Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Power System Protection

for Engineers
Power System Basics
Overview

Copyright SEL 2005

The purpose of this introductory section is to provide a review of the main

concepts of power systems, especially those concepts most frequently used in
the power system protection field.
It is difficult to attempt to study all aspects of power systems in a short period
of time. This section serves not only as a brief overview but also as an
introduction to conventions used throughout the course.
The concepts presented here can also be found in any textbook on ac circuit
analysis or power system analysis.

Power System Basics_r16

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Power System Basics

Objectives
z

Explain phasor concepts and their

importance in power systems

Discuss the voltage, current and power

relationships in three-phase electric circuits

Review the power system components and

per-unit quantities

Power System Basics_r16

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Sinusoidal Function
y (t ) = Ym cos (t + )
Ym
y(t)

Ym

2 =
period

The current and voltage of alternating current electrical systems in steady state
are normally represented by perfect sinusoidal functions. The figure shows an
example of a sinusoidal signal (or function) called y(t) that could be a voltage
or a current. The signal is periodic with a period of T seconds. The signal
frequency f, in Hertz, is the reciprocal of the period: f = 1/T
The analytical expression of a sinusoidal function of period T is the following:
y (t ) = Ym cos (t + )
Ym : Peak Amplitude
: Radian (angular) frequency
: Phase angle
= 2f
f = 50 or 60 Hz, depending on location

Power System Basics_r16

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Complex Number
Imaginary Axis

Y = a + jb
b

a = Re( Y )

r
Y

b = Im( Y )

Real Axis

The analysis of ac linear systems using the time representation of voltages and
currents may result in tedious, complicated, and time-consuming
computations. For steady state conditions, the complication is reduced through
the use of complex numbers. A complex number is composed of two real
numbers. One of the real numbers is the real part and the other real number
is the imaginary part. The real part of the complex number Y shown in the
figure is a, and the imaginary part is b. The imaginary part is always
multiplied by j, which is equal to the square root of negative one.
A complex number can be graphically represented as shown in the figure. Two
axes are used to represent the real and imaginary parts of the number. The
number can be represented as a vector with two components. The following
three expressions can be used to represent a complex number:
r
Y
r = a + jb (Rectangular coordinate form)
Y
r = Y (Polar coordinate form)
Y = Y cos + jY sin (Rectangul
ar form using magnitude and angle)
r
Since the magnitude of Y is
Y = a 2 + b 2 , and the real and imaginary parts are :
a = Y cos
b = Y sin

Power System Basics_r16

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Phasor Representation
r
Define the Phasor Y as :
r Y j
Y = m e = Ye j
2
Then :

r j t
y (t ) = 2 Re Ye

A phasor is a complex number used to represent an ac voltage or current. The

relationship between the phasor and the original signal is given by the
following analytical development:
The original signal as a function of time is :
Y
y (t ) = Ym cos (t + ) = 2 m cos (t + )
2
Using Euler' s identity (*) :
y (t ) = Re [Ym cos (t + ) + jYm sin (t + )]

y (t ) = Re Ym e j(t + ) = Re Ym e je jt
Y

y( t ) = 2 Re m e j e jt

2

(*) Euler' s Identity :

e j = cos + j sin
Note : j = 1

Power System Basics_r16

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Phasor Representation

r
Y = Ye j = Y
r
Y = Y cos + jY sin
Where Y =

Ym
: Rms value of y (t )
2

Note that the phasors magnitude Y, is the rms value of the original sinusoidal
signal y(t). Note also that the phasor real and imaginary parts, as well as the
phasors magnitude and angle are CONSTANT. In other words, with this
representation the variable t (time) does not appear in the calculations.

Power System Basics_r16

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Notation
r
A = Ae j ( + ) = A/( + )
r
A Means " Angle of Phasor A"
Therefore :
r
A = +

Power System Basics_r16

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Phasor Representation
Imaginary Axis

r
Y = Y

Y sin

Y cos

Real Axis

As any complex number, a phasor can be graphically represented in the

complex plane.

Power System Basics_r16

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Phasor Operations

Given :
r
A = A/
r
B = B/
Multiplication :
rr
AB = AB / ( + )
rr
AB* = AB / ( )
rr
AA* = A2
Phasor operations are the same as for complex numbers. Multiplication of
phasors is easiest when they are in polar form.

