THE RELIGIOUS

QUEST OF INDIA
EDITED BY

N.

J.

FARQUHAR, MA.,

D.Litt.

LITERARY SECRETARY, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF YOUNG MEN's

CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS, INDIA AND CEYLON

AND

H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., Ph.D.

SECRETARY OF THE COUNCIL OF THE AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN
MISSIONS IN INDIA

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IN PREPARATION

THE RELIGION OF THE

By H.

RIGVEDA.

D. Griswold, M.A.,

Ph.D.

HINDU ETHICS

By John McKenzie,
Wilson

BUDDHISM

By K.

J.

College,

M.A.,

Bombay.

Saunders,

M.A.,

Literar}^ Secretary, National

Council of Y.M.C.A., India

and Ceylon.

THE

RITES OF
TWICE-BORN.

THE

By

Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson,

M.A., Sc.D. (Dublin), Rajkot,

Kathiawar.

EDITORIAL PREFACE
The

writers of this series of volumes on the variant forms

of religious

life in

India are governed in their

work by two

impelling motives.

They endeavour to work

spirit of science.
They desire
I.

to understand the perplexingly

involved developments of thought and

passionately
futility of
it is

to

in a

religion of

They

to understand

thorough

historical

India and dis-

in

recognize the

and evaluate, unless

study of the phenomena

In recognizing this fact they do no more than

investigated.

share what

life

estimate their value.

any such attempt

grounded

and sympathetic

in the sincere

common ground among

is

any repute.

But they

all

modern students of

also believe that

it is

neces-

sary to set the practical side of each system in living relation

and the

to the beliefs

literature,

and

that, in

this

close and direct contact which they have each

religious

life

regard, the

had with Indian

ought to prove a source of valuable

For,

light.

understanding has been gained of the practical

until a clear

by the

influence exerted

the ascetic,

habits of worship,

devotional, or

occult

by the

discipline,

practice of

by the

social

organization and by the family system, the real impact of the

upon the

faith

be estimated

life

of the individual and the

community cannot

and, without the advantage of extended personal

intercourse, a trustworthy account of the religious experience

of a

community can

scarcely be achieved

by even the most

careful student.
II,

They

seek to set each form of Indian religion by the

side of Christianity in such a

stand out clear.

way

that the relationship

Jesus Christ has become to

a a

them the

may

light of

EDITORIAL PREFACE

iv
all their seeing,

and they believe

They

of the world.

age-long quest of the Indian

power
point,

will find in

and they

Him

at

destined to be the light

if

new

goal and a

its

or later the

religious truth

for

spirit

once

be content

will

Him

are persuaded that sooner

the preparation of this series

consumma-

contributes in the smallest degree to hasten this

tion.

they
a

may be reminded
:

that no

man

this

motive

is

unwelcome,

approaches the study of

without religious convictions, either positive or

religion

negative

whom

be readers to

If there

and

starting-

both reader and writer, therefore,

for

it

is

better

Moresympathy with the motive here

that these should be explicitly stated at the outset.

over, even a complete lack of

acknowledged need not diminish a reader's

interest in following

an honest and careful attempt to bring the religions of India

which to-day

into comparison with the religion

possible

rival,

and

is

their only

which they largely owe their present

to

noticeable and significant revival.

It is possible that to

some minds there may seem

to be

two motives.

The

a measure of incompatibility between these

For them the second motive

writers, however, feel otherwise.

reinforces the first

lead others into a

faith that

but
its

for

new

they have found that he

faith

theirs already

is

thetically, with a

that in

it

must

first

understand

mind quick

to note not

which has enabled

it

here described.

Each

writer

moreover, sympa-

weaknesses alone

its

and has given

profess

of the Editors of the series

that the volumes are in general

it,

is

alone

it

it.

limited to seeing

harmony with
is

who would

understand the

all

to survive

power over the hearts of those who

The duty

of

the principles

responsible

for

the

opinions expressed in his volume, whether in regard to Indian

religions or to Christianity.

THE RELIGIOUS QUEST OF INDIA

AN OUTLINE
OF THE

RELIGIOUS LITERATURE
OF INDIA
BY
J.

N.

FARQUHAR,

M.A., D.Litt., Oxon.

HUMPHREY MILFORD
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK
TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY
1920

(/

\j

TO

MY WIFE

449879

FOREWORD
This book has been

On

personal need.

written from an overwhelming sense of

every occasion

when

have

tried to think

my way through the history of any one of the chief Hindu

sects or philosophies, or to realize the origin and growth of some
doctrine or discipline, I have found my way barred, because
the religious literature

is

so imperfectly known.

Numberless

and correspondence the

In order to deal with any one of

friends have expressed in conversation

same

feeling of helplessness.

these subjects

take

of

first

it

all

would be necessary for the student to undera long and difficuh investigation into the

sources.

The Vedic literature has been studied with

by a company of brilliant scholars certain
;

philosophical literature have been

classical Sanskrit literature

the literature of

is

Buddhism and

well

the utmost care

sections of the

examined the
portions of
and
known;

critically

of Jainism have been carefully

but on the mass of. the books produced by Hindu

and on great sections of Buddhist and Jain literature
very little labour has yet been expended while no attempt
described

sects

has ever been

made

to deal with the religious history as an

undivided whole which must be seen as one long process

of development before the meaning of the constituent sects
or religions can be fully understood.

Consequently, the question arose whether

it

would not be

possible to write a sketch of the whole religious literature

of India. I was under no illusions as to the magnitude and

the difficulty of the undertaking; and

conscious of the slenderness of

for the task.

On

my own

the other hand,

was very painfully

linguistic preparation

believed that, from the

point of view of the study of religions, what was wanted was

FOREWORD

not so much fresh critical study of individual books as a clear

comprehensible survey of the literature so far as critical

and the publication of texts have made

known, so that the student might be able to begin the
study of any part of it with intelligence, and to find his way
inquiry, translation?,

it

without serious difficulty to

all

the existing literature, modern

as well as ancient, which deals with the section of the field in

which he is interested.
It was quite clear

that

bring

to

already

known about Hindu,

whether

in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, or the

and exhibit

it

as

one

together

all

that

is

Buddhist, and Jain literature,

historical

modern

vernaculars,

development, would

be

The three religions are moments

movement and they have reacted on

extremely illuminating.
in

a single religious

each other throughout their history.

Vernacular religious
books are as truly a vital part of the growth of the sects
as their more formal Sanskrit manuals are.
For a full
understanding of the history, the whole must be envisaged
as one great movement.
I was also conscious that during the last twenty years
a very large number of elements
history have been illuminated

deal of

by

in

the religious and literary

work has been done on the vernacular

good
literatures, and

fresh discoveries.

masses of sectarian works in Sanskrit have been unearthed.

Yet most of these important advances lie buried in notes in
learned journals, in prefaces to texts,
in encyclopaedias, or in

yet found their

the religions.

way

in catalogues, in articles

obscure monographs.

They have not

any text-book of the literature or of

For example, the problem of the date of the
into

philosophical Sutras has quite recently been brought

nearer solution, and the result

is

much

a general clarifying of the

perspective in one of the most important periods.

Numerous

books, articles, and stray observations have shed welcome rays

of light on these systems and their history.

Professor Keith's

Vedic works contain masses of historical and chronological

observations referring to the whole of Vedic and sub-Vedic

FOREWORD

xi

literature. Professor Hopkins's book, TJie Great Epic of India,

throws a flood of light on the religious changes of the time

The serried
epics were gradually being formed.
phalanx of details exhibited in Guerinot's splendid thesaurus
has never been worked up into" a history of Jain literature.
Numerous works describe or throw light on sections of the
literature of Buddhism
yet no one has reduced them to a
single ordered narrative. H. P. Sastrl's catalogues of Nepalese

when the

manuscripts, Vidyabhushana's volume on

Bhandarkar's work on the

sects,

mediaeval

logic,

and Schrader's volume on

the Vaishnava Samhitas, each contain notable contributions

to religious

and

literary history.

Finally, translations from

various Indian tongues have in recent years brought

more

the

interesting texts within

reach of the

many

of

student of

religions.

Another consideration which helped me to get over the

it was extremely rash to undertake such a book was
the fact that I have had personal religious intercourse with
members of most of the modern sects which come under
review, and that, in the ordinary course of my work, I am
able to meet Indian scholars and in conversation to receive
from them detailed information not otherwise obtainable.
Careful students are well aware that, if the religious history
feeling that

of India

to be understood, each of the leading sects of the

is

three religions must be described

by

itself

common
in

all

and

and how

felt,

its

shall

we

to all the sects?

Yet,

itself.

dealt with in isolation, where will the general

each

if

is

movement make

perceive the rise of changes

Clearly the unity of the history

length and breadth must be regarded as broken

on the one hand, by numerous

diversified,

munities which, so to speak,

lie

religious

com-

parallel to each other, and,

on

the other, by successive waves of change each of which has

swept over

all

the communities in existence at the time of

appearance, and has modified each

then, were these

in

some degree.

two forms of variation to be exhibited

tinuous narrative?

in

its

How,
a con-

have attempted to divide the milleniums

FOREWORD

xii

covered by the growth of the literature into periods corresponding as nearly as possible to the great waves of change in belief

and

and within each period to group the books, as far

and the sub-sect

practice,

as possible, according to the religion, the sect,

to

which they severally belong.

The

result

of this method of procedure

is

to throw the

broad changes marked by the periods into bold relief and

to indicate clearly which sects were active within each period
but

it

has this disadvantage that,

in the case of

every sect

which has been prominent through several periods, the history

But this disadvantage is more
is cut up into as many pieces.
apparent than real for the student who wishes to deal with
a single community will probably find it a rewarding piece
of work to study first the whole history throughout a number
of periods, and then to re-read consecutively the portions which
deal with the particular community.
;

The
century

reason

why

is this,

the investigation ends with the eighteenth

that from that point Western influence began

to act on the Indian mind, and the

are

still

new

possible to write an account of

them

with the other chapters of the book.

Movements

in

dawn

of the

necessary,

if

if

which have made

it is

not yet

any way comparable

my Modern Religious
made

their

to sketch the

appearance since

new day.

In preparing the
readable,

In

so that

in

India an attempt has been

religious organizations

the

forces thereby released

only in process of being revealed

book

have tried to make the narrative

compression which is

possible, despite the great

the subject

of a single volume.

is

to be set forth within the

compass

have, therefore, mentioned in the text

only volumes of outstanding importance, and have relegated

all

the rest of the detail involved to the Bibliography.

Thus

the advanced student had better use the two parts of the

The narrative is meant to give an outline

and to exhibit the position and influence of the
chief masses of the literature and of the leading thinkers and
writers, while the Bibliography is meant to supply lists of all

"book together.
of the history

FOREWORD
the

more important

and

articles

xiii

religious works, of the best critical

For two reasons

available translations.

books

modern times and of

written on these in

all

decided not to give

particulars about editions in the original tongues

these are

would take much space to catalogue them,

and it is clear that, from the point of view of the average
student of religions, books in the original languages are
so numerous that

it

almost useless.

The

of each

text

headings, so as
is

to

chapter

exhibit

divided

is

up by means of

the sectarian relationships, and

then further subdivided into short sections, consecutively

numbered, to

facilitate

In the main part

reference.

of the

Bibliography the books of each sect or school are arranged as

and consecutively numbered,

far as possible in historical order,

the dates and the numbers being printed in emphasized type,

so that the chronology

may
It

may be

of the work.
is

may

stand out clear and the numbers

readily catch the eye.

well also to point out the unavoidable limitations

First of

dropped out of

sight.

all,

the whole of the secular literature

Secondly, since our aim

of the religions, the emphasis

falls

is

the study

throughout on the religious

rather than on the literary aspects of the books.

attention

is

Thirdly, our

restricted to the literature as the chief source of

knowledge of the religions, and no attempt is made to deal,

except in the most incidental way, with other sources, epigraphy,
archaeology, art, and what not.
Again, while the nature of
the task makes it necessary to say a great deal about the
religions, the work is not a history of the religions but a
sketch of the religious literature.

It

may

also be well

to

warn readers that large elements of Indian religion scarcely

appear in our pages at all. Those cults which have produced
no literature are necessarily outside our survey.
I owe a great deal of the most reliable information in the
book to the assistance of friends. The subject is so vast and
involves so much accurate knowledge that it was clear from the
outset that I should have to rely largely on the help of others.

::

FOREWORD

xiv
I

owe the

greatest debt of

who have most

join a

list

of

my

me

have given

all

to a

generously given

number

me

of Indian scholars

of their very best.

sub-

chief helpers with the subjects on which they

information

Mahamahopadhyaya Vindhyesvarl Prasad of the Sanskrit

Library, Benares The Vedanta and the Smartas.
Dr. Ganga Natha J ha, Allahabad The Karma Mimamsa.
Dr. Laddu, the Sanskrit College, Benares The Bhagavatas
:

and early MarathI literature.

The Rev. Francis Kingsbury, United Theological College,
Tamil literature and the history of the Tamil
Bangalore
:

Saivas.

A. Govindacharya Svamin, Mysore City the SrI-Vaishnavas.

Rao Sahib P. G. Halkatti, Bijapur, and another dis:

tinguished Vira Saiva

the Vira Saivas.

Pandita M. L. Sastrl, Broach and Poona the Vallabhacharyas.

:

Bhagavata Kumara Gosvami ^ Sastri, M.A., Hoogly

the Chaitanya sect.
Pandita Radha Charana GosvamI ^ Vidyavaglsa, Honorary
Magistrate, Brindaban the Nimbarkas.
Dr. V. V. Ramana Sastrl, Tanjore the later Saiva literature.
chronoDr. M. Krishnamacharya, Tanuku, Kistna dist.
Prof.

logical questions.

Mr. Justice). L.Jaini, Indore: the Digambara Jain Secondary

Canon.
Mr, P.

P.

Subramanya

Sastrl,'

Balliol

College, Oxford

Appaya Dikshita, and Sakta worship among Smartas.

So many Missionaries have been of service to me that
not attempt to mention them

must

all.

Macdonald of the United Free Church

Hindu
death,
and
his
persuaded
years
before
a
number
Tantras a few
of his friends to analyse or translate one or more Tantras each,

The

late Dr.

K.

S.

Mission, Calcutta, set about gathering material on the

'

He

a lineal descendant of Vamslvadana, one of the companions of

^ He comes of a Madhva stem.
See p. 308.
is a lineal descendant of Appaya Dikshita's brother, Achan

is

Chaitanya.
*

He

Dikshita.


FOREWORD
in

order to help him

he

left,

the study.

most obligingly placed

has helped

me

sect in Bengal.

of the

in

at

XV

The MS.

material which

my service by Mrs. Macdonald,

considerably with the later history of the Sakta

These MSS. may be found on

Bibliography,

each

described

as

p. 389.

belonging to the

Macdonald MSS.
I owe a special debt to my friend the late Rev. J. J. Johnson
of the Church Missionary Society, Benares, who passed suddenly
away shortly after my visit to him in December, 1 9 1 7. It will be
something of a consolation for my heavy loss if I bear testimony
here to his worth. He was thoroughly well known all over India
among Hindu scholars and ascetics for his beautiful Sanskrit
speech and his interest in Hindu philosophy. Every one called
him Pandit Johnson. How often did the three of us meet
Mr. Johnson, his loved and trusted friend, Mahamahopadhyaya
Vindhyesvari Prasad, a scholar of rare judgement who has been
already mentioned, and myself.
We met so because of my
inability to express myself in the classic tongue of India, and
our procedure was always the same. I asked my questions
in English, and Mr. Johnson expressed them in Sanskrit.
I was then usually able to follow the Sastrl's Sanskrit replies,
but if I failed to catch a point Mr. Johnson again interpreted.
Now that he is gone Benares can never again be the same to me.
To the Rev. Dr. James Shepherd, of Udaipur charming
host and beloved missionary
I owe the settlement of the
date and history of Mira Bai, the Rajput princess whose
lyrics of passionate devotion for Krishna have won her endur-

ing fame.

Poona

Rev. Dr. N. Macnicol and the

generous help toward
the interpretation of the religion and the poetry of the Maratha
pair of

friends, the

Rev. A. Robertson, have given

me most

and the elucidation of Manbhau problems.

all others, whether Indians or Missionaries, who have
answered my questions, orally or by letter, or who have led

saints

To

me

to fresh sources of information, I wish to express

unfeigned gratitude and thanks.

my

FOREWORD

xvi

My

A. A. Macdonell of Oxford, read the first

book in manuscript, and made manyand
For the assistance of his ripe Vedic
valuable suggestions.
Prof. A. Berriedale Keith
scholarship I am deeply grateful.
of Edinburgh read the whole manuscript, and sent me a large
number of critical notes which have saved me from blunders,
from dangerous statements, and from reliance on weak evidence,
and have suggested numerous fresh points of view. For such
help no thanks can make an adequate return.
But while I owe much precious information and help to
these scholars, Indian and European, they must not be held
responsible for any statement in the text
for I have not
accepted all their conclusions. The final historical judgement
teacher, Prof.

second chapters of the

in

every case

my

is

my

own.

It is therefore quite possible that

suggestions as to what the history behind the evidence

is in

any

This

is

particular case

above

all

may seem

likely to

to

happen

them quite
in

unjustifiable.

the case of the sects.

Dr. Berriedale Keith is certainly of opinion that I have

been a good deal too optimistic in attempting to assign individual Puranas, Tantras, and Upanishads to the chronological

periods adopted in the book.

indicated that the

probable

and

it

being discovered

may

history

ascription

I
is

have, however, in each case

tentative

and at best only

has seemed wise even to run the risk of

in

error,

in

the

hope that the tentative

stimulate further investigation.

Letters indicating errors or omissions or fresh points of

view

will

To

be very warmly welcomed.

Dr. James Morison, Librarian of the Indian Institute,

Oxford,

who

has faithfully carried out the long toilsome task

of revising the proofs,

II

wish to offer

Frenchay Road, Oxford.

December,

91 9.

my

sincere gratitude.

CONTENTS
PAGE

CHAPTER
I.

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

i.

ii.

iii.

II.

Rik, I-IX

X Saman EarlyYajus
Brahmanas, Atharvan, Aranyakas
Rik,

15

23

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE y

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

A.

The Upanishads

B.

Many

C.

The

Hinduism

44
51

52
60
62

Schools
Buddhist School
Jain School

73

....
....

92

F. Vaishnava Material in the Didactic Epic

G. Saiva Material in the Didactic Epic
.

....

lOI

103

103

Sarvastivadin Literature

107

Mahasanghika Literature
Buddhist Worship

109

....

Mahayana
a. The Full Mahayana
b. The Paradise Mahayana
Buddhism in China
.

C.

95
96

104
106

Sthavira Literature

Sautrantika Literature

B.

C. to

79
79
83
86

The BhagavadgUd
D. The Philosophies
E. The Didactic Epic

a.

200 B

78

C.

Buddhism
A. Hinayana

33
33

A. The Twice-born and their Literature

B. The Epics

iii.

B. C.

....

A.D. 200

ii.

200

36

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

i.

to

Transmigration and Karma

The Twice-born and their Literature
The Epics
Systems of Release

D. The
III.

xio y

no
III
112
117
118

119

Jainism

..

CONTENTS

XVlll

CHAP.
IV.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

i.

Hinduism
A.

The
a.
b.

c.

d.
e.

/.

B.
C.

....

a.d. 200 to a.d. 550

Philosophies

The
The
The
The
The
The

Karma Mimaihsa
Uttara Mimamsa or Vedant
Sarikhya

Yoga

Vaiseshika

Nyaya.

The Puranas
The Orthodox Twice-born and

their Literature

D. Vaishnava Literature
E. Saiva Literature
F.

Brahma

Literature

G. Durga Literature
H. Saura Literature
ii.

iii.

V.

Buddhism
A. Hinayana Literature
B. Mahayana Literature
a. The Madhyamakas
b. The Vijnanavadins
.

....

Jainism
A. Svetambara Literature
B. Digambara Literature

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

i.

a.d. 550 to a.d 900

Hinduism
A. The Philosophies
a.
b.

c.

d.
e.

/.

B.

The Karma Mimamsa

The Vedanta
The Sankhya
The Yoga
The Vaiseshika
The Nyaya
.

The Puranas

C. Smartas and their Literature

D. Vaishnava Literature
a. Bhagavata Literature
.

b.

Pancharatra Literature
1. Tamil Vaishnavas
2.
3.

The Narasiiiiha^Sect
The Rama Sect
.

CONTENTS
CHAP.
V.
[cont.).

VI.

CONTENTS

XX
CHAP.
VI.

4.

{cont.).

5.

6.
7.
c.

The Madhvas
Radha
The VishnusvamTs
The Nimbarkas
.

Pancharatra Literature
1. The SrI-Vaishnavas
2.

3.

4.

The Manbhaus
The Narasiriiha
The Rama Sect

Sect
.

E. Saiva Literature
a. Pasupata Saivas
1. The Lakulisas
.

The KapaHkas
The Gorakhnathls
4. The Rasesvaras
Agamic Saivas
1. The Sanskrit School
2.

3.

b.

3.

Tamil Saivas
Kashmir Saivas

4.

Vira Saivas

2.

of Saiva Siddhanta

F. Sakta Literature
a.
b.
c.

The Left-hand School

The Right-hand School
The Bhakti School

G. Saura Literature

H. Ganapatya Literature
I.
ii.

Dharma

Buddhism
A.

The Saktas

B, Buddhist
iii.

Literature

....
....

Jainism

Lands

A. Svetambara Literature
B.

VII.

Digambara

Literature

.....

MUSLIM INFLUENCE,
i.

Hinduism
A.

The
a.
b.
c.

d.
e.

a.d, 1350 to A.D. 1800

Philosophies

The Karma Mimarhsa

The Vedanta
The Sankhya
The Yoga
The Vaiseshika and the Nyaya
.

CONTENTS

XXll

CHAP.

PAGE

VII.

3.

Sittars

{cont.).

4.

Kashmir Saivas

5.^Vira Saivas

G. Sakta Literature
a.
b.
c.

Jainism

The Left-hand School

The Right-hand School
The Bhakti School

....

A. Svetambara Literature
B.

Digambara

BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
.

Literature

353
353
353

357
359

359
359
360
362
407

ABBREVIATIONS
USED
Acworth,

IN

THE NOTES AND THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

BM.

AMG.

II.

AMG.

V.

Acworth, Ballads of the Marathds, London, 1894.

Feer, Analyse du Kaitdjonr, Aimales du Musee

AR.

ARAD.
Arunachalam, STT.
Avalon,

HG.

Gtntnet, II, Paris, 1881.

Feer, Traductions du Kandjour, Antiales dt( Musee
Guiniet, V, Paris, 1883.
Asiatic Researches.
Annual Report of the Archaeological Depat'tment.
Studies atid Translations from the Tamil, by P. A.,
Madras, 1898.
Arthur and Ellen Avalon, Hymns to the Goddess,

London, 1913.
Avalon, SP.
Avalon, TGL.

Avalon, The Serpent Power, London, 1919.

Avalon, Tantra of the Great Liberation {Mahani7--

Avalon, TT.
B.

Avalon, Tdntrik Texts, London, 191 3

vdtia T.), London, 191 3.

Barnett,

HI.

Barth, RI.

BEFEO.
Beng.

Bhandarkar C V.
Bhandarkar,

ff.

Brahmana.
Barnett, Heart of India, a vol. of translations,
London, 1908.
Barth, Religions of India, London, 1906.

EHD.

Bulletin de PEcole Fran false d' Extreme-Orient.

Bengali.
Bhatidarkar Comtnemoratioti Volume, Poena, IQI?Bhandarkar, Early History of the Deccan, Bombay,
1884.

Bhandarkar, R.

Bhandarkar, Reports on the Search for Sanskrit

Bhandarkar, VS.

Bhandarkar, Vaisnavis7n, Saivism dj^c,

MSS., Bombay.

GRUND-

RISS, 1913.
Bhattacharya,

HCS,

Bl.

Bloomfield,
V.
Bloomfield, /?F:

BMCTB.

Chanda, lAR.

Chaukh.

GRUNDRISS,

British

BSOSL.
Chatterji,
Chatterji,

Hindu Castes and Sects, Calcutta,

1896.
Bibliotheca Itidica, a series published by the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
Bloomfield, Atharvaveda,
1899.
Bloomfield, Religiofi of the Veda, New York, 1908.
Bhattacharya,

HR.
KS.

Museum

Catalogue

of

Ta7nil

Books,

London, 1909.
Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies,
London.
Chanda, Indo-Aryan Races, Rajshahi, 1916.
Chatterji, The Hindu Realism, Allahabad, 191 2.
Chatterji, Kash>nir Shaivis)/!, Srinagar, 1914.

Chaukhamba

Series, Benares.

ABBREVIATIONS

XXIV

Corpus lnsc7-ij)tionarti)n Indicarum.

Colebrooke, Miscellaneous Essays, I. London,

CII.

Colebrooke,

ME.

Comm.
Cowell,

SDS.

CTr.
Deussen,

1 837.

Commentary.
Cowell and Gough, The Sarva-darsana-sangraha
of Mddhava,^ London, 1908.
Chinese translation.
Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophies

AGP.

Leipzig, 1906.

Deussen, PU.

\yt.\-\sser\,

Philosophy 0/ the Upanishads, Edinburgh,

1906.

Deussen,

SUV.

Deussen, Sechzig Upanishad' s des Veda, Leipzig,

1897.

Deussen, System of the Vedanta, Chicago, 1912.

Dharmasutra.
Mabel DufF, Chronology of India, London, 1899.
Dutt, A Prose English Trattslation of the Maha-

Deussen, SV.

DS.
Duff, CI.

Dutt,

MT.

nirvdna Tantram, Calcutta, 1900.

EB.
Eggeling,

Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Xlth ed.

Sanskrit MSS. in India Office, 1887.
Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics,
Edinburgh.
English Translation.

SMIO.

ERE.
ETr.
FTr.

French Translation.
Garbe, Indie?i und das Christentum, Tubingen,

Garbe, IC.

1914.

Garbe, Sathkhya und Yoga, GRUNDRISS, 1896.

Getty, Gods of Northern Buddhism, Oxford, 191 4.
Getty, GNB.
Gover, Folk-songs of Southern India, London, 1872.
Gover, FSSI.
Govindacharya, Life of Rdmdnuja, Madras, 1906.
Govindacharya, R.
Govindacharya, Fyl/Z> Govindacharya, ETr. of Yatlndra Mata Dipika^

Garbe, ^'K

Madras, 19 12.
Grierson,

LH.

Grierson,

Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindu-

References to pages.
Religions ofJapan, New York, 1904.
Griffith, The Hymns of the Rigveda Translated,
Benares, 1896.
Growse, Mathurd^ Allahabad, 1883.
Growse, The Rdmdyana of Tulsl Das,* ETr.,
Allahabad, 1887.
Grtcndriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Alterttmiskunde (Encyclopaedia of Indo-Aryan Research), Strassburg.
Giornale delta Societcl asiatica italiana^ Firenze.
German Translation.
Guerinot, Essai de Bibliographie Jaina, Paris,
References to pages.
1906.
Fitzedward Hall, An Index of the Indian Philosophical Systems, Calcutta, 1859.
stan, Calcutta, 1889.

Griffis,

Grififis.

Griffith, /?F.

Growse, M.
Growse, R.

GRUNDRISS.
GSAI.
GTr.
Gudrinot.
Hall.

Haug, AB.
Hillebrandt,

Hoernle,

RL.

MRBL.

Haug, Aitareya Brdhmana, Bombay, 1863.

Hillebrandt, Ritual-Litteratur, Vedische Opfer
Zauber, GRUNDRISS, 1897.
Hoernle,

Manuscript

Literature, Oxford,

Remains
9 16.

of

und

Buddhist

ABBREVIATIONS
Holtzmann, MBH.
Hopkins, GE.

XXV

Holtzmann, Das Mahcibhdrata, Kiel, 1892-5.

Hopkins, The Great Epic of India, New York,
1

901.

Hopkins, India Old and New, New York. 1901.

Hopkins, ION.
Hopkins, Religions of India, Boston, 1908.
Hopkins, RI.
Hopkins, Ruling Caste. fAOS. i""
Hopkins, Yoga-technique, JAOS. XX Hb, 333.
Hopkins, YT.
-H. P. SastrT, A Catalogue of Palm-leaf a?td selected
H. P. Sastrl
Paper JIISS. belonging to the Durbar Library,
Nepal, Calcutta, I. 1905; II. 1915.
The Indian Antiquary, Bombay.
IA.

IOC.
/.

International Oriental Congress.

Indische Studien, 1850

St.

fF.

Italian^ Translation.

ITr.

P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Benares, 1909.

Journal Asiatique, Paris.

Iyengar, Outlines

JA.

EA U.

Jacob,

Upanishads, Bombay,

Jacob, Eleven Atharva7ia

1891.

Jacobi,

A EM.

Ausgewiihlte Erzdhlungen in Mdhdrdsht7-i, Leip-

Jacobi, R.

Jaini, OJ.

JAOS.
JASB.
JBBRAS.

zig, 1886.
Jacobi, Das Rdmdyana, Bonn, 1893.
Jaini, Outlines ofjainism, Cambridge,

91 6.

Journal of American Oriental Society.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Be7igal.
Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society.

Jha,

PSPM.

Jhaveri,
Jolly,

Jha, Prdbhdkara School of Purva Mtmdmsd,

Allahabad, 191 1.
Jhaveri, Milestones in Gujarat i Literature, Bombay, 1914.
Jolly, Recht mid Sitte, GRUNDRISS, 1896.
Journal of the Pali Text Society.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.

MGL.

RS.

JPTS.
JRAS.

Krishnaswami

London,

K. Aiyangar, AI.

S.

Keith, AA.
Keith, .V^".
Keith, TS.

1911.
Keith, Aitareya Aranyaka, Oxford, 1909.
Keith, Sdmkhya System, Calcutta, 191 8.
Keith, Taittirlya Samhitd, Harvard, 1914.
Kennedy, Hindu Mythology London, 1831.

Kennedy,
Kern,

HM.

^iy?ingz.r,AttciefttI?idia,

MIB.

Kern, Ma7iual of

I7idia7i

Buddhis7n,

GRUND-

RISS,

1896.
Phillips. //^'wwj- of the

Kingsbury &
Krishna SastrT, SII.

H. Krishna

and
Krishnasamy Aiyar.

Tamil

Sail' a Sai7tts, Calcutta, 1920.

Sastrl, South-India7i linages

of Gods

Goddesses, Madras, 1916.

Krishnasamy

Iyer,

Sri Sahka/'dchdrya, Madras,

Natesan.
Macaulifte.

Macdonald MSS.
Macdonell.
Macnicol, PMS.

Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion, Oxford, 1909.

See pp. xiv-xv.
Macdonell, Sa7iskrit Literature, London, 1900.
Macnicol, Psahns of Mai-dfhd Saints, Calcutta,
1919.

ABBREVIATIONS

XXVI
Madhava, SDS\

MBH.
MBV.

Madhava, Sarva-darsana-sahgraha.
Makdbkarata.
Misra Brothers, Misra Bcmdhti Vinode, Allahabad,

Mitra.

R. L. Mitra, Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal,

1916.

Mitra, Notices.
Monier Williams,

Calcutta, 1882.
Mitra, Notices of Sanskrit

MSS.,

Calcutta.

Monier Williams, Brahmanism and Hindjiism,

London, 1891.
The Modertt Review, a monthly, Calcutta.
Mod. Rev.
Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism, London, 1913.
Moulton, EZ.
Moulton, TM.
Moulton, Treastire of the Magi, London, 1 91 7.
Mrs. Rhys Davids, FEB. Mrs. Rhys Davids, Psalms of the Early
Buddhists, London, of the Sisters, 1 909 of the

BH.

Brethren, 1 91 3.
Mrs. Stevenson,///. -Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, //mr/ of fainism, London, 1915.
Muir, OST.
Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, London, 1858 fif.
Miiller, ASL.
Max Miiller, Ancient Sanskrit Literature^ London.
i860.

Max

Nallasvami

Pillaij

Miiller, Six Systetns of Indian Philosophy,

London, 1899.
SfB. Nallasvami Pillai, Siva fnana Bodham, Madras,

Nallasvami

Pillai,

SSS.

Miiller,

SS.

1895.

Nanjio.

Nallasvami Pillai, Studies tn Saiva Stddhanta,

Madras, 191 1.
-Bunyiu Nanjio, 77/^ Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka,

Oxford, 1883. References to entries.

Oldenberg, Buddha. Oldenberg, Buddha, London, 1882.
-Oldenberg, Die Lehre der Upanishaden und die
Oldenberg, Z /.
A?fd?ige des Buddhismus, Gottingen, 1915.
Oldenberg, R V.
Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, Berlin, 1 894.
Oriental Translation Fund of the Royal Asiatic
OTF.
Society.

Purana.

P.

LTM.

Pargiter,

MP.

Padmanabhachar, Life and Teachings of

Madhvacharyar Coimbatore, 1909.
Pargiter, The Mdrkandeya Purdtia, translated,

Pargiter,

PTDKA.

Calcutta, 1904.
Pargiter, The Purana

Padmanabhachar,

Peterson.

Text of the Dynasties of the

Kali Age, Oxford, 1913.
Peterson, Reports on the Search for Sanskrit MSS.,

Bombay.
Pischel,

GPS.

Pischel,

Graminatik der Prdkrit-Sfracheti, Strass-

burg, 1900.

Pope, The Tiruvasdgam,T&yX,

Pope, TV.

Intro.,

ETr., Oxford,

1900.

Poussin, Opinions.

Poussin, Bouddhisnie, Opinions sur PHistoire de

Poussin, V.

Poussin,

la

Poussin,

6r^ Y,

WN.

Dogmatique,

Paris, 1909.

Vasiibandhu et Yasoniitra, Troisieme

Q\\^^\\.x&^&rAbhidharmakosa, London, 1914-18.
Poussin, The Way to Nirvana, Cambridge, 191 7.

ABBREVIATIONS
Powlett, Ulivur.

Powlett,
1878.

Prak.
Prasad,

Prakrit.

xxvu

Ulwur, a District Memoir, Allahabad,

Rai Balesvar Prasad Bahadur, Sant Bant Sahgraha, Allahabad, 191 5.

Ouackenbos, The Saftskrii Poems of Mayilra with
Quackenbos, SPA/.
Bands Chandisataka, New York, 191 7.
Rajagopalachariar, VRL T. Rajagopalachariar, The Vaishnavite Reformers of Itidia, Ma.dra.s.
R. A. Sastri, Anafidalahirl. R. Anantakrishna Sastrl, Anandalaharl,

SBS.

Palghat, 1899.

'

Rhys Davids, BBS.

R. Anantakrishna Sastrl, Lalitdsahasranama with

Bhaskararaya's comm., in ETr., Madras, 1899.
Rhys Davids, American Lectures on Btiddhism,
New York, 1901.
Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, London,

Rhys Davids, BL
Rhys Davids, DB.

Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, London, 1903.

Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, London,

Rhys Davids, HIB.

Rhys Davids, History of Indian Buddhism, Lon-

R. A. Sastri, Lalitd.

Rhys Davids, ALB.

1880.

1899.

don, 1897.
Rice, Kanarese Literature, Calcutta, 19 18.
Rice, KL.
Russell and Hira Lai. -Russell and Hira Lai, Tribes and Castes of the
Central Provinces, London, 1 916.
Saiiihita.
6\
. M.
Srinivasa Aiyahgar, Tamil Studies, Madras,
S. Aiyangar, TS.
1914.
Sanskrit.
Sansk.
Sarkar, Chaitanyds Pilgrimages and Teachings,
Sarkar, CPT.
being the middle part of the Chaitanya-charitaamrita in English, Calcutta, 191 3.
Sacred Books of the East, Oxford.
SBE.
Sacred Books of the Hindus, Panini Office, AllaSBH.

habad.

Schomerus, SS.
Schrader,

IPAS.

Schroeder,

ILK.

Seidenstiicker,

PBU.

Sen, CC.

Schomerus, Der Saiva Siddhdnta, Leipzig, 1912.

Schrader, hitroduction to the Pdnchardtra and the
Ahirbudhnya Samhitd, Madras, 1916.
Schroeder, Indiens Litteraturund Kultur, Leipzig,
1887.
Seidenstiicker, Pali Buddhismus in Uebersetzungen, Breslau, 191 1.
Sen, Chaitanya and his Companions, Calcutta,

1917.

Sen,

HBLL.

Sen, History of Bengali

Calcutta, 191

Sen,

VLMB.

Sen,

Vaisnava Literature of Mediaeval Bengal,

Calcutta,

Sen,

VSP.

Seshagiri Rao,

Language and Literature,

1.

917.

Sen, Vahga Sahitya Parichaya, selections from old

Bengali literature, Calcutta, 1914.

SSTM.

Report on the Search for Sanskrit and Tamil

MSS., Madras.
Siddhdnta Dipikd.

monthly magazine, Madras, 1897-1913.

ABBREVIATIONS

XXVlll

SJM.

Tarn,

Sanskrit Jo^irnal of Madras.

Sitzungsberichte der Kottiglichen Preussischcn
Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin.
Sanskrit MSS. in the India Office, London, 1887.
Suali, Introduzione alio Studio delta Filosojia
Indiana, Pavia, 1913.
Sukhtankar, Teachings of Vcddnta ace. to Rdnidniija, Wien, 1908.
Tamil.

Tel.

Telugu.

SKPA W.
SMIO.
Suali, Introduzione.

Sukhtankar,

TVR.

U.

Upanishad.
Vedic Index.
Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index of Names and
Subjects, London, 191 2.
Vidyabhushana, MSIL. Mediaeval System of Indiati Logic, Calcutta,
1909.

V. Smith,

EHI.

V. Smith,

HFA.

Vincent A. Smith, Early History of hidia^ Oxford,

1914.

Warren, BT.

V. Smith, History of Fi?tc Art in India and Ceylon,

Oxford, 191 1.
Walleser, Der altere Veddnta, Heidelberg, 1910.
Warren, Buddhism i7i Translations, Harvard,

Watters.

Watters,

Walleser,

DA V.

1896.

Weber, HIL.

Ou Yuan Chwang, London, 1904.

Weber, History of Indian Literature, London,

Westcott, Kabir.

Westcott, Kabir

1892.

and

the

Kabir Panth, Cawnpore,

1907.

Whitney and Lanman,

A V.

Whitney and Lanman, Atharva-veda Sam-

ETr., Harvard, 1905.

Wilson, Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindics^'
hitd, in

Wilson, Sects.

London, 1861.
Wilson, VP.
Wilson, Works.
Wilson, TH.
Winternitz.

Wilson, Vishmt Purdna, London, 1864.

Wilson, Select Works, London, 1861.
Wilson, Theatre of the Hindus, London, 1871.
Winternitz, Geschichte der indischen Litteratur,

Woods, Yoga.

Woods, The Yoga-system of Patahjali, Harvard,

ZDMG.

1914.
Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesell-

Leipzig, Vol.

schaft, 1847

I,

fif.

1908, Vol.

II.

i,

1913.

CHAPTER

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION:

I.

The

investigations

clearly that the people

Hindu

now

religion

and

of the

past

who conquered

civilization

x toy.

century have shown

India and created the

belonged to that ancient

race,

usually called Indo-European, from which sprang the

Teutonic, Celtic, Slavonic, Italic, Hellenic, Armenian, Persian,

and other peoples. This kinship is visible in the speech of
the invaders,^ in numerous details of their culture,^ and also
in their religion.^
From a comparison of the beliefs and
practices of these many nations it is possible to form some
idea of the religion of the parent Indo-European race. (The
basis of the religion was an animistic belief in a very large
number of petty gods, each of which had a special function
but the people had already advanced to the conception of
a few glorious heavenly gods (Sanskrit deva, Latin de?^s, &c.),
each a representative of one of the greater aspects of nature.
Sky, thunder, sun, moon, fire, wind, and water were the chief
of this new group of great gods.
They were worshipped with
sacrifice, accompanied with potent formulae and prayer, the
offerings being either laid out on grass for the gods to eat or
wafted to them on the fire and smoke of the altar. Ancestors
were also worshipped as powerful beings who from the other
world watched over their descendants. There was thus
;

already some sort of belief in immortality.

regarded and

Max
Max

much

used.

