have
learnt that slums represent worst type of environmental degradation.
This unit is o r c - n ; - 4 into two main sections. In the first section we describe major
developmestr projects of o u r country and the progress made through them since
Independence. In the second section, we highlight the positive and negative changes
that have been brought about in our living as a result of these projects.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able t o :
tell the importance of developmental projects,
list the various inputs necessary for increasing agricultural production,
describe the progress achieved in agriculture, energy and industrial production,
enumerate employment opportunities for surplus labour,

d~scussthe positive and negative impact of developmental activities and their

effect on social environment.

DEVELOPMENTAL PROJECTS
You must be familiar with the names of big river-valley projects in our country.
Some of the important ones are Bhakra-Nangal, Beas-Sutlej link canal, Damodai,
,-.Tungabhadra. Kosi and Chambal. Probably you have visited the site of the ones in
your region. River-valley projects provide water for irrigation to a very large' area,
and generate electricity which can meet the demand of many industries and
households. There are also nuclear. thermal and coal-operated power generation
plants in our country. We are sure that you also know that plants for large-scale
'.
production of chkmical fertilisers are set up at Sindri, Nangal. Rourkela, ~ a i e l l i
and Troniba!,. You may recall the names of many factories that make heavy
machinery. engineering goods. automo$iles. textiles, chemicals, railway engines and
coaches. ships and aeroplanes. There are also factories which make steel, cement and
sugar. All the projects like hydroelectric, thermal and nuclear power plants.
irrigation, industry, etc. that bring about growth accompanied by change are called
developmental projects.
In a country like India, which is extremely poor, a mere increase in Gross National
Product (GNP) is no longer considered an accurate index of development. lncrease
in the production of wealth must be accompanied by elimination of general poverty,
reduction of economic inequalities and generation of employment. We are aware that
so far the backbone of India's economy has been agriculture. lncrease in agricultural
production is possible only if we have better irrigation facilities, better quality seed.
fertilisers, pest control and widespread use of tractors, thrashers, etc. The success of
the "Green Revolution" in lndia has been possible due to the availability of these
inputs to the farmers of Punjab, U.P., Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Haryana.
In other words, development of agriculture demands industrial growth. Sound
Industrial base is also required for technological development and self-reliance.
Agriculture and industrial activities require inputs as human labour, raw materials
and energy.

a) What are the criteria for development?

b) Why does lndia need developmental projects?

C) Why is it necessary to have a strong industrial base for agriculture?

16.2.1

Production of Energy

We use energy in our day-to-day life, in industry, and in agriculture. The prosperity
of a country has come to be measured by the amount of energy it consumes. Table
16.1 shows the average energy growth rate and energy consumption per capita in
some selected countries.

railway engines and for household use. Table 16.3 shows the demand of coal for the
year 1989-90. From the table we find that the largest demand of coal is for power
generation followed by steel, brick and other industries.

Social lmpliutlons of
Developmental Roj+s,

Table 16.3 : Demand of Coal in' Various Sectors During 1989-90

Sector

Demand
(million tonna)

Power (utility)
Steel and Coke ovens
Brick and others
Captive power plants
Cement
Railway
Fertitiser
For colliery
Low tar coke/soft coke
Export

27.0
12.7
11.5
6.5
5.5
4.0
3.5
0.3

Total

222.0

Now let us go through Table 16.4 showing coal production in India. We find that
there is a marked increase. In 1973-74, the production was about 78 million tonnes.
In 1989-90, it has exceeded 200 million tonnes. By the year 2000, it is expected to
increase beyond 400 million tonnes.
Table 16.4 :Coal Production in India

Production
(million tonna)

Yeu
-

1973-74
1989-90
1994-95*
1999-2000*

78.17
21 1.20
307.4 1
417m

*Planned production

At present, more that 60% of electricity in India is being generated by thermal power
plants which are dependent on coal. When the first Five Year Plan was started, there
were only 3000 villages with electricity. On March 31, 1989 the number of villages
with electricity was 4.5 lakh. and 78 lakh pump sets were working with electricity.
Higher coal production leads to more electricity generation, and of course, industrial
goods whose production is coal dependent. Since 1973-74 government has sandtioned
453 coal projects which require an investment of Rs. 10,000.crore.