Power System Basics_r16

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Phasor Operations

Division : A = A e j ( ) = A / ( )
B
B B
Exponentiation : ( A) n = ( Ae j ) n = An e jn
n

A = A e
n

j
n

Other operations, like division and exponentiation, of complex number are

relatively simple to perform. This would not be so simple if the time
representation of the signals was used.

Power System Basics_r16

10

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Representation of AC Linear Circuits

Using Phasors and Impedances
I
V

IMPEDANCE

V
I

r
r V
V V V ( )
I
= Z
Z = r =
=
/ V

I
I
I
I
Z = R + jX = Z cos + jZ sin
R = RESISTANCE
X = REACTANCE

Linear elements of passive ac circuits are represented by their impedances. The

impedance of a given circuit element is defined as the complex number resulting
from the division of the applied voltage phasor by the resulting current phasor. As
with any complex number, the impedance has a real and an imaginary part. The
real part is called RESISTANCE (R) and the imaginary part is called
REACTANCE (X).
Examples of impedances are:
Z = 2 + j6 Ohms
Z = 2 - j30 Ohms
Z = j10 Ohms (pure reactance)
Z = 2.5 Ohms (pure resistance)
Z = 0.231 + j0.685 per unit (using a given base impedance)
Z = 23.1 + j68.5 % (per unit times 100)
The inverse of impedance is called ADMITTANCE and denoted by Y. For some
applications in power systems, the admittance is used instead of the impedance to
represent passive elements. The admittance also has real and imaginary parts. The
real part is called CONDUCTANCE (G) and the imaginary part is called
SUSCEPTANCE (B). In other words:
r 1
1
Y= r =
= G + jB
Z R + jX

Power System Basics_r16

11

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Passive Circuit Element Impedances

Resistor

Inductor

R
+ V -

Capacitor
I
C

+ V -

+ V V

I
V
= 0

I
= 90

I
V
= - 90

Even though pure elements do not exist, it is common to model some elements
as pure resistors, inductors, and capacitors. The phasor diagrams for these
three elements are shown in the figure.
The following expressions are used to calculate the impedances of the three
main components of linear ac circuits:
r
r
r r V
Re sistor : V = R I , Z = r = R
Ir r
r
r
Inductor : V = jL I = jX L I , Z = jL = jX L
r
r
1 r
1
Capacitor : V = j
I = jX c I, Z = j
= jX c
C
C

Power System Basics_r16

12

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Series RLC Circuit Phasor Diagram

I

VR

VL

C
VC

V
VR

VL

VC
V

I
VR

VC

The following equations serve to calculate the total series impedance of the
series R-L-C circuit:
Z=

V
I

= R + jX

Z = R + jXL jXC = R + jL j

X = j XL XC = j L

Power System Basics_r16

13

1
C

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Parallel RLC Circuit Phasor Diagram

I
V

IR

IC

IL

IC

IR

I
IL

IC

IR

The parallel R-L-C circuit is the dual of the series R-L-C circuit. It is more
convenient in this case to use admittances.

Power System Basics_r16

14

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Impedance Representation in the

Complex Plane
X

r
Z

-r

Area

r
| Z | r

r
R

r
Z = R + jX
r
| Z |= Z = R2 + X

-r
2

As with any complex number, an impedance can be represented in the

complex plane. In the power system protection field, the complex plane used
to represent impedances is called the R-X plane. The resulting diagram is
sometimes called the R-X diagram.
The R-X diagram is used to study and analyze not only a simple impedance
(which is actually a simple point on the complex plane) but also a set of
impedances or a variation of impedances. For example, the area inside the
circle of radius r and with center at the origin is represented by:

r
| Z | r

Power System Basics_r16

15

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Instantaneous Power
i

v = 2 V cos(t )

i = 2 I cos(t )
p = v i = 2VI cos(t ) cos(t )
p = VI cos( ) + VI cos(2t )
p = VI cos( ) + VI cos( ) cos(2t ) + VI sin( ) sin( 2t )