Magic was highly

The family was

patriarchal in

Lectuies on the Science of Language.

Biographies of Words.
' Schrader, art. 'Aryan
Religion', ERE.; Hillebrandt,
Bloomfield, RV. 99-149.
^

Miiller,

JNIiiller,

RL. \~\o\

li

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

,.

character

marriage was universal

and sons were ardently

desired.
2.

We

cannot

tell

where the home of

this ancient race was,

nor at what times and places the great historical peoples hived
off from

it

but

we can

trace with certainty the invaders of

India, in that stage of their

the invasion.^
lived

life

which immediately preceded

people, partly nomadic, partly agricultural,

considerable time somewhere in

for a

Central

perhaps just to the north of the Hindu Kush.

Asia,

Finally they

separated into two groups, perhaps by a process of migration

them unconscious that they had fallen

one moving through Afghanistan into India, the
other spreading over the wide territory which bears their
racial name, Iran.
This word is simply a variant form of
Aryan, the name used by their brothers, the invaders of India.

so slow as to leave
apart, the

We may

therefore speak of the period before the separation as

the time of Indo-Iranian unity.

There

is

sufficient

evidence available to enable us to form

a clearer picture of this period than of the far earlier Indo-

European period. Most of our knowledge arises from a comparison of the Veda, the earliest Indian literature, with the
earliest literature

of the Iranian peoples,

viz.

the Avesia, the

sacred book of the Zoroastrians of ancient Persia.

careful

comparative study of the two reveals the fact that the IndoIranian people had advanced beyond the early Indo-European
faith.

The

religion

centres

in

the heavenly gods and the

There can be little

doubt that among the gods reverenced were Varuna, Mitra,
Soma, Aryaman, Indra, the Asvins (i.e. the Dioskouroi), and
two semi-divine figures, Vivasvant and Yama. All occur in
both literatures except Varuna, Indra, and the Asvins. These
are not definitely vouched for by the Avcsta,^ but they are
named in an inscription found by Winckler at Boghaz Keui in

animistic divinities are far less prominent.

See Keith on The Early History of the Indo- Iranians, Bhandarkar

C.V., 8i.
^ Yet Indra and Nasatya
mythology of the Avesta.

(i.e.

the Asvins) occur as

demons

in

the

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

Asia Minor and believed to date from 1400 B.C.;' and there
many points of resemblance between Ahura Mazdah,

are so

the

God

of Zoroaster, and the Varuna of the Rigveda that one

almost driven to believe the two to be identical in origin.^

were three forms of

use

sacrifice in

among

is

There

the early people,

the shedding of oblations of grain and milk on the sacred

fire,

the setting forth of basins of an intoxicating beverage (Sansk.

soma, Avestan, haoma) for the gods to drink, and the sacrifice

Soma had already been deified, and the priests

had begun to sing hymns as an accompaniment to the ritual
with which it was offered. The presence in the Avcsta of
a considerable number of ritual terms and designations of
priests, which are exact equivalents of technical words and

of animals.

phrases found in the Vedas,^ proves that the basis of the

Vedic and the Zoroastrian religions

had already taken shape. One most remarkable conception,
the idea of law physical and moral as a fixed divine order, was
formed at a very early date. It is already found in Persian
proper names at a very early date, possibly 1600 B.C., in the
form arta, and it appears in the Rigveda as riia, and in the
Avesta in the form asha.
liturgy and the ritual of the

The time when the

Some scholars would
others assign
3.

it

people
give

into

fell

it

two parts

is

unknown.

an extremely early date, while

to the middle of the second millenium B.C.

Hindus wrote no formal history

at

any period

for the

early centuries there are no archaeological remains that throw

any

light

on the course of events

tion provided

and epic
available.

nor

is
;

any

definite informa-

so that the religious

forms the only sources of information

literature

Yet, though

it is

impossible to write the history,

much about

possible to learn

is

by nations outside India

it

the religion of that early time

from these ancient books.

^

It

mentions Mitra, Varuna, Indra, Nasatya

Thus the high antiquity of Varuna is assured.

2 Moulton, EZ. 61
Bloomfield, RV. 1328".
3 Hillebrandt, A'Z.. 11
Haug, AB. I. 61.
B 2
;

(i.e.

the Asvins) as gods.

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

we deal with the development of the religion

from the moment when the tribes entered India down to
the time when the doctrine of transmigration and karma
arose, and we divide the whole period into three sections,
In this chapter

in

order to exhibit more clearly the growth of ideas and insti-

tutions.
i.

4.

Rik, I-IX.

The Rigveda, the earliest literature of India,

hymns connected in various ways with

collection of
fices,

is

a large

the sacri-

the domestic ceremonies, and the religious speculation

These hymns were composed by the invading

Aryan tribes, at last severed from their brothers who were
destined to produce Zoroaster and make Persia famous.
When the earliest h5n"nns were composed, they were settled in
the territories forming the basin of the upper Indus and its
of the time.

tributaries

but thereafter they gradually spread farther east.

But the invading Aryans, tall in stature and of fair comScattered about
plexion, did not form the main population.
among them and around them and over the plains of North
India were innumerable tribes of short, dark people with whom
they were frequently at war, and whom they called Dasyus
and Dasas. The .hymns of the Rigveda give no indication
that the

Aryan

in India or as

away

tribes

thought of themselves as being strangers

way related with another people

being in any

to the west.

They seem

ing to the soil on which they

to regard themselves as belonglive.

On

the other hand, they

are certainly very conscious of the differences between them-

and the Dasas, and they regard their hostility towards

them as not only natural but inevitable. These two races

selves

represent the chief elements in the ethnology of India to this

from them and the mutual influence they have

exercised on each other have come, in the main, the civilizaIn the study of the evolution
tion and the religion of India.
of the religion of India we shall constantly be tempted to give
our undivided attention to the Aryan race and coinmunity
day, and

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

but to neglect the large part played throughout the history by

the aborigines

to

is

to grasp facts of great significance.

fail

we combine the few fragments

hymns about the dark tribes.

5. In the following sentences

of information given in the

They

are said to have a black skin, and the difference in

colour {yarna) between

They

referred to.
'noseless',

i.e.

them and the

are

fair

Aryans

frequently

is

anas, which probably

called

They were arranged

snub-nosed.

they had considerable wealth

and they

in

built forts for

means
clans;

them-

no reason to think
that in civilization they were at all comparable with the
Aryans. The differences between them and the Aryans on
selves, frequently

on

hills;

which the hymns lay most

epithets are applied to

'addicted

rites',

to

but there

is

The

stress are religious.

them

strange

'

not sacrificing

'

',

following

devoid of
'without

vows', 'god-hating',

and they are probably the people referred to as

As many of
sisna-devdk,
those whose god is a phallus
these people were captured by the Aryans in war and reduced
to slavery, the word ddsa came to bear the meaning of slave
6. The picture which the hymns enable us to form of the
devotion

'

'

'.

'.

'

Aryans shows us an early but not a primitive people for they

had made considerable progress in material civilization. Yet
;

they were
nor

still

writing,

a simple race

and

had

little

for

idea

they had neither coinage

of

number

or

measure.

Their trade existed only as barter, the cow being the unit

They

of exchange.
forts

in

on

hills,

to

lived in

which

wooden houses and built small

retired when hard pressed

they

wai-.

There was no caste among the Aryan

We

tribes at this time.

certainly find a triple division of the people

priests,

and commons

warriors,

but there was no hard-and-fast law

prohibiting intermarriage and

commanding each son

to follow

Yet the aristocratic warriors and

priests stood out very distinctly from the common people, and
it is only of the aristocracy that we have anything like adequate
information. Though in race, religion, and language the Aryan
his father's

occupation.

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

were one, they had not readied the idea of forming

themselves into a nation nor had they a sovereign or a war-

tribes

Each

leader.

was independent and had

people in peace and led them

tribe

presided over his

its

chief,

in war.

who

War

led occasionally to a coalition of tribes.

Their literature shows that

for language.

this people

had a striking genius

Alone among all the languages of Indo-European

.speech their tongue, with the cultured literary language

as Sanskrit which

grew out of

recognizable form.

It

it,

known

retains each element in easily

has thus proved of very signal service

to the science of philology.

7. The Rigveda, which is not only the first monument of

the Indian genius but the earliest literature produced within
the Indo-European family of peoples, is a collection of 1,017

h3'mns (with eleven extra uncanonical pieces) distributed in

ten books.
Perhaps we shall find our way into the significance of the collection most readily if we attempt to sketch
the

way

in which it seems to have come into existence.

have seen above that, already in the Indo-Iranian

We
period,

the exhilarating drink

had been
drink was
of a

deified,

offered to the gods

hymn

made from

was

in use,

of the Rigveda.

carried these customs with them,

Since the

this divine

and that the singing

was an integral part of the ritual. This is the

historical tap-root

position of

the sonia-plant

that a special ritual in which

hymns

for the'

hymn was

The

Soma-ritual

sung, the priest

invaders of India

and continued the comin

their

who sang

new country.
hymn was

the

But poetry and the hymn would

Hence a custom arose,
probably after the Aryans had entered'India, that the leading
priest, the Sacrificer, Hotri, who was responsible for offerings
made in the fire and for animal-sacrifice, should recite, in
honour of the god he was worshipping, a poem or hymn of
praise, RicJi.
Then, as the ritual increased in detail, an
assistant was appointed to undertake the manual acts of
sacrificing {adhvara).
He was therefore called AdJivaryu,
called the Singer, Udgdtri.

not be restricted to a single use.

THK EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

and the recitation of praises became the Hoti'i's chief duty.^

Although the ritual was now divided into three strands, there
were no distinct orders of priests corresponding to these
divisions.
Each officiant was merely called Hotri, Udgdtri,
or Adhvaryii, for the time being, according to the duty he
undertook at the sacrifice.'^
8. Men believed that the sacrifices were mighty to influence
the gods and bring down gifts from them. Therefore every
chieftain and noble among the Aryans was eager to secure
the help of a skilled priest, and was glad to pay him handsomely for services which brought victory and wealth from

Hence we

the gods.

number

The

find

existing

priest

the

people a

taught his sons the precious secret lore which

enabled him by conducting sacrifices

the favour of the gods for his patrons.
families that

the composition

Each

practised.

among

of priestly families of high standing and influence.

priest did his

of

in the right
It

was

hymns

to

in

way

to win

these priestly

the gods

was

utmost to produce as beautiful

hymn as possible, in order to please and move the divinity

whom the sacrifice was held. Then the priest taught his

for

hymns he had composed

so that
hymns which were

sons the best

family there arose a body of

treasured, and were orally transmitted

each

in

greatly

from father to son,

along with the directions for the work of the

altar.

Naturally, the priestly families competed for the patronage

of the greatest chieftains and the wealthiest nobles, and in the

struggle found the quality of their

hymns

a matter of vital

We

must therefore picture to ourselves a time

of eager poetic emulation, during which metres, stanzas, and
refrains were gradually perfected and polished.
A very
dignified and expressive literary dialect was thus gradually
importance.

evolved.

This dialect

common

vernacular, yet

'
"^

Haug, AB.

brandt,

I.

it

closely related,

it

is

true,

to

the

employs stately words and phrases

17.

OST. V.
RL. 13.

Muir,

is

350, with a reference to a passage in

Yaska

Hille-

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

which would rise to the lips only in moments of exaltation,

and here and there uses well-known and effective archaisms.

Thus
went

there arose the

first literary

dialect of India.

on, the influence of the priests

As

tended to increase.

time

The

more complex, and the need- of skilled

sacerdotal help more pressing.
Naturally, hymns were
written for the various festivals, anniversaries, and sacrifices.
The literature thus tended to become more artificial. The
ritual

became

hymn
into

fit

priate,

steadily

and written so as to
chief incidents or features, would be more approbut probably less inspired than a hymn arising from
prepared for a special

sacrifice,

its

a spontaneous outburst of religious feeling.

How

the father taught his sons

the

family

heritage

of

and hymns we do not know. Each experienced

priest probably conducted a sort of rudimentary school for
the benefit of his sons and nephews, in which he taught them
orally all the hymns and priestly lore traditional in the

technical lore

family.^

hymns which
families.
Each of these bears the name
of a patriarch,^ and to him in each case most of the hymns in
the family collection are ascribed.
As authors of hymns these
patriarchs are called Rishis, seers.
The names of the eponym
The Rigveda ^
belonged to as many
9.

preserves seven groups of

Rishis of the- seven families are

Vamadeva,

Gritsamada, Visvamitra,

Kanva. There were

which possessed hymns, but, clearly, these
seven were the most famous of all.
It seems certain that
these family collections grew up gradually and that many
for each family was
singers contributed to each collection
Atri, Bharadvaja, Vasishtha,

other families

were a distinct school of poetry.

But a moment came when, by some means or other, the

as

it

hymn-collections belonging to the six families

named

first

Secii^K Vil. 103.

For the growth of the Rik see Macdonell, 40 ff.
That is, is spoken of as the Atri book, the Vasishtha book, &c., because
the name in each case occurs in many of the iiymns of the book as the
name of the seer or of the family of which he is the spokesman.
1

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

above were all taught together in a single school. Each

but the collections were
collection was still kept distinct
taught in order, the one after the other, to the same pupils,
;

handed down in a single

There was thus formed the body of poetry now contained in Books II-VII of the Rigvcda. How this unification
The emergence of a very
was effected we do not know.
powerful chieftain, determined at all costs to have the whole
instead of being each retained and
family.

of the best poetry at the

would account

for

it

command

of his

own

chief priest,

and as the Brahmanic culture

took

first

definite shape in the holy land of Kurukshetra, the land of

.

modern Sirhind, one is tempted to think that

was some vigorous Kuru prince who commanded that the

the Kurus, the

it

hymns

of the six families should all be taught together

but

no distinct evidence.
When brought together in the school, the six collections
seem to have been taught in ascending order, each succeeding

there

is

more hymns than its predecessor but

later interpolations, by increasing the number of the hymns
The
irregularly, have somewhat disturbed the arrangement.
hymns in each of the six collections are in the main arranged
collection containing

common method.

according to a

They

are distributed

in

groups according to the gods they are addressed to, and

within each of these groups they are arranged in descending
order according to the number of stanzas each contains.

number of hymns disposed in nine

Each group was
^
be the work of one poet or family, all the nine

10. Later,

large

groups was introduced into the school.

believed to

being quite distinct from the six already mentioned.

hymns were

These

whole body of
literature belonging to the school, being taught before the
six original collections.
They now form the latter half of
Book I of the Rigvcda, beginning with the fifty-first hymn.
The whole collection now amounted to lb 4- II-VII.
given the

first

place

in

the

The names are Savya, Nodhas, Parasara, Gotama, Kutsa, Kakshlvan,

Paruchchhepa, Dirghatamas, Agastya.
^

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

lo

two further additions were made to the hymn

As these two collections each contain
a large number of hymns from the last of the seven famous
families mentioned above,^ the family of Kanva, and have
also a number of common features, it is likely that they had
a common origin, and were introduced to the great school at
the same time.
One group was prefixed to the old material,
the other affixed.
So that the body of sacred poetry now
stood thus
la + lb + II-VII + VIIL
Then the ninth book came into existence.
It consists
exclusively of Soma hymns dedicated to Soma Pavamana,
clearly-flowing Soma
Hymns which belonged to each of
the seven great families represented in Books II-VII I are
Still

later

material of the school.

'

'.

gathered

together here.

This collection

is

thus a sort of

Sdmaveda. Though collected later than the

hymns of Books I-VHI, the hymns of Book IX are perhaps
as early as any in the whole collection.
It is probable that by this time the whole body of hymns
of praise {ric/ias), regarded by the priests as precious knowledge {veda), was called Rigvcda.
preliminary

We

now attempt to understand in outline the religion

Books I-IX of the Rik.
/ II. The following are the names of most of the noticeable

reflected in

gods

of the

Aryans, disposed as the people were accustomed

to arrange them, in three categories, according as their function

was exercised upon

heaven of

earth, in the region of the air, or in the

light

Lozver gods: Agni, Soma.

Middle gods: Indra, Maruts, Rudra, Parjanya, Vayu, the

Ribhus.

Upper gods

Vishnu, Surya, Savitri, Pushan, the Asvins,

Ushas, Aditi and her three sons, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman.

But these three

are

named

divine

and

lists

are not exhaustive.

waters, rivers,
tools

Several other divinities

and mountains are recognized

and implements, especially the

'

9-

as

sacrificial

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

ii

implements, receive adoration and are expected to hear and

answer prayer.
Indra

is

the most prominent god in the Rigveda

than one-fourth of the

hymns

more

for

He

are dedicated to him.

primarily the regent of the sky.

Young and

is

strong, brilliant

ruddy and golden, he comes riding in his farshining car to the sacrifice, eats the flesh of bulls and buffaloes,
drinks vast quantities of soma, and listens to the hymns
These stimulate his vital
recited and chanted in his honour.
He then assails
energies and rouse him to his utmost courage.
with thunderbolt and lightning-flash the malevolent demons
who keep the rain locked up and swiftly defeats them. The
cloud-castles are stormed, and the waters, set free, rush down
Naturally this heavenly
in fierce torrents on the earth.
He
warrior became the national god of the Aryan invaders.
is praised as the monarch of heaven and earth, the controller
of the destinies of men, and the friend and helper of those
who offer him sacrifice.
Agni and Soma, who come next after Indra in prominence
in the Rigveda, are also nature- divinities, the one Fire, the
as the sun,

other the intoxicating drink

made from

the soma-plant

but

they both owe their great position to their connexion with

the ritual.

The two

chief

offering of milk, butter, grain,

forms of sacrificing were

and

the setting out of great bowls of

the gods to drink.

soma on the sacred

Since through the

presented to the gods, Agni

Soma

flesh in the altar-fire,

is

in

grass for

the offerings are

the great priest of the gods.

lives in the divine plant of that

of the gods

fire

the

and

name which

is

the drink

heaven, and which, transplanted to earth,

man and delights all the gods at the sacrifices.

Both gods are spoken of as doing the work of creator and
upholder of the universe. The hymns of the ninth book were
sung at the sacrifices in honour of Soma.
Varuna is the noblest figure in the Rigveda. He is connected with the day-sky, the night-sky, and the waters. But
exhilarates

he has lofty cosmical functions as well.

He

upholds heaven

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

la

and
all

earth,

and he

the powers

moral

shaken.

the supporter of

is

of riia,

wields

divine law, both physical and

All natural things are subject to them, and

righteous,

men obey

punishes

wrongdoer

the

and

prayer

oblation.

He

He

his lofty laws.

is

the

he

rewards

(frequently

dropsy), and releases the sinner from his sin

with

He

beings.

therefore his ordinances are fixed and can never be

watches to see whether

the

i.e.

all

with

when he comes

wise guardian of

immortality.

But the most

is

significant trait in his character

always righteous.

We

is this,

that he

have already seen that Varuna

is

the

Vedic counterpart of Ahura Mazdah of the religion of ZoroHe must have been a god of distinctly ethical character
in the period before the Indo-Iranian people fell apart, and in
his prominence in the Rigveda and in the lofty attributes
which he wears we must see evidence of an Indian development
parallel to Zoroaster's selection of Mazdah to be the one god
of his high ethical monotheism.
It begins to look as if the
two movements may have been roughly contemporaneous; for
scholars are more and more inclined to assign to Zoroaster
a date about looo B.C. rather than the traditional date of
600 B.c.^ But Varuna failed to reach supremacy the warrior
Indra became the leading divinity of the Rigveda and India
failed to develop an ethical theism.
The religion of the Rigveda is probably the most interesting polytheism reflected in any literature.
It certainly has
not the grace and charm of the pantheon of the Homeric
poems but it stands nearer the origin of the gods, and
enables us to see them at the most significant stage of their
evolution.
All the great, and nearly all the minor gods, are
deified natural phenomena, and the interest of the presentation
springs from the fact that they are still identified with those
glorious things and yet are distinguished from them.
They
are still thought of as being actually dawn, sun, moon, sky,
aster.

rain,

wind, thunder,
*

fire

Moulton,

TM.

men
6, 13

actually offer sacrifice to the

;

Oldenberg,

LU.

4.

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

13

reddening dawn, to the sun as he mounts the heavens, and to

the crackling

fire

on the hearth

a glorious hving being

comes

who

yet each

has his

home

^od
in

is

conceived as

heaven, and

down on

the sacred grass to hear his

own

who

and

sits

praises recited

and

sailing in his far-shining car to the sacrifice

sung and to receive the offerings. Further, each divinity is

held to have influence on things far beyond that phase of the
physical world which is his source.
He is believed to be able
give his

to

many kinds, victory,

The greatest gods are

worshippers blessings of

prosperity, cattle, wealth, children.

connected with the creation and upholding of the world, and

Varuna holds
still

hands

in his

all

divine law, both physical and

This ambiguous position then

moral.

each

glittering

god

struggling to release his gorgeous wings from the clinging

source gives them their peculiar

and shows us mythology in the making
but it also prevents the development of distinct personality in
the gods and makes them natural rather than moral beings.
Though there is much superstition in the Rigveda, and even
the great gods, with the exception of Varuna, are not beings
of holy character, yet the black arts are held in check, and
human sacrifices, cruel rites, eroticism, and other horrors are
The religion is, on the whole, a healthy,
noticeably absent.
chrysalis

of his

charm and

natural

interest,

happy system.

Neither

asceticism

nor

austerity,

neither

pessimism nor philosophy, disturbs the sunshine of that early

day.
12.

The worship

reflected in the

hymns

circles

round the

great sacrifices, which are to be carefully distinguished from

the simple oblations which each householder offered in the

household

fire

daily.

The

great sacrifices were not public

by all the people, like the sacrifices

of Israel, of Greece, or of Rome.
A chieftain, a noble, or any other wealthy man simply
employed the necessary priests and had the rites carried out
for himself.
A sacrifice held by a chieftain would have a sort
of public significance, if it was intended to secure prosperity

acts of worship attended

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

14

war

for his rule or victory in

yet, even in that case,

a personal act, and benefited, in the

and

it

was

instance, the sacrificer

first

his family alone.

The
for the

sacrifices

were held

the open air or in a shed erected

in

purpose near the house of the

The word

or sacred places existed in those days.

altar,

seems to denote

was carried

rite

the gods might

It

come and

oblations were laid out

was strewn with sacred

sit

down on

and there

temples
vedi,

i.

e.

the Rigveda the area on which the

in

out.

No

sacrificer.

Upon

it.

grass, that

the vedi the

also were the sacred fires

The chief oblations were milk, melted butter, grain,

and cakes. The Adhvaryu shed them on the fire and muttered
At certain points in the ceremonies
his formulae the while.
prepared.

the Hotri recited hymns.

In the Soma-sacrifice the priests brought the twigs of the

soma
it,

it

plant, expressed the juice with the press-stones, purified

mixed

it

with milk, and then poured

it

into basins

and

set

The soma-hymns
Adhvaryu was busy with

out on the altar for the gods to drink.

were sung by the Udgatri while the

The

these ritual acts.

to the

company

sacrificer,

being by the

and was thereby made a new man.^

the soma.

Animal

rites

admitted

of the gods, then drank of the divine beverage,

sacrifice

The

priest also

drank of

the goat, the ox, the cow, the ram, or the

accompanied both the

and thesoma-rites.
The animals were killed and cut up according to rule, and
pieces were laid out on the altar, while certain parts were
burned in the fire. The horse-sacrifice had already a highly
developed ritual, several hymns specially composed for it being
found in the Rik? The flesh was divided between the sacrificer
horse

fire-oblations

and the priests.

Without the help of skilled priests, these great sacrifices
were quite impossible. Hence an advanced sacerdotal trainBy the
ing already existed, and is alluded to in the hymns.
priests
gathered,
the
Rik
were
time the nine books of the
IV.
I.
163,
163
Haug, AB. I. 60.
38, 39, 40.
1

"^

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

15

formed a distinct profession, though they had not yet developed

into a caste.
13.

The boons which

the worshippers ask for are in most

cases material blessings, prosperity, wealth, cattle, rich crops,

chariots,

protection from
Yet not infrequently
There are also numerous prayers

health, long

children,

wives,

life,

danger, victory in war, and rich spoil.

immortality
for

is

prayed

release from

for.

and

sin

its

a hymn, or faithful worship,

Usually

consequences.
is

made

sacrifice,

the ground forthe gift

pardon and health, but once or twice something approachYet the overwhelming impression
made by the Rigveda is that the spirit of religion is worldly
and indeed tends to be mercenary.
14. There are many passages in which the highest cosmical
and divine functions are attributed to Indra, or Agni, or Soma,
of

ing real penitence appears.

some other god. How was it possible to attribute these

powers now to one god, now to another ? To describe
this pose of mind Max Miiller coined the word Henotheism,
While the
the elevation to supremacy of one god at a time.
poet invokes the god, he is to him the only possible Supreme,
and he does not stint his praises by any thought of another
yet the following day he may ascribe the same lofty powers to

or

lofty

a second divinity.

To

may

this

monotheism being the only

mind,

in

proportion to

its

be added the thought that,

fully rational

faith,

unconsciously drawn towards

it.

that the gods of the Rigveda

do not stand out

human

in clear indivi-

duality and distinctness the one from the other.

personifications of nature^ lack character,
into

the

and openness, is
But we must also recognize

purity, reverence,

and

They

are

tend to melt

one another.
ii.

Rik^

X Soman ;
;

Early Yajus.

15. There followed a considerable interval of time during

which these nine books were used as the hymn-book of the
tribes.
The life of the people was expanding, and they were
extending their hold on the country. They had now reached

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

If)

the upper waters

between

country
occupied

farther

Jumna and the fertile band of

Jumna and the Ganges was being

of the
the

and farther south.

Many

of

the

better

aboriginal tribes had been brought into friendly relations with

down

beside them to serve as

These accepted aborigines
were called Sudras. The position of the priests was steadily
becoming more prominent and assured. In consequence,
social distinctions were becoming deeper and more marked.
The priests were more and more unwilling to intermarry with
and the Aryan community as a whole
the other classes

the Aryans, and were settling

labourers or as household servants.

wished to avoid mixture with aboriginals, both those accepted

as Sudras and those excluded as Outcastes.

The power

more and more

more highly appreciated. Hence
they were now frequently asked to assist in marriage and
of the priests over the gods was

recognized, their services

funeral

ceremonies, which

entirely

by the house-father

days were conducted

and to perform certain
magic rites for individuals, both men and women. Religious
unrest was producing philosophical speculation and also
Naturally this
a tendency to the practice of austerities.
varied and growing activity led to the composition of new
hymns. Many of them were meant for the old sacrifices,
others for use at weddings, funerals, and the feast in commemoration of the fathers some dealt with those religious
and philosophical questions which were beginning to trouble
the advancing community and others were composed for use
as incantations in sorcery and magic.
in

earlier

himself,

i6. Finally,

collection

of

some

191

scholar gathered together a very varied

pieces,

and

it

was introduced

into

the

schools and taught as the last section of the oral curriculum of

There were now ten groups of hymns, the ten books

As the first book also contains 191 hymns,
o{ the Rigvcda.
the whole became a noble series of ten collections, the first
and the last balancing each other in the number of their
hymns. There can be no doubt that the hymns of the tenth

hymns.

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

17

book belong to several different periods. Some of them are

most are clearly subsequent to the hymns of the
quite old
first nine books
and a few are very late indeed. The
ninetieth hymn, usually called the Hymn of Creation, contains
;

a number of developed philosophical concepts, refers to the

Caste system, and mentions the names of at least three of the

Thus we must recognize that, when the collection

was completed, the Sdmavcda and the Yajurveda were already
in existence, at least in some primitive form, and that the
Caste system was at least taking shape.
17. The interpretation of the Rigveda is not yet scientifi-

Vedas.

cally certain in all respects.

No

whole work has come down to

ancient

us,

commentary on the

though there are manuals

dealing with certain groups of phenomena, which date from

500

B. c.

or earlier.

The

earliest

commentary preserved on the

by the

text as a whole was written in the fourteenth century,

great scholar Sayana.

there are

many

Thus there need be no surprise if

hymns which are still incom-

passages in the

prehensible.

The age

of the

Rigveda

is

still

very uncertain.

Max

Miiller in his Ancient Sanskrit Literature, published in 1859,

suggested i2CO to 1000 B.C. as the lowest limits that could be

postulated for the composition of the Vedic hymns, and 1000
to 800 B.C. for the formation of the collections.
inclined to believe that longer time

ment

is

while a few are convinced that the

lapse of thousands of years.

Miiller's dates rather

Others are

required for the develop-

hymns imply

the

Scholars seem to incline towards

than to these extreme figures.

With the increasing elaboration of the sacrifices, and

the consequent emergence of many new duties for the priests,
division of labour became unavoidable.
It proved more and
more necessary that a man should restrict himself to the
18.

functions of a Hotri, an Udgdtri, or an Adhvaryn, instead of

^ Miiller,
ASL. 572; Macdonell, 11-12; Winternitz, I. 246 ff.
Thibaut, Hindustan Review, Jan. 1904; Jacobi, JRAS. 1909, 721;
Oldenberg, /A'^6'. 1909, 1095 ; Keith, TS. I. clxvi; JRAS. 1909, iioo.

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

i8

attempting to become proficient

for a distinct education for

Perhaps
consists

Hence the need

in all three.

each type of priest

made

itself felt.

the formation of the ninth book of the Rik, which

in

exclusively

Soma-hymns, we may trace the

But a time came when some-

of

beginnings of the movement.

thing more was required.

In the case of the

sacrifice,

man who sang

the strophes at the

Soma-

the Udgatri, two forms of training were required.

He

had to learn to sing, readily and accurately, all the tunes

that were used in the many distinct Somarsacrifices, and he had
also to know which strophes were required for each sacrifice
and in what order they were sung. Therefore, that the young
priest might master all the tunes thoroughly and have any one
at command at any moment, each was connected with a single
stanza of the right metre, and the teacher made his pupils
sing it over and over again, until tune and stanza were firmly
imprinted, in indissoluble association, in the

Kauthuma

tunes, married to as

many

single verses.

of stanzas was called the Archika,

For mnemonic
large

memory.

In the

school at least, the Udgatri student was taught 585

i.e.

The whole

collection

the book of praises.

reasons, the stanzas are arranged in several

groups according to the deities to

dedicated, and the groups are subdivided

whom

they are

into sets of ten.

Then the strophes used

in the ritual of the Soma-sacrifice

arranged

in

were
which they were sung, and were
taught to Udgatri students in this form instead of the Rigveda.
The practical value of this step will be at once apparent. The
young priest, in committing the strophes to memory, learnt
also at which sacrifices and at what point in each sacrifice
they were used. There are 400 strophes in the collection, the
in

the order

great majority consisting of three stanzas each, the whole

comprising 1,325 stanzas. This collection was called the

Uttardrchika, or second praise-book. All the stanzas contained
in the

two Archikas, with the exception of

taken from the Rigveda

seventy-five, are

so that, from the point of view of the

hymns, these books are of

little

interest in

comparison with

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

These two, the musical collection and the

the Rik.
liturgy,

were taught

in special schools;

19
sacrificial

and, since the knowledge,

was the songs or chants, sdnidni,

was called the Sdmaveda, and the
schools were called schools of the Sdmaveda.
In those early
days the music, as well as the stanzas, was taught orally; but,
at a considerably later date, when writing began to be used
veda^ which they taught

required for the sacrifice,

in

it

the schools for various purposes, tune-books, called gdnas,

were prepared.

precisely as they were sung, with

many

by a system
hymns were set down

In these the tunes were indicated

of musical notes, and the words of the

many

vowels prolonged,

repeated, and

other extra-textual

syllables

interpolated at various places.

These interpolated

syllables,

syllables

called stobhas, praises

&c.

are

e. g.

hin^ hin, hai, hau, hoyi, Jmva,

/loi,

the exact counterpart of the j'ubila interpolated in

Plain-song in the ninth and tenth centuries.^ There were two

ganas connected with the Archika, one Grdmageyagdna, for
use in the village, the other AranyagdJia, for use in the case
of those texts which, for one reason or another, were held so

sacred as to be sung only in the seclusion of the forest.

19.

From

the earliest days

the

sacrificer,

Hotri,

some short

sacrifice with

had been customary

god

invoke some blessing with

it,

for

whom

it

for the

ritual-act

phrase, either to indicate

ficance, its purpose, or the

The

it

accompany each

to

of the

its

signi-

was meant, or to

or to prevent the act from having

muttered these phrases, taking

They were of the
nature of incantations and dedications rather than prayer and
a dangerous result.

priest

care that he should not be overheard.

When

hymns

of praise became the

and the working-priest, the
Adhvaryu, was appointed to do the manual acts, the latter
naturally took over also the duty of muttering these ritual
praise.

the recitation of

chief duty of the

formulae
still,

it

the

Hotri

name

is

priest,

yaj'us, plural

became customary

for

the

yajumshi.

Adhvaryu

Rather
to

later

utter,

at

certain points in the ritual, in addition to the old formulae,

^

P'ox Strangvvays,

Music of Hindustan,
c a

255.

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

20

and prayers consisting of stanzas taken from hymns of

the Rigveda or from other sources.
Probably about the time when the schools of the Sdmaveda
praises

came

into existence, or rather later, the training of the

varyu took a fixed traditional form

for the purpose.

body of

The

in

Adh-

conducted

essential part of the tradition

formulae

ritual

in special schools

was the

prose and the prayers in verse

which accompanied the ritual acts; but detailed instruction,

in one form or another, must have been also given about the
ritual acts themselves.

The mass

of material having for

its

which accompanied the ritual,

gave the Adhvaryu the knowledge, veda, necessary for his
work, and was therefore called Yajiirveda.
nucleus the formulae,

jj'^V^wj-/;/,

20. The formation of these special schools for Udgatris and

Adhvaryus necessarily led to the old schools of the Rigveda
becoming special training-schools for the Hotri priests. We
must also conclude that, from the time of the rise of these

new

schools, there were three distinct orders of priests

but
from exercising the
functions of two, or even of all the three orders, provided he
had acquired the necessary training.
The mass of men,
however, would be content with the curriculum of a single
there was no rule precluding

By

school.

and

this

priest

time the priests had become a closed caste

themselves

called

Brahmans.

Each Brahman

priest

received his education in one of the three types of schools

aid was known thereafter as a member of the school.

21.
ol

the

In our

Rik

first

survey

we

dealt with the

so that the fresh literature which

first

nine books

we now examine

book of the Rik, the Sdiiian and the original

For practical purposes we may take Books IXVIII of the White Yajns as representing, with fair accuracy,
the extent of the original work.
Since nearly the whole text
of the Sdmaveda is taken unchanged from the Rik, it is not
of so much importance as the other two sources.
The most
prominent features of the new situation are these the community is now sharply divided into four groups by caste
is

the tenth

Yajurveda.

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

distinctions

there

Brahmans,

are three

taught

in

belonging to the

schools

reflected in the literature

appeared

in

the glimpse

Sudras

Kshatriyas, Vai^yas,

orders of priests, each

21

The

order.

we had

prose formulae muttered by the

indeed than the

and

Veda

religion

wider and more varied than

is

Adhvaryu

in

hymns

it

The

the Rik, I-IX.

in

accompaniment

to the ritual acts are clearly a very old constituent

cult, older

possessing a

of the

but the actual formulae

contained in the Yajurveda are probably of very varied age

some may be very

old, others quite

new

so that

we must be

cautious about attributing the whole to very early times.

But,

although the individual phrases are of indeterminate age, the

fundamental thought involved in them, especially the magic
character of the whole system,

is

clearly old.

With

this agrees

the magic power attributed to the tunes sung by the Udgatri

and to the metres of the hymns. Hence the presence

book of the Rigveda of a considerable number
of incantations for use in private magic rites probably does
not indicate any new access of faith in these operations, but

priests,

in the tenth

merely an increased willingness on the part of priests trained

in the schools to officiate in these

^-are more prominent than ever

I

for

ceremonies.

they are

The

priests

now an organized

body, the chief of the four castes, and are believed to wield
almost limitless supernatural power. The pantheon has not

changed materially

in

the interval

magical conceptions seem

to

position of the gods, and there

but priestly authority and

be gradually weakening the

is

evidence of the existence of

considerable religious unrest and scepticism and of various

made to cope with it.

The gods and their attributes appear

efforts

essentials the

Rigveda

same

as they do in the

in

first

yet certain changes are visible.

make their appearance; some

divinities,

our source in

all

nine books of the

few new gods

notably Ushas, Varnna,

and Parjanya, receive less attention than formerly, while

Of these the most
others have risen to new prominence.
noteworthy are Vishnu and Rudra, who have already begun V

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

23

upward movement, which gradually raised

Vedic compeers, and made them the
two supreme divinities of modern Hinduism. So far as our
evidence goes, it would seem as if Vishnu owed his first
elevation to his being identified with the sacrifice by the
Adhvaryu priests. In that sense his name occurs in hundreds
of passages in the Yajurveda.
One of the more prominent
elements of the same work is the SatarudrJya, a famous hymn
of praise to Rudra, which is decisive evidence of his growing
that mysterious

them above

their

all

importance.
22.

The

existence of the three Vedas enables us to get

a more vivid idea of the sacrifices which formed almost the

whole

The great sacrifices were either

Of the obligatory rites the most

of the gods.

cult

obligatory or voluntary.

noteworthy were the New Moon and the Full Moon sacrifices
and the sacrifice to Ancestors observed every month, and
a few similar observances which occurred less often. Of the
voluntary ceremonies the most elaborate and expensive were
the Soma-sacrifices.

The Asvamedha

meant

blessings for a prince, including even

to secure

imperial sway.

all

or Horse-sacrifice was

Another type of ceremony, which any wealthy

man might

undertake, was the Agnichayana, or the building of

of great elaboration of design.

fire altar

There are a number of hymns in the tenth book of the

Rik, which seem to have been taught in the schools with
23.

a view to being used in the contests of wit wliich closed the

sacrifices.

There are two

a dozen dialogues
are

speculative

situation.

One

pieces
is

collections of riddles,

and about

but the largest and most interesting group

a

springing

hymn

in

from

the

new

religious

praise of faith, one describes

the ascetic, and another deals with tapas or self-mortification,

number, form the fountain-

while the remainder, eleven

in

head of Indian philosophy.

In our

that

priests

trained

in

first

survey we learned

the schools had begun to practise

private magic and to use certain hymns contained in the

Rigveda as spells. By the time the tenth book was compiled

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

things had gone farther

a large

number of

23

incantations are

included

in

it.

There

is

no hint of the doctrine of transmigration in our

live and die once.
They pray that they may

sources.

Men

When good men die, Yama guides

live a hundred autumns.
them to his heavenly home and there they live in immortality
and joy. They are then called the Fathers.
iii.

Brdhmanas, Atharvan, Aranyakas.