Petroleum hoduction
Other major sources of energy are petroleum products such as petrol, Kerosene,
diesel, LPG, naptha, etc. Let us look at. Table 16.5 showing the consumption of
petroleum products since 1970,
Table 16.5 : Consumption of Petroleum Products
-

Year

1970-7 1
1975-76
1980-8 1
1985-86
1 986-8 7
1987-88
1988-89

Total Consumption
(million tonnes)

17.9
22.4
30.9
40.0
43.7
46.4
49.9

We find that consumption of petroleum products has increased almost three times
since 1970-7 I . There has also been an increase in the production capacity.
Consumption of petroleum is taken as an index of developmental activities because it
indirectly suggests an increase in production capacity. In India, import of most of
the country's petroleum requirement in the form of crude oil and its products has
remained high. Table 16.6 shows the import of crude petroleum and petroleum

Indian coal hm IOW sulphur

content, generally less than one
per cent, but a high ash content,
in the range of 25 to 40 per cent.

Effeds of Cbngal
Eavironmmt on Man
le I& dl deposits arc in
Assmm. Cujamt and in offshore
are= of Wat Bombay (Bombay
High), in deltas of Codavari and
Caumy, Bombay high produces
about 22 million t o n n e annually
which is a little less than half of
our total requirement.

products. rhe import of crude oil was increased to about one and a half times and
of petroleum product of about 6 times since 1970. India is taking effective steps t o
produce more crude oil, e.g. from Bombay High. In 1984-85, we produced about 29
million tonnes of crude oil. Production of crude oil is estimated to increase to 38.5
million tonnes by 1994-95 and to about 45 million tonnes by the year 2000.
Petroleum products are used in innumerable ways-in industries, .transportation,
generation of electricity, agriculture etc. The consistent increase in consumption
means that we are developing on these fronts.
Table 16.6 :Imports of Petroleum Crude and Petroleum Products
Yar

Crude

1970-71
1980-8 1
1982-83
1985-86
19815-87
1987-88
1988-89

11.7
16.2
k 9
IS.I
15.5
16.0
17.3

Petroleum Products
(million t o m a )
,

1.1
7.3
5.0
3.9
3.1
3.9
6.4

Total

12.8
23.5
21.9
19.0
18.6
19.9
23.7

So far we have discussed the progress made in our country in energy production. In
the following section you will learn about the progress made in the production of
fertilisers, seeds, and the resulting increase in agricultural production. You will also
learn about the developments in industrial and consumer goods.

a)

Describe in about five lines the progress made in our country in the commercial
production of energy.

b) Which among the following statements are true? Indicate T for true and F for
false.
i) Increase in Gross National Product of a country is a measure of
development.
ii) Development in agriculture demands industrial growth.
iii) Amount to energy consumption indicates the prosperity of
a country.
iv) More than 40% of the energy in lndia is used for household
purpose.

16.2.2

Production of Goods

We will now tell you aboui the industrial progress made in our country. Before
Independence, India's industrial structure was shaped to suit the British rulers and
big landlords. After Independence things started changing. Zamindari was abolished
and land ceilings were imposed. This resulted in better distribution of land. Now, it
was in the interest of the tiller to grow more. Government also brought various
measures to favour the farmers. For example, irrigation facilities were developed. In
195I . only 22.6 million hectare of land had irrigation facilities. By the end of the
Sixth Plan, (1980-85) the irrigation facilities had grown to cover 68 m~llionhectare.
Since Independence, about 2000 dams of more than 30 metre height have been
constructed and a large number of dams are under construction. These dams have
increased irrigation potential and a large number of them are used for generating
electricity.
For increasing agricultural production it is essential to take other measures apart
from irrigation. These measures are mainly production and application of fertilisers,

improvement in fertility of the soil, production and use of quality seeds, crop
protection measures, etc. During the past few years substantial achievement has been
made on all these fronts. Table 16.7, which shows the consumption of chemical
fertiliser since 1970, is suggestive of improvement in crop production. Similarly,
distribution of quality seeds (Table 16.8) has been increasing consistently during
these years.

Table 16.7 :Consumption of Chemial Fertilisers in India

-

Yeu

Fertiliser Consumption
(million Tonnes)

1970-7 1
1975-76
1978-79
1981-82
1984-85
1 987-88
1988-89
(tentative)

2.18
2.89
5.12
6.06
8.2 I
9.01
11.33

Table 16.8 : Increase in the Distribution of Quality Seeds in India

Yeu
1980-8 1
1982-83
1984-85
1986-87
1987-1988
(tentative)