The single-phase ac circuit of the figure serves to provide a review of the concept
of instantaneous power for steady state conditions. Note that, for this particular
case, it is assumed that the current lags the voltage by an angle of degrees. Note
also that the magnitude of each signal is presented as the rms value times the
square root of two.
The instantaneous power is obtained by direct multiplication of the two
sinusoidal functions representing the voltage and the current. The result is a
function with three terms:
1) The first term is constant (does not depend on t), and is equal to
VIcos()
2) The second term is a perfect sinusoid but at a frequency equal to 2.
The magnitude of this term is proportional to the cosine of angle .
3) The third term is a perfect sinusoid also at a frequency equal to 2.
The magnitude of this term is proportional to the sine of angle .
Note that, if the impedance of the circuit were a perfect resistor, the current and
the voltage would be in phase. In other words, the angle would be zero. Note
also that the mathematical expression of the instantaneous power can be rewritten as:
p = VI cos + VI cos cos( 2 t ) + VI sin sin( 2 t )
p = VI cos (1 + cos( 2 t )) + VI sin sin( 2 t )

Power System Basics_r16

16

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Instantaneous Power

p = VI cos + VI cos (2 t )
p = vi
v

PAverage =

1
T

p dt = VI cos( )

The slide shows how the mathematical expression of the instantaneous power
can be manipulated to make its form more evident. The final expression has a
constant term (VIcos()) and a double-frequency sinusoidal term.
The instantaneous power is shown in the figure as the offset sinusoidal
function with an offset equal to the constant term VIcos(), which is shown
as the dashed line in the figure. Intuitively, it can be seen that the constant
offset is the average power delivered to the impedance.
The figure also shows the voltage and current signals.
The average value can be found by integrating the expression and the result is,
as expected, VIcos().

Power System Basics_r16

17

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Average Power of Elements

Resistor
I

Inductor
I

Capacitor
I
C

+ V -

+ V -

+ V -

= 0

= 90

= -90

p = VI + VI cos 2 t

p = VI sin 2 t

p = VI sin 2 t

Average = VI
= I 2R

Average = 0

Average = 0

The average power delivered to pure inductors and capacitors is zero. It is said
that resistors are the only elements that consume real power (active power).

Power System Basics_r16

18

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Complex Power
Active and Reactive

r r r*
S = V I = P + jQ

*
*
P = Re V I = Re V I

*
*
Q = Im V I = Im V I

Complex power is defined as the product of the voltage phasor and the
complex conjugate of the current phasor. The unit of measure for complex
power is volt-amperes, or VA.
The average power is also known as the active power, because it is the part of
the instantaneous power that actually produces work, or heat. The unit of
measure for active power is watts. Another way to determine the active power
consists of taking the real part of the multiplication of the voltage and current
phasors.
The imaginary part of the complex power, Q, is known as the reactive power.
The unit of measure for reactive power is Volt-Amperes-Reactive, or VAR.

Power System Basics_r16

19

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Complex Power
Active and Reactive

r
Z = R + jX = Z cos + jZ sin

r r*
S = V I = P + jQ = VI

P = Re V I = VI cos

I
V

Q = Im V I = VI sin

If is the angle of the impedance, and therefore the angle the current lags the
voltage, then the active and reactive power can be calculated as functions of .
Note that, according to convention, the reactive power of an inductor is
positive and the reactive power of a capacitor is negative.

Power System Basics_r16

20

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Complex Power
Apparent Power and Power Factor
r
rr
S = Se j = P + jQ = V I *

(Complex Power )

r
S = VI = S = P 2 + Q 2 = I2 Z
PF =

P
= cos
S

(Apparent Power )

(Power Factor )

I
V

Also by definition, the magnitude of the complex power (the product of the
magnitudes of the voltage and current, S = VI) is called the apparent power.
The ratio of the active power to the apparent power is defined as the power
factor. Mathematically, the power factor is the cosine of angle , or p.f. =
cos().

Power System Basics_r16

21

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Power Triangle

S
Q

It is possible to graphically represent the complex power in the complex plane.

The real part is the active power and the imaginary part is the reactive power.
This is known as the power triangle.

Power System Basics_r16

22

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Balanced Three-Phase Systems

z

For a balanced three-phase system, the sinusoidal

voltages are the same amplitude, displaced in
phase by 120.
VB

VC

VA

VA

VC

VB

A-C-B Sequence

A-B-C Sequence

Power System Basics_r16

23

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Y- Connected Loads
VAn

ZL

Van
Ia

ZG

Zp
EAn
n

ECn
VCn

Zp

EBn
ZG

ZG

VBn

Zp

Vbn

ZL

Vcn

Ib
ZL

AN

=V

o
0

Ic

BN

=V

o
120

V CN = V

o
120

The figure shows a circuit diagram of a simple three-phase system. If the ideal
three-phase voltage source is perfectly balanced, and all the impedances on
each phase of the system are equal, then all voltages and currents in the system
will be perfectly balanced.
A wye-connected load consisting of passive impedances is shown for the
purposes of reviewing the equations.
Each impedance of the load receives a line-to-neutral voltage.