We have already seen that a number of spells for use

magic are contained in the Rik. The character of these
poems proves that the old-world incantations which the Aryans,
in common with other Indo-European peoples, had been accustomed to use had, in the main at least, given way before
a new type of spell, written in polished language and metre,
on the model of the hymns to the gods. Doubtless, hundreds
of these were being used by sorcerers, exorcists, and magicians,
34.

in

although only a few found their

way

into the

hymn-book of

and the process of composition continued after

The incantationthe canon of the Rigvcda was closed.
priest had no lack of wealthy clients ready to pay well for his
magic arts and poetical charms instinct with supernatural
power.
Hence numerous hymns from the Rigvcda were
turned to these purposes philosophic poems were perverted
to more mysterious uses, their sounding phrases and incomprehensible concepts rendering them most formidable to the
ear
and many new incantations were composed to fit into
The man
the detailed ritual of magic, both black and white.
of muttered charms was usually summoned also to do the
priestly duties in the domestic ceremonies, which were observed
at the time of birth, marriage, death, and such like.
/ 25. Then, during the period of the Brdhnianas, a school
was formed for the training of this class of priests, and quite
naturally a great collection of these incantations was made
the text-book of the school. This text-book is the Atharvaveda.
It has come down to us in two recensions, named
the priests

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

24

The former

Sminaktya and Paippaldda.

ordinary use, and

examined

in

it

detail.

is

the

text

in

alone has been edited, translated, and

Paippalada was found

single birch-bark manuscript of the

Kashmir

in

in

1874, and a facsimile

There

is a good deal of
two recensions in the way in which
the hymns are arranged
and about one-eighth or one-ninth

reproduction has been published.

difference between the

of the contents of the Paippalada

MS.

is

fresh material,

neither in the Saunaklya recension nor in

collection.

Since so

little

found

any other Vedic

investigation has been carried out

on the new text, we shall confine our attention to the Saunaklya or Vulgate.
It

probable that the Atharvaveda was built up to

is

present proportions in various stages, but

Each

the history.

two recensions consists of twenty

means corresponds.
In the
that Books XIX and XX are late additions.
of the

but the order by no

books,

Vulgate

Books
Books

its

we do not know

clear

it is

to

XVIII

arranged in
contain,

fall

The

into three divisions.

first

covers

main of short hymns,

accordance with the number of stanzas they

to VII,

and consists in the

and without reference

The

to their subject-matter.

second contains Books VIII to XII and consists of long

hymns on

miscellaneous

subjects.

the

In

third

division,

Books XIII to XVIII, each book consists of hymns which

Various attempts
are marked by essential unity of subject.
have been made to decide how these three groups were
brought together, but no unanimity has yet been reached.
Scholars point out that a

number of the

shorter spells of

the Atharvaveda agree in purpose and method, and to some

extent also in form, with charms found in the folk-lore of
other nations of the Indo-European race

of the practices of this

Veda go very

far

so that the roots

back indeed.

1,200 of the 6,000 stanzas contained in the

from the Rigveda.

But the bulk of the

Part of

later origin.^
^

it

is in

work

fresh material

prose, the rest in verse.

So Oldenberg, RV. 15: Keith

About

are taken

agrees.

is

of

The

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

25

compilation of the eighteen books took place long after the

completion

of

Rigvcda,

the

during

period

the

of

the

Brahmanas.
For a long time the Atharvan collection held a very
humble position as compared with the three sacrificial Vedas.
It was not accepted as a Veda at all.
The trayividya, triple
knowledge, was all that men recognized. To this day in
certain parts of South India it is almost unknown.
26. The priestly schools soon became great and learned

The

associations each with a splendid reputation.

had

first

of

all

to learn the

accuracy from the

lips

Veda

student

of his school with perfect

He had

of his teacher.

then, in the

second place, to receive a great deal of instruction as to his

duties at the altar,

and numerous explanations of the meaning

of the hymns, the ritual acts, and such

were called

vidJii,

the explanations

The

instructions

arthavdda.

For some

like.

time these lectures were given by the teacher in an unfettered

way in his own language but gradually in each school the
;

material took more

down
tion

in

definite

form, and

finally

was handed

stereotyped language from teacher to pupil, genera-

after

generation.

Naturally,

it

was

in

prose.

Every

piece of instruction of this type was called a Brdhinana, either

as being the utterance of a Brahman, or as an exposition of
In contrast with these Brahmanas,
religious truth {brahman).

hymns and prose formulae which were recited, sung, or

The
muttered during the sacrifices were called mantras.

the

word

mantra

means

originally

religious

sacred utterance, but from an early date

it

thought,

prayer,

also implied that

weapon of supernatural power.

Brahmana lectures were expositions of the
sacrifice, the hymns, and the prayers, the teachers of the
Yajurveda took the very natural course of inserting them at
various points among the material on which they were meant
In the schools of the Rik and the Sdman,
to throw light.
however, this course was not followed. The teachers were
probably so impressed with the divine character of the hymn-

the text was a

Since these

26

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

they felt they could not disturb the sacred

arrangement of the text. In any case in both these schools
collections that

the expository lectures were gathered into a separate collection,

which was called Brdhniana.
Then the teachers of the Vajasaneya school of the Yajurveda
were led by this example to a similar course. They separated
out all the Brahmana sections from the sacrificial formulae and
the verses of their Veda, and formed a Veda and a Brahmana
out of them.
In this way the schools of the Yajurveda fell
into two groups, and the old mixed collection of mantras and
Brahmanas was called the Black F^j, while the new unmixed
collection of hymns with its separate Brahmana was called
the White Yajus. As the Brahmana material in each school
was constantly growing, the Veda as handed down in the
various schools of the Black Yajiis soon showed considerable
differences.
It has come down to us in four distinct forms
called Savihitas.
See table below.
At a later date one of these schools of the Black Yajus, the
Taittirlyas, followed the common practice thus far that, on the
formation of a fresh body of Brahmana material, they did not
introduce it into the already mixed Veda, but formed it into
a separate BrdJimana. This new book is really a continuation

Brahmana material within the Sarhhita of the school.

The continued branching of the schools, and the constant
addition of fresh Brahmana material to the old, must have led
in the long run to the existence of a very large number of
of the

Brahmanas, differing more or less from one another. In the

chances and changes of history, much of this literature has
been lost. Thus, what survives to-day is but a small part of
what once existed. The following table shows the various
Sarhhitas of the Yajurveda which contain Brahmana material,
and also the ancient Brahmanas

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

SAMHITAS AND BRAH MANAS

27

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

a8

Yajtirvcda, only the following six

Brahmanas are

ritual text-

books of importance
Aitareya, Kanshitaki, PahcJiavii'iisa,
Talavakdra, Taittiriya, Satapatha.
The Shadvimsa is an
appendix to the Panchavinisa, and the ChJidndogya deals only
with domestic rites.
It is impossible to set down this mass of
:

material in strict chronological order, because each

is

a collection of pieces of different age and origin

KapisJitJiala- K atha

omit the

which have survived only

sents,
I.

in

Brahmana
yet, if we

and the KdtJiaka

SaiiiJdtd

which these books arose

Aitaj'cya BrdJiviana\

To

6.

KdtJiaka, and Taittiriya Samhitas, which

cannot be safely arranged in any chronological order

5. \.h& Jaimiiiiya

B.,

the following repre-

in fragments,

on the whole, the order

The Maitrdyani,

'^.

\.\\&

Panchavii'nsa;

the KausJiitaki\

7.

4.

a.

the

the Taittiriya;

the Satapatha.

Brahmanas there are appended chapters,

in Brahmana language and style, but
differing somewhat in contents.
Usually these chapters begin
with material scarcely distinguishable from the Brahmana

r^

29.

written

itself,

the

the

in

main

but gradually shade off through mystic allegory into

philosophic speculation.

Usually the

and allegorical
Upauishad
Upauishad. The

ritualistic

parts are called Araityaka, and the philosophic,

but sometimes the whole receives the

.

Upanishads
first

but

will

be dealt with

in

title

our next chapter

',

for in

them

appears the mighty doctrine of transmigration and karma

we

consider the Aranyakas here.

treatises

'

Parts of these

'

Forest-

(from aranya, forest) describe the ritual and give

incidental mystic explanations, and are thus indistinguishable

from Brahmana teaching, except that here and there we meet

chapters which add stringent rules to the effect that the rites
are to be kept secret and carried out only for certain persons.
Similar secrecy is sometimes enjoined in the Upanishads.
Side by side with these are found chapters which are exclusively given

allegorical expositions of the ritual,

and are

clearly

for ritual use but for meditation.

Finally

up to
meant not

there are passages which teach the student to practise meditation

on the allegorical meaning of certain

sacrifices instead of

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

In none of these ritual-

the actual performance of the ritual.

istic

or allegorical chapters

29

the doctrine of transmigration

is

and karma taught.

Aranyakas were meant to

were the men who studied
During the time when the Brahmanas were coming

30. All scholars agree that the

But who
in the forest.^

be studied

them

who

into being, an order of hermits

India appeared.

They gave up

all

resided in the forests of

the business of the world

and devoted themselves to a religious life. Their practice in

general had three aspects, tapas. i. e. austerities, sacrifice, and
fmeditation but there was more than one rule, so that practice
In some cases sacrifice was given up
varied considerably.
altogether and the great and elaborate sacrifices must have
been always impossible. These facts about the order are
;

taken from the Dharmasutras.^ Very vivid pictures of the

life occur in the Rdmayana,^ agreeing perfectly with what has
just been said.

When

had completed

a student

his education,

he was allowed either to remain with his teacher for

marry and settle down

woods as a hermit.* The

life,

or to

as a householder, or to retire to the

earliest

name used

to designate

a hermit seems to have been

Vaikhdnasa^ (from Vikhanas,

the traditional author of the

rule),

but later

Vdnaprastha,

came into use. It was at a much later date

there came into use the ideal rule for the life of the twice-

forest-dweller,

that

born man, that his

life

should be lived in four stages, dsrainas

and monk.*'
Sayana makes a remark which seems to mean that the
Aranyaka was the Brahmana of the hermit
and certain
Deussen,
have
accepted
that view.
modern scholars, especially
The varied character of the contents of the Aranyakas ritual,
as a student, householder, hermit,

Now

"^

The ancient evidence is conclusive. See Ramanuja, Srib/iashya,

SBE. XLVIII. 645, and Sayana quoted by Keith in his Aitareya Ar. 15.
* Gautama, SBE. n._i95
Vfisishtha, SBE. XIV. 45; Baudhayana,
SBE. XIV. 259 291 Apastamba, SBE. II. 155.
^

'

s
"^

See II. Ivi III.

Gautama, DS. III.
;

vi

vii

xi

Aranyavratartipam b7-ahnianain

AA.XS^'

xii.

Chhdndogya U.

II. 23, i.

Deussen, ERE. II. i28ff.

see Deussen, PU. 2 n.
Keith
^

26.
\

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

30

and

secret explanation, allegory,

sacrifice

fits

internal instead of external

perfectly into the varying practice of the hermits

is tempted at first sight to conclude

were actually prepared for the Vanaprasthas.
But Oldenberg^ and Berriedale Keith ^believe that
the Aranyakas were held to be texts of such sacredness that
they could with safety be repeated only in the seclusion of the
forest.
The Aranyagdna of the Sdmavcda would then be
a parallel case.
Professor Keith believes that the Aranyakas
were taught to priests, just as the Brahmanas were. The

of the forest

that

these

so that one

treatises

difference lay in the secrecy necessary for the forest treatises.

\

For our purpose, however,

We

question.

is

it

unnecessary to decide the

require merely to distinguish those chapters

which separate themselves from the Brahmanas by their stress

on allegory, secrecy, and meditation, and from the philosophic
Upanishads by the absence of the doctrine of transmigration,
whatever their original purpose
texts are

may have

been.

The

chief

Rigveda

\Aitareya Aranyaka.
< ^,

'aushltaki

Black Yajus

White Yajus

A ranyaka.

Taittinya Aranyaka^ I-VI.

Brihaddranyaka

Satapatha B. XIV,

i-iii.

The

31.

point at which

we

take our third survey

is

just

before the appearance of the doctrine of transmigration and

karma

in

the literature.

The

literature in existence at that

time and surviving to our day comprises the four Vedas, the
six

Brahmanas, and the Aranyakas.

old

already dealt with the Rik^ the Sdinan,

^ud

Since

the literature which forms the source for this survey

1.

2.
3.

4.

we have

the early Yajus,

is

The later portions of the Yajurvcda.

The Atharvavcda.
The six old Brahmanas.
The Aranyakas.

LU.

148

ff.

^^-

jj^

257

n. 10,

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

31

By the time to which our survey refers the Aryans had

spread over North India at least as far as Behar, but the
between the Jumna and the Ganges was still the
Probably all the books of our
centre of Brahmanical culture.
We
cannot fix the date of our
source arose in that region.^
district

survey chronologically

for

the estimates of scholars

show

At the time we
were already many petty princedoms in North India, containing numerous towns, and wealth and culture were growing.
While the country between the Jumna and the Ganges was
recognized as the central hearth of the religion and education
seek to envisage there

considerable variation.

of the time, there were seats of civilization in the Punjab, in

the far North- West, and as far east as the

only the four great castes but

many

modern Patna. Not

mixed

of the modern

and sub-castes were already in existence.

manical schools had greatly increased in number.

castes

The BrahEach Veda

had its own multitude of schools, divided into subordinate

groups according to the recension of the Veda they used, and
further subdivided according to the Brahmana they recognized.
At some quite unknown date, but certainly before the end of
the period, the

work of the Vedic schools had become widened,

so as not only to provide a specialized training for priests but

also to give a religious education to all boys of the

Brahman,

Every boy belonging to these

Kshatriya, and Vaisya castes.
castes went to school immediately after undergoing the
ceremony of initiation. Since this ceremony thus became the
entrance to a spiritual training, it was called the boy's second
Hence these three castes came to be spoken of as
birth.
Sudras and women
twice-born, and wore the sacred thread.
were excluded from the schools

and only Brahmans could

teach.

The

priest

and the

sacrifice

were now supreme and omni-

become pitifully
was conceived as a magic system
powers in earth and heaven, and the

potent, and in consequence the religion had

degraded.
irresistibly

The

sacrifice

wielding

all
^

Vedic Index,

I.

165.

THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION

32
priests

who

held the system in their hands were regarded as

Hence, though the gods nominally retain their"

old place, they have become of very little account, stripped of
nearly all their real power by the priests and the sacrifice.
Like the demons, they sacrifice, when they want to obtain
anything. Vishnu, Rudra-Siva, and Prajapati alone are

gods on

earth.

prominent, because of their relations

new

with the

sacer-

Magic is supreme everywhere, in the sacrifice, in

the Atharvan rites in the home, and in the discipline of the
Vanaprastha in the forest. Morality has almost altogether
dotalism.

lost

its

hold in the

The

cult.

result

could not but be an

Hence we

unbearable inner dissatisfaction in the best men.

find some eagerly pressing forward towards new light along

following the lead given

philosophic

lines,

speculative

hymns mentioned

concepts of great importance, the

by

the poets of the

Two

our second survey.

in

Brahman and

were separately evolved and then

identified,

the Atinan,

thus

forming

together a most significant philosophic term for the absolute.^

There were other conceptions also which were undergoing

modification:

passages^

in

peated death

in

the

Brahmanas

which there
in

is

there

are

number

the other world, and

men shudder

at the

thought.
1

Oldenberg,

LU.

44-59-

of

reference to the possibility of re-

'

lb.

27

fif.

CHAPTER

II

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE:

i.

'7^2.

Transuiigratioii

The immense

to

200 B.C.

and Karma.

influence which the doctrine of trans-

migration and karma has exercised on almost every element

of Indian thought renders its appearance an event of such
extreme significance as to make it the natural starting-point

new

of a

period.

Indian history

in

The

date

is

not

known even approximately.

the stricter sense opens only with Alexander

the Great's invasion of the Punjab in 326 B.C.

so that

all

The

life

previous events possess only a relative chronology.

of the Buddha,

now approximately dated 560-480

B.C.,

forms

the starting-point for the conjectural dating of earlier occurrences.

Behind

his activity

we can descry

the rise of the

philosophy of the Upanishads, and behind that again the

emergence of the belief in transmigration and karma.' The

whole of the literature of the chapter shares this uncertainty
only a relative chronology is possible.
r It is a very remarkable fact that the belief of the early
people with regard to birth, death, and the other world
underwent such a complete change at this period in their
history.
There is no trace of transmigration in the hymns of
the Vedas only in the Brahmanas are there to be found a
few traces of the lines of thought from which the doctrine
In the Upanishads, however, and in all later Hindu
arose.
literature, the doctrine is universally accepted, and enters as
an active force into almost every element of Hindu thought.
;

'

See Keith, //?^6'. 1909, 574; SS. 15 Oldenberg,

I off.;
Waddell,//?^.S\ 1914, 661 ff.
;

WN.

Z 6^.

288; Poussin,

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

34

Through the spread of Buddhism the doctrine was accepted

by the population of the centre, the east, and the south of
Asia.

thus impossible to exaggerate the importance of

It is

the change with which this chapter opens.

has been

It

demonstrated

clearly

sources of both the conceptions

Brahmanas

are to be found in the

the

that

immediate

transmigration and karma

;

yet the two are found

linked together in a doctrine of moral requital for the

time

in

The

Upanishads.

the

first

creation, therefore, of this

is unquestionably the work of the Aryan

Yet the suggestion which many scholars have made,
that the idea of transmigration must have come from totem-

master-conception

mind.

istic

aboriginals

who

animal bodies,

in

believed that after death their souls lived

may

be, after all, partly true

for the

Aryan

people were not only in daily contact with aboriginals but

had already suffered large infusions of aboriginal blood.

33. The theory is that souls are born and die many times,
and that a man's conduct in one life determines his position
in the next, good conduct being rewarded, and evil conduct
punished.
In the earliest passages^ in which the doctrine
appears, that
definite

form

is all

that

is

stated

but soon

it

received a

more

Those whose conduct has been pleasing, will quickly attain a pleasing
a Brahman, or a Kshatriya, or a Vaisya ; but those
whose conduct has been abominable, will quickly attain an abominable
birth, the birth of a dog, or a hog, or an Outcaste.^
birth, the birth of

was which became the

and this form

Hindu belief.

it

one's action.

The word

Caste

is

basis of the

orthodox

the chief element of the requital of

for action,

karma,

is

used for the

mysterious power which, according to this doctrine, causes

all

action to

work

itself

out in requital in another

conception was soon deepened and broadened.

It

nized that a man's body, mind, and character, and also

^

Oldenberg, LU. 26-35.

Brikadaranyaka, 6^^. III.
C'hhandogya, U. V.

ic, 7.

2, 13

IV. 4,

5.

The

life.

was recogall

the

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

details of his experience

35

were elements of the requital.

also recognized that, since each

life is

Men

the requital of foregoing

and since the actions of each new life demand another

reward or punishment, the process of birth and
death, sai'/isdra, can have had no beginning, and can have no
end.
The soul was therefore eternal.
It would be well to notice that the theory took form among
polytheists, and included gods, demons, animals, and plants in
its sweep as well as men
there was no living being that was

action,
for

their

Nor was there any divine

power that controlled the process the concept of a Supreme,
exalted high above all the gods, had not risen on the minds

not subject to the law of rebirth.

men who

of the

The
for

it

cultured

Clearly the belief was a

;

every

for

it

man

once.

gave

evil

For centuries

moral advance on earlier

seriousness of

the

Its

met a need of the time,

men throughout North

conduct a moral meaning, and made

all

realize

responsibility.

for

among

steadily spread

India.

ideas

created the doctrine.

doctrine would seem to have

did

effects

this

and

his

personal

become evident

at

conception of the world sufficed

multitudes of thinking Hindus, and

unthinking masses

life

not

it

still

suffices for the

but for others, very soon, an

addition

became necessary.
34.

We

men were

have seen that

in the

age of the Brahmanas a few

already struggling to reach philosophic conceptions

which might form a more satisfactory basis for the

and magic of the sacrifice.
Terror-struck at the prospect of repeated death in the other
world (an idea frequently referred to in the Brahmanas), men
of the world

religious life than the gross ritual

longed for release from that fate

and some believed they
had found it in the conviction that the gods and all the
spiritual powers of the world are deathless, and that the man
who, knowing this, brings his own spirit into union with these
;

powers, wins a sure immortality.^

migration

now seemed
>

The

to explain the grip

Oldenberg,

LU.z^^2

doctrine

of trans-

which the things of

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

36

sense have on

tlie

human

spirit

it

also quickened the desire

from the bondage of sense and death but the

unbroken series of births and deaths seemed to make the
achievement of immortality and release more difificult than
for

release

How

ever.

was escape possible ? Hence there arose a passome means of deliverance and from

sionate desire to find

that passion sprang all the noblest forms of

Hindu

Buddhism and Jainism as well.

but the simple truth to say that karma and
thought, and

have given

release,

Indian

religious

thought

religious

Indeed,

it

is

rebirth, with
its

peculiar

flavour.

One

^^.

point

of the chief historical facts to

that,

this,

is

during

gradually inoculated, and at

period,

this
last

be realized at this

South India was

thoroughly interpenetrated,

with the religion and culture which had been taking shape
the north.

Three

political events

must

in

also be mentioned,

the conquest of the Punjab by Uarius, Alexander's raid, and

the rise of the

Maurya empire

direct reaction

from Greek domination and an imitation of

for the third,

which was a

the Persian system, proved of very large significance for the

history of Buddhism.

ii.

T//r Tzvicc-horn

and

their Literature.

36. The three twice-born castes Brahmans, Kshatriyas,

Vaisyas formed now a large educated community, sharply

among

themselves, yet far more deeply cut off from

the vast Siidra

community which served them, and from the

divided

unclean Outcastes with

The whole

whom

they would have nothing to do.

first chapter was

and much more was destined to
come into existence during the period. But, though they
kept themselves rigidly separate from Sudras in all religious
matters, it seems probable that Sudra worship soon began to
exercise an influence on them.
We deal, first of all, with what is, strictly speaking, the
literature of the twice-born, namely works written in expo-

of the literature described in our

their exclusive possession,

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE:

In all these

sition of the earlier literature.

37

books the doctrine

karma and rebirth is accepted as true, and here and there

the Upanishad theory of release also finds reflection.
?>!' ^c mention first what is clearly the earliest form of
Indian philosophy, although its earliest surviving document
of

cannot be dated earlier than the fourth century after Christ,

and although

in its inception

It is clear that

the

it

was

no sense philosophical

in

Karma Mimamsa

some form came

in

existence quite early during this period.

plained later, a

method

of

It

is,

into

as will be ex-

Vedic exegesis, dealing primarily

with the sacred texts which give injunctions for the sacrifices.

because it is to
orthodox twice-born man,

Its interest for us at this point is twofold, first

the special system of the

this day
and secondly because

it

retained for

features characteristic of the time of

many
its

centuries certain

birth,

and indeed

some of them to this day. The Mimariisa reflects the

time when the average educated man was frankly polytheistic,
retains

and

thus

atheistic

from

the

when he accepted

point of view

of

theism

and karma but

or

no
need of release, and when, like the average unreflecting man,
he took a realistic view of the world. For the understanding
of the developments of this period it is of great importance to
realize that this was the state of mind of nearly all educated
men ^ in the earlier, and probably of the vast majority in the
pantheism,

later, part

3H.

The

rebirth

felt

of the period also.

We

take next the literature of the Vedic

basis of all the training

memory

hymns

is still

schools.

the process of laying up

Veda

of one's school and the

But a large amount of
ancillary material has now to be mastered by the student as
well as the fundamental texts.
The sciences of Vedic exposition, phonetics, grammar, metre, etymology, &c., the beginnings of which are found in the Brahmanas, have each grown
The sacrifices,
in width and complexity as well as in accuracy.
both minor and major, have grown steadily more intricate
in

the

the

of the

long chapters of the Bn'ihmana.

Cf.

Oldenberg,

LU.

31.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

38

and more numerous, and the dharina, i. e. the law of conduct,

Hence, to
has become a large body of detailed injunctions.
enable the student to carry in his mind the vast and varied
masses of information which he required to know, a new
The
method of teaching was created, the sutra-vnQXhod.
essential feature of the method is the committing to memory
of a long series of very abbreviated phrases, which serve as
a sort of classified index of the particular subject dealt with.

The method was of

service in proportion to the care with

which the subject was arranged, and to the skill with which
the mnemonic phrases were composed. A series of sutras is
more or less incomprehensible by itself; it has always a commentary attached to it, either oral or written, which fills up
the gaps and expounds the thought.

which are of large significance

namely the Srauta, the Grihya, and the
Dharma manuals, and the magic-books. The Srauta-sutras

There are

four types of sutras

for the religious

life,

get their epithet Srauta from the fact that they are directly

founded on the hymns and the Brahmanas, which are srnii,

The Grihya manuals are
i.e. revelation in the highest sense.

cdW^d grihya,
sacrifices

i.e.

on the family. The

down the rules of the dharma, i.e. the
Of the Srauta-sutras a dozen survive,
conduct.

and the

Dharma manuals
Hindu law of

domestic, because they describe the minor

ritual acts obligatory

lay

of the Grihyas also a dozen, or thirteen,

included, and of the

Dharma manuals

if

six

the

Kausika be

while there are

four noteworthy books on magic.

It

is

as yet impossible to give

any

chronology of

definite

the surviving works of the Srauta, Grihya,

but all
and Dharma classes (called as a group the Kalpa-sutras)
probably belong to the fifth, fourth, or third centuries.^ Nor

the sutras

is it

yet possible to set

39.

The

them out

in

the order of their origin.^

Srauta-sutras are hand-books prepared for the use

of priests with reference to the greater Vedic sacrifices,

'

See the discussions by Keith,

But see Keith, TS. I. xlv.

A A.

21-5

TS.

I.

xlv-xlvi.

i.e.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

those for which three

more

or

sacrificial

fires,

39

and

priests

Thus

belonging to each of the three orders, were necessary.

each Srauta-sutra depends on one of the three Vedas, and

contains instructions only for the order of priests corresponding
to that

Veda.

Hence

monial of any single

in

order fully to understand the cere-

sacrifice,

it

is

necessary for the student

to read together the sections on that sacrifice in three Srauta-

For this certain other manuals, called Paribhashas,

which show how the three strands of the sacrifice fit together,
sutras.

are used.

The

40.

The

Grihya-siitras deal with three groups of subjects.

group contains general and detailed rules for the

simpler sacrifices, which were performed on the domestic
fire by the householder himself, if he were a Brahman, or by
first

a priest appointed by him for the purpose.

are of three types: (a) melted butter,

oil,

These

offerings

or milk poured on the

fire
(d) cooked cakes
and (c) animal sacrifices. The second
group of subjects are the eighteen sacraments, solemn ceremonies connected with the great moments of life, such as
;

birth, the first solid food given to the child, his tonsure, his
initiation as

education,

including

home

a religious student, his return

and

marriage.

house-building

The
rites,

third

the

is

funeral

after

mixed

his

group,

ceremony,

the

sraddhas, or offerings to the spirits of deceased ancestors, and

minor observances. As in all these ceremonies there is but

one series of ritual acts and liturgrc utterances, the Grihyasutras of the three Vedas differ very little from each other
except in the Vedic stanzas they quote.
The Karma Mimarhsa, we may remind ourselves, existed in
order that every injunction covered by the Srauta and Grihya
sutras should be faithfully performed.
Learned Mlmamusually
present
were
sakas
at the greater sacrifices to guide
everything.
41.

The Dharma-sutras deal not with sacrifice but with

The word dJianiia means that which is obligatory,

conduct.

and

is

thus similar to the Latin religio.

It is

used

in several

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

40

which vary chiefly

senses,

a whole

the dhaniiay]ns,\. as to

is

dhavinta

is

later

first,

second, the whole religious law, as expressed in the

Srauta, Grihya,
this

Hinduism as
Buddhists Buddhism is the
scope

in their

and Dharma codes

third, the laws of

conduct

the ordinary meaning, as in the Dharma-sutras and the

Dharmasastras

and

fourth, the law of a caste, as in the

The Dharma-sutras contain regulations

asramas or forms of Hindu life, viz. the student,

Glta frequently.

for

the four

the

householder, the hermit, and the ascetic, and the following

special subjects

the king,

civil

law, criminal law, marriage,

and excommunication.
Originally the Dharma-sutras were each meant to be used
only by members of its own school, but later a number
funeral

inheritance,

became recognized

them

of

penances,

rites,

valid

as

for

twice-born

all

men.

The

basal principle upon which this law of conduct rests

the supreme obligation of the caste system.

By

is

that a man's

profession and religious duties are determined, as well as his

place in

Hindu

and judge

The Brahman

society.

the Kshatriya

is

is

the priest, teacher,

the ruler and warrior

turns to agriculture, industry, or

trade

servant of these three twice -born castes.

the

the Vaisya

Sudra

is

The Outcastes
and

the
are

untouchable and are shut out in their

All the provisions of the laws of property and crime are
filth

their poverty.

conditioned by caste: the higher a man's caste, the greater

his rights

punishment

the higher the caste of the criminal^ the less his

the higher the caste of the wronged party, the

It is well to

greater the penalty.

these sutras each

he

is

man

to remain a student, or

or a sannyasi

these

modes of

through which each man

fresh regulations,

family
'

is

girl

i,

11-12.

have not yet become a

series

Amongst

the

of supreme importance for the

should be married before puberty,'

Gautama DS. XVIII. 21-23;

dhayana DS. IV.

life

i.

expected to pass.

we note two

the rule that a

note that in the time of

own asrama, e. whether

become a householder, a hermit,

chooses his

Vasishtha

DS. XVII. 69-70; Bau-

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

and

rule that

(.he

41

no widow who has borne children should

remarry.^

The

42.

religion reflected in the sutras

polytheistic and

is

There is no trace of divine incarnation in them,

ritualistic.
and no approach to theism. The philosophy of the Atman
and
is mentioned as a subject of meditation for the sannyasi
in one sutra it is heartily commended to the student on the
;

ground that there is no higher object than the attainment of

Necessarily, the whole of the Vedic religion is
the Atman.^
the soma-cult, the fire-cult, animal sacrifice, and
represented
Temples and images also appear
the numerous magic rites.
side by side with these ancient methods of worship, but we

are told nothing about the temple-cult, the reason seemingly

being

that

it

stands

the Vedic

outside

new

pantheon remains, but several

abstractions

Dharma, religious law

The

faith.

old

divinities appear, chiefly

;

Kubera, wealth

Kama,

Brahma, whom we meet in the Aranyakas, has also

an honoured place. The worship of snakes, mountains, rivers,
and pools is also found and cow-pens are reckoned among
holy places. The doctrine of transmigration and karma is
Cupid.

recognized as true by every one, but the old eschatology

still

in use

will

note

so that there

how

is

no unity of treatment.

close the resemblance

is

is

Readers

to the religion of the

original Epics.
43.

The appearance during

this period of the siitra-texts

methods of magic
on Magic
but we must
was still a very living part of the religion
notice that these ceremonies did not form part of the obligatory ceremonial law [kalpa), but are extra and voluntary.
shows that the practice of the old

The

chief text, the Kansika-sutra which belongs to the AtJiar-

vaveda,

is first

of

a Grihya-sutra, but also gives a great deal

all

makes
Atharvan quite compre-

of detailed information about magical ceremonies, and

much
1
'^

that

is

far

from clear

Gautama DS. XVIII. 4-17

in the

Vasishtjia

See the careful sketch by Hopkins,

Apastamba DS.

I.

8,

22-3.

A'/.

DS. XVII.
242-63.

55-68, 74.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

42

The Rigvidhdna describes the magical effects produced by the recitation of hymns or single verses of the
Rigveda while the Sdmavidhdna BrdJnnana shows how the
hensible.

chants

of

practices.^

Samaveda may be used for superstitious

The Adbhuta Brdhmana also belongs to the

the

Samaveda, and deals with portents and the means to avert

We may also mention here the Gopatha
Brdhmana of the Atharvaveda, which is a late text of very
varied character, depending on the Vaitdna-sutra.
44. Subsidiary sutras also existed on the measurement of
altars and were called Sidva-sutras, from the word for a
measuring line, on Phonetics, Sikshd, Grammar, Vydkarana,
Etymology, Nirnkta, Prosody, Chhandas, and Astronomy,
Jyotisha.
There were also special forms of the text of the
Rigveda and various ancillary works on minor matters.
A large part of this literature is of no interest for our
subject, as, from the modern standpoint, it is purely secular.
But there is one of these secular books which we must
their evil influence.

mention, because of the immense influence

over

language

and

it

has exerted

importance
Ashtddhydyl or Eight
Chapters of Panini on
Vydkarana, Grammar.
Panini
lived at Taxila in the far north-west, seemingly about
the middle of the fourth century B.c.^
He may have been
alive when Alexander and his army were entertained in the
city with royal magnificence.
In him culminated the movement to make the speech of the Vedic schools a thoroughly
musical, trustworthy, intelligible, and polished instrument
and his book has been the norm of the Samskrita, i. e. the
cultured, speech ever since.
Down to his time this language
had gradually changed; but from the moment when in the
schools of India his book became the standard, Sanskrit
became an unchangeable language. By his day great differences had already arisen between the polished tongue and
for

in

India,

We

Indian history.

^
"^

I.

consequent

refer to the

For the date of these

Keith, TS.

its

clxviii.

texts, see Keith,

TS.

I.

clxvii.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

the current forms of speech
prehensible

to

Sanskrit was becoming incom-

uneducated man.

the

43

Herein lay

dis-

its

remains

still lies.
But, on the other hand,
permanently intelligible to all cultured men throughout India,
while each vernacular is restricted to its own domain, and also
changes so rapidly that usually in three or four hundred years

advantage and

it

best literature

its

The whole of
lation

is

as foreign to the vulgar as Sanskrit

itself.

was recognized as reveof the second grade and was called sinriti, remembrance,

in contrast

this sutra-literature

with literature of the highest grade, which, as

have already seen, was called

famous work on
45.

we

sniti.
politics, Kautilya's

Arthasdstra,

which has recently come to light, though not a religious work,

must be mentioned here on account of the large amount of
detailed information

it

affords incidentally as to the condition

of religion and morals in Magadha, towards the end of the

According to tradition, Kautilya is another name

Chanakya, Chandragupta's Brahman minister but critical

period.
for

inquiry tends to lead to the conclusion that the

text-book of a school of
part of

it

is

the work of Chanakya,

interpolated.^
its

and

politics,

Yet

its

evidence

it

work

if

we

date rather wide limits, say from 300 to 100 B.C.

a work which no one dealing with

neglect.

The

information

it

the

has been redacted and

of great value,

is

is

probably

that, while

Hindu

give
It is

ethics can afford to

gives about

government, law,

punishment, and the social and economic state

Its evidence with
of the country is of very great importance.
crime and

its

regard to the religion of

Magadha

is

most

interesting.

popular belief was a wide and varied polytheism

only are the great gods and

many

for

The
not

of the minor divinities of

Hinduism mentioned, but the worship of mountains, rivers,

trees and fire, of birds, snakes, and cows and other animals,
regarded as of great value

is

pestilence, cattle-disease,
^

demons,

as
fire,

prophylactic against

floods, drought, famine,

Keith, //v^5. 1916, p. 130. Rut see also K.V. Rangaswami Aiyangar,
Cotisidenitions on Ancient Indian Polity, Madras, 1916.

Some

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

44

and other calamities.

magical

arts

Readers

will

are

note

Numerous ceremonies, incantations, and

recommended for such purposes also.

how

well this

in

fits

with the evidence

Another aspect of the book is

not
seem to mention transmigraIt does
its eschatology.
In all these features the work
tion, karma, or release at all.
of the epics and the sutras.

is

very similar to the edicts of Asoka.

basis of the moral

The observance

and

of one's

infinite bliss {anatitya).

end owing

The

following

religious teaching of the treatise

own duty

When

to confusion of castes

it

is

and

the

is
:

leads one to heaven {svarga)

violated, the world will

Hence

duties.

allow people to swerve from their duties.

come

and

to

an

the king shall never

For the world, when main-

tained in accordance with the injunctions of the triple Veda, will surely
progress, but never perish.'

This

is

precisely the position of the

Karma Mimamsa.

The

work recommends the Sahkhya, Yoga, and Lokayata philosophies.

The first and the last of the three are atheistic, and
it is practically certain that at this date the Yoga was so
also.
iii.

The Epics.

The epics of India, the MaJiabharaia and the Ravidwhich were originally heroic narratives, became in the
course of their history religious works, and are of extreme
importance as evidence on the subject of the religion of the
common people and with regard to the rise of the sects of
Hinduism. But they are so vast that they are apt to fill the
virgin inquirer with utter dismay
and in the case of the
MaJidbJiarata, the contents present such an extraordinary
medley explained to us as arising from interminable interpolations and the operations of countless editors each with
a policy of his own that they deepen the feeling to blank
despair.
Yet, taken in the right way, they ought to prove
very fruitful. The parts of each poem must be read at the
46.

yaita,

points of the history where they appeared.

1

1.

iii.

TRANSMIGRATION AND REL1<ASE

45

Scholars seem to be coming steadily nearer unanimity as

to the three essential moments in the history of the epics.

They

practically the

are

same

both.

for

All three stages

are very fully represented in the MaJiabJidrata, but

it

is

in

the Rdmdyana that the first and the second can be most
easily studied, while the third, which is only faintly represented
in

it,

attains

enormous proportions

arc as follows

in the

MaJidbhdrata.

A. The epics composed as popular poems

fourth century
B.

The

They

sixth, fifth, or

B. C.

changed into sectarian poems by Vaishnava

epics

second century B. c.
the MaJidbJidrata
in both epics
theism
Vaishnava
C.
theology, philoencyclopaedia
of
becomes a huge
first
and second censophy, politics, and law
priests

turies A. D.

There

is

perhaps not quite so

much unanimity

to the dates suggested as to the three distinct

with regard

movements.^

All would acknowledge further that fragments of material

found their way into the MahdbJidrata

47. In this chapter, then,

The

we

roots of popular epic poetry

in still later centuries.

deal only with the

lie

very

first

far back, in

stage.

dramatic

Vedic hymns and narratives in the Brahmanas ^

and it is probable that the first attempts at actual epics
(possibly indeed a rudimentary MaJidbhdrata^ or Rdmdyana)
go back as far as the age of the Brahmanas for since the
epic is popular, and its language is Sanskrit, it must have
stories in the

originated at a time

when the warriors

understood heroic songs

popular and the cultured speech were

practically one.

That

in the chieftain's hall

in Sanskrit, that

in India, as in

still

is,

a time

when

the

near enough to be

Greece, the epic arose

from the song that glorified the noble deed, stands out clearly
1
Holtzmann,J//^//. I. sff.; 126 ff.; 152 ff.; Jacob), ^".24^; 6off.; locfif.;
Macdonell, SL. 285-6; 305-12; Hopkins, GE. 397-8; Winternilz, I,
389 ff.; 423 ff.
* Macdonell, 280-1
Kei\.h,AA. 196 n. 19.
;

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

46

The

in the ancient evidence.

early songs were sung

and the

more elaborate compositions founded on them were

sung or recited with

eloquent

and

declamation

either

dramatic

gesture.^
first rounded Mahdbhdrata and the
completed Rdmdyana arose from these earlier efforts, and
that they both appeared in the same age, between 600 and
300 B. c. - but unanimity has not yet been reached on the
question as to which came first. ^ For our purpose, however,
We need merely rethe question is of little importance.
cognize that both were already in existence by '300 B. C. and

Scholars agree that the

first

that both

may have

arisen a

good deal

earlier.

of the two epics, the place where they arose, the

The features
way in which

they were formed from earlier pieces and other interesting

problems, are discussed by the critics.* Strictly speaking, the
original epics ought not to

come

into our survey

for

they

were not composed as religious works, but as heroic

poems.
Yet their subsequent history changed them into
religious works of very great importance, and the original
a source of religious history

material

is

because

it is

indirect.

We

shall take the shorter epic

48.

Rdmdyana from

detach the original

first,

its

more valuable

the

all

as

it

is

easier to

accretions than to

reach the genuine B/idraia amidst the immeasurable masses

of extraneous material in which

it

is

that of the seven books of which the

buried.

Scholars agree

Rdmdyana

consists, the

whole of the first ^ and the seventh books are later additions.
Thus Books II-VI represent the genuine old epic. But even

MBH.