Seeds
(Lakh Quintals)
25.0 1
42.06
48.46
55.83
56.30

Results of such efforts are consistent with general increase in the production of crops
such' as rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, groundnut, jute, gram, etc. as shown in
Fig.16.1. The production of rice was about 53.5 million tonnes in 1978-79. By 198788, it had grown to about 56.5 million tonnes. The production of wheat in 1978-79
was 35.5. million tonnes. In 1987-88. it was more than 45 million tonnes, a rise o l
approximately 10 million tonnes. Sugarcane production increased from 15 1.6 million
tonnes in 1978-79 to more than 196.5 million tonnes in 1987-88. In case of other
crops like gram, cotton, groundnut, and raw jute, there have been ups and downs in
production, still the overall picture today is appreciably better than what it was 30
years back.
With agricultural production it is essential that other items of need also be'produced.
After Independence, India has attached importance to projects related to indusiry.
Today, there are industries and other manufacturing units in the country, even in the
areas which were totally neglected earlier. If we see the trend in the recent past, the
picture that emerges is not so unsatisfactory. Table 16.9 shows the figures for
industrial production from 1980-81 to 1987-88. You can easily make out that there
has been remarkable progress in some sector. This has become possible only because
of a large number of projects which were estahkkhed and which are working
successfully. As an example, let us look at public sector enterprises only (Table
16.10). In 1980-8 1, there were I63 units. By 1987-88, the number had growdto 221.
In 1980-81, the capital employed in these units was about 18,200 crore rupees, by
1987-88, the figure had gone up to more than 58,000 crore rupees. Turnover of these
units in 1980-81 was only about 28,600 crore rupees. In 1987-88, the turnover was
more than 80,000 crore rupees. All these developmental projects have by and large
contributed to better production and improved availability of goods in the country
and yet some other vita1 sectors of our economy have not given very satisfactory
results.

Effects of Changed
Environment on Man '

MILLION
TONNES

MILLION
TONNES

40

20

60

10

30

200

10

GROUNDNUT

100

0
MILLION
BALES

MlLLlON
BALES

10

14

RAW JUTE & MESTA

-7

0
' n r O C I 0 0

O P O P O P O P

Source : Ministry of Finance, Economic Division

rn

'

I-icr I b I

. ( h w n o a in C

r r ~ nI J r n A m m r t i , s nin 1nAi.a 1 U h l l

'

Table 16.9 : Industrial Production in India (Base 1980-81 = 100)

Year
1981-82
1982-83,
1983-84
1984-85
1985-86
. 198647
1987-88

Basic
Goods

Capital
Goods

Consumer
Goods

1 10.9
118.7
125.7
139.7
149.2
163.0
172.2

106.7
110.6
123.5
127.2
140.7
166.3
192.9

113.8
112.0
1 13.8
122.0
137.3
147.1
158.0

Social ImpUutLons of
Devdopmental Projects

Intermediate
Cuods

'

103.7
104.6
114.9
126.1
135.5
141.5
148.1

Table 16.10 : Growth in Public Sector Only

Year
1980-8 1
1987-88

No. of Units

Capital Used
(crores RE.)

Turnover
(crores Rs.)

18.200
58,000

28,600
80.000

163
22 1

16.2.3 Employment Opportunities

An important aspect of development is the creation of jobs for surplus labour. With
heavy industrialisation came other developmental activities : power generation,
mining, railways, road and air transport, post and telegraph services, etc. The
industries and other projects employ millions of people, who have, thus, an assured
income.
T o get a n idea of the number of people employed in the industrial sector, consider
the following figures. Coal mines, today, employ more than 8 lakh workers, an
ab~ve-groundworker gets a minimum daily wage of Rs. 15.30, whereas a belowground worker gets Rs. 18.45. The Railways give employment to no less than 18
lakh workers. The Steel Authority of India employs a total of 2,35,000 workers.
Similarly, other organisations employ a large number of people.
In addition to people directly involved in inaustrial production, further employment
is created in sale, distribution and in many cases for the repairs also. In spite of such
progress, poverty is still rampant in India. Economists like to use a rather precise
definition of poverty. An annual income of Rs. 6,400 for an entire household is
defined as the poverty line. A family earning less than this figure, which you can see
is already quite small, is said to be below the poverty line. Most of the poor people,
in India, are in rural and tribal areas.
The government is running specific projects for poverty alleviation by providing jobs
to rural people. These projects are as follows:

National Rural Employment

Programme

To give employment

Integrated Rural
Development Project
IRDP

To encourage household
enterprises which in turn can
provide employment
&

Minimum Need Programme

MNP

To prove minimum needs

In exchange of labour

Rural Landless Employ~nent

G urantee Programme
RLEGP

To provide employment at least

for certain period each year
to rural land labour

Watl of Cbrnged
w Mrn

E
m
-

la tld Seventh Five Yew Plan

( I S M ) more than 9,000 crores
were emnuked for Rural
Dc*Lleporcbt Programmes. Out
of tbb amount programmes
cq.ble of generating employment
41NREF, SEP, RLEGS were
5 , e crores.