Power System Basics_r16

24

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Y- Connected Loads
VCA

VCN

VAB

V AB = V AN V BN = 3 V P 30o

30

VAN

V BC = V BN V CN = 3 V P 90o
V CA = V CN V AN = 3 V P 150o

VBN
VBC

V LL = 3 V P 30 o

Each of the impedances of a load is called a phase impedance. The magnitude

of the voltage applied to each impedance is the line-to-neutral voltage, or the
phase voltage (VP).
The relationship between the line-to-line voltages and the the line-to-neutral
voltages can be obtained analytically or graphically. There is a factor equal to
the square root of three between the phase voltage and the line-to-line voltage.

Power System Basics_r16

25

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Y- Connected Loads

IA=

V AN

ZP

IB =

V BN

ZP

o
= I P / 120

IC =

V CN

ZP

= I P /

o
= I P / 120

IL = IP

The magnitude of the current passing through each of the impedances is the
line current (IL). For a Y-connected load, the line current and the phase
currents are equal.

Power System Basics_r16

26

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

- Connected Loads

Ia
Iab

Ib

Ic

Zp
Zp

Ica

Zp
Ibc

V LL =V P

For a delta-connected load, the load voltage is equal to the line-to-line voltage.

Power System Basics_r16

27

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

- Connected Loads

AB

= I P 0 , I BC = I P 120 ,

I A =I

CA

AB

I CA = 3 I P 30o

I B = I BC I

AB

= I P 120 o
IC

ICA

= 3 I P 150o

I C = I CA I BC = 3 I P 90

30

IB

I L = 3 I P 30o

IAB

IBC

For delta-connected loads, there is a factor equal to the square root of three
between the phase and the line currents.

Power System Basics_r16

28

IA

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Conclusion for Passive Loads

z

Y- Connected Loads
VP = VL

3 , IP = IL

- Connected Loads
VP = VL , IP = IL

This is the conclusion.

Power System Basics_r16

29

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Power in Balanced
Three-Phase Systems
P = 3 V P I P cos =

3 V L I L cos

Q = 3 V P I P sin = 3 V L I L sin

S = 3 VP IP =

3 VL IL =

P2 + Q2

S = Se j = P+ j Q
PF = P / S = cos

Three-phase power is obtained by adding up the power on each phase. The

result is that the three-phase power for a balanced three-phase system is three
times the power of one of the phases. When the line-to-line voltages and the
line currents are used, the factor becomes the square root of three.
Recall that for wye-connected loads, VP = VL/ 3 and IP = IL. When the
substitution is made, the equation has 3 divided by root 3, resulting in root 3
times the line voltage and line current.

Power System Basics_r16

30

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Conclusion on Balanced Power

Systems
VAn

ZL

ZL

Van
Ia

ZG

Zp

ECn
VCn

ZG

Zp

EBn
ZG

VBn

ZL

Vbn

Ia

ZG

EAn
Zp
Vcn

Ean

Ib

Zp

+
-

ZL
Ic

If the system is perfectly balanced, only one phase

needs analysis. The other phases will have the
same magnitude with a 120 phase shift.

One important characteristic of the analysis of three-phase power systems is

that it is not necessary to analyze each phase when the system is perfectly
balanced. For a balanced system, only one phase needs to be analyzed. The
behavior of the other phases is similar. The only difference is that the currents
and voltages are shifted 120 with respect to the analyzed phase.

Power System Basics_r16

31

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

One-Line Representation of
Power Systems
VAn

ZL

Van
Ia

ZG

System
Representation

Zp
EAn
n

ECn
VCn

ZG

Zp

EBn
ZG

VBn

ZL

Vbn

Zp
Vcn

Ib
ZL
Ic

One-Line
Representation

The one-line representation saves significant amounts of space. This is more

evident for large power systems.