Holtzmann,

Macdonell, SL. 285

I.
;

52

ff.

306-7

Hopkins, GE. 363-7.

Hopkins, GE. VI Keith, //vM.S\ 1915,
;

3i8ff.
' Jacobi puts the Ramayana first, R. 60 ff.;
so Macdonell, SL. 306,
but see also ERE. X. 576; Hopkins sets the Bharata epic first, then the
Raniayana, then the Pandu epic, GE. 60-1
238-9.
* JacolDi, R. iigff.
Holtzmann, MBH. I. 15 ff.; Macdonell, SL. 310;
Hopkins, GE. 79 2ind passtui.
^ With the exception of verses
5 to 8 of Canto V, which Jacobi, R. 55,
believes formed the first lines of Valmlki's work.
;

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

47

books there are numerous passages that have been

on the text by reciters. Most of them are either
variants, which make the details of the story harder to follow,
in these

foisted

or repetitions, which weary the reader intolerably

before scanning text or translation,

so that,

would be well

it

to put

up a danger-signal beside each morass.^ Estimates of the

date of Valmlki's work vary from the sixth to the fourth
century

B. C.^

Valmlki's

poem

more because

it

helps us

is

disturbed reflection of

And we do

to understand the religion

a secular work

for

some aspects

well to look at

it

carefully

of
;

for

the

popular

enlarged form the Rdindyana

still

is

the

of

first

Religion, then, in the original

nuite scriptures.

faith.

from a very early

date the work has been read as a mirror of character

its

the

gives us an un-

it

and

all

work

in

Vish-

is

still

sacrifice.

Every
is made by
There is no

mention here of the philosophy of the Atman.

The sanuydsl

There are no
and worship

frankly polytheistic and external.

one acknowledges

means of

never appears

There

is

all

sacrifice,

the gods

usually

animal

sects.

but at every turn the ancient vdnaprastJia.

no approach to anything

of divine incarnation never occurs

like

a theism.

The

idea

Rama

from beginning to
a great hero, but there

end is a man and only a man he is

Most of the
is no suggestion that he is in any sense a god.
and there is no monarch
old gods of the Veda are mentioned
among them, although Indra may receive a little more recognition than the others.
A number of new divinities have
:

among the famous early gods, especially

Kama, Kubera, Sukra, and Karttikeya, and the following
goddesses Gafiga, the Ganges, with Lakshml and Uma, the
taken their places

The

following are the chief interpolations recognized by Jacobi

II.
41-9,66-93,107,17-111,117,5-119; III. 1-14; IV. 17-18,40-43, 45-7;
V. 41-55, 58-64, 66-8 VI. 23-40, 59-60, 69, 74-5. Besides these, there
is one very late canto which would confuse the reader seriously, viz. VI. 1 19.
^ Jacobi, R. 100-112, inclines to the sixth, or even the eighth century.
The latest careful review of the question is by Keith, /AM^". 1915, 318.
He inclines to the fourth century as the true date, and Macdonell agrees :
^

ERE.

X. 576.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

48

wives of Vishnu and Siva.

snake,

Hanuman,

Semi-divine animals, Sesha, the

the monkey, Jambavan, the bear, Garuda,

the eagle, Jatayus, the vulture, and NandT, Siva's bull, are

Vishnu and Siva, who in the later Vedas

and the Brahmanas are far more important than they are in
quite prominent.

Snakes, trees, rivers,

the Rik, here maintain that prominence.

and lakes are

also worshipped.

It is of

that temples and images of the gods are

animal

importance to note

common, and

There

sacrifice is the usual offering.

is

that

no allusion to

Innumerable superstitions haunt the

The doctrine of transmigration and
karma is everywhere accepted and applied to life, but it is
Men do not understand all its implicanot yet full grown.
tions, and parts of the old scheme of things still survive.
the phallus of Siva.

religious consciousness.

49.

The

original heroic

Mahdbhdrata

is

rnuch harder to

was redacted with greater care and

It is
persistence by the priests than the companion poem.
isolate, chiefly

because

it

for in the first section

referred to in the epic itself;

book

first

as

it

stands to-day,

we

are told that the

of the

Bhdrata

8,800 verses, of 34,000 verses, and of 100,000

These three computations correspond to the three

consists of
verses.

stadia in the composition of

Thus the work we

No

poem

the

scholar has yet undertaken to separate out the

passages, and reform the ancient

studied precisely in the same

but the student

to

referred

above.

are thinking of here contained 8,800 verses.

may

work

way

so that

as the original

form some idea of

component

it

cannot be

Rdmdyana
character

its

by

reading one of the oldest episodes, Nala,^ or Savitrl,^ or the

famous gambling scene,** or some of the battle-scenes from

Book VIII or IX, though even in these the trail of the redactor
will be crossed here and there.

Then

scholars are quite able to see the religious charac-

teristics of the old

poem, though they cannot extricate

and

ritualistic
'

III,

52

ff.

through and through

2

III,

292

it

from

The religion is polytheistic

the clinging mass of fresh growth.

ff.

sectarianism has not yet

3

II

46_73

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

appeared

there

is

no theism

Atman

in

it,

49

no divine incarnation, no

The

three chief gods seem

Brahma, and Agni, but the whole of the old
pantheon survives. Dharma, i.e. Law, and Kama, Love,
appear as divinities, and Krishna appears also, but whether as
god or man is not yet known with certainty.
Epic society is dominated by caste yet there is far more
social freedom than at later stages of Hindu history
and
women in particular have a good deal of liberty. Brahmans,
in contravention of the regular rule, often become warriors.
Hindus have not yet become vegetarians
everybody eats
beef.
The polyandry of Draupadi is clearly a historical trait

exposition of the

doctrine.

to be Indra,

which has persisted

in

the story, despite

naturally repulsive

its

character.

50.

One

of the chief problems of this period

the rise of

is

who seems to have had as one of his epithets

the title Vasudeva.
Some scholars believe that in the original
MaJidbJidrata he was a man and only a man,^ and that he was
the god Krishna,

deified at a rather later date.

a god in the MahdbJim'-ata?'

Others affirm that he

Of

these

always

is

some suppose

that he

was originally a vegetation-spirit, others that he was a sun-god.

It is certainly clear that he was already a god of some sort in
the fourth century B.C.; for in Panini's grammar ^ Vasudeva
and Arjuna appear as a pair of divinities. Megasthenes, a
Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta about 300 B.C.,
has a sentence which seems to mean that Krishna was worshipped at Mathura and Krishnapur. In the Mahdndrdyana
Upanishad,^ which is probably not later than the third century
B.C., there is a litany in which the title Vasudeva is used as an
epithet of Vishnu, which seems to mean that Krishna was
already

in

some sense

MaJidbJidshya

150
^

B.C.,

identified with Vishnu.

Finally, in the

of Patafijali, which was probably written about

Vasudeva

is

spoken of as a

Hopkins, ION. 105 (but see below)

JC. 210.
2 Keith, /AM5.
1915, 548
3 IV.
3. 98.

M.

divinity.

Gricrson,

Hopkins, GE. 395,

^

31.

ERE.

Ji.

On

11.

541

Garbe,

RI. 467-8.

iTinini, IV. 3. 98.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

50

Sir R. G.

Bhandarkar

has a notable theory of his

He distinguishes between Vasudeva and

the subject.

He

believes that

Vasudeva was

man

originally a

own on

Krishna.

belonging to

the Satvata tribe, that he lived in the sixth century B.C., if not
earlier, and that he taught the people of his tribe a monotheistic
religion.

Some

time after his death he was deified by his own

God whom he had

people and identified with the one personal

preached.

He was

thereafter identified,

with Narayana,

first

then with Vishnu, and finally with the cowherd god of Mathura,
Gopala Krishna. From the sect which worshipped this god
there arose, according to this theory, the famous
Grierson,^ Winternitz,^ and Garbe

poem, the

accept the
Bhagavadgltd.
^
and Keith ^
theory, and support it ardently, but Hopkins
hold that it can be shown to be unhistorical and most scholars
seem to follow them. There is certainly no clear evidence
^

of the existence of a monotheistic faith during those early

centuries.

and the Sutras we meet the first references

worship. But it is most noteworthy
temple-and-image
Hindu
to
instructions for the sacrifices
of
minute
side
the
the
that, by
51. In the Epics

given in the Kalpa-sutfas, no directions for the temple-cult

appear. The latter seems to be merely tolerated by the side

orthodox cult. Then, at a later date, when the

Vaishnavas and the Saivas organized themselves as sects,
worshipping Vishnu and Siva by temple and image, they were
condemned as unorthodox and the taint remains to some
It is also important to realize that
extent to the present day.
from the earliest times at which we catch glimpses of the
of the

organization
rules to

of

Hindu temple- worship,

there

are

stringent

the effect that the priests must be Brahmans, and

that the temples are open to all

men and women

of the four

castes Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, Sudra but to no others.

What
1
'-i

s
:

the history behind these facts

is, it

is

as yet impossible

VS. Chaps. IV, VII, VIII, IX.

ERE. II. 540 ff.

JRAS. 1905, 384.

"
"'

I.

Zl^.

JRAS.

1915, 548

ib.

IC. 215

fif.

1917, 173.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

to say with certainty.^
later history of

One

51

of the largest interests of the

Hindu worship

is

the slow but steady weaken-

ing of the old sacrificial cult under the pressure of the more
attractive temple-system.
iv.

52.

hymns

On

Systcjiis

of Release.

the basis of ideas expressed in the philosophic

Rigvcda and the Atharvaveda, there were

Brahmanas two conceptions of the
Absolute, the BraJivian and the Atnian, the Self, the former
drawn either from* the concept of the supernatural power
resident in holy things ^ or from reflection on the outer world,"
the latter drawn from the subjective life of man.
The ideas
were then combined, with the result that the Absolute was
thought of as both the source of all things and as a spiritual
of the

the time of the

evolved

in

being.

The Brahman-Atman

thus

came

to be the phrase for

the one spiritual reality, unchanging, universal, free from

earthly bonds, from birth and death, pain and sorrow

all

and

far as the evidence goes, it would seem that for many centuries
after their entrance into India the Aryan people used no images, erected
no temples, and recognized no sacred places. Their cult consisted of
^

So

the sacrifices, and these were private and personal, and were carried
out within a man's own house or domains, or wherever the performance
was desirable. On the other hand, the facts of modern India suggest
that the sacred spot, with its local shrine and image or symbol, open to
all the people of the tribe, is a very old aboriginal institution.
It seems
as if the Aryans and the aborigines were very sharply divided in their
conceptions of worship as well as in other matters. If this inference then
is justifiable, it would be natural to conjecture that, when, at a very early
period, masses of the aborigines were admitted to intercourse with the
conquering Aryans and called Sudras, they carried with them into the

Aryan community their temple-and-image worship and that this cult

was at some later date regularized, either by the appointment of real
Brahmans as ministrants, or by the recognition of the actual incumbents
If we could be sure that the second of these alternatives
as Brahmans.
is what actually happened, we should then have a really adequate historical
reason for the very curious fact that, to this day and all over India,
;

held in much less consideration than other

one point which is absolutely clear, namely this,
the sixteen operations,
that the essential elements of the temple-cult
sJwdasa upaclidra2ix& so distinct in character from the sacrificial cult as
to betray an alien origin.
2 Oldenberg, LU. 44-52;
Poussin, WN. 22.
^ Deussen, xiGP. I. 240 ft.

temple-ministrants

Brahmans.

There

are

is

E 2

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

52

the nobler minds of the time longed to be released from the

doom

of repeated death in

the

other

world, and to reach

immortality and the peace of the Atman.

A. The Upanishads.

^?>'

When

the doctrine of rebirth and

the phenomenal world

and human

karma arose, it made

seem much more

life

unsatisfactory and enslaving than before, and therefore created

in the best

men

a deeper desire than ever for release from

all

earthly conditions, and especially from rebirth.

Then some courageous

thinker, conscious to the utmost not

only of the kinship and similarity of his own atman to the

universal Atman, but also of the unlimited outlook and desire
of the human spirit, took the bold leap and declared the two
identical

'
:

undivided.'

My

atman

is

the universal

The immediate consequence

Atman whole and

of this outreach of

conviction was necessarily a vivid consciousness of uplift above

all

merely phenomenal conditions, of community of life and

God, and an immovable conviction of release

privilege with

from transmigration and

all its

bonds.

The conviction spread to others, and soon there was

company of men who regarded themselves as liberated.

a
In

and in their fear lest the old worldly

hfe should rob them of their new-found treasure, they gave up
completely the life of the family and the world, and became
their exaltation of mind,

wandering, homeless, celibate ascetics, without

possessions,

without responsibilities, devoted altogether to the

Atman.

They were

Q.2iS!iQ.^

life

of the

parivrdjakas, wanderers, bhikshus,

They found
new experience

beggars, sannydsls, renouncers.

a fitting expression of their

life

in

that was

a complete

renunciation of the world and of all the rules of society.

They

wandered about, giving their time to meditation, discussion,

and teaching, sleeping at the foot of a tree, getting their food
by begging. In numerous episodes we see them conversing
and discussing in the woods, in the villages, at kings' courts,
and at sacrifices.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

One

of the most remarkable facts about these

53

men

that they gave up the old worship completely.

this,

is

This

the

is

point at which they are most clearly distinguishable from the

older order of ascetics, the vdiiaprastlias.

The

were

sacrifices

meant to induce the gods to grant to their worshippers

health, wealth, and all the other pleasures of life.
Of what
service, then, could

Atman, had

they be to

therein found

men who, having found

full satisfaction

to material things for comfort and consolation

worship, and with

it

all

The

the learning on which

thus become worthless to them.^

the

and no longer looked

it

ancient

had

rested,

The corroding

effect

philosophic thought had thus already gone a long way.

of

Yet,

though they took no further part in the sacrifices, they still

believed in the gods and demigods and the old mythology.
These still formed to them part of the totality of things

Brahman- Atman.
new teaching arose among the
Kshatriyas, the warrior caste, and was only at a later date
accepted by the Brahmans - but most scholars believe that,
while Kshatriyas and people of lower castes, and women as
well as men, took part in the discussions and rejoiced in the
new beliefs, the main part in the evolution of the doctrine
was taken by Brahmans. It is certainly true that the root of
every single idea involved in the new philosophy is found ip
explained by their belief

Some

in

the

scholars hold that the

the earlier Brahmanical books.^

54.

At

first

the teaching seems to have been carried on

exclusively in free discussions anywhere and everywhere, and

new life were open to everybody but

Brahmanical schools began to teach it as the last
subject of their curriculum, and there it took root and grew.
At first doubtless the teaching was given in extempore
the

new

ideas and the

finally the

freedom, only certain great phrases expressing the central

ideas, such as

Tat tvam

WN.

asi,

'

Thou

art that

',

i.e.

'

Thou

Poussin,

Deussen, Z'^^. 17, 120,396; Garbe, Beitrcige, 23; Winternitz,

Oldenberg, LU. 166; Keith, A A. 50, 257; JRAS. 1915, 550.

art

9, 29.
I.

199.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

54

Biahman-Atman

the

being

',

given

form

fixed

in

but

and they
were then communicated to the pupils and by them committed to memory, precisely as the hymns and the Brahmanas
were handed on.
From this time onward, then, only

gradually the lectures received settled expression

Brahmans taught the

doctrine,

and only men of the three

twice-born castes were allowed to hear

stance, doubtless, the

name

'

From

it.

Upanishad

'

',

this

circum-

secret doctrine \^

arose.

The outcome of this teaching was the early Upanishads.

Each consists of a great many distinct pieces of teaching, of
varying value, character, and length, products of the activity

many minds and of many years of advancing thought.

They are in simple discursive prose, and show clearly the

of

process of transition from the old sacrificial teaching of the

Brahmanas

works there belong six

the Vedic schools

RIK

SAMAN

II.

III.

/BLACK
^^Jus

WHITE

YAJUS

Since each Upanishad

date,

is

it

prose, brief passages

this

group of early prose

among

Schools.

Upanishads.

Aitareyins

Aitareya

Kaushltakins

Kaushttaki
Chhaiidogya

Tandins
Talavakaras

Kena

Taittirlyas

Taittiriya

Vajasaneyins

Brihadaranyaka

is

a collection of pieces of varying

not possible to arrange these six compilations in

order of seniority

mately indicated.
Chhandogya.

3.

To

treatises, distributed as follows

Vedas.
I.

Amidst the

to philosophy.

occur in a few places.

in verse

yet their relative age

Deusscn's order
3.

Taittiriya.

4.

is

may be

i.

Aiiarcya.

approxi-

Brihadaranyaka.
5.

Kanshttaki.

^ Such
is the usual explanation of the word (Deussen, PU. lo-ii;
Keith,
A. 239). Oldenberg holds that it means 'reverential meditation' {/M.2,7, 155)-

"

PU.

23.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

6.

Kena\ and MacdonelP and Winternitz

however, holds that the Aitareya

Bri/iaddranyaka, and that

follow him.

Keith,

even than the

earlier

does not teach the doctrine of

it

be

is

55

does not enter into our

transmigration.^

If that

discussion here.

Oldenberg'* takes the Aitareya along with

so,

it

the Brihaddranyaka and the Chhdndogya^ and also suggests

rather tentatively that the Isd, which other scholars regard as

a later text, and the Jainiiniya Upanishad BrdJnnana should

be included among these six early works. In any case it is

clear that the Brihaddranyaka and the CJilidndogya are by
far the most important of the six
for in them all the leading
;

ideas are

first

clearly developed.

It was mainly in the land of the Jumna and the Ganges,

from Kurukshetra to Benares, that the original discussions
which created the new thought took place and in the schools
;

same regions the Upanishads took form. Since these

treatises were formed by a process of slow growth and

of the

accretion,

and were preserved, not

memories,

it

their

is

not possible to

composition.

Yet

it

is

fix

in

writing, but in

human

on any definite dates

clear

that

for

the teaching had

taken very definite form, and was influencing men's thoughts

and wide, when Gautama, the Buddha, began to teach

B. c.
and scholars believe that we may safely
assume that by 500 B.C., this body of literature was already
in existence in very much the^ same shape as it has come
far

about 525

down

to

us.""

55. The essential aim of the Upanishads is to explain

All the ideas of the
reality, to discover the Absolute.
teaching

circle

Atman, the

round

source,

the

the

great

support,

conception

and

the

of

Brahman-

reality

of

the

The human self is not a part of the divine Self,

but is the Brahman-Atman whole and undivided. It is
knowledge that gives release. The man who in his own self
universe.

2 i_
AA.
205.
43; .S^. 16.
Hopkins, YT. 336, gives the sixth century as the date.

226.

suggests

still

earher dates,

LU.

288,

and also Poussin,

WN.

LU.

34?.

Oldenberg
10.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

56

Atman

realizes the truth of the

thereby Hberated from the

the slavery of worldly

is

chains of transmigration and from

He

things.
bliss,

and

is

an emancipated

spirit, at

death

Through

never be reborn.

will

enter into

will

his liberation

he

upon a blessed experience for he then begins

to know the peace, immortality, and freedom of the supreme
Atman. These lines of belief run through the Upanishads
everywhere and the mass of the teaching seeks to illustrate
these positions and to create the conviction that they are true.
But there is no articulated system taught.^ Outside the
leading ideas, the teaching is by no means uniform. The
enters at once

relation of the

Brahman

several ways.

assumed
vades

Brahman

to the material world

many

In

created

is

an

is

One

there is, and there

Unity exists there

spiritual

manifold such as our eyes see

passages great stress

ableness of the
universal

any

know

standing.

He

is

Subject,

far

uplifted

therefore

Similarly,

while

ceived impersonally, there are

interpreted,

imply

Guide

his

the One.

also laid

is

Atman.
and

object,

He who

in nature.

that the manifold exists does not

the

is

he per-

In others the reality of the

it.

illusion.

Only the great

idealistic

it

stated so forcibly as almost to leave the impression

that the world

second.

and entered into

it

and extends beyond

it

Brahman

expressed in

is

passages the reality of the world

is
is

no
no

affirms

In these

on the unknow-

a subject without an object,

beyond the need of

beyond human under-

far

Atman

the

many

personality.

He

bidding sun and

usually

is

phrases which,
is

moon

called

'

con-

strictly

if

the

inner

he
do good works and to do evil works. The
truth is, these wonderful treatises were not meant to build up
a complete philosophical temple for the human mind, but
causes

'

at

men

stay asunder

to

rather to provide materials to stab the spirit awake, to open

the eyes to the spiritual world, and to lead

of

'

men

to realization

God and

renunciation of the world.

Deiissen expounds them as teaching an

398; but Oldenberg,

LU. 59-104

fully the variant conceptions.

and/^ij-j/w,

idealistic

system:

and Keith,

,.V6",

5,

PU. 231,
recognize

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

The Atnian
with the
all

else

evil.

for

is

Atman
is

and the man who

thus

is

pessimism

in the

Atman,

All that comes into existence

is

teaching of the Upanishads a basis

tone

general

but their

Emancipation

pessimistic.^

realizes his identity

enters into peace, but, apart from the

of sorrow.

full

There

bliss,

57

fills

many

by no means

is

passage

with

joyous radiance.

There are many strikingly beautiful and effective passages

works here a few sentences which recall the Psalms,
There
there a brief paragraph which reminds one of Plato.
is a simple sincerity about them, and a childlike naturalness
of vision which are very attractive.
There are parts of these
works which will take a high and permanent place in the
world's best literature.
But, after all, the books are but
compilations
and, beside these lofty prophesyings which
reveal the Indian mind at its noblest and greatest, there are
many passages as futile and worthless as the poorest twaddle
of the Brahmanas.
The Brahman compiler had not yet learnt
to separate the wheat from the chaff.
56. The passion for release and the example of these
wandering ascetics stirred many other groups of men to
thought and inquiry so that by the middle of the sixth
century there were many leaders, each with his doctrine of
release and his ascetic discipline, preaching on the plains of
the north.
These we merely mention now, for we must
follow the school of the Upanishads to the end of the period.
The original Upanishads, which we dealt with above, conin these

tinued to be taught orally in their respective schools as the

source of that knowledge of the

release

Brahman-Atman which

brings

from the bonds of karma and transmigration.

men had begun

to realize that

were worthless

for the

end

in

passages in these treatises

view

and the awkwardness of

carrying a long piece of discursive prose in the

a spiritual tonic constantly

obtruded

itself;

interspersed proved potent as teaching

^

See Keith,

.S\S'.

But

many

13; Oldenberg,

and easy
LU.

memory

as

while the verses

115

to

fif.

remember.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

58

Hence arose a new

series of short

Upanishads

which

in verse,

are the sole surviving product of the teaching given in the

schools on the subject of the

Their purpose

in

the main

is,

Atman

during these centuries.

not to introduce fresh teaching,

but to express in more convenient form what was

settled

We

orthodox belief of the sannyasi schools.

them out

in the

now

the

here set

order of their age^ and in their connexion

with the Vedic schools

Veda.

BLACK YAJUS
WHITE YAJUS
B LAC K Y AJ U S
ATH ARYAN
BLACK YAJUS

School.

Upanishad.

Kathakas

Kathaka
lid

Vajasaneyins
"

Svetdsvatara

Mundaka
Mahdndrdyana

Taittirlyas

It is impossible to give precise dates for any one of these

poems, but most scholars would agree that, if we place the
Kathaka about 500 B.C.,^ and the Mahanarayana in the third

century,^

While

we

shall not

it is

be

far

wrong.

true that the purpose of these treatises

a restatement of teaching than an advance

changes inevitable in the centuries appear

the main in two directions.

in

shown
is

in the

There

is

in

is

rather

thought, yet the

in

them. These are

a distinct advance

capacity for sustained thinking, and the subject

developed in more orderly sequence than

in

the earlier

There is a tendency towards the exaltation of Vishnu

and Siva as symbols of Brahman, and an increasing emphasis
is laid on self-discipline.
The introduction of Vishnu and Siva leads to a movement
works.*

of thought in the direction of theism.

is little
is

advance, but in the Isd

In the

we meet with

Kathaka

there

the word which

used in later literature to denote the personal Supreme in

Hinduism,
the

Isa, Isvafa,

Mundaka
^
"^

Lord.

the personal

God

In the Svetdsvatara and in

stands out face to face with

Deussen, PU. 24.

Oldenberg, LU. 203; 288; 357; Keith,

Y^^WhyJRAS.

1908, 171 n.2.

^^.V. 9.

Oldenberg,

LU.

206.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

the personal soul

yet the philosophy

monistic, and the

is

Atman

identity of the individual and the universal

full

In the Svctasvatara Siva

maintained.^
his old

name Rudra

devotional feeling,

and, for the

b/iakti, is

first

is

time

59

is

introduced under

in

Hindu

literature,

spoken of as due to him. He is

karma and transmigration.

said to control the whole process of

When God

clearly conceived as a person,

is

He

necessarily

is

distinguished from the material universe as well as from the

human

But the Sveidsvatara, while

soul.

personality in several ways,

monism.

is

it

suggests divine

unwilling to give up the ancient

Hence the material world is declared to be indyd,

Brahman may remain the All as well as the

illusion, so that

One.

This idea

is

importance

of transcendent

the later

in

religion.

In the hermitages of the Vanaprasthas, the austerities which

were originally used to win supernatural power were employed

to discipline the body and mind for religious purposes, the
ends sought through the discipline being intercourse with the
gods, purity of character, and an etherealized body ^ and
;

the word yoga^

yoking

was used to cover the

whole range of these regulated methods of physical and
In the verse Upanishads these methods
mental control.
are heartily commended for use in the search for Brahman.*
'

In the old Upanishads,

by

'

',

restraint

when the

',

idea of the

Atman

a rigorous process of abstraction, the result

conception, a

mind which

a knower that

is

is

is

a subject without

reached

is

an

idealistic

an object,

This led quite naturally to the

apprehend the Unknowable in mystic
and to
vision, the soul must be disciplined to perfect stillness
this end the restraining methods of yoga were prescribed.
In
so far also as ethical conditions were regarded as a precondition of the enlightenment which is emancipation, the

unknowable.

belief that, in order to

See Barnett,/A'^6'. 1 910, 1363,

Chhandogya U. V. 10, i ; II. 23,

'

Taittirlya U.

Oldenberg,

i ;

Raniayana,

II. 4.

LU.

258

ff. ;

Keith, SS. 55.

II. liv;

III.

xii.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

6o

yoga was regarded as helpful. In the Kdthaka

Svetdsvatara yoga methods are very seriously
commended and we shall find that the early Buddhists were
practice of

and

in the

by

led

motives to

similar

similar

practices.

Along with

the description of these exercises, a theory which explains

them
and

is

detail

stated in outline three times over in the

reappears in the Svetdsvatara.

it

It is

Kdthaka,

not discussed in

yet the conceptions expressed and the technical terms

used make

it

quite clear that

in later literature as the

it is

germ of what

the

is

known

Sarikhya philosophy.^

In these treatises also the Vedanta

first

occurs as the

name

Both groups of Upanishads were attached to the Brahmanas of the schools to which
they belonged, and were recognized as smti, revelation of the
of the philosophy of the Upanishads.

highest grade.
B.

Many

Schools.

^']. From the prose Upanishads and the earliest Jain and
Buddhist literature it is plain that by the middle of the sixth
century many speculative systems were already being taught,each represented by a leader and his following of monks for
;

asceticism

was as

essential to the system-teacher in India then

was in ancient Greece. Some of

removed from the sannyasis of the
Upanishads, many were much more sceptical, while some were

as the philosopher's cloak

these teachers were not far

thorough-going materialists.

It is not possible to sketch the

systems clearly, but one significant fact stands out undeniable,

that a

number

of

Karma Mimamsa.
to be

known

them were distinctly atheistic, like the

The chief were the systems which came

as Jainism

and Buddhism, but there were

others.

Clearly for a long time, seemingly for several centuries, the

doctrine of the

Brahman-Atman

laid

hold of only a small

proportion of thinking Hindus, while the vast majority re'

For the exposition of these passages, see Deussen, PU. 249-53;

Oldenberg, LU. 203-6; Keith, .S^". 9-14.

Rhys Davids, ALB. 36 ff. ; Poussin,
''

WN.

60.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

tained the ancient Vedic polytheistic outlook.

Karma Mimarhsa,

for the

6]

This accounts

Jainism, Buddhism, and other early

atheisms, and also for the emergence of the Saiikhya and the

Vaiscshika at later dates.

Two

further elements of the intel-

atmosphere of those days render the atheistic attitude

of the mass, and the materialistic standpoint of many, more
lectual

first

the world-constraining power credited to

the sacrifice in the

Yajurvcda, and secondly the automatic

comprehensible,

character of the theory of transmigration and

taught
It

in

karma

as usually

there seemed to be no need for a ruler of the universe.

seems most probable that the materialistic school, known

India as Lokayata for two thousand years, was already in

existence.^
It is

probable that the Sarikhya and

in early

forms which we cannot

now

Yoga systems appeared,

reconstruct, in the fourth

Dates are very doubtful all we can be

sure of is that the Sankhya comes in the main from the
philosophy of the early and the verse Upanishads,^ and that
the Yoga, while also indebted to the Upanishads, springs
ultimately from popular magic and hypnotism.'* Sudras were
admitted to the order of Sankhya ascetics as readily as twiceborn men, and both Sudras and Outcastes could become
yogis
so that from the time of the foundation of these
schools the pursuit of release was open to these classes within
or third century

B. c.

Hinduism
58.

itself.

Amongst

these clashing systems were two,

now known

as Jainism and

Buddhism, whose principles speedily set them

outside Hinduism and made them rival faiths. They were
both founded by Kshatriyas. While both systems recognized
all the gods and demigods of the Hindu pantheon, they spoke
of them as of little strength and importance as compaicd
with their
folly
'

^
^

own

leaders.

therefore taught that

Veda was

it

was

untrue, and the

Poussin, WN. 58.

Poussin, IViX. 61; Keith, /AM5. 1917, 175, //. 2.
Oldenberg, LU. 211
Keith, SS. Ch. I
Deussen,
Garbe, SY. 34 ff.
Oldenberg, LU. 258 fif.
;

They

to worship them, that the

AGP.

I. iii.

15.

62

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

priestly

work of the Brahmans

offered release to
that,

men

order to win

in

a monk.

The

valueless.

of every race and

release,

was necessary

it

make

laity could

Both systems

caste.

little

It

to

is

progress, but could

not expect to reach the goal until they accepted the

renunciation.

of

which only

become sannyasis and

Hinduism could not fail to condemn

of the three highest castes could

press on to release.

both systems as heresies.

but

life

Yet, even so, this was a great advance on con-

ditions within the school of the Upanishads, in

men

true

become

we

take

Buddhism

Jainism

first

is

the earlier of the two,

because of

it

we have

far fuller

and clearer information than of Jainism.

C.

The Buddhist School.

Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, the most potent

among all the sons of India and one
of the greatest of men, was born at Kapilavastu, on the borders
of Nepal, almost due north of Benares, about 560B. c, theson of a nobleman of the Sakya clan. When about thirty
years of age, he left his wife, his little son, and his father, and
renounced the world. He became a disciple of several teachers
59.

and

attractive personality

in succession,

but did not find satisfaction in their teaching

and resolved to seek truth for himself. Finally, at the spot

now known as Buddh-Gaya. in Bihar, his system took shape
in his mind.
From this time, somewhere about 525 B.C., until
his death at the age of eighty {c. 480 B.C.), he spent all his
energy

in

teaching his principles.

He

held that the final

him and therefore called himself the

Buddha, the enlightened one. Since he was accepted by his

truth had appeared in

followers as a full authority in matters of faith and

death must have been an irremediable

loss to

them.

life,

No

his

one

was appointed in his place his teaching must now be their

That teaching, preserved in the memories of his
guide.
disciples and gradually modified and expanded as time passed,
finds expression in the Canon.
He regarded
60. His was an eminently practical system.
:

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

life

as

full

of suffering and believed

the medicine necessary

for the

that the cause of suffering

was

tliat his

teaching provided

healing of men.
desire,

63

He

taught

and sought to show the

way whereby desire might be extinguished and release from

karma and transmigration and every other form of suffering
might be won. He invited men and women to the monastic
in which under his guidance, as he believed, the nirvana^
i.e. the extinction, of desire, might speedily be accomplished.
Those who reached nirvana in this life, at death would enter
life,

final nirvana,^

He

and would not be born again.

expressed the leading ideas of his system

in clear

and

simple forms, and in the vernacular all early Buddhist books

The basis of the whole is given in the
are in the vernacular.
:

Four Noble Truths

The noble truth of misery.

Birth is misery; old age is misery;

death is misery ; sorrow, lamentation, misery,
grief, and despair are misery ; to wish for what one cannot have
is misery ; in short, all the five attachment-groups are misery.
The 7wble truth of the origin of misery. It is desire leading to
rebirth, joining itself to pleasure and passion, and finding delight
desire, namely, for sensual pleasure, desire for
in every existence,

1.

disease

2.

is

misery

permanent existence, desire for transitory existence.

The noble trutJi of the cessation of niisety. It is the complete fading
out and cessation of this desire, a giving up, a loosing hold, a relinquishment, and a non-adhesion.
The noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of misery. It is

3.

4.

noble eightfold path, to wit, right belief, right resolve, right

speech, right behaviour, right occupation, right effort, right watchfulness, right concentration.^
this

In discussing this path the

Buddha explained

that

it

was

a middle course which shunned two extremes, the pursuit of

worldly pleasures 'and the practice of useless

following

noble path

is

austerities.

The

the exposition of the eight requirements of the

Right Belief: belief in the four noble truths.

Right Resolve to renounce sensual pleasures, to have malice towards none, and to harm no living creature.
Right Speech abstinence from falsehood, backbiting, harsh language,
and frivolous talk.

1.

2.

3.

Warren, BT. 380.

From Digha-Nikaya,

22, as translated in

Warren, BT. 368-73.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

64
4.

5.

6.

Right Behmnour abstinence from destroying life, from taking that

which is not given, and from immorality.
Right Occupation quitting a wrong occupation and getting one's
livelihood by a right occupation.
Right Effo7-t'. the purpose, effort, endeavour, and exertion to avoid
and abandon evil qualities, and to produce, preserve, develop, and
:

make

perfect meritorious qualities.

strenuous, conscious, unsleeping watchfulness,
as regards sensations, the mind, and the elements of being, so as
to rid oneself of lust and grief and remain free.

7.

Right Watchfulness

8.

Right Concentration
through reasoning,

the progressive practice of hypnotic trances

tense thinking,

reflection, contemplation, tranquillization, in-

and the abandonment

The path may be summed up

of misery

and

of happiness.'

Buddha's
it and to
apply it to life in detail, and an earnest moral life accompanied
with regular meditation and the practice of hypnotic trances.
61. Thus far we may be sure of our ground, but as soon
as we ask what the Buddha taught about the nature of the
world and man, and what happens in release, we find ourselves
as

faith

in

the

teaching, vigorous intellectual effort to understand

in difficulties, since

it

is

impossible to

Sutta Pitaka, which did not take

two centuries

The

make
form

certain that the

until

more than

after his death, really represents his teaching.

prevailing doctrine in the

world

final

Canon

is

that everything in the

and lacking in an ego,^ and therefore

that man has no soul.
But if man has no soul, it would seem
to be fair to conclude at once that there can be no rebirth,
and further that, even if some shadowy form of continuity can
be conceived which might make it possible to believe in transis

transitory, evil,

migration, final release in these circumstances can only be final

annihilation.
doctrine.

while the

The Canon

Transmigration

is
is

by no means

consistent in

existence of a self or immortal spirit

denieci, there

its

certainly everywhere taught, but,

arc passages where the soul

is

is

usually

said to exist.

Then, although in a few places release is said to be annihilation pure and simple, that is not the prevalent doctrine.
From Dlgha-Nikdya, 22. Abbreviated from Warren, BT. 373-4.
These three epithets are in a sense the watchwords of Buddhism.
In Ceylon the monk, as he goes his rounds, may be heard muttering,
'

anichchhay dukha, anatta.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

Modern

6^

scholars have differed greatly in their reconstruction

The

of the Buddha's teaching.

latest exposition,

which

Professor Poussin,^ strives to do complete justice to

He

evidence.

is

inclined to believe that

Gautama

by

is

the

all

did deny

the existence of a soul or permanent entity in man, but he

believes he predicated the existence of a sort of substitute for

a soul which

may

be reasonably conceived as a possible basis

It is almost impossible to express the

for transmigration.

idea accurately and clearly in^a sentence, but perhaps the

may

lowing

suggest

The

it.

exposition runs that

in

fol-

our

psychical hTe there exists only the stream of consciousness,

with

partial continuity,

its

its

imperfect identity,

its

continuous

and it is this phenomenal thing that transmigrates,

a something which is so changeable as to be no basis for the
belief in a permanent soul, and yet has sufficient continuity to
change

make it possible to speak of the individual as transmigrating.

Thus man is altogether phenomenal, a composite of fleeting
elements, yet rebirth takes place.

But,

if

this

is all

that trans-

when transmigration
does not take place, the man is annihilated ? That seems to
be the only possible conclusion. But the Buddha did not

we

migrates, must

not conclude

that,

usually speak of deliverance as annihilation.

In his teaching

he eschewed, as far as possible, metaphysical questions as of

no practical utility, and, indeed, as obstructions in the path
towards the ideal. Hence nirvana is usually called complete

no description or

deliverance, and

added.
history.

the

Such
It

is

Professor

would, perhaps, be

Buddha denied

definition of the state

Poussin's
still

reconstruction

is

of the

better to suppose that

the existence of the soul while he affirmed

transmigration and deliverance, and that he refused to enter

into

any philosophic

justification of these positions.

Buddhist tradition unanimously declares that a few

weeks after the death of the master a great Council was held
62.

at Rajagriha, the capital of

for the

monastic

life,

Magadha, and that there the

rules

and also the discourses of the Buddha as

1

IVN.

34.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

66

contained

in

the Sutta Pitaka were rehearsed.

scholars agree that the story

growth of the Canon

but

it is

is

unhistorical,

is

All

critical

and that the

posterior to the death of the

Buddha

quite possible that the disciples assembled after the

death of the founder to come to some agreement concerning

the principal points of the creed and of the discipline.

Very little is known about the history of the faith or of the

community during the next two hundred years. Clearly the
movement spread the literature gradually took shape and
;

and practice
not possible to give any

differences of opinion on matters of both faith

arose

among

the

monks

but

it

is

tradicomprehensible outline of the events of those years.

tion is found in the Canon that, one hundred years after the

death of the Buddha, a second Council was held at Vaisali, to

examine and condemn ten illegitimate practices which the

monks of that town claimed to have the right to follow, and

a much later tradition declares that the Vinaya and Sutta
Pitakas of the Canon were recited here also. Scholars are ready
,

to believe that a Council

was held

to discuss certain points

of discipline and other questions, but the date remains quite

uncertain, and the statements about the

About two hundred years

Canon

are unhistorical.

Buddha's death,
however, light begins to fall on the history. Alexander's
raid into the Punjab led to a revolution and change of dynasty
in Magadha and to the establishment, under Chandragupta, of
^6^.

the

first

empire ever known

gupta, the founder of the

after the

The grandson of ChandraMaurya empire, was Asoka, one of

in India.

the most remarkable monarchs the world has seen.

to have reigned from 273 to 232 B.C.

He seems

few years after he

became emperor he added Orissa by conquest to his empire.

According to his own account, the slaughter and misery which
the conquest occasioned caused him such acute distress and
repentance that he became a Buddhist and decided to wage
no more war. Many scholars believe that at a later date he
actually became a monk, at least for a short time.
The conversion of Asoka made the fortune of Buddhism
;

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

for,

man

being a

f^-]

of conviction and energy, he set about using

the wealth, authority, and influence of his great position for the

He

spread of the reh'gion which he had adopted.

sums from the imperial revenue

The

ings.

in erecting

spent vast

Buddhist build-

use of stone for architecture and sculpture seems to

have begun

about this time.