You may also look at Table 16.1 4 showing the employment generated through
NREP during 1980-85 (Sixth Plan). The employment created long range benefits for
the rural people.
Table 16.11 :Employment Generated Through NREP

Year

''m

19W8 1
1981-82
1982-83
1983-84
1984-85

Employment Generated
(million man-days)
4 13.6
354.5
351.2
302.8
352.3

SAQ 3
a)

How do developmental projects help in removing poverty ?

b) Why did government start specific poverty alleviation projects?

16.3 CONSEQUENCES OF DEVELOPMENTAL

ACTIVITIES
Progress means change, development creates wealth and employment at various
levels. This means more money in the hands of an increasing number of people.
Development thus brings improvement in the life style of people. In the following
subsection we will tell you how the employment pattern has been changing because
of developmental activities.

16.3.1

Changes in Employment Pattern

Let us first of all distinguish between two sectors of production-agricultural and

industrial. industrial sector is made up of two sectors, public and private. Public
sector consists of industries and undertakings owned by the government, whereas the
private sector is privately owned. India has a very prominent public sector which
employs a very large number of people.
In March 1986, the organised sector employed 250 lakh people. By March 1988, this
number had gone upto 257 lakh. Thus seven lakhs new jobs were created in two
years' time. A large fraction of these seven lakh was certainly fully or partially
employed in agricultural sector earlier. An increase in developmental activity means
transfer of people from agriculture to the organised sector. This is as it should be.
Our agriculture is overloaded with manpower. Farmers are seasonally employed. On
an average, half of the year they remain unemployed. The present level of
agricultural production can be achieved with a much reduced work force; and the
surplus manpower utilised on other productive fields like agro-based industries,
cottage and home industries, forest-based produce etc.

It is instructive to contrast the situation ih lndia with that jn the industrialised

countries as given in Table 16.12. In these countries agriculture employs only about 2
to 12% of the work force and the remaining 90% work in other areas. Whereas in
India, 69% of the population is engaged in agriculture.

Aodd ImgUutbns of
Devdopmental Rojeds

Table 16.12 :Per Capita Income and Distribubon of Labour Force in Selected Countries
Percentage of labour force in
Country

Year

Per capita
income
in US S

A yiculture

Industry

Services
57
66

U.S.A.

1960
1980

2.500
1 1,360

7
2

36
32

W. Germany

1960
1980

1,220
11,730

14
4

48
46

Japan

I.
.

lndia
-

Source : United Nations Statistical Yearbook 1977 and World Development Report 1982 and 1987.

Unfortunately, lndia is not yet industrialised enough to be able to remove surplus

work force from agriculture and employ it in production of industrial wealth.
Marginal farmers have to leave agricultural sector but they, generally, do not find
suitable employment elsewhere.
The problem of finding appropriate jobs is also faced by another class of workers.
For example, when artisans and skilled workers are forced to leave their profession
on account of adverse market forces, they do not find any alternative productive
employment. In desperation, they take up whatever job comes their way and their
skills go in vain. To illustrate this point let us take the example of weaving. In earlier
times, most of the spinning and weaving was done on a small scale spread all over
the country. When mills.were set up two things happened. First, the number of
people who got jobs in the mills was much smaller than that of the people thrown
out of work. Secondly, it was not the traditional weavers who joined the mills, but a
different set of people. In order to survive, the weavers had to look for some
alternative profession. Most of them failed to find work in their locality and
migrated to towns and cities. Similarly, in coal fields when mines were started, a
large number of such people left their profession and homeland and migrated to the
cities. The problem of migration is discussed in the later part of this unit.
DeveIopmental projects have, on the one hand, created jobs but, on the other, have
made tiaditionai wbrkers unemployed and forced them t o migrate to the cities. To
take care of such anomalies the Government and other organisations are making
efforts to provide employment to jobless people who have been rendered unemployed
in their own areas. In section 16.2.3, we have already discussed various government
programmes. For example, in the coal sector alone, since Independence, employment
has been given to more than'18,OOO persons who had lost their land. Similarly,
efforts are being made in other sectors. Dams and irrigation projects displace large
numbers of people from their land. The government is now giving adequate attention
to their overall rehabilitation. During 1985 to 1990, more than 40 million standard
person year employment was planned with an annual growth rate of about 4%, This
was supposed to take care of people, among others, who become unemployed on
account of developmental projects.
'