Power System Basics_r16

32

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Some Power System Components

One-Line Symbols
Generator

Transformer

Transmission Line

General Load

Shunt Impedance

These are the symbols used in one-line diagrams for the most common
elements of a power system. Other elements are capacitor banks, reactors,
phase shifters, motors, power electronics controls, circuit breakers, etc.

Power System Basics_r16

33

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Power System Example

One-Line Diagram

Power System Basics_r16

34

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

In the Substation Yard

Bus
Switch

Power System Basics_r16

Circuit
Breaker

Current
Transformer

35

Switch

Voltage
Transformer

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Mutual Coupling
An Important Concept
I1

I1

I2

I2

Zm I2

Magnetic
Coupling

Zm I1

Induced
Voltages

Magnetic coupling between two energized circuits is called mutual coupling.

The current in one of the circuits induces a voltage in the other circuit and
vice-versa.
Mutual coupling is present in all the components of the three-phase power
system. This makes the study, analysis, and computation more complicated.

Power System Basics_r16

36

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Power System Components

Power Generator
Rotor (Field) Circuit
Ir

Ires
g

Bus

Ia

ZS

Ia

Ib

ZS Z m Z
m
Z Zm

Ib

Ic

Neutral
Ze
Grounding
Device

Vr

Ic

Stator
+ + +
Va Vb Vc
- - -

The synchronous generator is a complex machine. Windings in the rotor inject

direct current, but the windings move. The movement of the windings is what
produces the induced ac voltages in the stator circuits. The stator windings and
the rotor windings are magnetically coupled and the equivalent mutual
inductances are variable because the machine is in motion. The mathematical
model of a typical synchronous generator consists of at least 10 differential
equations, including the control. There are simplified models used in practical
calculations that provide enough accuracy for many applications.
The generators neutral can be grounded with different methods. In the model
shown in the figure, the grounding impedance can take on different
characteristics depending upon the method used.

Power System Basics_r16

37

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Simplified Generator Model

Bus

Ze

Ia

ZS

Ib

ZS

Zm

+Eb I
c

ZS

Zm

+Ea

Zm

+Ec

Ea = Z S I a + Z m I b + Z m I c + Va + Vgn

+ + +
Va Vb Vc
- - -

Eb = Z m I a + Z S I b + Z m I c + Vb + Vgn
Ec = Z m I a + Z m I b + Z S I c + Vc + Vgn

The most common, and simple, method to represent a generator in steady state
is with an ideal three-phase source with series and symmetrically coupled
impedances.The internal ac sources represent the induced voltages, that is the
rotor effect. The equation considers the self impedance, Zs, of each winding of
the stator windings and the mutual impedances, Zm, equal for all cases (perfect
symmetry). When the system works under perfectly balanced conditions, the
ground-to-neutral current and voltage Vgn are both zero.
Although simple and inaccurate, the described model is useful for practical
studies and is especially useful for creating equivalent three-phase
generators to represent the power system elements behind a given bus. This
is the three-phase version of a Thvenin equivalent.

Power System Basics_r16

38

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Power System Components

Power Lines and Cables

(Not to scale)

Overhead lines and cables are among the most important elements of the
power system. They transport and distribute the energy along vast
geographical regions. There is a large variety of line configurations (conductor
arrangement, tower design, etc.). However, the lines can be modeled with an
acceptable degree of accuracy with relatively simple models.

Power System Basics_r16

39

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Magnetic Coupling

Magnetic
Coupling
a

Long lines and cables have mutual coupling among their own phases and
among other adjacent lines and cables. This makes the analysis of three-phase
power systems a complicated task, specifically for unbalanced conditions.
Some special techniques, such as the symmetrical components method, are
used to address this complication.

Power System Basics_r16

40

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Transmission Line Circuit Model

Ia
Ib
Ic

Magnetic
Coupling
a
b
c

One of the simplest models for transmission lines consists of the circuit shown
in the figure. Both the inductive series impedance and the shunt capacitance
are actually distributed along the entire line. These parameters are
concentrated in this model to simplify the study of the system in steady state
conditions.

Power System Basics_r16

41

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Transmission Line Circuit Model

Without Considering Capacitances
Magnetic
Coupling

Ia

Ib

Ic

c
Va

Vb

Va Vb Vc

Vc

When studying power system short circuits using phasors, the line capacitance
effect can be ignored, resulting in an even simpler line model. Note the mutual
coupling representation.