India

in

on the

earliest stone buildings erected

Consequently,

the

of India dowered

soil

the Buddhist faith with a magnificent series of artistic monasteries,

temples, and

relic-mounds.

He

sent

missionaries of the faith throughout the length

India,

and

also to Ceylon, to

Afghanistan, and beyond.

Burmah,

out monks as
and breadth of

to the Himalayas, to

Great success followed both within

and without the bounds of the empire. Ceylon became

a Buddhist country, and along the southern slopes of the
Himalayas, in Kashmir, and in eastern Afghanistan the faith
took firm root. The emperor also prepared simple sermons
for his people and had them cut on rocks by the side of pilgrim
and trade routes, or on monumental pillars setup in prominent
places, so that he might preach to the millions of his subjects
and his neighbours. Laws were made to compel men to live
in closer accord with the Buddhist ideal
and Government
officials were required to help the imperial propaganda in the
;

ordinary course of their duties.

64. Tradition runs that a

reign

for

discipline,

accepted

Buddhist Canon
I.

The

3.

The

Council held at Patna during his

the settlement of several

the

Tipitaka

in three baskets,

of faith

and

Tripitaka),

the

questions

(Sansk.

Pitaka, or divisions, as under

VtJiaya, or Discipline Basket, containing the rules

monks and nuns.

Sermon Basket, consisting

for the life of

Sutta, or

in

the main of

dialogues and sermons.

3.

The Abhidhamma.ox Teaching Basket, containing

manuals for the training of monks and nuns.

chiefly

Is the tradition credible?

The
century

following
f].C.,

the

facts

nmst be recognized. In the third

in the memories of the

Canon existed only

F 2

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

68

monks and nuns and it must have been in Magadhi, the

Magadha and of the imperial capital, Patna. No
portion of this original Magadhi Canon survives, but the
;

vernacular of

European scholars obtained

Buddhism, purports to be the

Ceylonese Canon, from which

knowledge
books accepted

of early

their

at

identical

the

Council.

The

language,

is Pali, a literary tongue which is believed to have

been developed at a later date from several vernaculars, but
especially from Magadhi. and which was used by Ceylonese

however,

Buddhists for the literature of their faith alone. The Pali

Canon was reduced to writing in Ceylon in the first century
and in the later history it is but the Canon of the
B. C
;

Vibhajjavadin school of Ceylon, and of others dependent on

It

is

Canon and the

practically certain that this Pali

it.

later

Sanskrit Canons of North India were derived independently

from the Magadhi

As

original.

to the relation of the Pali

Canon

to the texts of the

advanced scholarship is
probably best represented by Poussin, who, while acknowledging that the Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas which we possess

third

century

B.C.,

the position

of

much the same as the early Magadhi

numerous changes were probably introduced in the time of oral transmission and in the process of
translation into Pali and roundly declares that the apostolic

are on the whole very

texts, yet holds that

'

or conciliar origin of the

points out that, while

all

Abhidharma

is

a pious fraud

the schools acknowledged a

'.^

He

Canon

two parts, the Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas, only two schools,
namely the Vibhajjavadins of Ceylon, who used Pali, and the
Sarvastivadins, who probably belonged to Kashmir, and used
Sanskrit, possessed an Abhidhamma Pitaka, and the two
in

collections

are

wholly independent.

Consequently,

we can

recognize only the Vinaya and the Sutta Pitakas as belonging

to this period.
if a General Council had been held in Patna, it
have been held only with Asoka's permission and
^ Opinions,
* Abhidhamma in Pali.
44.

Further,

could

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

and

69

would then almost certainly have been

His silence thus suggests
a serious doubt about the whole tradition.
65. The central source of the Vinaya is the PdtiviokkJia.
Twice every month the monks of every district met in solemn
assembly, and the 227 articles of this Confession were recited
aloud one by one, the reciter asking after the repetition of
each rule whether any monk had been guilty of any transco-operation

mentioned

his

in

The

gression.
first

book

part

is

it

inscriptions.

Confession

with

its

of the Vinaya, the Siitta

the Khandakas, the treatises,

Commentary forms the

The second
VibJiahga.
e. the Mahdvagga and

i.

the Chiillavagga which give rules for every part of the

,

monk and

the

The

Order.

subjects of
66.

life

of the

tales

which are of extreme

the early history of the

third part, the Parivdra,

little interest,

probably a

The Sutta Pitaka

enters into the

life

of

Buddha and

there are numerous stories and

interest for the

life

In both these parts of the Vinaya

the nun.

is

is

a scholastic

list

of

Canon.
Here one

late addition to the

of far greater interest.

makes

of ancient India and

friends with

people of every type, enjoying the simplicity, the humour, the

kindliness of the peasant, listening to teaching of every sect,

new and old. Here we

made and unmade. Every-

reverent and coarse, wise and foolish,

see religion in the process of being

where walks the Buddha, supreme

in his

humanity, his

fine

gentlemanliness, his caustic wit, his quiet reasonableness, his

radiant personality, winning his

by the moderation of
for

human

I.

and

all

classes of

men

discipline, his feeling

need, and his firm conviction that he has actually

stormed the citadel of truth.

into five

way among

his teaching

The

contents of this Pitaka

fall

main groups.

The most

consists of dialog7ies

come from

the

and most valuable of all the groups

and sermons. Nearly all are said to

attractive

Buddha

himself, but a few are attributed to his

immediate disciples. Each has a brief introduction, telling

where and in what circumstances tradition said it had been
uttered.
These beautiful pieces of literature are to be found

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

70

in the Digha and Majjhima Nikayas, but many fragments are scattered throughout the other collections. A number
of dialogues are so full of the power and simplicity of genius

mainly

that

we can

readily believe that they reflect with great faith-

fulness the teaching of the Master

many

of the great phrases

which form the basis of the teaching also unquestionably conic

from him and probably also some of the brief poems which
glow like gems amid the more sober prose but a very large
;

number of the

pieces are clearly of later origin, created at

various times to meet the needs of the Order or of the lay

community.
II.
life

The next group

centres in the

There

Buddha.

of the Master in the Canon, but there are

many

is

no

bio-

graphical passages in both the Vinaya and the Sutta Pitakas,^

which were later combined to form biographies of the Buddha

in Ceylon and India.
In these narratives he is sometimes
regarded as purely human, only exalted to wondrous powers
by his enlightenment, but in many places he is spoken of as
a demigod, and in others he is raised far above all the gods.
The doctrine of karma and rebirth leads to the belief that he
was gradually prepared for his final enlightenment in his

Hence in the Book of Lives, the Jdtaka, we

have 550 mythical narratives of previous lives, and in the
Chariydpitaka 0^^ more, all set out as edifying stories for the

previous births.

Buddhist reader, a literature of extraordinary variety and

interest.

Further, since truth

does not change, Buddhists

began to believe that in the earlier ages the same teaching

must have been proclaimed by other Buddhas. The outcome
of this was a long series of Previous Buddhas.
At first there
were only three, then six, then twenty-four, then twenty-seven
but finally they became innumerable.^ They are parallel
;

' The Mahdvagga

Mahapadana suttas

Majjhima Nikaya;
Samyutta Nikjiya.

in the Vinaya Pitaka ; the Mahapa7-inibbmia and

of the Digha Nikaya; suttas 26, 36, 123 of the
and the Dhammachakkappavattana sutta of the

" Mahapadana Sutta

Buddliavamsa
Waddell \xvJRAS. 1914, 677.
;

Nida/iakatJid

Lalita Vistara

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

71

with the Jain Tnthakaras and the incarnations of Vishnu and

of Siva.
Tlie

III.

third

group

consists

ejaculations, epigrams, psahns.

of sJiort religious poems,

The

habit of giving expression

moods of the monastic life seems to have

begun with the Buddha himself, and was cultivated with very
great success by many generations of pious monks and nuns.
There are four collections of these poems, the DJiammapada^
the Udana, the TJiera Gathd, and the Then Gdihd, but,
verse to the loftier

in

besides these, numerous examples

are scattered throughout

the Canon.

The

fourth group consists of edifying narratives and

which vary very much in literary and didactic
worth.
They seem to have been exceedingly popular among
the Buddhist laity, but for us they have their chief interest as

IV.

ballads,

of folk-lore.
In the Mahdvagga, the suttas of the
Majjhima Nikaya, the Apaddna ^ and also in \h.c^ Jdtaka-hooV
are numerous tales, and in the Samyutta Nikaya and the
Sntta Nipdta many stories in verse and ancient ballads.
V. The fifth group consists of magic texts, charms against
snakes, evil spirits, demons, &c. The Klmddakapdtha and the
32nd sutta of the Digha Nikaya consist of texts of this type.
stores

The

early Buddhist

church was, essentially, the double

monastic order, yet there was

-a

large laity also.

The

duties

on them were, in the main, attention to the teaching of

the Buddha, a really good moral life, the practice of a/iii'/isd,
e. non-injury to animals, and liberality to the monks and
But from a very early date reverence for the Buddha
nuns.
and his chief followers led to the beginnings of a cult.^
laid

i.

Each

Buddha or of a noted
became a place of pilgrimage and adoration. The
which the laity heard instruction from the monks had

stupa, erected over relics of the

preacher,
hall in
^

The word Apadana,

Sanskrit Ai'adaiia,

used of stories about Buddhist saints.

'^

means a heroic deed, and

This collection

is

is

in verse.

The Buddha's attitude to Hindu priests and their sacrifices was so

we may be certain that he established no ritual cultus among

scornful that

his disciples.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

72

stupa set up in it to stir devotional feeling, and many

symbols of Buddhist faith and practice received fervent adoration.
In the time of Asoka each great stupa and chaitya
became a splendid work of art and music, shows, and proso that Buddhist
cessions were added to earlier observances
a

worship began to

rival the spectacular attractions of

temple-worship and

Hindu

sacrifice.

Asoka form one of the most interesting

They may be most conveniently
Vincent
Smith's
Asoka. The great Buddhist
Dr.
in
studied
Mission carried to so much success during his reign is described
in them from the point of view of the Emperor who organized
67.

The

Edicts of

of all Buddhist documents.

and supported it, while the Chronicles of Ceylon describe it

from the standpoint of the monastic community who provided
the missionaries. The edicts show the extreme interest which
the

Emperor took

in

the expansion of the religion, not only

but also amongst the jungle-folk of India and

among Hindus

also enable us to see that

he made

large use of the imperial officials in order to spread

amongst

foreign nations.

They

the people a knowledge of Buddhism, of the Emperor's faith

in

the religion, and of his desire that

One

adopted.

it

should be widely

names seven passages

inscription

in the

Canon

He

lays
which he recommends
very great stress on the virtue of saving animal life, and tells
how he has restricted animal sacrifice by law and also the
He was almost a vegetarian
slaughter of animals for food.
for study, his favourite texts.

Instead of the royal hunt, his Majesty

himself.

took religious tours to

One

visit religious

edict gives orders that

schism

in

monks

now under-

sacred places.

seek to create

the Buddhist church shall be unfrocked.

probably published immediately

if

or

men and
nuns who

such a council was held.

An

after the

This was

Council at Patna,

inscribed pillar also informs

Emperor had enlarged for the second time the

Kanakanmni, one of the previous Buddhas.

us that the

Stupa of

Very

little

distinctive

Buddhist teaching occurs

edicts, except the insistence

in

these

on the sacredness of animal

life.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

noticeable that there

It is peculiarly

karma and transmigration

we

no single mention of

them, and

in

are probably justified in concluding that

hold of the

and rebirth had not as yet

laid serious

people

The Emperor

in

eastern

India.

practise the law of piety,

which

it

not the slightest

Since the Arthasastra shows the same

allusion to nirvana.
features,

is

-Ji

produces

first

in this world,

urges

all

karma

common
men to

because of the good results

but above all things because

such conduct creates merit, and secures the other world for
Ordinary morality stands in the foreground,
the pious man.
reverence to parents, relatives, teachers, and all religious men,
proper treatment

of

slaves

and

truth-speaking,

servants,

liberality, gentleness to all living creatures.

Similarly, tolera-

and teachers of all

denominations, are repeatedly recommended. The edicts
thus contain scarcely anything which Brahmans would not
approve. Yet the prohibition of animal sacrifice must have

tion of all creeds,

and

liberality to ascetics

been deeply resented.

D. TJie Jain School.
68.

For many years European scholars

believed

that

Jainism was a schism or branch-system derived from Buddhism,

but research has made it clear that the two are independent and

Mahavira, who was

belonged
to a Kshatriya
a contemporary of the Buddha,^
family of good position, and was born in a town a little to the
He became a sannyasi of an
north of the site of Patna.
that Jainism

is

the earlier of the two.

which had been founded by a man named Parsva,

and developed it into the sect of the Jains. The canonical
literature of the sect was not reduced to writing until nearly
a thousand years after Mahavlra's death, and it is as yet
impossible to say whether any parts of it come from this
period or not so that it requires much caution to work back

ascetic order

There is much uncertainty about his actual date. Jains themselves

give two dates for his death, 527 and 467 B.C., while Buddhist texts
represent him as a contemporary of the Buddha, and place his death a few
years before the Buddha's nirvana.
'

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

74

even to a bare outline of the founder's faith and discipline.

few features of the system, however, stand out with such

distinctness that

them

we should almost be

justified in accepting

as primary without further evidence

in early

statements found

Buddhist books about the founder, his

and

sect,

teaching corroborate the Jain evidence very clearly on a

his

number

relation between early Hinduism and early

on
asceticism,
the one hand, and Jain beliefs and ascetic
on the other,^ is so patent that we need not hesitate to

of points

and the

Hindu
rules,

These are

accept the chief lines of the tradition as historical.

the original atheism of the system, and the beliefs, that there
are souls in every particle of earth,
as in men, animals,

and

air,

and

plants,

release, the practice of certain

water, and

fire,

as well

that, for the attainment of

very severe austerities, tapas,

life in any form,

and the keeping of a number of moral rules are necessary.
Monks and nuns had to pluck their own hair out by the roots,
and were not allowed to drink cold water nor to bathe. After
twelve years of rigorous austerities they were encouraged to
commit suicide by self-starvation, if they chose to do so. The
system is more closely allied to animism, hylozoism, and early

the strictest abstinence from the destruction of

ascetic practice than

any other belonging to the

period.

The

severe austerities and the rule of ahiihsd, non-injury to both

life, both come from the discipline of the
Mahavira organized the laymen and the laywomen of the community as well as the monks and the nuns.
Only ascetics could hope to win release at once, but a faithful
lay-life prepared the soul for becoming an ascetic in a future
life.
On the laity were laid simple moral rules and easy
austerities, and it was their special duty to support the monks
and the nuns. Mahavira did his work in the vernacular, and

vegetable and animal

Vanaprasthas.^

the

Canon

the

many

is

in

titles

an old vernacular to

conferred on

the most prominent.

\\\ii-\,Jina,

Hence

Amongst

this day.

conqueror, was one of

his followers are called /aina,

Jains.
1

Jacobi,

SBE. XXII.

x; xxii

fif.

ERE.

VII. 465.

See

30.

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

We may
same way

be certain that Jain worship arose

which the Buddhist cult developed

in

in

75

much

the

for at later

dates the two are absolutely parallel.^

69.

Of

know very

the history of Jainism during these centuries

little.

we

There seems, however, to be reason to

believe that from an early date a distinction tended to arise

among

the

monks

of the community, which finally led in the

The

century A. D. to a great schism.

first

question at issue

was whether the monks should wear white robes or discard

all clothing.
This division of opinion disturbed the early life
When the schism actually
of the community in some degree.
came, the Jains fell into two sects, the Svetambara or Whitee. naked, and
clothed, and the Digambara or Sky-clothed,
i.

the division remains to-day.

The

Jains have a tradition that Chandragupta, the founder

Maurya Empire, was a Jain, that a famine broke out

in Magadha during his reign, and that thereupon he abdicated
his throne and went south with a great company of Jains

of the

under the leadership of Bhadrabahu to Sravana Belgoja in

the Mysore country, where he became a monk and finally
died by self-starvation.

If the story is true, the date of the

migration would be about 298

B. C.

his

for

succeeded to the throne about that date

attestation is an inscription at Sravana

a late date, scholars are very

much

son Bindusara

but, as

its earliest

Belgola of rather

divided with regard to

its

trustworthiness.'^
70.

twelve

Tradition

also

years of famine,

says that, towards the end of the

the

sacred

books were collected

monks held at Patna, under the presidency

of Sthulabhadra.
They are said to have been twelve
e.
limbs
Anga
in number and to have been called
members of the body of scripture. The last Ariga conin

a council of

'

',

Mahavira
^

'

',

books which contained the utterances of

first eleven were composed by
followers.
Bhadrabahu, who is said to have led the
^ ^- Smith, H/. 146.
See 121 and 123.

sisted of fourteen

his

i.

himself, while the

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

76

migration to the south,

is

believed to have been the author

and of nirynktis, i. e. brief

comments, on ten of them. The last Aiiga is irretrievably
lost
but the Svetambaras declare that the eleven Anga,
which form the first division of their Canon to-day, are the
identical books collected at the Council.
The Digambaras,
on the other hand, who confess that they no longer possess
the original Canon, deny that the eleven Svetambara Aiiga
All modern scholars acknowledge that there
are genuine.
are many archaic elements in these Svetambara books, and in
particular that the accounts of Mahavira, the early community
and its beliefs and practices, which we have already dealt
It thus seems to be
with, are in the main at least historical.
clear that parts of the existing Ariga must have been handed
down orally with considerable fidelity for a thousand years
for they were not reduced to writing until about A. D. 500.
The problem set by the Anga is of a very complicated
Their language is not the original MagadhI, in
character.
which works recited and arranged at Patna in the third century
B. c. must have been composed, but a later dialect akin in
some respects to MagadhI, but modified under the influence
of the speech of the west of India, where the work of codifiFurther,
cation and writing was carried out about A. D. 500.^
there are clear proofs that they have undergone extensive
Critical study has not yet gone far
alteration since then.
enough to make the solution of this most intricate problem
of three of the canonical books

Thus, while it is probably true that a number of

books were collected and recognized at Patna, no one can yet
say what precise relation the canonical books bear to those
Weber holds that the existing books were
original works.
possible.

formed between- the second and the

Jacobi

is

down from
'
"^

Intro.,

centuries A. D., but

the Patna Council comparatively

See below,

Weber

fifth

inclined to think that parts of them

may

have come

little

changed.''^

181.

in 'lA.

SEE. XLV,

XVII. 289, 342;

p. xl;

Keith,

yAM5.

XX.

24;

191

551.

5,

Jacobi,

Kaipa-sfttra,

TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE

There

certainly

is

no body of Jain

77

literature belonging to this

period to place beside the Buddhist Tripitaka.

That the Jains were an important body

71.

Maurya emperors
Asoka refers to them
the

have

also

in

one of

in

that

tradition

Samprati reigned after him, and treated the Jain

with as

shown

much

to the Buddhists

I.

is

so that the

extremely doubtful.

in

who

is probably erroneous (Bhandarkar, /A. XLI. 286).

V. Smith, EHI. 192-3, 440.

259),
^

but Samprati himself and the whole

V. SmitWs
sohi, 193.
But Hoernle's theory,
are mentioned in the same edict and who received
Asoka and his grandson, were Digambara Jains {ERE.

Edict VII,

that the AjTvikas,

costly caves from

known from any other source;"

truth of the narrative

Pillar_

community

favour and munificence as his grandfather had

story are not

'

the time of

way in which
his edicts.^
The community
grandson of Asoka named

perfectly clear from the

is

CHAPTER

III

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

200

TO

B. C.

A. D. 200.

The Hindu movement towards theism shows two

72.

and a corresponding though not identical

evolution within Buddhism takes place in two unfoldings also,
and also at the same times. Great political changes form the
background to those religious events.
Early in the second century B.C. the Maurya empire fell. A
stages,

distinct

Hindu dynasty, the Sunga, took

its

place at the capital, Patna,

and doubtless annulled Asoka's laws against animal sacrifice

while on the now contracted western frontier crouched
Bactrian Greeks, Parthians, and Scythians, waiting to spring
Under the Hindu dynasty arose new
at the central empire.
texts of the Rdmdyana and the MaJidbhdrata in which Rama
In
and Krishna walk the earth as divine incarnations.
Buddhist works of the same period the Buddha appears as
;

a semi-divine being with

The Scythian

new

attributes.

Kushans

race called

seized all the western

and about the

middle of the century conquered the Hindu government at
Patna, and thus formed a vast empire stretching from Central
Asia to the Gangetic plain. Not long after these events, as
it would seem, the BhagavadgJtd arose, in which Krishna is
represented as a full incarnation of Vishnu and as the eternal
Brahman of the Upanishads Vaishnava theism was thus
formed and other sects hastened to follow the great example.

frontiers of India soon after the Christian era,

About
was

the

same

formed,

eternal god.

in

time, or a

which

later, Mahayana Buddhism

Buddha almost became an

little

the

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

It

79

seems clear that the wealth and general culture of the

times created a strong and intelligent body of laymen, as

from the monastic orders.

distinct

Literature, philosophy,

and both Hindus and

and art all show great activity
Buddhists found it necessary to modify their standards and
prepare fresh literature to meet the needs of the cultured
;

layman.

One

of the greatest happenings of these centuries

is

the

spread of Buddhism to Persia, to Turkestan, and to China.

i.

Hinduism.

A. The Twice-born and their Literature.

73. No addition of any importance seems to have been
"made during this period to the literature of the Vedic schools
except a number of new Upanishads. The sacrificial discipline
of each school still consisted of Mantra, Brahmana, and Sutra,
with probably the further help of the Karma Mimarhsa
system, while the Aranyaka and the Upanishad formed
special courses.
The Upanishads which made their appearance during the period fall into two classes, of which only

the

attach

first

themselves quite naturally to the original

Vedanta texts.
Of these there are three, the Prasna,
Maiirdyana, and Mdndnkya, the Maitrdyana belonging to the
Black Yajns, the other two to the Atharvavcda.
74. It seems to be clear also that already about the
middle of our period, there existed a work which summed
up the teaching of the Upanishads, and was thus a forerunner
of the famous but far later Brahma-sutra of Badarayana.
That at least seems to be the natural inference from the
reference in the Bhagavadgitd ^ to Brahma-sutras and from the
occurrence of the descriptive phrase sarvopanishadvidyd,'\.G:M\\&
all the Upanishads
in the nearly contemporary
Maitrdyana Upanishad.'^ It is most likely that it was the
example of the Karma-mlmamsa, which undertakes to unify

science of

',

XIII.

4.

ji

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

8o

and sum up the teaching on sacrifice, that led to the exposition

all Upanishad texts in similar fashion.
The ancient KarmaMimamsa text of those days and also the original Upanishad
manual were early lost, eclipsed by the classical documents of

of

the next period.

we have dealt with the legitimate literature of

The second class of Upanishads have not
They fall into three groups, each related
the same standing.
to a special type of ascetic, but all diverging in some degree
75.

Thus

far

the Vedic schools.

from the original Vedanta texts. These are the Sannyasa,

Yoga, and Saiva Upanishads. All were finally attached to
the Atharvaveda, but in rather irregular fashion.
period
76. It is clear that from some early date in the
there existed a document belonging to the Sankhya philosophy.
It is also probable that, besides the Yoga Upanishads
already mentioned, an orderly exposition of the Yoga system

The

existed.

Nyaya, and the Charvaka

But these

Vaiseshika, the

systems must have each had a fundamental text.

five all

stood outside the Vedic schools and were regarded as

more or

less

aberrant.

The growth

of the epic, which

is

discussed below, affords an opportunity of setting these works

in historical

77.

The

connexion with the rest of the literature.

increasingly complicated curriculum taught

each Vedic school rendered

master

all

the

subjects

it

in

impossible for the student to

taught

and the

result

was that

schools for the study of special subjects, such as grammar,

The law

law, and politics, were established.

especial interest, as their labours
for

the

twice-born layman.

schools are of

were of large practical value

Their method seems to have

been to take the Dharma-sutra of some Vedic school and

modify it in some degree, so as to make it suitable not for
members of that school alone, but for all twice-born men.
The Dharma-sutras of Gautama and of Vasishtha, already
included in our study of
to have
78.

dharma

in

undergone this process.

But verse was the medium

our

-last

chapter,

seem

^f

for

popular

literature

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

8i

and many of the old laws in their sutraform were ambiguous.

Hence in the schools it became
customary to express the old sutras in slokas. The most
famous of all Indian law-books, the code of Manu, is a work
of this kind, and took shape during the period.
It is probable
durini; this period,

that it was founded on the Dharma-sutra of the Manavans,

one of the sutra-schools of the Black Yajurvcda. The time
of the creative activity of the Manava law-school seems to
hl^ve been contemporary with the gradual growth of the
didactic epic.
About the time when this latter was completed, or rather later, the labours of the school culminated
in a great law-book in verse, the text of which thereafter
underwent very little change.^ Law-books in verse, in con-

tradistinction to the older treatises in prose sutras, are called

name of the text is the Manava <^^'^~

Dharmasdsira, popularly known as the law of Manu, and
Hence, the

sastra s.

full

usually said to be fabulously old.

It is to be noted that this
law-book and others of the same class were meant for the

twice-born only.

They

are of special interest here because

of their importance for the twice-born householder.

This great code registers several advances

in

Hindu

religious

Here, and also in the contemporary didactic Epic, the

law.
ideal

laid

is

down, though

the twice-born
in order,

i.

e.

man

the

life

it

not

is

made compulsory,

that

should pass through the four dsramas

of the celibate student, the householder,

monk.

the hermit, and the

may remarry
The twice-born may still

child-widow,

No

widow, not even a virgin

is to live an ascetic life.

her duty
eat

flesh,

but there

are

many

restrictions.
79.

During

householders a
last

period

this

there

arose

religious distinction

throughout the history of the

among

twice-born

which was destined to

religion.

As we

shall see

our study of the Epic, there was a group of the twiceborn on whom the worship of Vishnu by temple and image
in

had

laid hold

with such force that they tended to refuse to

^

Hopkins, GE.

19.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

82

recognize the other gods of the pantheon.

stood in a similar relation to Siva.^

Now

Another group

the ritual of temple-

worship had not sprung from Vedic sources, but apparently

from ancient forms of worship traditional among Sudras.^
It was thus inevitable that those who remained loyal to the
ancient sacrificial worship should

condemn

the exclusive cult

Vishnu and of Siva as doubly heterodox, because its

ritual was not Vedic, and because it did not worship all the
Doubtless, there were many among the orthodox even
gods.-^
at this early date who had a god whom they specially favoured
yet this did not affect their orthodoxy, for they freely acknowof

ledged

all

the others.

we must recognize among the

who^ve faithful to the Vedic pantheon
and ritual, and the sectarians, who exalt one god to the neglect

From

this

time, therefore,

twice-born the orthodox,

of the rest, and in his cult use a ritual and liturgy of non-Vedic

The position of the sects was greatly strengthened

by the appearance of the Bhagavadgitd^ which provided the
origin.

Vaishnava with a theology, and led to the formation of a

These devoted
for the worshipper of Siva.
sectarians still kept up the Vedic forms of worship in their
domestic ceremonies, and obsei-ved the rules of caste with
Indeed, throughout their history they have
great strictness.
sought to prove themselves orthodox Hindus, and in some

similar system

cases with considerable success.

80.

sect,

It is

probable that the mass of Sudras belonged to no

but worshipped

now another. That cermass of the Hindu people

Doubtless there would be a certain
Sudras who would share the strictly

now one

god,

tainly has been the position of the

for

many

number of

centuries.
intelligent

sectarian position with their twice-born brethren, just as there

is

to-day, but they would scarcely be regarded as heterodox,

since they were not allowed to perform the ancient sacrifices.

*

Patafijali calls

the stress they lay

2

See

51.

them Sivabhagavatas, devotees of Siva, and speaks of

on the worship of images Mahabhashya on P.V. ii. 76.
3 Chanda, lAR.
< See
99.
86.
:

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

The Epics.

B.

The movement towards theism

(Si.

the ancient god Vishnu for

its

within Hinduism has

Two

centre.

stages are very

movement, and both are

distinctly visible in the

83

reflected in

the growth of the epic poems.

The

original heroic

celebrated the

poem called the Mahdbhdrata, which

Kuru family through the wiles of

of the

fall

Pandus directed by Krishna, underwent considerable

the

The

transformation and enlargement.

epic in

second stage,

this, its

leading feature of the

the Pandus are

that

is

regarded as the heroes of the epic, and,

unlilce

now

former kings,

they are represented as emperors ruling the whole of India.

We also find mention in the poem of Yavanas, Pahlavas, and
Sakas,

i.e.

Greeks, Parthians, and Scythians.

Pandu empire

probably a reflection of the

is

The mythical
Maurya empire,

while the mention of Greeks, Parthians, and Scythians would

seem

According

to point definitely to the time of the Suiigas.

to the statement

24,000 stanzas

of the epic

at this stage,

itself,

the

poem

consisted of

and modern scholars estimate

that the epic kernel of the whole

work runs

to

about 20,000

stanzas.2

We

now

turn for a

moment

to the

Rdmdyana.

The

five

books of Valmlki's original work are to-day preceded by one

book and followed by another which are clearly of later date.
Here also we meet with Yavanas, Pahlavas, and Sakas so
that these additions cannot be dated earlier than the Pandu
form of the great epic.^
;

82.

The

significant.

phenomena

religious

new

In the

of both

epics

are also

parts of both, the religion

is

still

polytheistic and sacrificial, but the prominent divinities are

now Brahma, Vishnu, and

Siva.

the fact

is
'

seems as

equality.'^

if in

the popular

Still

2 Hopkins, ERE. VIII.

I. i. 81
loi
105.
325 a.
Jacobi, R. 28 f.
50 64 Macdonell, SL. 304 f.
For the old religion at this stage, apart from the incarnation doctrine,
;

It

more noteworthy
that Krishna and Rama, the heroes of the two

mind the three stood on an

see Hopkins, RI. ch. xix.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

84

now

epics, are

represented as partial incarnations of Vishnu,^

while ancient deeds of divine

might have been transferred

from Indra and other old gods to Vishnu.^

In these facts

we

have the first clear indication in Indian literature of the rise

Vishnu
of something like an organized sect within Hinduism.
has

now

who exalt him to a place of

group has been able to seize and

a group of worshippers

special honour,

and

claim for

the heroes of both the popular poems.

itself

this

polemic against Buddhism may

new form of the Mahabharata.
83. These facts seem to point to the conclusion that the
transformation of both poems took place after the fall of the
Maurya empire. It is scarcely likely that a large work
glorifying Hindu kings, and describing a triumphant Hindu
empire, would have made its appearance under Buddhist
also be traced in the

distinct

emperors,

far

less

they would

that

have tolerated direct

Buddhism while the publication of the ancient

poems in these new and most attractive forms would be quite
natural under the patronage of a Hindu monarch who had
the
sacrificial
restored
old
liberties and re-established

attacks on

ceremonial.^

The two epics thus became religious works, glorifying the

god Vishnu and ever since that time they have been regarded
as Vaishnava scriptures.
But Vishnu was not yet elevated to
the position of the Supreme.
A perusal of the first book of
the Ramdyana will show that, while his followers praised
him as the best of the gods, they still thought of him as one
of the old divinities, a being similar in nature to Siva, Brahma,
and the rest. This is but the first stage of the movement
;

towards theism.
84.

We

do not know how the Vaishnavas were led

to

Macdonell, SL. 286, 305 Rdmayafia, I. xix.

Holtzmann, MBH. I. 10. The dwarf, Vamana, is in the Raviayana
said to be an incarnation of Vishnu, I. xxxi.
' Hopkins, GE.
Inscriptions belonging to the second and first
399.
centuries B. c, which mention Vasudeva, i. e. Krishna, fit in well with this
conception.
15handarkar, VS. 3-4.
'

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

The

develop the doctrine of divine incarnation.

suddenly

in

the literature, and there

Hindu thought that would seem

is

85

idea appears

nothing

earlier

in

and sufficient
source of the conception.^
It may be that they were led to
it by the example of the Buddhists, who, as we have seen,
had already raised Buddha to divine powers and honours,
and had created a series of precedent Buddhas stretching
away into the distant past. So Krishna and Rama with the
Dwarf are now conceived as divine, and they already form
a short series for Rama is held to have appeared at a much
earlier date than Krishna, and the Dwarf precedes Rama.
to be a natural

85.

of

the

We

now pass to the consideration of the second

movement toward theism, as reflected in the

Scholars believe that, during the

first

stage
epics.

and second centuries of

the Christian era, the large masses of didactic matter^ which

are found in certain sections of the MahdbJidrata as

it

stands

were added to the epic of 24,000 stanzas which we have

This fresh material consists in the main
just discussed.
of discourses on Religion, Philosophy, Politics, and Law.^
Books XII and XIII of the epic, as- we have it to-day, consist
almost entirely of this material, and masses of it are found
also in

Books

III,

V, VI, XI, and XIV.

These numerous

pieces of teaching are clearly of various date and authorship,

and

their critical

study has not yet proceeded

enable us to arrange them

in

material

is

enough to
yet certain

This whole mass of

differences in date stand out quite clear.

new

far

chronological order

usually called the didactic

epic,'*

it

from the real epic and the episodes.

it

arose in the eastern section of North India.^

to distinguish

Scholars believe that

^
Yet the idea that a god may temporarily take the form of an animal
or a man was clearly present in early Hindu minds ; for in the Brahmanas
there occur the stories of the fish and the dwarf.
These tales may have
helped in the evolution of the new conception. Indeed the Dwarf became
one of the recognized avataras of Vishnu.
2 Hopkins, GE.
387; 398 ERE. VIII. 325 ff.
^
The sacred law, the best manual of polity and a guide to salvation ',
is what the epic itself says, I. 62, 23.
*
^ Hopkins, GE,
Hopkins also calls it the Pseudo-epic.
78.
;

'

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

86

The Bhagavadgltd.

C.

The

86.

earliest,

and also the greatest, of

that form the didactic epic

is

all

the sections

the far-famed BJiagavadgita.

The date of this poem has caused endless discussion. Its

own statement is that it was uttered by Krishna and Arjuna
on the fateful field of Kurukshetra, just before the fighting
began and that is the Hindu tradition to this day. Mr.
Justice Telang believed that it belonged to the fourth century
B.C./ and Sir R. G. Bhandarkar argues in favour of the same
date,^ but most modern scholars recognize that, in its present
;

form,

it

can scarcely be

A.D.

What

fresh

material

earlier

is

than the

earlier

than the

perfectly clear
of
rest

the

is

that

first
it

or second century
is

later

second stage of the two

than the

epics,

and

of the documents of the didactic epic.^

87, The poem is a very remarkable one, and has had an

immeasurable influence on religion in India. There is no
other piece of literature that is so much admired and used by
thinking Hindus and it has won very high praise from many
Western thinkers and scholars. Numberless editions, in the
;

and in translations in many tongues, fall from the

But it becomes still more remarkable and interesting
when one realizes its historical origin. It is the expression
of the earliest attempt made in India to rise to a theistic
faith and theology.
In order to reach this ideal, the
Vaishnava sect identify their own god Vishnu, on the one
hand with the great Brahman-Atman of the Upanishads, and
on the other with Krishna, the hero of the Epic. There is a
double exaltation here. Until now Vishnu has been but one
of the gods of Hinduism, in nature indistinguishable from the
other members of the pantheon, though in the two centuries
before our era he held a high position among them beside
Brahma and Siva, Now he is declaicd to be the Absolute,
original
press.

SS.

SBE.\\\\.2>A.
Holtzmann, MBH.
2,3,

34-

II.

121

VS. 13.
Hopkins, GE. 205, 225, 384, 402; Keith,

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

One without

the

beings.

Krishna,

incarnation

now

a second,' the source of all things

who had been recognized

of Vishnu

in

declared to be a

as

87

and

all

partial

the second stage of the Epic,

is

incarnation of Vishnu-Brahman,

full

and receives the title Bhagavan, blessed Lord. Hence the

Each of
of the poem, Bhagavadgiid, the Lord's Song.
The identifithese changes is an advance towards theism.
cation of Brahman with Vishnu distinctly suggests that the
Absolute is personal
and the contention that the same
Brahman is fully represented by a being who walked the
earth in human form bodies forth the personal idea in the
most vivid way possible. The change is most revolutionary.
Let the student once more read some of the loftiest passages
of the ancient Upanishads with the new thought in his mind.
88. But the poem seeks not only to create a theism but to

name

bring a spiritual religion within the reach of

The L^panishads had taught

religion not at rewards

all

Vaishnavas.

cultured Hindus to aim in their

on earth or a sensuous heaven, but at

and Buddhism and Jainism had

release from transmigration

heterodox way, to stimulate all classes to

the same high endeavour. The Gitd shows us the reconstitution of the Vaishnava sect under the pressure of these powerattempted,

in their

ful movements.
The precise limits within which this is done
must also be noticed. The Upanishads as taught in the
Vedic schools offered release only to the three highest castes,
for these holy texts might not be uttered in the hearing of
any but the twice-born Buddhism and Jainism, on the other
hand, offered release to all, to Outcastes and foreigners as
well as to Hindus of the four castes, and to women as well as
men but the Gitd takes a middle course, offering release to
all Hindus, i.e. to men and women of the four castes but to
no others. It is noticeable that these are precisely the bounds
of the sect all Hindus of the four castes were admitted to
Vaishnava, as to other Hindu, temples. But there is another
and still more revolutionary change. In all earlier systems
release was possible only for those who gave up the ordinary
;

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

88
of

life

man and became professional ascetics.

is made available for the layman and
.

release

In the Gitd
his wife while

they maintain the household and take part in the business of

the world. These two radical changes necessitated a fresh

book

the Gltd was written to

shad.

It

may

become the layman's Upani-

also be said with truth that the

Gitd

is

worthy successor to the old Upanishads.

The
may

89.

release

or

Gltd sets forth three distinct ways

The

be won.

way of knowledge,

first is

the

as taught in the Upanishads

Sankhya philosophy, and

in

which

in

JNANA MARGA,
and the

way by Buddhism
KARMA MARGA, or way

a modified

The second is the

The earliest conception

and Jainism.

of religion in Hinduism
was a system of duties, summarized in the word dharma.
The most prominent of these works in the early days were
the sacrifices but all the duties of caste and condition, of the
family and society, were also included. The Gltd doctrine of
works, which is called Karma-yoga, is this, that the mere performance of the works ordained in Scripture wins only the
of works.

transient rewards on earth or in heaven that are promised for

them, but that the man who does these works without any
desire for the rewards will thereby win release.
The word

Yoga

is

used

in so

many

decide which of them

but

it

is

senses in the Gltd that

it

is

hard to

implied in the phrase Karma-yoga,

probably comes from the radical meaning 'restraint'.

The third, BHAKTI-MARGA, the path of devotion,

new method of winning release. It is simply this
:

is

that

whole-hearted devotion to Krishna brings release from transmigration as effectively as philosophical knowledge or the
selfless

performance of ordained duties.

The method

is the link between the ancient

and the new teaching of the Gltd. For the
whole-hearted devotion which brings release finds its most
natural and most vivid expression in the regular worship of
Krishna in the temples of the sect.^ The cult would have

of devotion

cult of the sect

>

Cf.

IX. 6 with XI. 46.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

a

new

dignity to thinking Vaishnavas, since

89

would hence-

it

forward be to them not a means merely to health, wealth,

and happiness, but also to the great spiritual end of the
ail the bonds of the phenomenal
change
in the cult to be noticed.
There is just one
universe.^
The Gitd recognizes no animal sacrifice. The offerings to

emancipation of the soul from

Krishna which it commends are purely vegetarian.- Thus

we must conclude that, about the time when the new theology
came to the birth, animal sacrifice was given up in the chief
The rule is now universal among
Vaishnava shrines.
Vishnuites.

importance to notice that the Gitd calls

Vaishnavas to keep the Hindu law as taught in the

It is of great

90.

upon

all

Dharmasastras.^

The

rules of caste,* the laws of the family,

and the regular worship of ancestors,^ are

observed.