16.3.2 Changes in Economy

The developmental projects directly affect economy. First of all more income is
generated by way of products and many people get involved in the economic process.
Also, the traditional kind of activities are replaced by advanced activities and the
resources are better utilised. For example with the completion of irrigationcum-

Standard person yeor employment

means the situaliOn when a man
works daily for eight hours and gets
employment for 273 daysIyear.

power projects, more areas received irrigation and other agricultural facilities. These
improvements led to Green Revolution. The net outcome was a n increase in
agricultural produce. The people who were having low income on account of
uncertainties of rain and inaccessibility of other agricultural inputs started generating
high income, Table 16.13 shows the annual percentage change in Gross National
Product, agricultural production, industrial production and exports over the seven
year period, 1980-87. You will find that in the agriculture sector some years show a
decrease in production which was largely due to drought. This is so because our
agriculture still is very much dependent on rain. Had the irrigation facilities been
more assured for larger areas such decreases would not have occurred. Industrial
production, electricity generation, and exports show a n overall increase. This has
become possible because new projects were taken up and they started functioning
successfully. Consequently, the Gross National Product (GNP) as well as Monetary
Resources also grew during these years.
Table 16.13 :Some Selected Indicators Showing Percentage Change over Previous Year
-

1980-81

'81-82

'82-83

'83-84

%4-85

'85-86

'86-87

7.4

5.9

2.6

8.0

3.9

5.1

3.8

Agricultural
Production

15.6

5.6

13.7

1.2

2.4

Industrial
Production

4.0

9.4

3.2

6.7

8.6

8.7

Exports

4.6

16.3

12.8

11.0

20.2

Gross National
Product

-3.3

-7.2

-3.7
9.1
14.3

Table 16.13 shows the growth for each year as compared to the previous year. If we
calculate actual growth during these years, it would be very impressive. Similarly, the
graphs of performance of infrastructure for coal and lignite production, electricity
generation, crude oil and petroleum products given in Fig. 16.2 and 16.3 show
regular growth till 1988. However, years 88-89 show a gene,ral decline in production
in these sectors. The increase in production has been possible only on account of
developmental projects taken u p during these years.
',

When the GNP, Monetary Resources and production of infrastructure goods and
materials grow, the whole economy grows.

16.3.3 Changes in Living Styles

When development takes place and economy is strengthened, there will be direct or
indirect impact on all aspects of life. With the implementation of developmental
projects, one positive change that takes place regularly is the change in life style. It is
a common scene that wherever a development project starts new colonies appear
even before the project is commissioned. First, the workers who have to erect the
project need housing facilities at a convenient site, so that much of their time is not
wasted in travel between their residence and place of work. Since the housing
facilities are inadequate in every part of the country, it is not possible to make use of
the existing housing facilities of that area.
So, new houses are constructed for the workers. When the prcject is commissioned.
the workers engaged in erection of the project leave. Now the workers who will run
the project need to be accommodated. Generally, their number is higher. So, further
housing facilities are created. As you know, group housing for the workers close to
the work place is always in the interest of a project. Most of the big developmental
projects d a take interest in this field. We often come across new workers' colonies.
Examples are steel plants, petroleum refineries, thermal power plants, hydroelectric
projects, railways and airlines. These colonies generally have a proper layout and
provision for drinking water and sewiage. In addition, they have parks, green areas,
play fields, schools, roads. clubs. etc. Such colonies often appear as oasis in the
desert of unplanned housing. During the Sixth Plan, public enterprises alone s'pent
about Rs. 275 crore on housing. For example. when Coal India Ltd. was

Social Implicstions of
Developmental Projects

BILLION

MILLION
TONNES

KWH

( UTILITIES ONLY )

180

180

120

120

60

60

0
1980-81 84-85 -86 -87 -88

-88* -89 *

MILLION
TONNES

MILLION
TONNES

30

45

20

30

10

15

0
1980-81 84-85

-86 -87

-88

-88"

-89

1980-81 84-85 -86 -87

Source : Ministry of Finance,

Economic Division

Fig. 16.2 : Performance in <'oal, Electricity and Petroleum Production

-88

-88

-89

APRIL-DECEMBER ONLY
INCLUDING NUCLEAR

of Changed
Environmmt o n Man

<

MILLION TONNES
12

300

100

0
1980.81

'

84-85 -86

-87

-88

-88.

-89.

1980-81

-87

-88

-88.

-89.

40

30

20

10

0
1980-61'

i6

-86

12

8885 -86

-87

-88

-88.