Power System Basics_r16

42

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Line Equations Without Considering

Mutual Coupling Among Phases
a

Ib

Ic

c
Va

Vb

Va Vb Vc

Vc

Va = Z S I a + Va
Vb = Z S I b + Vb
Vc = Z S I c + Vc

If the mutual effect is neglected, the line model is too inaccurate. This model
is sometimes used for extremely short lines.

Power System Basics_r16

43

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Line Equations Considering Mutual

Coupling Among Phases
Ia

Magnetic Coupling

Ib

Ic

c
Va

Vb

Va Vb Vc

Vc

Va = Z S I a + Z ab I b + Z ac I c + Va
Vb = Z ba I a + Z S I b + Z bc I c + Vb
Vc = Z ca I a + Z cb I b + Z S I c + Vc
The steady state equations of the line, neglecting the capacitance and
considering the mutual coupling, are the ones shown in the figure. In this case,
the effect of the grounding wire is not shown. This effect can be easily
considered by adding a similar coupled equation for each ground wire on the
line.
The equations presented in the slide take into account that, in real lines, the
self impedances (Zs) are similar for all phases, but the mutual impedances are
not all equal. There is some symmetry. For example, Zac=Zca, Zbc=Zcb, etc.
These equations are known as the equations for a non-transposed line.

Power System Basics_r16

44

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Line Equations for a Symmetrical

(Transposed) Line
Ia

Magnetic Coupling

Ib

Ic

c
Va

Vb

Va Vb Vc

Vc

Va = Z S I a + Z m I b + Z m I c + Va
Vb = Z m I a + Z S I b + Z m I c + Vb
Vc = Z m I a + Z m I b + Z S I c + Vc
If the line is considered perfectly symmetrical, the mutual impedances are all
equal. This model is known as the transposed line model, and is widely used
because the inaccuracy of the model is evident only for very specific
applications.
The self impedance has two parts, resistance and reactance. The resistance
depends on the conductor used (cross section, material, etc.). The reactance
depends on the conductor type and the geometric position of the conductors.
The mutual impedance is purely reactive and depends almost exclusively on
conductor arrangement and characteristic. The soil characteristics and the
grounding wires also have a remarkable influence on the line impedances.
Examples of line impedances for a 13 kV line, with 4/0 ACSR conductor:
Zs = 0.3272 + j1.07 Ohm/km = 0.524 + j1.721 Ohm/mile
Zm = j0.636 Ohm/km = j1.018 Ohm/mile
These values were obtained assuming that the line is perfectly symmetrical.

Power System Basics_r16

45

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Power System Components

Transformer

Power System Basics_r16

Single Phase

Three Phase

46

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Single-Phase Transformer

I1

I2

V1

ZL

N1

N2

Real Transformer: N1I1 = N2I2+ ERROR

The figure shows the most common representation of a single-phase

transformer. The flux confined to the iron core produces the coupling between
the two windings. The leakage flux, together with the resistance of the
windings and the core non-linearity, produce an error that is negligible in
many applications.

Power System Basics_r16

47

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Single Phase Transformer Symbol

+

V1

I2

I1
N1

N2

V2
-

Transformer Ratio:

TR =

V1N
N
1
V2 N N 2

The transformer ratio is the ratio between the rated voltages for the two
terminals of the transformer.
In a well-designed transformer, the ratio between the rated voltages is very
close to the turns ratio.

Power System Basics_r16

48

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Ideal Single Phase Transformer

+

V1

I2

I1
N1

N2

V2
-

V1 N1
=
V2 N 2
N1 I1 = N 2 I 2
S1 = S 2 = V1 I1 = V2 I 2

Perfect relationships can only be applied in the so-called ideal transformer.

Even though this device does not exist in reality, the model is used as an
auxiliary for more complex models in power systems.

Power System Basics_r16

49

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Impedance Reflection
+
V1
-

I2

I1
N1

N2

+
V2

+
V1

Z2

I1
(N1/N2)2 Z2

Z2 =

V2
I2

N1
2
2
V1
N 2 V2 N1 N1
Z1 = =
= = Z2
I1 I N 2 I 2 N 2 N 2
2
N1
V2

The ideal relationships described in the previous slide lead to the fact that an
impedance connected to one side of the ideal transformer is reflected to the
other side as the same impedance times the square of the transformer turns
ratio.