It

to be strictly

all

opposed
the principles and

has been often said that the Gitd

to caste^ but that

is

a complete mistake

is

down in the poem are luminously clear.

91. One of the most startling features of the poem

rules laid

In the genuine epic he

transformation of Krishna.

is

is

the!

a king

and warrior, famous as a grim and powerful fighter, but

notorious above all things for his extraordinary cunning and
in the Gitd he plays the philosophical guru,
his dirty tricks
quoting the Upanishads and praising the Sankhya philosophy
from time to time he declares himself to be the supreme
Atman,^ the source and support of the whole universe, the
object of all devotion and the recipient of all sacrifices and
again he displays his indescribable glory before the eyes of
:

his astonished friend.'^

The theology of

92.

The

the

poem

is

a most imperfect theism.^

idea of the writer seems to have been that he could form

IX. 34; X. 10; XI. 54; XII.

XVI. 23; 24; XVII.

I
;

1.43; 11-31-33; 37;

I.

5.

III.

2.

IX. 26.

For the Dharmasastras see ^%.

23-6; 3S; IV. 13; XVIII. 41-8.

40-44.

X. 12,20; VII. 6;
XI. 9-31.

10; IX. 8; 10; 13; XIV. 3; IX. 23-24.

Cf. Keith, yAM5.
191 5, 548.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

90

new Vaishnava system by the mere juxtaposition of the

worship of Krishna and the great philosophies of his day, for
he does not attempt to modify and fit together these rather
a

incongruous elements so as to create from them

well-

articulated theology.

This

is

especially true with regard to the relation of the

The

Vedanta to the Saiikhya.

popular

in

chief conceptions

seem

latter

system was clearly very

In contrast with the Upanishads,

those days.^

to have

smoothness, and carefully

its

been chiselled and polished to

fitted

together in

system of

psychological ideas which any one could

metaphysical and

it the external world was

and the soul and its individuality were
frankly acknowledged. Thus, in spite of its atheism,'-^ these
Sankhya conceptions seemed to fit better into a theistic
theology than the monistic conceptions of the Upanishads.
The Yoga also was popular, but whether it had yet become
a theistic system is not known.
The author brought the three together, declared them
identical, and placed them beside Krishna, the incarnation of
Vishnu viewed as the Absolute. These divergent conceptions

Further, in

readily understand.

regarded as a

reality,

are not fused into a higher unity but are superimposed, so

that the effect

there

are

is

theistic

like a

composite photograph.

passages

^
;

Here and

from other sections a stark

pantheism stares out ^ and now and then the lines seem to
suggest an emanation theory and several gods.^ Nor is
anything done to lessen the gulf that yawns between the
actionless Brahman of the Upanishads and the incarnate god,
;

born to slay demons and to teach philosophy."

gives the Gitd its power is the
93- What unquestionably
representation of the Supreme as incarnate and as teaching
Hopkins, GE. 99 f.
See Gita^ XVI. 8, which certainly alludes to a nirlsvara system. So
Hopkins, GE. 105.
IV. 5-7; VI. 47; IX. 22-34; XI. 36-46; XII. 14-20; XVIII. 55-70.
^

"^

''

II.

III.

72; IV. 24; V. 24-26.

15; VII. 30; VIII. 3-4; 20-21;

XV.

16-18.

IV.

8.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

91

the loftiest philosophy of Indica to his friend Arjuna, so that

he and other simple laymen

in

may

The

find release.

portrait

One

is

drawn with great

which the teaching

is

given enforces certain of the lessons

of the incarnate

taught with great vividness

book are well worthy

vadgitd
94.

and the

of the teaching

skill

the situation

literary qualities of the

it

contains.

The Bhaga-

a very great work.

is

It is

of importance to realize that, though the teaching

it was in
This
was
written.
some respects heterodox when the poem
comes out most clearly in the section of the second book,^
where the Vedas are spoken of with some scorn, and in several
passages elsewhere in which the opponents of Krishna are
very vehemently criticized. The fact is that the poem sprang
from the young Vaishnava sect, the heterodox position of
which is explained above.^ At a later point an attempt will
be made to show how the Gltd came to be regarded as

of the Gttd

is

now

the very cream of orthodoxy,

orthodox.^
95.

The poem

bears traces of having been rewritten,'* but

two very different theories of its origin are held by scholars.

Accepting Bhandarkar's theory of the origin of the worship
of Krishna,^ Garbe ^ attempts to explain the inconsistent theological teaching of the Gltd by the hypothesis that it was
originally written, early in the second century B.c.^ on the
basis of the

Sankhya-Yoga system, as a theistic tract to glorify

it was contaminated with the pantheism of

Krishna, and that

the Upanishads in the second century A.D.

poem

scholars
'

He

analyses the

what he believes to be these two sources. A few

have accepted this theory, but most would probably

into
^

41-46.

'

'

79-

M4-

" See above,

Hopkins, GE. 205, 234.
50.
* Die Bhagavadgita, Leipzig,
also IC. 228 ff.
1905
^
This date is partly based on the belief that the Yoga-sfitra was written
by the grammarian Patanjali in the second century B.C., but since it
is now clear that the Yoga-sutia dates from the fourth century A.D.
See Keith,
(see below, 139), the theory seems very improbable.
*

6-.V.
*

30.

Winternitz,

I.

373; Grierson,

ERE.

II.

541

and Chanda, lAR.

98.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

92

follow Hopkins

altogether

Gltd

is

and

Keith

unconvincing.

It

saying that the analysis

in

much more

is

is

likely that the

an old verse Upanishad, written rather later than the

Svetasvatara, and worked up into the Gitd in the interests of

Krishnaism by a poet after the Christian era.

careful comparison of the Gltd with the Saddharma
Pnndarika ^ in ideas, language, and verse would probably help
to solve the problems presented by both poems.
number

of writers

have believed

Christian influence, but

the

it

that

Gltd distinctly betrays

the

seems rather more probable that

poem is purely of Indian origin.^

96. The BJiagavadgltd is the key

didactic epic.

to the whole of the

reappear

Its chief characteristics

in

nearly

the remaining religious documents added to the great

Even

in the third stage of its history.

Krishna's claim

is

denied,

and

in the

all

poem

few places where

Siva, or Surya, or

Brahma

is

God, the influence of the Gltd is still

supreme
for the mode of exaltation is borrowed directly
from the Song it is only the name of the god exalted that is
as the one

glorified

altered.

D.
97.

The

Philosophies.

The Maitrdyana Upanishad probably

same time

as the Gltd or rather later,

and

it is

arose about the

certainly earlier-

than the didactic epic, for in two passages its teaching and
language are clearly reflected.^ We therefore take the Upani-

shad as standing between the two. Along with it we take the

Prasna and Mdndiikya Upanishads. The former is clearly
earlier, and the latter later, than the Maitrdyana^ but probably no long time intervenes
doctrine of the
1

in

sacred syllable

Hopkins, yy?^S, 1905, 384;

Y^^vCa,

either case

Om
JRAS.

for in

their

they are very closely

19

5,

548.

Deussen also

rejects the theory.

*

See

'

For

244
*

SEE. XXI.
all

xxvi ; xxxiv, and below 125.

the theories and a summary of the evidence, see Garbe, IC.

ff.

Hopkins, GE. 33

ff.

Ueussen,

PU.

25.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS

connected.

The Maitrdyana alone

the evolution of religious ideas.

The Upanishad

is

of serious significance for

clearly reflects a period

when

that position with, as

it

was

'

various forms of heresy

had attacked the main

no small measure the Buddhist

outlines of the system of the Upanishads, and

the Sankhya.

93

Professor Keith thus writes

probably in

doctrine

TIIKISM

is

is

many

and among these

it

endeavours

traits

to restate

borrowed from the

marks

of

characterized by a profound pessimism which

is

refuting,
It

inevitable,

traits

are clear

not countenanced by the older Upanishads, which lay no stress normally

on that doctrine, but which

the Sankhya.
98.

is

characteristic at once of

Sankhya conceptions,

Buddhism and of

similar to those found in the

Gitd and the Maitrdyana, appear also in the didactic epic,

and betray the existence of a formed system, an atheistic
dualism, enumerating twenty-five principles, extreinely like
the classic form of the philosophy presented in the

Sdhkhya

Kdrikd, but not identical with it.^ The Yoga reflected in the
Maitrdyarta is more detailed than that found in any earlier
Upanishad, but the epic shows a still more advanced stage."
99. The Yoga philosophy which appears in the ArtJiasdstra may not have contained the theistic element which
occurs in the classic system ; nor do we find any conclusive
evidence of the existence of the theistic form in the Gltd. But
the latest parts of the didactic epic there

in

is

frequent mention

of the theistic system of Yoga,* though in a form less complete

than that of the Yoga-sutrasJ'

presents the theistic

Yoga

in

As

the ChTilikd Upanishad

the simplest form which

we

know, we are justified in assigning it to a place near the Gltd

and before the latest parts of the epic and since the Sankhya
;

conceptions of the Clndikd stand in very close relation to

those of the MaitJ'dyana, the two Upanishads probably belong
to very nearly the
>

SS. 13.
Deussen,

time.*^

SUV.

312-13; Hopkins, GE. 97-133; Keith, 6'5. 11-13;

^ Hopkins,
YT. 335 ff.
^ Hopkins, K7'.
Hopkins, G'. 97-138; Keith, .S^S". 55.
335 336.
Deussen, SUV. 637.

chap.
*

same

iii.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

94

But the Chiilikd

clearly not the only

is

Among

existed in our period.

the

many

Yoga-manual

that

teachers of Saiikhya

and of Yoga named in the didactic epic two seem to be historical, Paiachasikha and Varshaganya.^
Numerous references
to them occur in the classic documents belonging to the two
schools, and a few quotations are embedded in the YogablidsJiya^ and in Vachaspatimisra.^
The evidence is very
confused, so that it is hard to make sure of the truth.
Probably the most satisfactory solution is to conclude that both
authors belonged to the school of theistic Yoga, that Varshaganya was the author of the Shashtitantra (i. e. the Sixtytreatise), a famous work now lost, which seems to have been in
verse,^ while Paiichasikha wrote a manual in sutras,^ which is
also lost.
These works and the Chfdikd probably belong to
gro*fp
of
the
Yoga treatises referred to in the epic." Another
interesting tradition which appears in the epic is that Paiichasikha is the teacher of the new Vaishnava sect, the Paiicha-

whom we

shall have to deal with below.

There are also two groups of short Upanishads of
rather later date which were clearly meant to be practical
manuals for monks of the Vedanta and Yoga schools. The
first group glorify sannydsa, the world-renunciation of the
Vedanta, and describe the initiation and the life of the sannyasi, while the Yoga group describe the six elements of
Yoga discipline (later they became eight) and give special
attention to meditation on the sacred syllable Oni.
These
treatises are clearly posterior to the Maitrdyana and the
Chiilikd, and earlier than the Vcddnta-sntras and the Yogaratras,^

ICO.

sutras.

They

are probably to be regarded as of the

general date as the didactic epic, where

reappear, but
'

some may be

XII. 218: 319 f.

Woods, Yoga, 359-60

many

same

of their features

still later.

also Sdhkhya-kiirika, 70.

Saiikhya-tath'a-kniimiidt, 206.
^
Keith, .S'^S". Chap. v.
Cf. Schrader,
1914, loi-io;
-s Keith, ^6'.
iioff.
42.
"
XII. 301, 57; 340, 67, Hopkins, GE. 100, no.
^
Hopkins, GE. 144; but see Keith, ^S^S". 39.
;

'

ZDMG.

IPAS.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

95

Of the Sannyasa group ^ which are mostly in prose, the

Brahma and the Sannyasa are composite, their earhest porMaitrayana, if not earlier.
The later parts of these tracts and the Aruneya, Kantkasruti,
Jdbala^ and Paramahamsa do not differ much in age, and are
probably not later than the chief documents of the didactic
tions being quite as early as the

while the Asrania may be of later origin.

The Yoga ^ group are all in verse, and all follow the lead of
The earliest seemingly is the Brahmabindu,
the CJmlikd.
which may be as early as the Maitrdyana. The main group,
epic

consisting of the Kshnrikd, Tejohindu,

Brahmavidyd, Ndda-

bindu, Yogasiklid, Yogatattva, Dhydnabindu, and Amritabindn,

run parallel with the main Sannyasa group and the didactic
epic,* while the Hainsa is later and of indeterminate date.

The Vaiseshika and Nyaya

10 1.

philosophies were already

Both are mentioned by

and Asvaghosha"
his contemporary, and Nagarjuna'^ who came later, mention
the Vaiseshika.
Both are reflected in the didactic epic, but
the evidence is too slender to enable us to see what the form
in existence in the first

century A. D.

Charaka,^ court physician to king Kanishka

of either system was.

E.

The main

102.

The Didactic Epic.

didactic epic

is

believed to

have been

practically complete

by 200

A. D.^

subjects, but

are of

more importance than the

Politics,

religion,

three

It deals

Philosophy

with a variety of

103.

siderable

rest,

included under

Law, and Religion.

and ethics partly under law and partly under
is

religion.

The compilers of the didactic epic introduced a conbody of political teaching into their cyclopaedia.

Deussen, 6"f/F. 678-71 5,

This is clearly a shortened and modified form of an early Upanishad
belonging to the White Yajiis. See Deussen, SV. 11. SUV. 706.
" Deussen, SUV. 629-77.
* Thus Hopkins,
YT. 379, says that the Yoga-technique of the epic is
on a par chronologically with the KsJni7-ika.
5 Samhiia, iii. 8, 26 ff; Keith, /AM5. 1914, 1093.
^ Winternitz, II. i. 209.
Woods, Yoga, xviii.
8 Hopkins, GE.
387; ERE. VIII. 325.
1

'^

"^

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

96

The

first

half^ of the twelfth

book

almost wholly given to

is

The

the subject, and shorter pieces occur elsewhere.^

relation

of this teaching to Kautilya's Arthasdstra^ to later political

treatises,

epic,^

and to the actual state of

time of the

affairs at the

does not seem to have been yet worked out by scholars.

104. It

was natural that the Vaishnava

paedia of instruction, should wish to include in

law,

in

the

an encyclo-

it

body of

and that they should choose the new popular form of law

in verse.

It is also

of interest to

stituency included Sudras and

remember

women

found chiefly

in the thirteenth

book

and shows a very close relationship

Hopkins ^ writes

sdstra.

that their con-

as well as twice-born

men,^ and even people lower than Sudras.^

is

who

priests,

interests of their sect turned the ancient epic into

to

The

legal material

Mahabhdrata,
the Mdnava DJiarma-

''

of the

known to the later epic was not quite our

was a code much like ours and ascribed to Manu,
a Sastra which, with some additions and omissions, such as all popular
texts in India suffer, was essentially our present text.
In

all

probability the code

present code, but

it

Vaishnava Material

F.

in the Didactic Epic.

105. Since the transformation of the epic into

an encyclo-

paedia of religion, law, and politics was carried out in the

interests of the

tions

are

sketched

in

The second
is

Vaishnava

sect,

nearly

the religious sec-

all

devoted to the exposition of the theology

first

the Bhagavadgltd, and to the praise of Krishna.

half of the twelfth book,

known

as

Mokshadharma,
number

a sort of corpus of Krishnaite teaching, containing a

of pieces of distinct origin, and there are noteworthy sections

also in

Books HI, V, VI, XIII, and XIV.

Four of these

Chaps. 1-173.
1.87; 140-5; II. 15; 17; 25; 62; III. 32; 33; 159; IV. 4; V.33-4J
36-9; XIII. 13- XV. 5ff.
' See above,
*
See Hopkins, Ruling Caste, JAOS. XIII.
45.
^ Giia, IX.
"
Hopkins, GE. 2.
32.
' Numerous pieces of legal lore are found elsewhere, especially in the
^

first

and

twelfth books.

GE.

22-3.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

97

portions are of such outstanding philosophic and reh'gious in-

they are frequently selected for separate treatment

terest that

40-45 Sanatsujatlya.
25-42 Bhagavadglta.
XII. 174-367: Mokshadharma.
V.

VI.

XIV.

16-51

Anuglta.

in the thirteenth book which is greatly

by devout Vaishnavas, because it contains the
thousand names of Vishnu, and one chapter in the third
book'^ contains a panegyric of Vishnu by Bhlma, and another,
in the political portion of the twelfth book ^, contains a hymn
of praise to Vishnu sung by the great Bhlshma.

There

is

one chapter^

treasured

We

have already discussed the Gitd.

section of the

Mokshadharma^

and seems to

reflect

Vishnuite

sect.

It

be

therefore

considerable

as the Narayanlya

period in the

a later
will

known

is

One

history

of the

separately

discussed

along with a passage from the sixth book,"* which seems to

The

contain similar teaching.

other portions

fall

to be con-

sidered here.

The

leading ideas here are the

same

are taught that the highest religion

is

as in the Glta.

We

the worship of Krishna

who is the Brahman of the Upanishads. The

Sankhya and the Yoga systems are represented as being
essentially the same as the philosophy of Brahman, and all
as Vishnu,

three are taught as philosophic foundations for the Vaishnava

religion.

There

is

no care taken to describe any one of these

systems with precision, and no articulated Vaishnava theology

taught.

is

As

in

the Gitd^ there are large pieces of a San-

khyan

character, others that teach

reflect

the

(V. 40-45)

monism of
is

the

Yoga, and yet others that

Upanishads.

The

Sanatsujatlya

the most important monistic section.

Numerous

in which
Sankhya, Yoga, and Upanishad elements intermingle interminably. The student may scan these outlines in Hopkins's

passages teach slightly variant philosophic systems

'

149.

'^

^48.

271.

Chaps. 65-8.

Chaps. 335-52.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

98

Great Epic}

The Aimgitd

is

a direct imitation of the Gltd.

In these passages theology makes no perceptible advance, but

Brahma appears, and

Vishnu are mentioned, the Boar, the ManJion, the Dwarf, the Fish, Rama, and Krishna.
106. We now take the Narayaniya,^ which shows a later
stage of Vaishnava teaching. The ancient name Bhagavata
occurs, but Sattvata,^ and Paiicharatra,^ especially the latter,
appear more frequently. There is a Paiicharatra scripture^
compiled by the seven Chitrasikhandin Rishis, doubtless the
forerunner of the Samhitas which we shall discuss later.^ The
origin and meaning of the word Paiicharatra are not yet known
with certainty.'^ We have shown above in what precise respects
the sect was heterodox.'^
In the Narayanlya occurs the doctrine of Vyuha or expansion, according to which Vishnu exists in four forms.
The
doctrine ^ is that from Vasudeva springs Samkarshana, from
Sarhkarshana Pradyumna, from Pradyumna Aniruddha, and
from Aniruddha Brahma. Sarhkarshana and the three others
are then identified with the cosmic existences posited by the
Sahkhya philosophy thus
myth

the pictorial

of Sesha, Vishnu, and

six incarnations of

Vasudeva.
Sarhkarshana

the supreme Reality.

primeval matter, prakriti.

Pradyumna

cosmic mind, rnanas.

Aniruddha

cosmic self-consciousness, ahavikdra.

Brahma
It is

scheme

very
is.^"

Creator of the visible world, the bhutdni.

difficult to

Vasudeva

Krishna's brother,

is

of his grandsons.

is

make

out what the idea behind this

Krishna; Balarania, or Samkarshana,'^

Pradyumna

It is

his son,

and Aniruddha one

probable that these three were local

' XII.
2 XII. 335-52.
Chap. iii.
349, 29.
* XII.
336,25; 349,82; 350,63 XII.
336, 28; 349,82; 350,67 Above,
"
^ See Schrader, IP AS. 24 ff.
212.
79.
" See Schrader, IPAS.
Chanda, lAR. 109 ff.
35 ff.
1 See Schrader, IP AS.
39 ff.
'^
Sarhkarshana means Withdrawn ', because he was drawn out of his
mother's womb and placed in Rohini.
1

'

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

99

an arrangement was made to bring them into

relation with Krishna so as to form a combined sect, and that
the doctrine of the Vyuhas is a theologism created to give
them a permanent place in the teaching and the worship of

divinities, that

the community.

The Narayanlya shows

nation doctrine.

also an advanced stage of the incarThere are ten incarnations of Vishnu recog-

nized here,^ while in the earlier

lists ^

there are four, or six.

Hopkins ^ holds that Paiichasikha, the teacher of the

Sankhya-Yoga, a theistic form of the Sankhya philosophy, as
we have seen above,* was regarded by the Paficharatras as the
author of the philosophical teaching of the sect. This is
because the Vaishnava theology unquestionably
interesting
;

rests

on a Sankhya- Yoga

basis.

This passage, the Narayanlya, tells a story to the effect that

Narada took a long journey to the north, where he came to
the Sea of Milk, in the midst of which was White Island,
inhabited

by white men who

Vishnu.^

The men,

their

worship are described.

they

worshipped

Narayana,

i.

e.

and their
number of scholars have believed
beliefs,

their

sanctity,

detected distinct traces of Christianity in the passage,

and the question has been much discussed, with rather doubtful results.'^

107. The two epics borrow from each other at this period.'
There are a number of interpolations in the text of the
Rdmdyana which are clearly contemporaneous with the
didactic epic, one passage containing a copy of the description
These latest interpolaof the inhabitants of White Island.^

tion? are mostly in the seventh book, but the most important

of

all
full

^
'

^
'

is

a canto

in

the sixth,^ in which

incarnation of Vishnu, and

is

Rama

is

praised as

called the eternal

Brahman.

' GE. 144.

* Above,
84.
" XII. 336,^-9.
99.
See the theories and the evidence, Garbe, IC. 191-200.
Cf. A'. VII.
with MBH. XII. 336.
Hopkins, GE. 59, 72.
VI. 119; see Muir, OST. IV. 148 ff. The other most noteworthy

XII. 340, 100.

passages are VII. 6,

17, 57,

75-7,

no.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

loo

The same

theological conceptions are here applied to

are applied to Krishna in

as

already seen

Rama

that

is

is

Vishnu

recognized

in

have
the

in these late

what stage the Krishna

important to notice

legend has reached

as

Rama

We

Rdmdyana}

interpolations in the
It

recognized

Similarly Krishna

Krishna-epic.

io8.

is

the didactic epic.

in

the didactic epic.

We

are told that he

Mathura to kill Karhsa and other demons, and

that after he had done that he went to Dvarika in Kathiawar.^
His parents' names, Vasudeva and Devakl,^ are given, but the
story of his birth and of his being miraculously saved from
was born

in

Kamsa

the wrath of

suggest that the

Nor

is

'child

and there
Krishna was worshipped

is

not told

"*

is

nothing to

in

those days.

there the slightest hint that he was brought up

the cowherds of Gokul.

The

among

stories of his boyish tricks with

the cowherdsj his youthful sports

among

the Gopis, and his

demons in the cow-settlement, which are so

the Harivamsa and the Puranas are absent here,

killing of the

prominent
except

in

in

a few passages which are manifestly very late inter-

polations.^

Radha

is

not mentioned at

all.

VI. 119; VII. so.

" VII.
II. 14, 34-50; XII. 340, 86-7.
144; XVI. 7.
*
must note carefully, .^however, that the story of the death of
Kaihsa is very old; for it was already dramatized in the second century B.C.,
1

We

as Patanjali tells us.

*

But

in XIII. 149, 88,

the banks of the

Jumna

one of his names

is

'he

who

sports joyously on

'.

^ Thus II.
68, 41 b to 46a, which calls Krishna 'Lord of Vraja' and
'favourite of the milkmaids', is clearly a very late piece interpolated into
a very early section; for it makes DraupadI appeal to Krishna for help
in her frightful need, while the original says that Dharma, the god of
law and right, stood by and helped her. Garbe's argument {CI. 227)
Similarly, in II. 41, Sisupala, in abusing
is thus of very doubtful value.
Krishna, calls him the cowherd and says that BhTshma has praised him
for killing Putana and the vulture and other notable deeds ; but, when we
turn to Bhishma's praise of Krishna in chap. 38, there is no mention of
Putana, or the vulture, or any other of these exploits. Thus at least verses
It is
4-1 1 of chap. 41 are an interpolation: Bhandarkar, VS. 35 f.
'

'

probable that these local legends had been long current in Mathura.
The point we emphasize is that they had not been accepted into the
official body of Vaishnava teaching when the didactic epic was formed.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

G. Saiva Material in
109.

tJic

voi

Didactic Epic.

In the didactic epic Siva takes quite as subordinate

Scholars seem to be

a place as he does in the heroic poem.

which exalt and

on the whole, later than the massof Yaishnava
teaching
and indeed it seems most probable that the changed
Saiva theology which those passages show was formed in
agreed that the passages

him

praise

the late books

in

are,

New

and conscious imitation of the

direct

Vaishnavism.

The Saiva sections consist, in the main, of narratives,^

hymns of praise," and expositions of the new Saiva theology.'*
The narratives, which tell how this or that hero went and
praised Siva, in order to receive from him some heavenly
weapon of war of

The hymns

peculiar effectiveness, are of minor interest.

of praise are valuable because

teaching reflected in them most clearly.

hymns

sets forth the

The

we

see the

one thousand and eight names of Siva,

a Saiva copy of the thousand names of Vishnu.*^

ascriptions of praise one half of the

Siva

is

is

the Supreme, the source of

The

In these

new Vaishnava theology

lump to Siva there is only a change of

the Brahman of the Upanishads, the Eternal,

transferred in the

names.

new

greatest of these

all

gods,

all

beings, and

all

things.

other half of Vaishnava theology, the doctrine of divine

incarnations,

is

not

divine theophanies

carried

over.

Siva appears

in

In

its

various

place

we have

human

disguises

or other forms to test, or teach, or gratify his worshippers.^

name

Pasupata,* the

of the

new Saiva theology,

is

thus

'
The most important are III. 38-41; V'll. 80-1; XII. 284-85;
160-1.
XIII. 14-18
The most significant are discussed by Muir, OST.
IV. 150-70.
*
III. 38-41;
VII. 80-1. Cf. also X. 7, which may be of earlier
;

origin.

VII. 80, 54-63; XII. 285, 3-115: XIII. 14, 283-326; 16, 12-63; 17.
XII. 285, 122-5 350, 63-6 XIII. 160-I.
XIII. 17.
' XIII.
149.
' III.
39, 2; VII. 80, 38-40; X. 7, 60; XII. 284, 60; &c.
* For
the Pasupata see esp. Hopkins, GE. 86; 96; 118; 152-7;
189 . Cf. what he says on the theistic faith in general, 102-3; 106;
115; The chief references in the epic are XII. 285
321 ; 350; XIII,
14-18; 160-1.
=>

J^^'v/THK'MOyEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

name

parallel to Pancharatia, the

new Vaishnavism.

o( the

formed from Pasupati, lord of flocks, an epithet

used of Rudra in early literature.^ But the sect gave the word
Pasupati is the Lord (pati), and
a new religious significance.
Pasupata

man,

is

his creature

(pasu), is

bound by the

fetter (pasa) of the

world, and requires to be released by the Lord.

Pasupata

is

Both
the Sankhya and Yoga,

scarcely distinguishable from Pancharatra as a system.

use the fundamental conceptions of

yet are anxious to be in complete

The

of the Upanishads.

harmony with

the teaching

goes even further

similarity

for

both number thirty-one philosophical principles, an enumeration which is associated with the name of Paiichasikha.^ There
is this difference between the two systems that, while Vishnu
has four forms, Siva has

eight.^

The

Pasupata

also

is

heterodox, like the Paiicharatra.^

iio. There

one further point to note with regard to

is

In a few of the

Siva.

more important Pasupata passages

the thirteenth book, his phallic emblem, the

No

subject of great laudation.

earlier literature

yet, as

The

worshippers to-day.

is

made

liiiga, is

in

the

mention of the linga occurs

well

known,

question of

its

discussed, but has not yet been settled.''

in

Saivas are linga-

all

origin has been often

Archaeologists

tell

us that lingas belonging to pre-Christian dates are in exis-

tence

so that they

literature.

must be

earlier than the first

The explanation probably

is

mention

that the linga

is

aboriginal origin, as sisnadeva of the Rigvcda implies, that

in

of
it

passed into popular Hinduism and into sculpture at an early

date, but did not receive

Brahmanical recognition

until after

White Yajurveda, XVI. 28; Atharvaveda, XI. ii. 28; Asvalayana

iv. 8; Paraskara GS. iii. 8; Barth, Rl. 164.
^ The figure comes from the farmer with his beast and the rope with
Creature must not be taken literally the soul is
which it is bound.
eternal and uncreated.
^

GS.

'

=*

"
'

Hopkins,

GE.

152
124; Hopkins,
Except the simadeva of the Rik.

fif.

MBH.XU.28s,

Kittel, Ueher
Hopkins, RI. 150.
''

'

deft

Ursprmig

GE.

Hopkins, GE. 143.

114.

des Lihgakultus

Barth,

RI. 271

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

103

It had been ah'eady accepted when the

Pasupata system was formed.

the Christian era.

111. In two of these passages^ the phrase nrddhva-liiiga

occurs

in

one of them sthtra-lihga

retas occurs

two nrddhvaThese
to the conception of the god which is

and

phrases clearly refer

is

found

in

another maJidsepho nagno}

in

represented in the images of the Lakulisa sect

Lakullsa does not occur in the epic.

'

the club-bearing

god

',

Fleet

is

name
name means

yet the

Since the

conjectures that the Siva with

Kushan King Huvishka

name may be later

a club represented on the coins of the

about A.D. 125-140

Lakullsa; but the

than the coins.

112. There

is

an Upanishad,

a Pasupata document, and

is

\hQ. Atharvasiras^ ^\\\q!^ is

probably of about the same date

as the Pasupata passages in the epic.

Rudra-Pasupati is here
and also the final goal pati,
the yoga method of meditation
pasu, pasa, are all mentioned
on the sacred syllable Out is recommended and the use of
ashes for smearing the body is called the Pasupata ordinance.
Three other Saiva Upanishads, the Artharvasikhd^ the
Nilarndra, and the Kaivalya ^ may belong to the same time.
the

first

principle of all things,

ii.

Buddhism.

A. The Hlnaydna.
113.

We

must think of Buddhism at the beginning of

this

period as active and spreading in most parts of India and

Ceylon, and also in Burmah, along the Himalayas from Nepal

to Kashmir, in Afghanistan,
first

2
*
^
^

"

in

Central Asia.
in

JRAS.

In the

China, and

XIII. 17, 46; 161, 17; Miiir, OST. IV. 344.

3 XIII.
XIII. 161, II.
14, 212;
^ See
XIII. 14, 157. Muir, OST. IV. 160.
165.

17, 46.

1907, 419.

SUV.

716 ff; Muir, OST. IV. 298-304. There are variant

Bhandarkar, KS'. III.
Deussen, SUV. 726 ff.
See MBH. XIII. 160, 4, 22; 161, 23; and above, p. loi, n. 4.

Deussen,

texts of this
^

and also

century A.D. the religion found a welcome

work

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

I04

about the same time entered Kuchar and Khotan

E. Turke-

in

and also Persia. Naturally we can trace only in very

broken outlines the literary work of the Buddhist Church in its
various schools scattered over these wide regions.
The community already had numerous schools of thought,^

stan,

all Buddhists still

but these distinctions did not create sects
worshipped together. Of these schools we must now distinctly
envisage three, if we are to understand the development, the
:

Sthaviras,

were

who were phcnomenalists,

realists,

the Sarvastivddins,

and the Mahdsanghikas, who were

a.

who

idealists.

StJiavira Literature.

The Sthaviras, the oldest of the schools, were found

North India and predominated in Ceylon. The Pali books
which exist to-day are the Canon of the Sthaviras of Ceylon
114.

in

Hence,

as reduced to writing there in the first century L.c.

if

we

accept the critical opinion that the

Abhidhamma

Pitaka

we must conclude that it

was formed somewhere between the two dates. The natural
conclusion then is that the seven works of that collection were
gradually formed and compiled, either in North India or Ceylon,
did not exist in the time of Asoka,^

during the

first

part of our period.

This fresh material

not

is

of the same value or interest as the best parts of the Sutta

Pitaka.

It consists for

classifications

and

the most part of dry, unilluminating

definitions

of Buddhist terms

and

ideas,

served up in scholastic fashion for the training of monks.^

The Canon was reduced

to writing in Ceylon during the

first

century B.C., but the date cannot be more exactly defined.'*

Since then the text has been preserved with

fair,

but certainly

not v/ith faultless, accuracy.

115. The Questions of

King Milinda

is

the

name

of

a famous book, the main part of which was written in North

India,

probably

in the first

>

Kern, B. iiof., 123

Winternitz,

II,

i,

ERE.

1346".

century

B.C., possibly

little later.

VI. 686.
See 64.
^
Kern, B. 120; W'internitz,
""

II.

i.

11.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

In what language

105

was originally written is not known. It

in Pali in Ceylon and in two Chinese
clear from quotations that the Canon which

it

has been preserved only

translations.

It is

the author used was the same as the Prdi Canon, yet the read-

The book

ings do not agree precisely.

very

is

much honoured

in

enjoys a consideration and an authority

Milinda is the
inferior to the Pali Canon itself.

Indeed

Ceylon.

little

it

Menander, a Greek King who ruled in the Punjab

and attacked the empire of Magadha, about 155 B.C. AccordThe book is a piece
ing to tradition he became a Buddhist.
of apologetic, a dialogue, in which a monk named Nagasena
answers the king's questions about Buddhist faith and practice.
Pali for

seems

It

clear that the original

ment of Book

work covered only a

with Books II and III.

those sections are amongst the

in

Buddhist questions,

e. g.

soul, renunciation, faith,

style

is

The subjects

frag-

discussed

most important of

all

nirvana and karma, individuality and

perseverance, and meditation and the
;

and graceful,
In Books IV to

strikingly beautiful, the expression easy

and the illustrations exceedingly well chosen.

VII a large number of minor questions are dealt with the
style, though still good, lacks the brilliance of Books II and
III
and, while the main teaching keeps very close to the
;

Pali

canon, yet the influence of later ideas

shown

away from the

is

visible.

ideal of the Arhat,

tendency

is

who wins

nirvana by a strenuous discipline at once, to the con-

to turn

ception of the Bodhisattva,^

who

reaches release by means of

devotion in a long career reaching through countless lives.^

These last books were probably written much later in Ceylon.
116.

All the Buddhist schools of North India which have

left literature

known

as

wrote

mixed

in Sanskrit or in various

Sanskrit.

The

forms of what

is

origin and history of these

have not yet been definitely ascertained.

Some scholars are inclined to think that they are the work of
imperfectly trained men trying to write Paninean Sanskrit,

literary dialects

Lit.

'one whose nature

destined to

is

become a Buddha.

wisdom', but used technically of one who

^ See
124 B.

is

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

io6

while others think they are Hterary modifications of local

dialects.

There are two

carefully noted
dialect
its

way

first,

facts

about them which require to be

each school seems to have

its

secondly, as time went on, pure Sanskrit steadily

own
won

in all the schools.

b.

Smitranhka Literature.

The Sautrantikas ^ were a branch of the Sthavira

who received their name because of their reliance on the
It thus
Pitaka, to the neglect of the Abhidhamma.

117.
school

Sutta

seems clear that

their rise

gradual formation

of the

must have coincided with the

They

Abhidhamma.

formed,

in

exposition of their teaching, a philosophical system which

called

the

Sautrantik

They

philosophy.

believed

is

the

in

existence of the external world, and held an atomic theory of

matter, but taught that perception happens indirectly.^

Their

founded on the original Buddhist conception

of man's psychical life," proved a stepping-stone from the

theory of the

self,

phenomenalist position of the Sthaviras to the Mahayana

The

Philosophy of Vacuity.'^
series

they argued,

self,

of phenomenal elements, each

{savitdnd)

is

a long

member

of

which exists only for a moment so infinitesimal that its apparition and destruction may be said to be simultaneous.
Each
momentary member {ksJiana) of the series is both an effect and
a cause, yet possesses no real activity.
age, death, are

Thus there

interrupted.
tence.

of a

On

illusions

all

is

Birth, existence, old

for the series in uncreated, un-

no

identity,

no continuous

the other hand, they declared this

phenomenal

series, to

the result of what

we have

be autonomous
thought'.

for

They

self,
'

all

exis-

consisting

we

are

is

also hold the self

to be self-conscious, conscious directly of self and indirectly of

other things.
'

Smitrtvitika

The
is

scholar with whose

name

formed from siitranta, the Pali form

suttatita, a variant of stitta.

'^

Jacobi, ERE.
See 124 c.

II.

this

201.

See 61.

philosophy
of wliich is

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

is

connected

but very

is

Kumaralabdha,^ a contemporary of Nagarjuna,^

known about Sautrantika

little is

c.

cxist

',

literature.

Sarvastivddin Literature.

The home

18.

107

of the Sarvastivddin,

i.e.

the

Their Canon was

apart from the Sthavira, was the only

All-things-

Kashmir, but

or realist, school seems to have been

they spread far and wide.

'

Sanskrit and,

in

Canon which possessed

Abhidharma, 'basket'. As has been already

this Abhidharma were absolutely

a third, or

remarked, the contents of

from the Sthavira Abhidhamma. We may be certain

that the Vinaya and Sutra 'baskets' of their Canon were
already in existence by the beginning of our period, but it is
as yet impossible to say how far they differed from the
Sthavira Canon for we are almost entirely dependent for our
distinct

Chinese and Tibetan translations, only

They
fragments of the original Sanskrit having survived.
seem to have had also a special literature of their own. Like

upon

knowledge

schools, they had their own

and it must have been a powerful and
popular work, for it was taken over afterwards by the new
Buddhism, called the Mahayana, and it survives only in its
altered form, the most famous of all lives of the Buddha, the

number of the other leading

Life of the Master

Lalita Vistara?

an outgrowth from the

an atomic doctrine of matter
combined with a theory of direct perception.* Thus, in their
speculative teaching, they stood near the Jains and the Vaise-

The

Sarvastivadin

realistic

philosophy,

teaching of the sect,

is

shikas, but they denied the eternity of atoms.^

text of their

Abhidharma

The

foundation-

Pitaka, the Jhdnaprastlidna-sdstra,

most renowned scholar, Katyayaniputra. Six

ancillary works, called 'the feet' of the Abhidharma, by
Vasumitra and other writers, complete the contents of the

by

is

^
*

their

Kern, B. 127; Poussin, Opiniofis, 178 ff.

Nanjio, 159, 160; Winternitz, II. i. 194 ff.
Jacobi,

ERE.

II.

201.

"^

See
lb.

128.

202 C.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

io8

The

E^itaka.

date of these books

On

certainty.

is

not

yet

known with

these works commentaries were then written,

which carried the philosophy a step farther. The commentaries were called Vibhasha, and hence the philosophy was
called Vaibhashika.
Tradition suggests that the Vibhasha
arose in the reign of Kanishka.
According to Sarvastivadin books, a general Buddhist
Council was held, under the authority of Kanishka, at some
place in Kashmir, and at the Council commentaries on the
three baskets of the Canon were composed, those on the
Vinaya and Abhidharma being called Vibhasha and those on
the Sutra Pitaka Upadesa. The traditions about this Council
are, however, very untrustworthy, so that some scholars doubt
whether it was ever held at all. Others think that a Sarvastivadin council was actually held, and that, in imitation of the
story of the Council of Asoka, they called it a General Council.
In any case, the commentaries which in the tradition are
associated with the Council are Sarvastivadin, and a number
of them were probably written after the time of Kanishka.