-89.

1980-81

Source : Ministry of Finance,

Economic Division

84-85

kig. 16.3 : Performance in Production u

84-85 -86

-87

-88

48.

-89.

APRILDECEMBER ONLY

- --

nationalised it had only about 1,18,000 houses for its workers. Now there are 3 lakh
houses available and the target is to provide houses to at least 70% of its workers.
Similarly, other public and private enterprises are providing housing facilities to their
employees.
When residential colonies are fully equipped with facilities for education, health and
extra-curricular activities, they bring substantial changes for better living. So from
this brief account we can conclude that improvement in the standard of living is an
indirect outcome of developmental projects.

16.3.4

Displacement of Population and Migration

Land is the first requirement for any developmental project whether it is industrial,
hydroelectric, thermal power generation, railways or any other. In an overpopulated
country like ours it is difficult to find land that is not already inhabited or under
cultivation. The first step in any project is clearing it of human population.
Unfortunately, the resettlewent of these uprooted persons is generally not a part of
the project. Left to themselves, the displaced persons find it impossible to start their
life afresh.
Migi ation
Migration of human population is a common phenomenon. pebple have always
migrated from one place to another in search of better avenues of livelihood. Here
we will talk about migration due to developmental projects. Whenever, a project is
implemented it occupies land and other resources. People of the area have to leave
their home, professions and migrate to other places in search of new homes. Large
scale migration occurs wherever dams reservoirs are constructed.

he construction of dams, like the Srisailam dam in Andhra Pradesh, the

Kalihydroelectric project in Karnataka, the Pong dam in Himachal Pradesh and
some others have uprooted many people making them refugees in their own land.
Most of the affected people are marginal farmers, agricultural labourer, and others
who are economically backward. It seems unlikely that they have received their share
of money in compensation or alternative non-agricultural occupation.
In Unit 7, you have already learnt about Tehri Power Project. It is estimated that
about 4,600 hectare of forest land will be submerged and 3,500 odd fanlilies will be
displaced. The gigantic Srisailam dam planned across the Krishna river will
submerge over 100,000 acres of land displacing about 100,000 persons.
Some of these people manage to get absorbed in the nearby area while other move
out in search of alternative jobs. Most of them migrate to already crowded cities and
larger towns, where they can earn to sustain themselves. The main drawback of
developmental activities is inadequate provision for rehabilitation of affected
population. Till recently, it was considered that cash compensation to people who
lost their land and livelihood can take care of the problem. However, it has been
observed that cash payment created different types of problems including bungling
and corruption. Even if the amount was given to the affected people, it was not
feasible for them to start any profitable venture which could compensate for their
earlier profession. For example, a farmer cannot easily buy land at another place
and start farming. In fact, while in search of a job, all their cash is spent for the
daily needs in a short time. Eventually, in the absence of cash and land the; end up
living below the poverty line. For instance, it has been observed that almost all the
farmers in the vicinity of Koyna reservoir live in scattered bastis, below the poverty
line because the employment potential in the area is negligible. Similar is the state of
people uprooted by industrial or other projects. As a consequence, most often the
affected population in drawn to the cities and that is one of the reasons the
population in urban areas is increasing rapidly.
during 1971 to 1981, the urban population growth was faster than the total
population growth. In the urban areas the increase was 46% while the overall
increase in national population was 26%. This was due to migration of people from
villages to cities. Table 16.14 shows the rapid increase in the population of major
Indian cities.

Social Implications of
Developmental Projects

Table : 16.14 :Increase in Population in Major Indian Citia (In thourmdr)

City

1901

1951

1961

1971

1981

Calcutta
Greater Bombay
Dclhi
Madras
Hydaabad
Ahmedabad
Banplorc
Kanpur
Punc
Nagpur

1488
813
214
594
4V
186
159
203
164
12b

-4589
2967
1437
1542
1128
877
779
705
606
449

5737
4152
2359
1945
1249
1206
1 200
97 1
79 1
644

7031
597 1
3647
3170
17%
1742
1654
1275
1135
930

9166
8203
5752
4277
2566
2515
2914
1685
1685
1298

But it would be erroneous to conclude that all the increase is due to forced
migration. Because a large number of people migrate without compulsion. Though
they can get some employment in their own place, they prefer to migrate, because
they find cities a better place to live and work.