Power System Basics_r16

50

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Single Phase Transformer

Equivalent Circuit
Rp

jXp

Rs
IE

I1

V1

N1

N2

jXs
I2

V2

NonLinear

Ideal
Usually Not Considered

The figure shows the most popular model for a single-phase transformer.
The equivalent circuit of a single-phase transformer includes the following
elements:

An ideal transformer, to represent the effect of the main flux

Leakage reactances, to represent the transformer leakage flux and

other effects.

The series resistances, to represent the winding ohmic losses.

The shunt magnetization, a non-linear impedance, is used to represent

the behavior of the magnetic circuit (iron core). This branch is usually
not considered, especially for short-circuit studies.

There are more accurate models, but this one provides enough accuracy for
most practical applications.

Power System Basics_r16

51

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Single Phase Transformer

Simplified Equivalent Circuit
Rp
+

V1
-

jXp
I1

N1

Rs

N2

jXs
+

V1x

V2x

V2

I2

Ideal

V1x N1
=
V2 x N 2
This is how the equivalent circuit looks after disregarding the magnetization
branch. Note that for the two internal (and imaginary voltages V1x and V2y) the
ideal transformer relationship still holds. Then, the winding impedances can be
reflected to one side or the other, depending on the specific application.

Power System Basics_r16

52

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Per Unit Representation

Actual Quantity
Base Value of Quantity

Quantity in Per Unit

Actual Quantity & Base Value

Quantity in Percent

Power System Basics_r16

Scalar or complex value of power,

voltage, current, or impedance

Quantity in Per Unit x 100

53

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Selection of Base Quantities for

Single-Phase System
Choose Voltage Base :
Choose Power Base :

Vb
Sb

The Current Base and Impedance Base are

Derived from the Chosen Values:

Sb
Vb Vb2
Ib = ; Zb =
=
Vb
I b Sb

Power System Basics_r16

54

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Effect of Per Unit Calculations on a

Transformers Equivalent Circuit
Rp
+
V1

jXp
I1

Rs
+
V1x

+
V2x

jXs
I2

+
V2
-

Ideal

V1x N1
=
V2 x N 2
z

Step 1: Choose
Voltage Base Vb1
Power Base Sb

Step 2: Choose
Voltage Base
Vb2 = (N2/N1)Vb1

When using Per Unit values, the power base must remain constant. Therefore,
the power base is selected once and then used for all further calculations.

Power System Basics_r16

55

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Effect of Per Unit Calculations on a

Transformers Equivalent Circuit
Rp(pu)

Rs(pu)

jXp(pu)

+
+
I1(pu)
V1(pu)
V1x(pu)
-

+
V2x(pu)

jXs(pu)
I2(pu)

+
V2(pu)
-

V1x (pu ) = V1x Vb1 ; V2 x ( pu ) = V2 x Vb 2 ;

V1x N1
and
=
V2 x N 2
V1x ( pu )
=1
V2 x (pu )

Power System Basics_r16

V1b N1
=
V2 b N 2

The ideal transforme r disappears

56

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Effect of Per Unit Calculations on a

Transformers Equivalent Circuit
Rp(pu)

Rs(pu)

jXp(pu)

+
+
I1(pu)
V1(pu)
V1x(pu)=V2x(pu)
-

jXs(pu)
I2(pu)

+
V2(pu)
-

Z t = Rt + jX t
+
V1(pu)

+
V2(pu)

I(pu)

Conclusion: If calculations are performed using per unit values, a proper

choice of the base causes the transformer to disappear. This is the main
advantage of the per unit method.
The impedance of power transformers normally comes on the nameplate of a
transformer and is given as a percentage (Z (pu) x 100) of the rated impedance
base for the transformer.
As can be seen from the per unit equivalent circuit, the impedance of a
transformer can be measured by making a short circuit test of the transformer.
This is because of the following:
Zt = V1(Per Unit)/I1(Per Unit) with V2 = 0 (short circuit)
This is why the transformer impedance is usually referred to as the short
circuit impedance.

Power System Basics_r16

57

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Example

Power System Basics_r16

Single-Phase Distribution Transformer

TR = 7200/120 V/V

SN = 100 kVA

Zt = 3%

Manufacturer provides the transformers

series impedance in percent (100 x Z pu)
using the transformers rating as the power
base.