Erom

Sarvastivadin Vinaya and the ancient Jatakas

the

tales of heroic deeds done by

Buddhas and saints called Avadanas, precisely like the
Apadanas of the Pali Canon. Two collections belong to this
period, the Avadana-sataka ^ or Century of Tales, and the

there

sprang numberless

Karma-satakal^ or Century of Deeds.

third collection of

great renown, the Divydvaddna^ or Divine Tales, which pro-

bably dates from after 300 A.D.,

but

is

Mahayana work,
From these books
which flourished for many

calls itself a

manifestly of Sarvastivadin origin.

sprang

an

edifying

literature

centuries.

The famous

Asvaghosha was a Sarvastivadin and

some of his works before he became a

writer

probably wrote
Mahayanist.^
^

Winternitz, II. i. 216.

lb. 221 ; Mitra, 304.

"

lb. 221.

See 127.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

d.

Mahasaiighika Literature.

The Mahasaiighikas, one

i'i9.

were

schools,

to raise the

idealists in

very

carh'cst

They were

inclined

of

Metaphysics.

the

Buddha above humanity, and

personality with

109

of the former

that

identify

to

his

They had

Buddhas.

a Vinaya Pitaka and a Sutra Pitaka, written in a curious

mixed Sanskrit. Of the Vinaya two works still exist in

Chinese and Tibetan
and the Ekottaragama preserved in
the Chinese and the Tibetan Canons is from the Mahasanghika
Sutra Pitaka.^ One of the branches of this school was known
;

as the school of the Lokottaravddins, or Transcendentalists,

because they believed that the Buddha was not a human being
enmeshed in the life of the world, but one raised far above it.
A book called the MaJidvastii^ written in the curious Mahasaiighika Sanskrit, has

come down

to us.

It

arose in the

Vinaya of the Lokottaravadins, but very little Vinaya material

now remains in it. The book contains a vast amount of
matter of different kinds and also of varying dates a life
of the Buddha, tales and sermons, poems and Jatakas, many
of them early compositions
so that it forms
one of the
most noteworthy books of Buddhist antiquity
The BuddhaBiography does not differ in any appreciable degree from the

'

'.

narratives of the Pali Canon, but

the

Buddha

vastu

is

lives in
It is

is

distinctly docetic.

He

a superman.

its

feels neither

ignorance of carnal desires

from consideration

theory of the person of

The Buddha

'

for

his wife

humanity,

of the

hunger nor
in

Maha-

thirst

remains a

he

virgin.

order to conform to

the customs of the world, that he behaves as a man, or that

he gives to
a man.

the false impression that he

The work

world.'
^

men

In technical terms, he

is

lays great stress

Pali Sutta Pitaka

is

behaving as

lokottara, superior to the

on the saving power of

Sanskrit Sutra Pitaka

Dlrghagama.

2.

Dlghanikaya.
Majjhimanikaya.

2.

Madhyamagamn.

3.

Saiiiyuttanikaya.

3.

Saiiiyuktagama.

4.

Anguttaranikaya.

4.

Ekottaragama.

5.

Khuddakanikaya.

5.

Kshudrakagama.

1.

i.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

no

It also names large numbers of former

Buddhas, and believes in the existence of many worlds besides
our own, in each of which a Buddha reigns concurrently with

devotion to him.

the Buddha here. The Mahdvastii thus forms the bridge

between the Hinayana and the Mahayana.
The chapter
called Dasabhumika,' which describes the stages {bJiumis)
through which a man passes in becoming a Buddha is probably

Much

a later interpolation.

of the book

is

early.^

Brahman but became a Buddhist.

Kushan court, seemingly by Kanishka,

I20. Matrichetawas born a

He was

invited to the

but begged to be excused on account of age.

hymns

He

of praise, which were used for centuries

left two
by Maha-

yanists as well as Hinayanists, and which served as

for

later writers.

One has

models

survived, and fragments of the

along with his letter to the king.^ He seems to stand

between the Hinayana and the Mahayana.

other,

e.

21.

From 200

Buddhist Worship,

B.C.

down

to the Christian era the great

Buddhist stupas were enriched with masses of beautiful sculpPious Buddhists were accustomed to walk round the
ture.
stupas with reverent steps.

Enclosing this path of circumam-

bulation there stood a stone railing with a lofty arched gate

These gates were covered

itself was
decorated with sculptured plaques and panels. Examples,
ruinous or well-preserved, have been found in several places.*
In this early work no image of the Buddha appears, but in

at each of the cardinal

points.

with sculpture, and in certain examples the railing

many

of the scenes represented his presence

some symbol, and

'

ERE.

Thomas,

all

is

indicated

by

the carved work breathes the spirit of

'
VIII. 329 f.
Winternitz, II. i. 193.
VIII. 495; Winternitz, II. i. 211; Nanjio, 1456;
Wo&rvA^, MRBL. 58-84. Vidyabhushana, /^^Z.'. 1910, 425, refers him
to the fourth century.
* Notably at SanchI in the Bhopal State, at Bharhut in Rewa, at BuddhGaya in Bihar, at Amaravati on the Kistna and in Ceylon. V. Smith,
HFA. 65-81 ; 86-8.

II.

744

f.,

ERE.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS

Here we have the

devotion.

in

Tin^:iSM

rcflectiorf in art of

which shines out from the literature.

In the first century A. D, a new Indo-Grcck

the

new

spirit

art, distinctive

sculptures, arose in Gandhara, the district of

above
which Peshawar is the centre. Images of the Buddha were
and all the Buddhist
for the first time made by these artists
this is a noteworthy
schools used them as aids to devotion
all in its

and far-reaching change.

122. Buddhist monks found
of

all

it

necessary to keep abreast

the culture of the day, so as to be able to influence the

laity.
We therefore find them well acquainted with
Hindu philosophy and with the new forms of religion enshrined

rising

in

the Epic.

era, the

In the last quarter of the

strong government of the

first

century of our

Kushan empire, extending

west and the north of India, opened the doors wide

far to the

and the numerous races the missionaries

had to teach, coupled with the rich variety of foreign influences
which met in the empire, led to great changes in Buddhist
thought and practice.
to Buddhist Missions

B.

123.

The Mahdydna.

These movements, coupled with \\q.\n ideas and

had been gaining ground in the old sects for

practices which

new
Mahayana, or great vehicle, in contrast
with the old Buddhism, which was depreciated as the Hlnayana, or small vehicle.^ The Mahayana is, on one side, the
acute Hinduizing of Buddhism, on the other, the humanizing
of the old discipline, so as to make Buddhism more suitable
for the cultured Indian layman and for the men of many races
now crowding into the community. The rise of this system
is probably to be placed in the reign of Kanishka (perhaps
A.D. 78-123), towards the end of the first and the beginning

two

centuries, found their culmination in the creation of a

Buddhism

called the

'
It is probable that Hinayana was originally used with reference to
Arhatship, the mode of individual salvation, as opposed to Bodhisattvaship, the plan for the salvation of many.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

112

of the second century

for all tradition points to that time,

and many Mahayana texts were translated

into

Chinese

before A. D. 170.^

The

vast

literature

survive as a definite

created

Canon

in

by the Mahayana does not

the original tongues.

Portions

Nepal ^ and fragments elsewhere

but for our knowledge of the mass of the books we have to
have recourse to the Chinese ^ and Tibetan ^ Canons.
of

it

have been found

a.

124.

in

The Full Mahayana.

There are two

distinct

recognized at this time.

Mahayana,

as

it

contains

all

The

Mahayana systems

first

may be

the features of the

They may be summed up under

to

called the

be
full

new Buddhism.

three heads

A. Devotion. Mahayanists recognize that there are innumerable Buddhas, each in his own world, and innumerable
Bodhisattvas, the most advanced of which live in the heavens.
Buddhas and advanced Bodhisattvas are fit objects of devotion,

and devotion brings its rich rewards. One result of this change
was that the Buddhas, though they were still thought of as
being in nirvana, were regarded as responding in some way
Their personality and
to the devotion showered upon them.
activity consequently

became more

distinct, until

they were

thought of almost like Hindu gods. We must recognize here

Thus in that
a distinct change in the conception of nirvana.^
most orthodox Mahayana book, the Saddharma Pnndarlka,

Gautama is made almost an eternal being of omnipotent

power, who from time to time descends to earth, like Vishnu,
to be born in the world of the living.

sattvas

who

Similarly those Bodhi-

are drawing near the stage of final enlightenment

Nanjio, Cols. 381-3.

See especially Mitra, Nepalese Buddhist Literature.
^ Bunyiu Nanjio, A Catalogue
of the Chinese Translation of the Buddhist Tripitaka.
* ERE.VW.
785, 789 ; Feer, Analyse du Kandjour, Annales du Muse'e
1

Guimet,
^

II.

Thomas, Buddhist Scriptures,

15.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

arc

now regarded

as

mighty

113

divinities living in the heavens,

helping men, and actually declining to enter nirvana in order

may

that they

men

help

The Mahayanists
music, and incense

the more.

created a

and a

showy worship, with processions,

was prepared for each

rich liturgy

The monks took charge of the cult so that the

became a temple and the monk a priest.
The monk of the Hlnayana
B. The Bodliisattva Life}
arhat,
who, by a life of asceticism
become
an
a
man
sought to

Buddha.

old chaitya

and meditation in obedience to the precepts of the Buddha,

has reached the nirvana of the extinction of all desire but he
regarded himself as a mere pupil, following the directions of
the omniscient Buddha, and never dreamt of becoming a
;

Buddha

The Mahayana now

himself.

declared that, to reach

was necessary to acquire the perfections and

the omniscience of the Buddhas, and that, though the upward
struggle would take an incalculable number of ages, the goal
was within the reach of every human being. Each person,
man or woman, was therefore exhorted to take at once the
vow to become a Buddha and the assurance was given that
the power of that vow was sufficient to bear them through
the innumerable births and serious sufferings which lay before
them. If they began a life of active benevolence, and sought
real release,

it

to rouse within themselves the desire to save all creatures,

they would pass through the ten stages {bJmniis) of the career.
Since the end was certain, each person who took the vow at

once became a Bodhisattva, one destined to become a Buddha.

The

influence

numerous

of the Jatakas, which

his earlier births,

Since

Gautama was

countless

contain

acts of incredible self-sacrifice

is

narratives of

done by Gautama

in

very manifest in the new conception.

believed to have lived as a householder for

celibacy was not a necessary element of the

Neophyte Bodhisattvas, both men and women,

lives,

discipline.

were encouraged to marry, but they were allowed to acquire

merit by living the monastic life for a time, if they cared to do
'

Poussin,

ERE.

art.

'

Bodhisattva', and VIII. 33

I

f. ;

Opinions^ 275

ff.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

114

On

so.

Mahayana

the other hand, the

prohibited the eating

of flesh.
C.

denial

The Mahayana Philosophy of

of the existence of the ego

The

Vacuity.^

early

and the Sautrantika

doctrine, that the ego consists of an endless series of infini-

tesimal moments, led to the formulation of the doctrine that

there

is

no

and are

real existence, that all things are

This

truth empty.

in

is

the

but appearance,

famous doctrine of

The young Bodhisattva cannot

sunyatd. Vacuity.

see

the

truth of this doctrine, but in the course of his progress to

Buddhahood he
the wisdom of

will

all

A large

come

to realize

it

for

it

the

is

sum

of

the Buddhas.

was produced by this school during

is one of the greatest of
Buddhist books, the Saddharvta Ptmdarlka^ The Lotus
or, as we should say, The Rose of the True Religion
The
book probably appeared towards the end of the first or the
125.

literature

Amongst

our period.

these works

'

',

'

'.

beginning of the second century,^ but six of the chapters of

it has come down to us (xxi-xxvi) are of later
The original work contains the whole Mahayana
system. The most noteworthy element is the way in which
Gautama the Buddha is represented. According to the old

the work as
origin.

teaching, he has gone to nirvana and can no longer have

any
men.
Here he is represented
practically as an omnipotent God, whose life is limitless
before and after, in whose hands are the universe and all
relations with the world of

who

creatures,

dwells continually in infinite glory.

It is true

he also teaches the Buddha-laws, but his birth, life, teaching,

and death are but an appearance, and his passing away into
nirvana
laws.

is

The

influence of the

prominent here.
1

ERE.
ERE.

SEE,

art.

art.

'

men

to accept the BuddhaVedanta and of the Gltd are very

but a device to lead

The conception

Madhyamaka

of Krishna-Vishnu as the

'.

'Lotus of True Law';

Winternitz, IL

i.

230-8;

Kern,

xxi.

^ Winternitz
puts
Opinions, 259.

it

about

A. D.

20o;Poussin

in

the

first

century.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

115

Many

of the

Supreme
titles

is

adapted to Buddhist conceptions.

are borrowed unchanged,

Great

He is Everlasting, All-knowing,

Creator, Destroyer, Physician.

All-seeing.
sport, lild.

He wields magic power,

He is repeatedly born in

When men become

Spirit, Self-existent,

Ruler of the Triple World,

World-Father,

Father,

Supreme

indya, which he uses in

the world of the living.

unbelieving, he appears in this world to

Buddha in the Lotus is practically the

Supreme, the language is so carefully guarded throughout
that Prof. Poussin can say, There is not a single word in the
Lotus which is not capable of an orthodox, i.e. "atheist"
interpretation.' ^
The work had large influence in India,
whence it passed to China and Japan, and later to Nepal.
It is the most popular of all Buddhist books in Japan to-day.
save.

Yet, although

'

126.

The

philosophic doctrine of Vacuity was taught in

a large number of books, short and long, called the Prajiiaparamita-sutras,^

sTitra^

i.

e.

i.e.

Of

the Buddhas.

'the sutras of the wisdom-perfections' of

these the Dasasdhasrika Prajnapdramitd-

the Ten- thousand-line Sutra', belongs to our period.

'

This work also describes the ten stages {bhfmiis) of the Bodhi-

The chapter called Dasabhumika * interpolated

Mahdvastn probably comes from this time also.
127. Asvaghosha^ was born of Brahman parents, but
became a Buddhist, first of the Sarvastivadin school, but
finally of the Mahayana.
His splendid genius proved of
signal service to Buddhism
for he is a most notable figure
sattva career.
into the

Sanskrit literature, and one of the greatest of the pre-

in

He was

decessors of Kalidasa.

equally distinguished

in epic,

His greatest work is the BiuidJiacharita, an epic poem on the life of Buddha.
Part of it is
lost, yet enough remains to show his genius and his art.
In
its delineation of the life and work of the Buddha, it scarcely
dramatic, and lyric poetry.

ERE.

VIII. 145.
Nanjio, cols. I to 8 ; ERE. IV. 838; VIII. 235.
* Nanjio, col.
381 ; also no. 5.
^ ERE. art.
Asvaghosha ; SEE. xlix; Winternitz,
,
Sastri, /ASB. 1909, 47; Nanjio, col. 369.
'

'

'

II.

See 119.
201; H.P.

i.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

ii6

goes beyond the Pali Canon, but in freshness and power it

stands altogether on another level, the work of a true poet.
second epic, the Sanndarmianda-Kdvya, which deals with

number of scenes and incidents connected with the life of

Buddha, also survives. The Sutrdlamkdra^ of which a Chinese

version and a few fragments

Sanskrit are

in

extant,

is

Buddhist legends told in mingled

prose and verse, the style in common use then for artistic
collection of avadanas,

romances.

large

i.e.

number

are new, but all are graced

There

charm.

are

two

of these stories are old,

many

and heightened by Asvaghosha's

philosophical works ascribed to

and the
Diamond-needle
e. the
Mahdydnasraddhotpddasdsira, the Mahayana-faith-awakening
Treatise', but serious doubts as to his authorship of both
him, the

Vajrasfichl,

'

i.

',

'

works

still

remain.

128. Nagarjuna,^ a

greatest authority on

Brahman convert, who became the

Mahayana Buddhism, is regarded as

a younger contemporary of Asvaghosha in Buddhist tradition

and modern scholars are inclined to place his activity in the

His chief service was to
latter half of the second century.
In those days a
think out the new doctrine of Vacuity.
philosopher embodied his teaching in a series of aphorisms,
either in prose {sutj'as) or in verse {kdrikds), and expounded

them

in

a commentary.

as the system

book

is

called

Nagarjuna's work

in

verse and,

known as the
Madhyamaka because

is

called

is

the middle teaching, Madhyamaka, the

ddhyamaka-kdrikds. The system is
its

leading idea,

'

All things are

empty', takes the middle course between existence and nonTwo distinct kinds of truth must be recognized,
existence.
apparent truth, sai'nvritisatya, and real \.\w\\i, paramdrthasaty a?
The world appears to be real, but the appearance is an
illusion, as

empty

practice take

it

as a

dream

as real.

The

empty, seems to us to be
1
^

yet

we must

live in

actual truth, that

folly,

but

it

is

the

all

it

and

in

things are

final truth of

Winternitz, II. i. 250-4; ERE. IV. 838; VIII. 235, 336.

Poussin, Opinions, 189 n. i.

the

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

world

truth.

its

intellectual

which

rise to the wisdom of the Buddhas, we

Thus we need not hope to find the truth

and when wc

shall see

by

117

is

activity,

but must strive to hear the silence

Thus the Madhya-

neither affirmation nor denial.

maka philosopher has no system he has only

The doctrine is thus a guarded nihilism, a faith in

a method.

things which does not profess to see the truth of

ness of

all

what

it

believes, but holds

lives

on that which

Prajhd

the empti-

texts,

Nagarjuna.

it

hard by

declares to

its

faith,

be

while

it

frankly

The

illusion.

early

and a number of other works are said to be by

An extraordinary mass of legends gathered

round his head.

b.

129.

TJic

The second type

simpler nature and

yana.^

Paradise Mahdydna.

It

may

of

Mahayana

doctrine

is

of a

be described as the Paradise

much
Maha-

does not trouble to teach the doctrine of Vacuity,

it impose on its followers the long ages of discipline

which are required for the career of the Bodhisattva. Every
person may easily make certain of being born in his next
birth in the Western Paradise, where under the fostering care

nor does

of a great

joy and

Buddha named Amitabha he will

One of

will reach final perfection.

live for ever

of this school, the longer Sukhdvatlvyuha^ or

of the

Land

of Bliss

',

was translated

'

Description

Chinese before

into

A.D. 170, and thus belongs to our period.

in

the chief texts

In this

book we
and

many hundred
amongst them of one named Amitabha, measureless light
who lives and reigns in SukhavatI, a Paradise of glory and
bliss far away to the West, beyond the limits of the world
where Gautama lives.
When this new Buddha was but
a monk, he vowed and toiled for this Western Paradise, and
prayed that he might never obtain the highest perfect knowthousands of millions of Buddhas,

hear of

'

ledge, unless

born

Poussin,

it

should be possible for

Land of Bliss and

ERE. VIII. 331 b.

in that

',

all

creatures to be

there reach perfection, wisdom,

^

^anjio,

col.

381

SUE.

xlix.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

ii8

perfect joy,

and

release.

now been

All has

reigns in the wonderful land of bliss,

forward, seeking

Amitabha

realized.

and whoever struggles

make good karma, praying

to

faithfully,

worshipping Amitabha with

deep devotional feeling, and

uttering his name, will be born in that Western Paradise and
will live in bliss for ever.
A very large part of the book is
given to descriptions of the beauties and pleasures of
Sukhavatl.

Of

the numerous

Mahayana

during the second century

'

to the longer Stikkdvatwyuha,

but

school,^

the

texts translated into Chinese

number
seem

of works, in addition

to belong to the Paradise

mass undoubtedly derive from the chief

school.

C.
130.

China

in

Buddhism

in China.

Buddhism does not seem to have made rapid progress

for some two or three centuries
yet it is clear that

large efforts were

made

to win the people.

of the activities of the Missionaries

lists

may be

Some
found

reflection

in

the long

of translations carried out during the two centuries under

Most of the sutras selected for translation are quite

and deal with the simpler elements of Buddhist teaching
or with practical questions touching life and discipline.
They
are taken from Mahayana as well as from Hinayana sources,
the first text translated, The Sutra of Forty -two Sections,^
being a compendium of Buddhist teaching drawn from many
books. There are only four noteworthy translators during
the period, and their extraction is significant
two of them,
Kasyapa Matahga and Lokaraksha,^ were Indians, An ShiKao was a Parthian prince, while Ch'Yao was probably
a Kushan.
review.^
short,

1
Nanjio, nos. 5, 25, 28, 33, 51, 54, 57, 73, 76, 102, 112, 161, 174, 202,
260, 282, 289, 381,. 385-7, 431, 435, 478, K93, 1326, 1331, 1337, 1338,
Nanjio. nos. 25, 28, ^^, 51, 54, 57.
1360, 1361, 1368.
^ Nanjio, cols.
* Nanjio, no.
678.
379-85.
''

This

col. 381.

man seems

to

have translated only Mahayana works

Nanjio,

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

iii.

119

jAINISl\r.

131. The_ history of Jainism remains extremley obscure

throughout this period, yet a few facts of large importance

can be discerned.

During the two centuries before our era, and probably in

still earlier years, the religion expanded steadily both in the
north and in the south. Sculptured remains and an inscription
found at Muttra, the ancient Mathura, and assigned to the
first century B.c.,^ reveal to us the growth of Jainism to the
north-west

caves

may

Orissa

with

date from

fragments of sculptured frieze in

about the same time ^ while the
;

powerful influence which Jainism exerted on Tamil literature

from the second century after Christ, if not from an earlier

shows that th.e religion had achieved considerable

date,

success in the far south.

From

the Christian era onwards,

and from the third

century the community produced a large popular literature
if

not

earlier,

Jainism spread into Gujarat

the vernacular of that part of India,

in

132.

As

a result of the long-standing difference of opinion

within the community, the Jains at last broke into two sects,

Svetambaras and Digambaras, about A.D. 80^; so that for

full understanding of the history it is necessary as far as
possible to distinguish the writers, books, and practices of the
two organizations from this time onward. The main difference
between them is the single point, that the Svetambaras hold that
monks ought to wear white garments, while Digambaras hold
Necessarily nuns are
that they ought to give up all clothing.
only
Svetambaras.
The
Digambaras explain
found
among the
that women cannot win release until a good life has brought
them the privilege of being born as men so that they need
not become ascetics. There are other minor divergences.
The great mass of Jains to the north of the Vindhyas were
Svetambaras, while in the Kanarese and Tamil districts they
were nearly all Digambaras.
the

V. Smith,
V. Smith,

HFA.
HFA.

82; 144; Indraji, Vlih Oriental Congress, 143.

^ Jacobi, ERE. VII.
84.
473.

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

I20

133. Jain

worship

is

precisely parallel to Buddhist worship

They

during these centuries.

use stupas, as the Buddhists

do, and the forms of their sculpture are similar, 'although the
art

is

The

not so good.

remains, though slight, are sufficient

show the intense religious emotions of the Jain community

and the deep devotional feeling with which they thought of
The inscription at Muttra shows that
their Tlrthakaras.^
to

Jains already used temples in the

rather later dates there

is

first

century

B.C.,

and at

evidence that they had begun to use

These changes are very closely contemporaneous

the corresponding movements in Buddhism.
images.

134.

It

literature

how much

impossible to say

is

was

still

to

of their early

retained in the memories of Jain ascetics

during these centuries, nor

Aiigas,

now preserved

Weber

believed

present

Angas began

that

in the

how

the gradual
in

far

the formation of the

^vetambara Canon, had gone.

of creating the

process

the second century A.D., but

it

is

more probable that portions of the ancient literature have

been preserved, though doubtless from the time of the Schism,
about

was

A. D. 80,

refer certain of

writers

to

a process of revision in the interest of the sect

carried out

Numerous traditions
these canonical works or comments on them
by Svetambara monks.

believed

to

have lived during

Ajjasama, to Kalakacharya, to Virabhadra

is

confused and obscure.

light will doubtless

As

this

but

period

to

everything

research proceeds, a measure of

be thrown on the history.

135. In a sixteenth-century

drthasdradipikd of Sakalakirti,^

Digambara work, the Tattvit

is

stated that from very

Digambaras had a large Canon, handed down

orally, but that it was gradually forgotten, until in the second
A list of the books is
century A.D. it had all been lost.
given,^ divided into three groups, Aitgas, Purvas, and Ahgaearly times the

The

word Tirthakara, precisely as the Buddhists use

an omniscient teacher, and they have a long list of them
stretching away far back from Mahavira, just like the list of the Previous
^ See
Buddhas.
440,
' Bhandarkar, Report,
83-4, p. 106 f; Jaini, OJ. 135.
^

Buddha,

Jains use the

for

THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM

121

A large proportion of the names correspond with

books of the Svetambara list, but there are differences.
136. There is also an obscure tradition ^ that Pushpadanta
and Bhutavalya reduced the Canon to writing in the second
century A.D., but as these two are the very men who are
mentioned as having been the last that knew one Ahga orally,
and with whom all knowledge of the sacred literature died, it
looks as if the tradition had been invented at a late date to
give the Digambaras the kudos of having once possessed a
written canon like the Svetambaras.
The truth seems to be
rather this, that during the time when the differences between
the two sects were becoming more sharply defined, the
Digambaras took so little interest in the sacred books that
the Svetambaras were able to manipulate them in their own
bdhyas.

interest.

The Canon

Svetambara redaction.
difficulty in

If this be the truth,

why

understanding

The

Canon.

bears clear traces of this process

of

we can have no

the Digambaras

lost

'

the

traditional date for the loss, the second century

A.D., just gives time for the process after the schism.
137.

The

known

vernacular of the far south,

as Tamil,

developed a varied literature at a very early date, and both

Buddhists and Jains took part in the movement. Some of
the most famous of early Tamil works are said to be of Jain
origin,

but they are not distinctively Jain works but belong

rather to general literature.

among the classics

poem consisting of

No work

2,660 short couplets, dealing with virtue,

wealth, and pleasure.

It

forms one of a group of eighteen

didactic poems, five or six of which are

also

two romances

adJiikarani, both

holds a higher place

of the South than the sacred Rural, a

by

in verse, the ManiviekJialai

There are

and the Silapp-

noted for their simple and elegant style,

which are believed to have been written by

1

Jains.

Bhandarkar, Report, 83-4,

p. 125.

Jains.''^

gMCTB.

2, 4.

CHAPTER

IV

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS.

TO

A.D. 200

550.

138. Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains all sought during this

period to give the best possible expression to their philoso-

The

phies.

Jain

foundation texts of the six Hindu systems, of

philosophy, and

all

commentaries, most of which

for their elucidation.

Hindu
more numerous than formerly. Each has
own theology, in which its god is identified with the

have been
sects are
its

lost,

now

Brahman of
its

Buddhism were

of Vijiianavada

written now, and numerous

were produced

far

the Upanishads

teaching and

its

cult

and each seeks to popularize

by means of an

interesting Puranic

document.

The
but

in

history of India during the third century

A. D.

is

a blank,

320 the family of the Guptas arose, and soon

created an empire which recalled the glory of the old Mauryas,

and gave North India a century and a half of strong, enThe peace and prosperity of these
lightened government.
years provided the conditions in which religious literature and
culture could do their best.
It was then that the philosophic
texts already mentioned, the early Puranas and a great series
of Buddhist Mahayana Sutras were written.
Probably at some time during this period the Syrian
Christian Church of Malabar came into existence.
i.

Hinduism.

A. The Philosophies.
139.

We

take the philosophies

first,

as they are probably

the healthiest and most abiding elements of the religion of

the time.

Their interest to us

lies

in this,

that the classic

PHILOSOPHIES AND SFXTS

123

which form the foundation of study in all the six

orthodox systems, appeared at this time. It is evident that
each of these works is built on earlier systematic treatises,
treatises,

and is the result of centuries of thinking. But all earlier

manuals are lost, having been rendered obsolete by the greater
power, accuracy, and finish of these classic works.
No definite date can yet be assigned for any one of these
six books
we must be content to recognize that they arose
within certain rather wide limits.^
Yet the following points
seem clear
(a) They were edited with reference to each
There are so many cross-references from each to the
other.
:

others that scholars are satisfied that

At

period.

all

six arose in a single

the time there must have been a great deal of

public discussion, in the course of which the characteristic

system were chiselled to the utmost

(d) All six are clearly later than the
didactic epic and Nagarjuna.
On the other hand, the lowest

conceptions of each
perfection of form,

possible limit seems to be A.D. 450

for the oldest surviving

commentary comes from about that date. A. D. 200 to 450

would thus seem to be the extremest limits that can be
^

and intellectual activity of the

(c) The wealth
Gupta Empire would provide the natural atmosphere and

allowed.

environment for the mutual intercourse and public discussion

which lie behind the books, (d) Scholars are now inclined
to believe, on the basis of Chinese evidence, that the author
of the SdiikJiya Kdrikd flourished about the beginning of the
fourth century.'^
Asanga, the exponent of the Vijiianavadin
school of Buddhism, which in all probability is the idealistic
system attacked in the Yoga-sutras, lived about the same
time.

Thus two out of the

to the first half of the fourth century,

edited with reference to each other,

'
For this whole problem see Jacobi,
Keith, /yv/45. 1914, 10S9; 1915,53;^.

^ Vatsyayana's Nydya-bhdshya.
probably as early.
^ See
146.

would stand related

If, then, all six were
there would seem to be

six treatises
{e)

JAOS. XXXI.

i ff.

Suali,

El.

Sabara-svamin's Mtmdmsd-bhdsJiya

is

PHILOSOPHIES AND SFXTS

134

a number of lines of evidence converging to the fourth century

most probable period for their emergence.

The form of these books is very strange at first sight
Five of them are sutras, and one
to the Western student.
consists of memorial verses, karikas.
No single document
as the

140.

by

itself

provides

anything

like

account of the philosophy which

it

comprehensible

clear,

represents.^

The system

was expounded by the teacher and the sutra or the karika

was little more than an index of topics which, committed to
memory, enabled the student to carry the instructions of his
;

teacher in his mind.

But the two manuals which we deal with

more

difficult to

understand than the others.

one single sutra

is

intelligible

method of reasoning^

first

In

are

much

them scarcely

without a commentary.'^

The

employed in these manuals is

always elaborate and difficult, and sometimes obscure.
141. There are six systems which are recognized as
orthodox. Each is called a darsana, or view, because it
also

embodies a way of looking at the world. They fall into three

and are so arranged because of a close connexion

pairs,

between the
Vedas, while

pairs.
in

The

first

pair

depend definitely on the

the case of each of the other two pairs, the

second philosophy adopted the metaphysics of the

The

first

first.

pair of systems fundamentally are not philosophies,

but merely systematic expositions of the two main parts of

the Veda.

Each is called numaiiisa, which means investigaThe Former Investigation, Purva Mlmarhsa,

tion, exegesis.

deals with the sacrificial part of the Veda, and the Later
Investigation, Uttara Mlmarhsa, deals with the Upanishads.

These two, then, really form the systematic theology of

Hinduism. Since, however, the Upanishads are philosophic
works, the Uttara
relation with the
1

Mimamsa

stands in the closest possible

whole history of philosophy

in India.

See Kt\th,JRAS. 1916, 613.

See Thibaut, SEE. XXXIV. xiii.
It is explained by Max Miiller, 6"^'. 203-4.

The

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

125

words Former and Later, as applied to these two mimamsas,

do not refer to the historical appearance of these systems, far
less to the dates of the Sutras, but to their place in study and
in

the

life

of the pious Hindu.

a.

The purpose of
Karma Mimamsa,

142.

called

Karma

TJic

Mimdihsd.

Mimamsa, which

the Purva
i.e.

Action Investigation,

dharma,
duty of Hindus, but as a matter of

certainty on the subject of

much

i.e.

is

also

to reach

is

the whole religious

fact sacrifice receives

so

attention as almost to eclipse other elements of duty.

All necessary instructions are given in the

hymns and

the

Brahmanas, but these are not systematic works, and in using

The
priests met numerous difficulties.
to solve these problems by providing
principles which should prove sufficient as guidance in the
interpretation of the Vedic texts.
Most of the sutras of Jaimini's Purva-mlmdmsd-sutras are
expositions of single texts or phrases, and are thus of little
interest to the modern reader, but here and there great
For example,
questions arise which are worthy of notice.

them for the sacrifices

Mimarhsa was meant

the absolute authority of the

ment the doctrine

of

its

Veda

eternity,

requires for

and that leads

doctrine of the eternity of sound and the

its

in

establish-

turn to the

indefeasible

con-

nexion between the sound of a word and its meaning.^

As the Veda contains many promises of rewards for those

who perform
are not

the actions enjoined therein, and as these results

seen arising at once from

the actions,

it

seemed

necessary to believe that sacrifice produces an invisible, transresult (apurva), which will in time provide the
promised fruit.
The Purva Mimarhsa does not teach a philosophical
system, yet certain metaphysical ideas are implied or find

cendental

incidental expression in
1

it.

See

The
ERE.

existence of
VIII. 648.

God

is

denied

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

126

on the ground that an omniscient being

a

realistic

the world

conception of the world

is

inconceivable

is

implied

is

the eternity of

stated in such terms as practically to preclude

the belief in the periodic destruction and re-creation of

all

things
and the law of Karma is held so rigidly that it
scarcely seems possible to believe in release from transmigration
and certainly the doctrine does not occur.^
The system came into existence to help the Vedic sacrificer
and the priests who acted for him and it remains to this
day the guide of orthodox householders of the twice-born
castes.
Hence, unlike the Vedanta, the Sahkhya, and the
Yoga, it does not teach asceticism, and has never had ascetics
;

associated with

b.

143.

gation,

is

it.

T/ie

Uttara Mimdi'nsd or Vedanta.

The manual of the Uttara Mimamsa,

usually called the Veddnta-sutras.

or Later Investi-

Brahma-sfiti-as

and Sdrh'aka-sutras are also used, because the subject is

Brahman, who is recognized as being the Sarlraka, or spirit
embodied in the universe. The work is attributed to
Badarayana, but the character of the work itself shows that
a long succession of scholars stand behind the author, and the
'

'

names of seven of these occur in the sutras.^

The work is a manual of exegetics for students of the Classical
Upanishads, and is based on the belief that these treatises are
in the fullest sense Revelation, and therefore contain a harmonious body of truth. As a matter of fact, although the
Upanishads all set forth Brahman, one, spiritual, unknowable,
no settled system, but
Necesfling out guesses at truth from various standpoints.
sarily, the effort to view the whole as an articulated body of
In so
clearly expressed ideas creates numerous difficulties.
far as the obscurity of the sutras permits us to judge, it would

as the basis of

all

things, they teach

For these very early ideas see 37.

Thibaut, SBE. XXXIV. xix.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

127

seem that the following outlines of a system arc taught in

the work
Brahman is one and formless, and consists of intelligence.
He is the source of scripture [sruti) and is therefore omniscient
:

and he

to be

is

known only from

fulfil,

The

and

therefore inactive

is

He is the material
He has no purpose to

scripture.

as well as the final cause of the universe.

his

world, though produced from

seeming activity

Brahman from time

has had no beginning and will have no end.

is

eternal.

The gods

exist,

and they feed

sport.

is

to time,

Scripture also

in their

own

divine

way on the sacrifices which the Veda enjoins.

The individual soul is eternal, intelligent, all-pervading. It
Its individuality is
it is Brahman.
is a portion of Brahman
but an appearance.
Sacrificial works help a man to rise to
;

knowledge of Brahman, but

release.

The

life

taught in scripture,

it is

knowledge alone that confers

of chastity and meditation on Brahman, as

is

the path to knowledge.

From Brahman

comes the fruit of works, and therefore transmigration from

him comes also release.
144. At a very early date the Veddnta-sutras became
revered as an inspired work, and it has since been held by
almost all Hindus to be infallible. Yet in spite of that, since
no commentary by its author has come down to us, the exact
meaning of its enigmatical phrases is in many cases far
from clear, and many variant expositions have been formulated by Hindu thinkers.
These scholars fall in the main
into two groups, those, on the one hand, who follow Saiikara;

charya (a.d. 788-850)

soul with

God

in

taking the identity of the individual

in the strictest possible sense,

and

a monism so absolute that the material world

is

in

accepting

regarded as

and the personality of God tends to be crushed

out, and those, on the other, who, because they believe
Brahman to be personal, regard the world as more or less
real and the human soul as more or less distinct from him.
The chief representative of this group is Ramanuja, who
pure

illusion,

flourished about iioo.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

128

Thibaut discusses
Sarikara

sutras and

in

considerable detail the question whether

Ramanuja comes

or

nearest

reaches the conclusion

the teaching of the

that,

while the kind of

Vedanta represented in the Veddnta-sutras must be left an

open question, there is reason to suppose that in some
important points their teaching
the system of

Ramanuja than

the other hand, he

is

is

more

to that

closely related to

of Sankara.^

On

inclined to believe that the teaching

of Sankara stands nearer to the teaching of the Upanishads

than the Siltras of Badarayana do
and he explains this
;

striking fact

by the supposition that the teaching of the Sut)-as

was influenced in some degree by the Bhagavadgitd?

For many centuries the Upanishads, the Bhagavadgitd and
the Vedd7it a- sutras have been recognized as the Prasthdnatraya, the Triple Source, of the Vedanta philosophy. It seems
probable that in Badarayana's day the Gltd had already risen
to great authority, even if it had not yet received its destined
place in the Canon of the school.
Being thus placed practically on a level with the Upanishads, the Gttd necessarily
became recognized as absolutely orthodox.'*
145. It is of interest to realize that three of the distinct

theories of the relation of the individual soul to

Brahman

which were afterwards embodied in commentaries on these

sutras had already received expression by Vedantic scholars
before the time of Badarayana.
According to Asmarathya,

God nor absolutely

he held the theory called Bhedabheda
according to Audulomi the soul is altogether different from

the soul

is

neither absolutely different from

without difference

i.

e.

Brahman up

to the time when, obtaining release, it is merged

he held the Satyabheda, or Dvaita, theory while
according to Kasakritsna the soul is absolutely non-different
from Brahman, i. e. he held the Advaita theory.^

in

it

i.

From

"

e.

the date of the earliest Upanishads until

SEE. XXXIV. cxxvi

SEE. XXXIV. cxxvi.
SEE. XXXIV. xix.

f.

^
*

now

there

cf_ j^eith, SS. 6, 52.

its original heterodoxy, see 94.

For

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

129

has existed the great order of sannyasis who seek to follow

They are still the most numerous and the

this teaching.

most highly respected order of monks

India.

in

There are

also a few nuns.

The SdhkJiya.

c.

146.

The primary

authority for the Saiikhya system

the Saitkliya-kdrikd} a

poem

verses and attributed to Isvara Krishna.

Chinese authorities that this writer

vasin,

and that he was a

is

consisting originally of seventy

was

known

Vasubandhu, the
it was believed

senior to

little

seems clear from

as Vindhya-

It

also

Until recently

famous Buddhist scholar.^

that Vasubandhu's date was the

half of the

first

fifth

century,

but fresh evidence which has become available has led most
scholars to conclude that he lived from about A.D. 270 to 350.^
If that be

we must

so,

place Isvara

Krishna towards the

beginning of the fourth century.*

According to

Sdhkhya-kdrikd is really the

we have seen above,^ was

tradition, the

.Shashtit antra rewritten, which, as

a manual of the theistic Sahkhya.

tantra as sketched

The

contents of the Shashti-

the Ahirbiidhnya Samhitd'^ seem to

in

justify this tradition.

The poem

is

an excellent piece of work.

Unlike the obscure

two mimarhsas, its verses are each quite comprehensible, although it would undoubtedly be extremely difficult
for a beginner to form an intelligible conception of the system
from the treatise by itself.
It is well to recognize that with the Sankhya we enter upon

sutras of the

rationalistic speculation.

with scripture

{sruti),

It is

but

it

held to be throughout consistent

is

clear

on the very surface that

the leading ideas have been evolved not from Vedic texts but

from observation and [speculative thought.