16.3.5 Formation of Slums

You have already learnt in Unit 9 that slums have become an integral part of city life
in all developing countries. There is no large city in the world which does not have a
big slum populdtion. So the phenomenon is not confined to lndia alone. You know
that slums represent the worst type of environmental degradation that has become
concomitant to urbanisation and industrialization. Slums cause deterioration of
surrounding region and are a threat to human health.
We have mentioned above that there has been a large-scale influx of people into
cities from rural areas. The cities, however, have not been equipped to cope with this
increase. Most of these new entrants to urban areas cannot afford proper living
space and therefore, end up in slums. It is estimated that by the year 2000 A.D.. the
slum population in lndia will rise to about 78 millions. Now the question is: Are the
developmental projects the cause of slum population? We have learnt that many
'
rural people become homeless and unemployed when their land and houses are
acquired for erecting developmental projects. But it must be emphasised that the
people affected by developmental projects constitute a very small fraction of slum
population. Not all these people migrate to the cities. In fact, the slum population of
cities is mostly comprised people who had migrated to the cities due to lack of
employment. Or because they found cities a better place to live.
Since the cities are developing rapidly there are many job opportunities. For
example, construction in the cities has increased during the last few decades.
Similarly, a large number of small and medium size industries have come up and the
commercial activities have grown to a great extent. Due to rapid growth in cities the
newcomers do find some employment to support themselves. The migrants are
generally employed as labourers. They may be able to earn enough to make both
ends meet somehow, but they cannot get housing facilities as these are limited and
expensive. Some of the contributing factors causing the growth of slum are
inadequacy or non-existence of civic amenities, failure to improve rules regarding
house building and encrochment of public land, etc.
You have learned in Unit 9 about the existence of rich and poor residential areas in
the cities. We often find that sites close to industries, thermal power stations dams,
etc. are generally not used by affluent people for residential purpose. They know the
deletrious effects and risks involved in such areas, and of course they-have
alternatives. These areas are occupied by slum dwellers because the danger of
eviction is minimum. They may be aware of risks and sufferings in such areas but do
they have any alternatives? That is why in Bhopal gas leak disaster most of the
people affected were slum dwellers around the Union Carbide factory.
Now the government plans to improve facilities in slum areas. It is proposed to
provide basic facilities like water supply, electricity, sewers, storm water drains,
community baths and latrines and improved lanes in these areas. For the Seventh
Five Year Plan, about 270 crore was allocated for this purpose. This is expected to
benefit about 9 million slum dwellers. Between 1985 to 1988 about 71.5 lakh slum
dwellers have received benefit under the slum improvement schemes. In addition, the

Social Implications of

Government is making efforts to check the migration of people towards cities. New
developmental projects with employment potential are being planned for rural areas.

Developmental Projests

. .
hk3.6 Rehabilitation of the Displaced Persons

Different projects affect the population differently. The number of people who have
moved out a d need rehabilitation depends upon the size of the,project and on the
density of poplilation in that area. For example, an irrigation project involves
constructioir of a dam a d a reservoir and therefore, affects a large area. Whereas an
average size thermal plant affects a much smaller area.
Let us consider the specific case of Narmada Sagar Project and Sardar Sarovar
Project. It is estimated that Narmada will submerge more than 40 ihousand hectares
each of forest and cultivated land. More than 250 villages will be affected including
89 which will be fully submerged. About 1.3 lakh people will be displaced and will
need rehabilitation.
In Sardar Sarovar Project more than 12,000 hectare of cultivated land and about
25,000 hectare of forest and other lands will be submerged. More than 230 villages
will be affected. Trombay Thermal Power Station in Chambur (Bombay) which is
constructed on a reclaimed site is expected to affect more than 1 million people
within a radius of about 10 km.
Anbther big project still at a planning stage, is the unified mining system in the areas
of Jharia, Katras and Kirkend in Bihar. If this project by the public sector Bharat
Coking Coal Ltd. is approved, it will affect the population in an area of about 480
sq km.
Ciearly, the first step in any development project is the human angle, the welfare of
population that. has to be uprooted. The planning is needed on the following:
a) cultural, religious and social survey to provide sociological and economic
condition of the affected people.
b) Survey of the rehabilitation site to establish the water and land availability and
the steps needed to make the land fit for agriculture and a plan for
implementation. Also, consent of eustees should be taken before rehabilitation.
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
g)

Necessary services should be made available so that the rehabilitated population may
continue agriculture in the new areas.
Providing vocational training and job opportunities.
Modular house designs with local materials.
Necessary help during shifting and reconstruction.
Monetary aid.
Post-resettlement service to overcome any unforeseen problems.