58

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Equivalent Circuit in Per Unit

Z t = jX t
+
V1(pu)

I(pu)

+
V2(pu)
-

Zt = j0.03 pu
+
V1(pu)

I(pu)

+
V2(pu)
-

This is the equivalent circuit for the transformer of the previous slide.

Power System Basics_r16

59

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Three-Phase Banks

Power System Basics_r16

60

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Y-Y Transformer
TR =
Ia(N2/N1)

KV1 N1

KV2 N 2
N1 N2

Ib(N2/N1)

Ib

Ic(N2/N1)

Power System Basics_r16

Ia

Ic

61

a
b
c

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

-Y Transformer
TR =
(Ia-Ib)(N2/N1)

KV1
N1

KV2
3N 2
N1 N2

(Ib-Ic)(N2/N1)

Ib

(Ic-Ia)(N2/N1)

Power System Basics_r16

Ia

Ic

62

a
b
c

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Per-Unit System Advantages

Gives Clear Idea of Relative Values of

Similar Quantities

Per-Unit Impedance of Equipment

Based on Rating Fall in Narrow Range

Power System Basics_r16

63

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Per-Unit System Advantages

Per-Unit Transformer Values Same

Regardless of Transformer Connection
or Reference to Primary or Secondary
Side

Per-Unit System Ideal For ComputerBased Power System Analysis and

Simulation

Note: The phase shift is considered in per-unit representation. This is done in

posterior analysis. The magnitudes, however, are the same in per-unit.

Power System Basics_r16

64

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Three-Phase Base Quantities

z

Typically Select

Sbase (Three-Phase Value)

Vbase (Line-to-Line Value)

Ibase =

Sbase
3 Vbase

Ibase =

kVA base
3 kVbase

(V )
Vbase 3
= base
Ibase
S base

Z base =

1000 (kV base )

=
kVA base

Z base

Power System Basics_r16

65

(kV base )2
MVA base

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Change of Base
Z

old
pu

Z
Z

old

base

new

Z pu

Z
new
Z base

S
Z
(V

Z pu

old

Z pu

old
base

new

S base
Z new
(V base )2
new

new

old
base

S base
old
S base

V base
new
V base
old

It is often necessary to convert an impedance to a different base. For example,

if a transformer impedance is given on a 20 MVA base, it may need to be
converted to a 100 MVA base to match the base of a system model. If the
voltage base is not being changed, that portion of the equation becomes equal
to 1 and can be ignored.

Power System Basics_r16

66

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Example
z

Find Equivalent Reactance on 100

MVA, 115 kV Base

Generator: 50 MVA, 13.2 kV, XG = 15%

Transformer: 50 MVA, 13.8/115 kV,

XT = 8%
Generator

Power System Basics_r16

Transformer

67

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Example
2

100 13 . 2
X G = 0 . 15

= 0 . 2745 pu
50
13
.
8

100
X T = 0 . 08
= 0 . 16 pu
50
X = X G + X T = 0 . 4345 pu

Power System Basics_r16

68

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Example of Power Flow Through a

69kV Transmission Line
V1

12.5 miles

SL = PL + jQL

S = P + jQ
z

V2

Sending-End Voltage (Line-to-Neutral)

and Three-Phase Power:

V1 = 42 .896.05 kV; S = 62.65+ j58.26 (MW, MVAR)

z

Load Voltage (Line-to-Neutral)

and Three-Phase Power:
V2 = 37.6 0 kV; SL = 60 + j45 (MW,MVAR)

This is an example of steady state functioning of a power line. The voltages

are phase-to-neutral voltages, and the powers are three-phase. It is more
common to present the voltages in line-to-line volts (for normal load) or in
per-unit (or percent) of a given base.

Power System Basics_r16

69

Power System Protection for Engineers PROT 401

Section 1 - Power System Basics

Example of Power Flow Through

a 69 kV Transmission Line in Per Unit
Base:
69 kV
100 MVA

V1
I

SL = PL + jQL

S = P + jQ

Power System Basics_r16

V2

12.5 miles

Sending-End Voltage (Line-to-Neutral)

and Three-Phase Power:
V1 = 1.0776.05 pu; S = 0.627+ j0.583 pu

Load Voltage (Line-to-Neutral)

and Three-Phase Power:
V2 = 0.9438 0 pu; SL = 0.60 + j0.45 pu

70