The master plan for rehabilitation has also to take care of total environment. Not
only the oustees have to the rehabilitated but also the herbage. Even landless
cultivators have to be provided for. Impact assessment which is now essential for
every large project help to assess the effect of developmental activities. The aim is to
save people and environment from adverse impacts of developmental projects.

I
i

' a)

b)

Illustrate with an example how developmental projects have caused social

degradation of our environment.

List some of the steps taken by our government to check migration of rural
people towards cities. '
a
..........................................................................................

Effects of C h a p d
Environment on Man

.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
c) ' o u r agriculture system is overloaded with man power. Can it be reduced ?

.........................................................................................

16.4 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt that :
Developmental projects are necessary for the progress of a country because they
are meant for the production of energy, irrigation facilities, fertilisers, machinery
and industrial goods.
Since Independence India has made some progress in energy production from
coal, electricity and petroleum, however, it is still far below our country's
requirement.
~ e v e l o ~ m e n tprojects
al
have resulted in considerable increase in agricultural and
industrial production and Gross National Product. The projects have generated
income, created new jobs, raised the standard of living and changed the pattern of
employment.
Benefits of developmental projects have not gone to the poor and needy. Due to
mismanaged planning of irrigation projects lakhs of people have been displaced
and they have become refugees in their own homeland.
Due to lack of alternate employment and planned rehabilitation programmes they
migrate to cities and are forced to live in slums. This has resulted in social
degradation of environment and deterioration in quality of life.

16.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

I)

Why it was felt necessary by the government to start specific poverty alleviation
projects ?

2) Suppose you were asked to examine a plan of a developmental project to be

implemented in your area. How would you assess its environmental impact and
what major points would you check in your plan?

3)

Why are developmental projects becoming a major subject of public controversy

over the last few years ?

..........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
..........................................................................................

4) You may be aware of the changes in employment pattern in your area. You
should ask your elders about the type of jobs available forty years ago and
compare it with the situation today. Find out what gradual changes have
occurred during this period and why?

16.6

ANSWERS

Self Assessment Questions

1) a) i)

lncrease in production of wealth

ii) Elimination of poverty

iii) Reduction of economic inequalities
iv) Generation of employment
b) Broadly.developmenta1 projects are aimed to increase food production,
industrial goods, energy production and other facilities which are necessary
for survival. Since India has a very large population it is not possible to
provide basic amenities to people without developmental p'rojects.
c) lrrigation facilities, fertilisers, energy, machinery and pesticides are necessary
for increasing agricultural production. These can be fulfilled by
developmental projects.
2) a) Comparison of the present production of energy from coal, electricity and
petroleum products with the production at the time independence show a
remarkable progress in this fronts.
Fill in data from the text.
1947
Electricity
Coal
Petroleum products

...................
...................

...................

Present

...................
...................
...................

b) i) F, ii) T, iii) T, iv) T

3) a) Elaborate the positive features of developmental projects on the following

lines :
increase in employment, people have assured income, increase in agricultural
inputs and industrial goods, release of goods in the market, further
employment etc. All together remove poverty and bring prosperity.
I

b) Discuss the following issues.

Fruits of overall development does not reach rural people. Such projects can
rectify the situation and benefit rural people.

Social ~mplicationsof
Developmental Projects

Effeds of Changed
Environment on M M

4) a) Narmada Sagar project is one. It will submerge large area and affect a large
number of people. If the resettlement of people is not taken seriously, they
will have to migrate and live substandard life.
b) The steps taken by .government are :
I)

Rehabilitation of oustees from developmental projects

2) NREP. MNP, RLEGP, etc.

3)

Encouraging growth centres in rural areas

4) Industrialisation of rural areas

5 ) Creation of facilities in rural aregs
No.
At present we d o not have infrastructure for relieving people from
c)
agriculture and providing them alternate non-agricultural occupation.

Terminal Questions
1) Majority of our population is below the poverty line. Increase in Gross National
Product cannot guarantee equitable distribution. Therefore, specific poverty
removal projects, mainly for the employment of poor people need to be initiated
so that people have assured i n c o r n a n d can obtain basic amenities like food,
shelter, clothing etc.

2) The main points to consider are :

i) impact on environment-psllution etc
ii) impact on health of human beiRgs
iii) benefit to local people in terms of employment opportunities and product
utilisation.
iv) if it involves displacement of people, a rehabilitation plan need to be
formulated.

3)

Elaborate up to a page and half along the following issues which are the reasons
of controversy.
Degradation of environment-deforestation, pollution, deterioration of quality
of soil and water. Climatic changes (flash flood), displacement of people,
migration to cities and formation of slums.
*