The appeal

to

^ JRAS.
See esp. Keith, SS. chap. vii.
1905, 162; 355.
xi, 356 ff.;
homas, //?^6'. 1913, 646; 103 1 ; 1914, 748;
Keith, 6VV. 87.
Franks, /^y^.V, 1914, 398 ff. Takakusu, ib. 113
'

BEFEO.

Keith,

6-6'.

43

57

63.
'

99.

Schrader,

IP AS.

iioff.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

I30
scripture

is

more formal than

real

yet the system has in con-

sequence been recognized as orthodox, and therefore superior

not only to Buddhism and Jainism but to the sectarian systems.

The end

147.

in

view

is

the removal of misery, and the

Three kinds of evidence are availand right affirmation (which includes

The system is an atheistic dualism there are two
scripture).
eternal existences, original nature {prakriti), and spirits

means

is

true knowledge.

able, perception, inference,

{puriishd).

Prakriti

many, conscious,

are

one, unconscious, productive;

is

spirits

inactive, each a solitary, passive spectator

of the operations of nature.

It is

migrate and suffer misery.

implied that spirits trans-

Prakriti

is

the universal material

cause, unconscious, homogeneous, invisible, impalpable, know-

able only from

The

its

for the

takes place for

in

sake of

that

is

spirit

such a manner that nature and

Prakriti

goodness

and

all

{sattva),

while they are

in

its

evolutes are

common

to all spirits.

its products possess the three constituents,

energy {rajas), and darkness {tamas), but
equilibrium in prakriti, they appear in its

From

products in variant balance.

prakriti issues Intellect

{biiddhi) called also the Great {via/iat), a subtle

stance,

^
:

from unconscious nature there is

a whole universe, that the development
each individual spirit separately, but yet at the same time

essential conception

developed

Professor Keith writes

products.

which constitutes

in

cosmic sub-

the individual his organ of thought

produced Egoism or Individuation {ahai'nkdra), a subtle cosmic substance which marks every
psychical movement with the word mine and makes each

and

decision..

From

Intellect

is

'

'

spirit

imagine

itself

an active

human individual. From Egoism

produced Mind [nianas), a subtle cosmic substance which

is

enables the individual to apprehend and pass on to the intellect

the impressions of things received by the senses, and to carry

out the decisions of the intellect by means of the active organs.

From Egoism there are also produced the five organs of sense,
1

Keith {SS. Chap,

vii)

the system of the KarikCi.

2

SS.

78.

gives a brilliant exposition and criticism of

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

131

the five organs of action, and five subtle elements, or rudiments

[tanindtras),

which

Prakriti, with

its

produce the

in turn

three

first

five

material elements.

products and these four

fives,

make twenty-four principles, and spirit makes the twenty-fifth.

The spirit, intelligent but inactive, is united with nature,
unconscious but active, like a lame man carried on a blind
man's back, and, misled by the operations of Egoism, imagines
himself an active individual, thinking, feeling, willing, acting,
while he

but an inactive spectator of the unconscious and

is

Yet nature

inevitable processes of nature.

that she

may

is

produced, so

display herself like a dancer, and so give the

individual spirit an opportunity to realize the truth that he

by nature but

not bound

is

By

a free, inactive spirit.

is

repeated

study of these principles the follower of the Sankhya

reaches the knowledge, Neither I am, nor is aught mine, nor
Possessed of this knowledge, the purusha in
do I exist.'
reflective

'

peace and

inaction

contemplates nature, which

is

thereby

precluded from her activity, and the purusha at death attains

its

true

life

[48.

It

of Isolation {kaivalya).

seems clear that

this

complicated system was

evolved from a number of early conceptions in the Upanishads.^

It

has

in

turn deeply influenced every form of Indian

thought.

The Sankhya
to

offers the

knowledge which leads to Kaivalya

Sudras as well as to twice-born Hindus.

It

thus stands

between the Vedanta, which is restricted to the twice-born,

is open to all.
There has existed since
the early centuries an order of Sankhya sannyasis, but there
are few, if any, left now.

^and the Yoga, which

d.
149.

The manual

The Yoga.

of the

Yoga

system, the Yoga-mtra,

attributed to Patafijali, and for centuries

it

is

was held that the

reference was to the grammarian of the second century B.C.,

and consequently the Yoga-sutra was believed by European
1

So Keith,

^'.V.

Chap,

i,

and

87.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SFXTS

132

But

scholars to be the earliest of the philosophic manuals.

since the sutra shows a

more developed system than anything

that appears in the epic or in the

the Vijiianavada of

Buddhism

Yoga Upanishads, and

is

criticized

in

it,^

it

since

is

now-

recognized that the author must have been another Pataiijali,

and that

his date

cannot be

fourth century A. D.

Sdhkhya-kdrikd and
the Yoga-sutra?

its

The

earlier

than the middle of the

probable that the writing of the

It is

great success led to the production of

rise

of the Vijiianavadin, or Yogachara,"

system within Buddhism, about A. D. 300, would also be a

for Yoga
The Yoga system

challenge

holds a large place in

it.

accepts the twenty-five principles of the

Saiikhya and adds to them the Lord {Isvara), thus raising the

number

to twenty-six.

But the interest of the Yoga centres,

not in the understanding of these principles, but

in

the practice

method of yoga and in devotion to the Lord, which it

forth as the most efficient means for the attainment of the

of the
sets

Isolation {kaivalyd) of the soul {purusha or dtman).

The Lord

of the Yoga-sutras

is

attached rather loosely to

the main conceptions of the system.^

He

is

a special kind of

soul {pnrusha-viseshd)^ov[\msz\tn\^ eternal, perfect, untouched

by karma, transmigration,

human

or

weakness.

He

is

the

and he helps the man who

shows him devotion to reach the concentration which leads
to Isolation, but he is not called the Creator nor otherwise
related to world-processes.
He is expressed by the mystic
teacher of the Primal

Sages

Om.
Yoga-method seeks to gain complete mastery over the
movements of the mind, first by means of moral abstentions,

syllable,

and exercises both physical and mental,

and then by fixed attention and deepening meditation, which
lead on to ecstatic contemplation and the final discrimination
between soul and nature, which secures Isolation.

ascetic observances,

SS.
*

Hopkins,
57.
178.

y^ 6*6'. XXII

b.,

335, 336;

Woods, Yoga,
2
*

XV

ff.; Keith,
Keith, SS. 57.
Keith, SS. 56.

AND SECTS

PHILOSOPHir-S
In

its

earliei-

stages the school

of

Yoga was open

Hindus, and even to Outcastes,^ precisely

Yoga

Jainism.

150.

like

to

all

Buddhism and

ascetics are called Yogis.

e.

As we have

existed ia the

133

first

TJie Vaiseshika.

seen above, the Vaiseshika system already

century

and

A. D.,

it

may

be

still

older.

The classic treatise, the Vaiscshika-siitras, is attributed to

Kanada Kasyapa. The Vaiseshika and the Nyaya systenris
apparently grew up side by

side, and the two sutra manuals

seem to have been edited with close reference to each other.^
The Vaiseshika is an atomistic realism. Nine classes of

There are first

minima, or atoms. I^ach para-

ultimate realities, dravyas, are recognized.

four classes of paramanus,

manu

is

i.e.

a changeless, eternal reality, yet invisible and without

The minima

magnitude.

fall

they possess odour, flavour,

into four classes, according as

which are regarded

and fire respectively.
Two minima form a dyanuka,or binary atom, and a combination of three dyanukas forms a tryanuka, the smallest entity
that possesses magnitude and may be termed a substance.
light, or heat,

as characteristics of earth, water,

The

fifth

air,

ultimate reality, dkasa, usually translated

'

ether

',

is

an indiscrete and all-pervading continuum, conceived as the

medium necessary for the formation of substances from the
unsubstantial minima.

The

sixth

stands for the force which produces

reality,

kdla

all activity,

(lit.

'

time

')

movement, and

change, and thus gives the basis for the perception of timedifferences,

jrhe seventh

reality, dik

(i.

e.

direction or position),

acts so as to balance kdla, keeping things in position

and pre-

venting their dissolution amid the welter of change.

eighth reality

word

is

an

infinite

for the self or soul.

The
number of dtinans, the old Vedantic
Each atman is eternal, infinite, all-

The ninth ultimate is manas^ the organ through

which the atman comes into touch with the impressions of the
senses. Like the paramanus, each manas is eternal and without
pervading.

'

Hopkins, GE. 114.

"^

Keith, y/?^6". 1914, p. 1085.

134

PHILOSOPHIES AND SPXTS

magnitude.

Like the

Karma Mimamsa and

the Sankhya, the

Hindu gods but not the

original Vaiseshika recognizes the

one God.

The

sutras

name

six

padarthas, categories or classes of

things that can be named, dravya (entity, existence),

karma

guna

sdmdnya (the relation of a thing to

its genus), viscsha (differentia), and samavdya (inherence). The
knowledge of these categories brings release.
(quality),

(action),

f.

The Nyaya

151.
first

Nydya.

Tlie

system, which can be traced from the

century, has adopted the Vaiseshika metaphysic, and thus

stands related to that system in

Yoga

stands to the Sankhya

much

the

same way

but, as sufficient evidence to

enable us to trace the early history of the

come down, we cannot

as the

Nyaya has

not

how it came into existence. As

Nyaya is to prove the truths which

tell

the special interest of the

lead to bliss and deliverance, one might conjecture that the

system was formed by combining the method of an early
school of dialectic with the Vaiseshika metaphysic, or, as an

two schools seeking deliverance grew up side

alternative, that

by

side,

scientific

the one seeking saving knowledge in an accurate

account of

all

things, the other feeling the necessity

of presenting a demonstrative proof of the truth of the main

positions which were held to be necessary for deliverance, and
that, after the elaboration of the proofs, the

metaphysic of

the scientific school was adopted to complete the world-view.

There is one further difference to be noted. Like the Yoga,
the

Nyaya

posits a

the sutra he
action.

The
a.
6.

is

Lord

{Isvara),

and

is

The fundamental document

is

Gautama's Nydya-sutra.

sutra enumerates sixteen topics.

Things to be proved,
Conclusion,

absurdum,

9.

thus theistic, but in

referred to only as administering the fruits of

7.

3.

Doubt,

The members

Ascertainment,

4.

They

of a syllogism,
10.

are, i. Proof,

Motive,

Thesis,

8.

11.

5,

Example,

Reductio ad
Sophistical

wrangling, 13. Cavilling, 13. Fallacious reasoning, 14. Futility,

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

15.

Quibbling,

135

Talk that is beside the point. These

show where the centre of interest lies in

16.

subjects of discussion

the philosophy.

In the course of

its

reasonings the

Nyaya

developed the logic of India.

152.

In both the

of the soul {dtinan)

systems.

Nyaya and the Vaiseshika the conception

is much richer and fuller than in other

Its functions are

Involuntary vital action, Voluntary

and Control of the organs

and of the manas or inner organ.
These two schools seem to have sprung up among the
orthodox twice-born householders
for neither demands
asceticism, nor have ascetics been associated with them.
It is very noteworthy that the Vaiseshika was certainly
atheistic to begin with, and the Nyaya may have been so also.
Thus the ancient Hindu mind, which acknowledged all the
gods but not the Supreme, lingered long among the twiceborn.
But gradually a belief in God won its way. PVom
a very early date the Nyaya became theistic, and the VaiseThe Nyaya is to this day professed by
shika followed later.
considerable numbers of orthodox Brahmans in Bengal while
the Vaiseshika seems to have been associated with Pasupata
Saivism from the moment when it recognized the existence of
the Supreme.
153. It is probable, though not certain, that each of the
classical treatises was accompanied by a commentary prepared
by the author but unfortunately, if these existed, no single
one of them has survived. Of all existing commentaries on
the six manuals, only two seem to belong to our period,
action, Desire, Aversion, Cognition,

of sense

namely, Sabara Svamin's BJidsJiya on the Purva-inlviai'usdand Vatsyayana's Nyaya Bhdshya. Jacobi conjectures ^

siltras,

that both these works belong to the fifth century.

It

seems

clear that Vatsyayana's BhdsJiya at least falls within the limits

of our period
writer,
'

for

whose date

JAOS. XXXI.

24;

Vidyabhushana,

he comes before Dignaga,- the Buddhist

is
about A.D. 550,^ while the archaic

ERE.

II.

/l/^'/Z,. 86.

201.
^

Woods,

Yoga^y^\y..

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

136

character of Sahara's work

of

it

is

sufficient to justify

our inclusion

within the same limits.

The

philosophies of

elsewhere, but

it

Buddhism and Jainism

may be

useful to

are discussed

note here that the four

Buddhist philosophical systems, Sarvastivadin, Sautrantika,

Madhyamaka,

Vijiianavadin, are

combated

in

these

Hindu

manuals, and that the classic treatise of the Vijnanavadins was

probably written about the same time as the Sdiikhya Kdrikd

while Umasvati also, whose TattvdrtJtddJiigama-sntra

is

the

fountain head of Jain philosophy, seems to have lived under

the Guptas.^
B.
154.

It

would be

The Purdnas.
exaggerate the popularity and

difficult to

importance of the religious poems known as Puranas.

are very widely used
original

and

in

among

the

common

They

people, both in the

numerous vernacular versions and adaptations.

Indeed the epics and the Puranas are the real Bible of the

common

people, whether literate or illiterate, and they are the

source of half the vernacular literature.

the Puranas are of

little

On

intrinsic interest as

the other hand,

compared with
and hence

the Vedas, or the philosophic or classical literature

they have been largely neglected by serious students. Wilson's

essays laid

the foundations for critical study, but

been done since his time.

It is

little

has

thus impossible at present to

give a trustworthy chronology of these poems, or to explain

how each

arose

yet something

to grasp the significance of the

may be

said to enable readers

more important

sections of the

literature.

Puranas are referred to in Vedic literature from the Atharvaveda downwards

quotations occur in the Dharmasutras,
while there are definite references to
and in the Epics
the Bhavishya P. in the Apastamba Dharmasutra and to the
A passage in the Padina P. is
Vdyii P. in the MahdbJidrata.
copied in the Mahdbhdratar Yet even the earliest existing
;

See

185.

'

Hopkins, CZf. 47-50.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SFXTS

Puranas come from

They

later dates.

137

contain sections and

fragments belonging to early centuries, but as works they are

late.

The Puranas

155.

written in the

are a second type of popular literature,

same verse and open

same completeness as the epics

origin.
The word purana means
literature

signifies

it

have been a book of

origins, a sort of

that a Purana has five

is

teaching on
I.

ancient, but as a

ancient book

name

in

but an ancient

Indeed, originally a Purana would seem to

subject, Archaica.

tradition

not an

people with the

to the

but they had a different

The

Hindu Genesis.

marks,

i.

e.

it

contains

five distinct topics, as follows*:

Creation.

Re-creation,

II.

i.e.

at

the opening of each kalpa, with

a description of the Universe, Heaven, Hell, and earth.

Genealogies of gods and

III.

rishis,

and an account of the

origin of the Veda.

The ages

IV.

of the world and their regents.

V. Genealogies of kings.
This shows that a Purana was conceived as a book of
origins
and to this day the Puranas are the source of popular
;

conceptions of creation, time, the universe, the earth, geography,

and early history.

this

type

sections

Some

of

are

We

shall use the

word

teaching as a whole,

'

cosmic

although

to describe

'

considerable
cosmic.

legendary and historical than

rather

very old material, belonging to this category, occurs in

two or three of the

earliest of

our existing Puranas, whence

it

has been copied, with or without alteration, into most of the

others.

It

and Matsya, there

historical value.

belong to the

is

As

first

Brahmanda,

material which has proved

the latest kings

named

in these

to be of

documents

half of the fourth century, the documents

presumably are not much

156.

Vishnu.

can be most conveniently studied in the

Further, in the genealogies of kings in the Vdyii,

later.

But, like the epics, the Puranas were used

sects as vehicles of sectarian teaching.

Each

sect

by

the

and sub-sect

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

J3H

sought to

foist its

own documents upon some popular Purana,

way into the hands and hearts of

so that they might find their

the people.

The

with Krishna.

It

process seems to have begun, as in the epic,

append his biography

is done in the HariThereafter, sectarian documents

was quite natural

to

to the genealogies of the ancient kings, as

and the Vishnu P.

vai'iisa

of

many

epic,

types found their

the Vaishnavas

Saivas did not

fall far

way

into the Puranas.

here took the

lion's

As

share,

in

the

but the

behind them, while other sects had to

be content with slighter support.

Scholars are

inclined to believe that the earliest

of the

existing Puranas took shape under the Guptas in the fourth,

and sixth centuries, although all have probably undergone

more or less modification since then ^ and it is probably true
that every existing Purana owes its present form and its
survival to some sect.
Thus we take the golden age of the
Guptas as the dividing line. In earlier times there existed
real old Puranas dealing with origins.
They were meant for
the whole people, and were a genuine national literature.
But only fragments of these cosmic Puranas survive. All
existing Puranas come from the Gupta period or from later
fifth,

'

'

dates.

Further, the Puranas have suffered so

writing

and

much from

re-

interpolation that they cannot be treated like

homogeneous texts. The date of each section must be conby itself, and in most cases internal evidence alone is
available.
Most of the results must thus be treated as very

sidered

tentative.

From

157.

quite an early time

the Puranas have been

the eighteen
spoken of as eighteen in number
Puranas occurs in a very late passage in the Mahdbhdrata?What this early canon was like, we have no means of knowing,
but it may possibly have included a few of the existing
Puranas for the passage referred to is probably not earlier
;

for the phrase,

'

'

Pargiter, //?v45. 1912, 248;

740; 191S, 331.

XVlll. V.
46;

vi.

Fleet, ib. 1912,

97; Hopkins,

GE.

48.

1046; Keith,

ib.

1914,

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

139

But the actual number of existing

works recognized as Puranas is twenty for the Harivai'nsa,
which forms the conclusion of the MahdbJiarata, is one of the
earliest and greatest of the Puranas, and must be reckoned as
such and both the Siva and the J^dj/ii, one of which is usually
excluded from the list, ought to be included. There are
besides many secondary documents, known as Upapuranas.
The twenty recognized works are the following eighteen, as
found in the list in the Vishnu
i.
Brahma, 3. Padma,
3. Vishnu, 4. Siva, 5. Bhagavata, 6. Naradlya, 7. Markandeya,
than the fourth century.

8.

Agni,

9.

Varaha,
17.

Bhavishya,

Garuda,

18.

Vayu added.
158. Thus

10.

Brahmavaivarta,

11.

Lihga, 13.

Vamana, 15. Kijrma, 16. Matsya,

Brahmanda with the Harivamsa and the

Skanda,

13.

14.

the roots of the Puranic literature go back to

have

is late.
Even a cursory
been innumerable additions,

and alterations made

in the course of the centuries.

early dates, but most of the material

study shows that

excisions,

there

Very few Puranas have a settled text differing recensions

exist, and countless fragments of .many types are found in
MSS., either incorporated in a Purana, or claiming to belong
:

to

The

one.

sectarian

Purana

is

an old text

essentially

partially rewritten for a sectarian end, or an old text with

a sectarian document incorporated

in

it

and

contamination has been continued through

Gupta period.

since the

this process of

the centuries

all

Ancient legends about the sectarian

gods, masses of sectarian theology, philosophy, ritual, and

manuals of

politics,

art,

war, astrology, medicine, rhetoric, and

grammar, and mahatmyas

(i.e.

panegyrics) of temples and

now form a large part of the conThus even if the precise date of the

other places of pilgrimage,

tents of the Puranas.
original

compilation of

each of the twenty Puranas were

known, we should

still be compelled to judge the

age and origin of each section on its own merits. But very
little of this critical work has yet been done
so that only
tentative conclusions can be given at present
and critical

definitely

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

]40

study

prove

will

fruitful

only

the Puranic material

if

is

exam-

ined in the closest possible relation to the history of the sects.

We

propose to

history

Puranic material into our outline of the

fit

two ways.

in

First,

we

shall

give a

each

in

list

chapter of those Puranas or sections of Puranas which seeni to

belong to its period and secondly we shall use those sectarian

Puranic documents whose connexions can be discerned to help
to complete our sketch of the literature of each period.
;

159. It is clear that

but there

is

the

Yet we propose,

ment.

Harivamsa belongs

to this period,

no absolute proof with regard to any other docutentatively, to assign the following

Puranas and parts of Puranas to this period, since the evidence

in each case seems to favour the ascription.
They are briefly
discussed below in the sections which deal with the sectarian
literatures,

and

in

each case the reasons for ascribing them to

this period are stated.

The

Vishnu

and Vishnu P.
Vdyn P.
Brahma: First Khanda. of Padj/ia P. portions
of Aldrkandeya P.
Durga
Hymns in Harivanisa Chandl Ma-

Markandeya P.
Section of Markandeya P.
Brahma

sect of

Siva

,,

Harivai'iisa

Sections in

hatmya

Surya

of

Parvan of BJiavisJiya P.

C. TJie Orthodox Twice-born

160.
fices

The

their Literature.

slow yet steady weakening of the ancient sacri-

prescribed in the Srauta-sutras seems to be one of the

chief features of orthodox

simpler

more

and

rites laid

down

in

life

during

this period, while the

the Grihya-sutras were more and

practised and also widened in their scope.

gods took their place

in the

The popular

worship of the home, and were

honoured with a ritual taken from the Grihya-sutras. At this

time also the word Smdrta began to be used for the orthodox
twice-born

man who

does not offer the Srauta

sacrifices,

while

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

became the term

Sraiita

or

of the Srauta

all

141

man who still keeps up several

The word Smarta occurs first of all

for the

rites.

sense in the Parisishtas to Baudhiiyana's Grihya-sntra.

in this

Smarta comes from Sinriti and the idea is that the Smarta's
worship depends upon smriti, e. the sutras, and in particular
on the Grihya-sutra of the school to which he belongs.
For the whole group of orthodox twice-born men the final
exposition of the Karma Mimamsa, the Nyaya, and the Vaiseall three being systems which
orthodox
shika in sutras
householders favoured and the codification of the ancient
dharma in the lawbooks during those centuries must have
;

i.

been of signal importance

now attached

arisen directly from the

The

while the writing of the Parisishtas

seems to have
emergence of the Smartas.

to the BatidJiayana GriJiya-sntras

chief works on the sacred law belonging to this period

Vaikhdnasa GriJiya and DJiarmaYdjnavalkya Dharmasdstra and certain Parisishtas or appendices tacked on to the Baudhdyaiia Grihyaare the Vishnusmriti, the

the

sfitraSy

The

sutra.

which

earliest

later

is

of these

works

is

the

VisJinusinriti,

than the Harivamsa, and the latest

is

the

ydjiiavalkya Dharmasdstra, which borrows passages from the

Vishmismriti and speaks of Ganesa. The Baiidhdyana Grihyasutra

is

MSS.

and

Smarta
sometimes called the Smdrta-sUira in

peculiar interest for the history of the

of

community

for
its

it

is

Parisishtas contain rules for their

cult/''

It

would be well if they could be critically edited. The Ydjiiavalkya Dharmasdstra stands in close relationship to Manu and
is also an orthodox work.

The

legal material of the Vishnusmriti

is

in

prose sutras.

and seems to have been taken over almost unchanged from

the Dharma-sutra belonging to the Charayaniya-Kathakas.
one of the ancient schools of the Black Yajurveda but some
rules have been altered and a few new ones added.
The
;

'

Bihler,

am

see 207.

SBE. XIV.

xxx.

informed that the worship of the

five

gods

is

dealt with in

them

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

142

reviser has also introduced a short chapter at the beginning,

which we are told that the goddess of the earth received

this whole body of law from the Kps of the supreme Vishnu,
and added two at the end in praise of Vishnu and his consort
Sri.
Krishna receives no special mention. The code is thus
a Vaishnava work arranged for the use of some Vaishnava
community, most probably the Bhagavata, as is suggested at
many points by the commentator Nandapandita.^ The Vaikhdiiasa Sutras are also Vaishnava, and as there are found in
the Tamil south to-day Vaishnava temples in which Vaikhdnasa, as distinct from Pdnchardtra^ Sarhhitas^ are used for
the ritual, it is probable that this also was prepared for
a special Vaishnava community.
i6i. It was seemingly during this period that the worship
of Vishnu and Siva as equal, or as one, was instituted
for the
fullest exposition of the theory on which the cult rests occurs
in the Harivamsa?
One might think that the worship
of Siva and Vishnu as one was a compromise meant to
in

reconcile warring sectaries, but facts suggest another explanation.

The word Bhagavata has two meanings

in

modern Hinduism.

an epithet used ofVaishnavas generally, as those who

It
use the Bhagavat-sastra, or body of works which revere Vishnu
is first

Bhagavan.

as

community
India,

who

It

is

used, in the second place, of a special

most parts of South

of Vaishnavas, found to-day in

really adore Vishnu, but recognize the equality of

the two gods and keep up the use of Vedic

therefore recognized as Smartas.
distinguish this

It is

rites.

They

are

of great importance to

community of Vaishnava vSmartas from the

sectarian Vaishnavas called Pancharatras.

We may

be sure

that the passage in the Harivai'nsa^ which reflects the double

worship, comes from

the

An

Bhagavatas.

Upanishad was

written later to establish the doctrine of the identity of Vishnu

I.

SBE. VU.

See 211 and 212.

pp. 155 n.; 208 n. 2; 268.
Cf. Muir, OST. IV.; also Winternitz,
Chap. 184, lines 10660
For the Hativatksa, see 1 59 and 162.
386.

"^

fif.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SIXTS

and
is

Siva, the

Skanda U}

The godhead conceived

An

designated Harihara, Preserver-Destroyer.

dating from A.D. 53H-9

143

way

in this

inscription

shows that the Bhagavata community

was already in existence during this period for it not only

uses the word Bhagavata but quotes their famous mantra,
;

Oih iiamo BJiagavate Vasiidcvdya.

The presence in the Harivavisa of the classical text on the
metaphysical equality of Vishnu and Siva, and of several other
passages which

in

fit

with the theory,^ naturally suggests the

question whether the Harivavisa

may

Purana corresponding to the Vishnu

the Pancharatra Vaishnavas.

to

not be a Bhagavata

/*.,

which clearly belongs

The emergence about

the

same time of two Puranas so similar in their attitude to

Krishna would thereby find an explanation. The contents
and significance of the Harivai'nsa are dealt with below.
D. Vaishnava Literature.
162. The Harivai'nsa and the Vishnu P. are Krishnaite
works prepared with the utmost care and skill from old
materials, so that the popularity and the ancient influence of
the Puranic literature may be used to strengthen the cult of
Vishnu. It is suggested above ^ that the Harivai'nsa may be
a Bhagavata document, while there is no doubt that the
Vishnu P. sprang from the Vaishnava sect known as Paiicharatras.
They must in any case be considered together. The
Harivai'nsa clearly cannot be dated later than a. d. 400, and
the Vishnu P. is so like it in most of its features that it is
probable that it belongs to the same general date.
Both

contain a good deal of cosmic matter, but

ment of the Krishna-legend

They presuppose

is

in their treat-

the whole MaJidbhdrata story, but they

in great detail the sports

^

See

'^

The Khoh copper

and exploits of

his youth,

tell

which are

210.

plates of

year 209 of the Gupta era.

' cxxxi.
cxlv. S199
741 IT,
I. 384 ff.
;

'

it

that they are most significant.

161.

ff.

Maharaja Samkshobha, belonging

cclxvi-cclxxxi

cccxxiv.

to the

See Winternitz,

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

144

merely alluded to in the epic. Perhaps three stages in the

development of the legend may be detected. The dramatist
Bhasa, who probably dates from the third century A. D., has
a play called BdlacJiarita, which
youth, as

its

name

In

indicates.

the story of Krishna's

tells

the HallJsa sport

it

merely

is

an innocent dance. In the Vishnu P. there are already various

while in the
erotic touches which go a good deal further
;

Harivai'nsa the whole story of his youth

greater length and the Halllsa

is

is

told at

much

treated as involving sexual

intercourse.^

In any case

it

is

the

life

of Krishna, and, above

all,

the

legend of his youth that gives these works their significance

and the fresh material they contain, doubtless drawn from

legends which had long been current in and about Mathura,
could scarcely be surpassed in power to attract, to interest, and
Here we have Krishna and
to amuse the common people.
his brother pictured in a series of feats of strength and cunning,
killing giants and circumventing rogues, the whole lighted up
with coarse country humour of the broadest type, and, alongside, scenes of rustic

captures the hearts of

dance and the revel

The

Harivai'nsa

merrymaking
all the young

all

in

which the young god

and keeps up the

wives,

night long.

had

immense good fortune

the

accepted as a fitting close to the Mahdbhdrata^ and

to be

in conse-

quence has enjoyed unlimited popularity and influence. The

VisJinu P. is the best representative of the whole class of
sectarian Puranas, since it is purely Vaishnava in its teaching
from beginning to end, and yet retains with considerable
faithfulness the character of the old unsectarian Puranas.
is

divided into six books,

all

It

of which, with the exception of

cosmic
in character, though
are in the main
Vaishnava in theology. The fifth book tells the
story of Krishna and is the heart of the Purana, as has just
been shown. In its theology the VisJinu follows, in the main,
the Gitd and the other Vaishnava documents of the didactic
the

fifth,

'

'

distinctly

>

Chanda, 7//^.

S6ff.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SIXTS

epic, but

145

speaks of Krishna as being an incarnation of an

it

exceedingly small portion of Vishnu.

The appearance

these two great works suflficiently

which Krishna held in Hindu thought

of

attests the great place

Thibaut's conjecture as to the influence of the

at the time.

Gita on the Vcddnta-sntras, and the unquestioned fact that

about

time the Song rose to a place of authority on an

this

Upanishads ^ are further proofs of the

influence of the Vaishnava movement.
63. The Ma/id ' is a short Upanishad which voices the
Vaishnava conviction that Narayana, i.e. Vishnu, is the
eternal
Brahman, that from him come the twenty-five
principles of the Sankhya system, and that Siva and Brahma
equality with

the

are subordinate deities, creations of his meditative power.

is

It

the oldest Vaishnava Upanishad, and probably comes from

our period.

quoted by Ramanuja.^

It is

E. Sail!a Literature.
164. In the

didactic epic, as

named Pasupata
makes

The bulk
fifth

is

woven round the god

appearance next

its

we have

This system

Vayu P.

of the Purana probably belongs to the fourth or

The

material,

in this period rather

is

not yet

however, stands

so near the Saiva

we

are inclined to place

material of the Epic in character that

deal

Siva.

in the earlier part of the

century, but the date of this Pasupata section

known.
it

seen, a theology

than

of cosmic 'material

in the next.

very

little

It

contains a good

modified, the philosophy

main the teaching of the theistic Yoga.

15 deal with Pasupata Yoga, the various
of
physical
and intellectual practice which were tradiforms
Here also occurs a Mahatmya of
tional in the sect.'*
Mahesvara, and a hymn of praise in honour of Nllakantha,
following in

the

Chapters 11

to

both names of Siva.

JJeussen,

'

See

SBE. XLVIII.

Pasupata

and

144.

SUV.

522.
ascetics are called ilnidhva-rctasah

bJiasiHoddJi fditavigralidh

.,

743.

Pdsupatds tapasxdnah,

PHILOSOPHIES AND SPXTS

146

But there

one passage which introduces us to

After an
enumeration of the Kalpas, there comes an account of the
ages iyngas) which form divisions of the present Kalpa. Of
these twenty-eight are enumerated, and Siva promises to
165.

a sub-sect of

is

the Pasupatas, viz. the Lakullsas.

become incarnate in each. The last of the prophecies runs

that, when Krishna shall be incarnate as Vasudeva, Siva, by
means of his Yoga powers, will enter a dead body left unburning-ground at Kayarohana, and will appear
Kusika, Gargya, Mitra, and
as an ascetic named Lakull.
Kaurashya will be his disciples, and will practise Pasupata

guarded

in a

Yoga, smearing

Now

EkliiigjI,

and

their bodies with ashes

an inscription

in

dust.^

an old shrine near the temple of

fourteen miles from

Udaipur, says that Siva was

incarnate in the country of Broach and carried a rod {lakula)

in his

hand, whence the place was called Kayavarohana, i.e.

The Cintra prasasti says that Siva became

descent in a body.

incarnate at Karohana, in the Lata country, and that, for the

performance of Pasupata vows, there appeared in bodily

form four pupils, Kusika, Gargya, Kaurushya, and Maitreya.
Karwar in the Baroda State is held to be the place, and a
strict

temple of Lakullsa

We

have then,

still

stands there.

in the

prophecy of the Vdyu^ the

notice of the Lakulisa-Pasupatas.

The

earliest

history of the sect has

A temple
been worked out by Mr. R. D. Bhandarkar.
it was assigned by Fergusson to the seventh
century it can be traced in inscriptions from Rajputana south
to Mysore, from the tenth century downwards, and large
numbers of Lakullsa images have been found in Gujarat and
Rajputana. These images are different from all other images

belonging to
;

them the god has but two arms, he holds a short

club in one of his hands, and the penis is naked and erect.
The two arms find an explanation if Lakuli was a human

of Siva

ascetic
'

Cf,

112.

in

the club

the

account

is

the lakula from which he takes his

of

Pasupata ascetics

in

Atharvasiras

name
U.

see

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

and the penis naked and erect

147

recalls the liiiga-passages of

the epic discussed above.'

It thus seems likely that the sect was founded by a
Pasupata ascetic named LakulT, i.e. the club-bearer, who
taught a form of Pasupata doctrine, and was recognized as an
Since the name Lakull does not occur
incarnation of Siva.

the MaJidbJidrata,

in

it

likely that the sect arose after the

is

epic and before the Vdyii, perhaps about the third or fourth

Now, given the

century.'^

the twenty-eighth,

in this,

four

disciples,

belief that Siva has

Mahayuga

been incarnate

as Lakull, attended

by

Indian imagination, which

the schematizing

created a long series of Vaishnava incarnations before Krishna,

Buddhas before Gautama, and a long

series

of Tirthakaras before Mahavira, would soon discover the

names

a long series of

of the other incarnations and of the four disciples of each.

The

sect

would then have a

comparison with the

and that

is

list

line of divine teachers

worthy of

of avataras in the Vaishnava sect

precisely what

we have

in

the Vdyu.

It is

very

noticeable that the doctrine of avataras, which was not adopted

at the time of the epic,

is

now

form of the story confesses that

accepted, and that the very

it

is

copied from the Krishna-

incarnation.
166.

this

It

period

is

probable that the bulk of Saivas throughout

belonged to no sub

worship of the god

many

but

sect,

continued

their

accordance with ancient usage, as so

to-day,
do
without troubling about sects and theology,

but our information

in

is

very scanty.

About the Tamil Saivas a

known, but there is

Nakklra Deva, who
lived at some time during the period, seems to have been
a writer of eminence, but only one of the works attributed to
practically

no

little

is

literature to catalogue.

See 1 10. The epithet Urddhva-retas, which occurs in these passages,

used here of Lakuhsa ascetics in the sense of chaste
^ This date is certainly very speculative
for the passage may possibly
have been interpolated after the writing of the original Purana
but it
is at least more likely to be near the date than Bhandarkar's suggestion,
^

'

is

'.

the

first

century A.D.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

148

him

accepted by scholars as genuine, the Tirumuriihattup-

is

poem

padai, a

in

honour of the god Muruha,

F.

Brahma

i.e.

Subrahmanya.

Literature.

Brahma sect also appears in the literature. In

the Markandeya P. and in the first Khanda of the Padma P}
he is identified with the eternal Brahman of the Upanishads.
167.

doubt that these passages belong to this

was the sect of Brahma
prominent.
In the Markandeya he is spoken of as unborn,
changeless, imperishable, unknowable, the source of prakriti

There can be

little

period, for only during these centuries

and of

souls, while in the

Brahma and Brahman,

Padma^

the instrument and the

first

cause of creation,

are represented as the same, the primeval, excellent, beneficent, and

supreme Brahman in the form of Brahma and the rest, is the creation
and the creator, preserves and is preserved, devours and is devoured,
the first immaterial cause being, as is common in the pantheism of the
Puranas, also the material cause and substance of the universe.^

The

greater part of the

the Pushkara

Mahatmya,

first

Khanda

of the

Padma

forms

or panegyric of Pushkara, the holy

lake in Rajputana, where stands the one famous temple of

Brahma to-day.
Here we had

better also say a

word about the doctrine of

the Trimurti, according to which the one supreme Reality

It appears first
manifested as Brahma, Vishnu and Siva.

two passages
there

is

Maitrdyana U.

In the

first

of these

merely the statement that the three gods are the

In the
of the bodiless Supreme.
the
imperform
as
prakriti,
it takes philosophical

manifestations

highest

second

in the

is

in

ceptible base of nature, consists of three strands, sattva, rajas,

and tamas,^ so the one Supreme is manifested in the three

gods, Vishnu being sattva, Brahma rajas, and Siva tamas.
*

is named from the lotus in which Brahma appears

was thus a Brahma Pnrana from the beginning.
Wilson, Works, III. 24.

The Padma P.

the creation.
2
'

IV. 5-6.

It

"

V.

2.

See

147,

at

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

Such

But, since each

the original form of the doctrine.

is

sect identified its

has

trimurti

own god

distinct

Vishnu-Brahman

Brahman

with the supreme Brahman, the

form

Siva,'

To

each.

in

manifested

is

subordinate Vishnu, and

149

gods,

three

in

the Vishnuite

while to the

Brahma, a

Saiva,

Siva-

Brahma, Vishnu, and Bhava.'^

A similar scheme was set forth by Sauras," by the worshippers
of Brahma,'* by Ganapatyas,' and by Saktas."
The Nimbarkas and other sects identify Krishna as distinct from
Vishnu with Brahman, and thus have a scheme of their own."
The doctrine has never been a living element in the religion
of the Hindu, although it often appears in literature and now
and then in sculpture. It may be well to notice how utterly
is

unlike the

theory

manifested

doctrine of the Trinity

Christian
It

is.

in

three manifestations, and the phrase in the

has been often mistranslated

really

means

'

this

unstable

always involves four gods, one Supreme and

One image,

'

Matsya P. which

One God and

three gods

',^

and

three persons

it

',

does not cover

the one Reality behind these manifestations.

G. Diirgd Literature.
168.

The worship

of the goddess

Durga

surface in the literature at this point.

also

The

occurs in the MaJidbhdrata^ and celebrates

slayer of Mahisha, and as a virgin goddess,

Vindhya mountains,
sacrifice,

delights

in

wine,

comes to the

earliest

Durga

who

flesh,

passage
as

the

dwells in the

and

animal

and upholds heaven by her chastity, but is also the

and like him is dark blue in colour and

sister of Krishna,^"

'

MBH.

III. cclxxii. 46.

I. xviii. 12; Muir, OST. IV. 330.

Rdnuiyana, VI. cvi. 19. Cf. Wilson, Sects, I. 19.
* Milrkaiideya, P. xlv.
ERE. VI. 175 f.
19.
* See Avalon, TGL. xxiv.
' Bhandarkar, VS.
79; Wilson, Works, III. 93.
* Eka mfirtis trayo devah.
It is suggested by images such as the
* IV. vi.
trimurti in the Elephanta cave.
^^ This refers to the story of Yoganidra, which appears first in the
Harivamsa and the VisJmu P.
''

Lihga P.

*'

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

150

wears a crest of peacock feathers.

goddess

virgin

Here, as

would seem,

it

by the wild

worshipped

tribes

of the

Vindhyas has become connected with the Krishna myth.

connexion with Siva
The next passage
for

this,

is

suggested.

is

also

from the epic/ and

that while the goddess

is

still

is

No

noteworth}^

connected with the

Krishna legend, and is represented as delighting in the blood

of Mahisha, she is now definitely made the wife of Siva, and
is addressed as Uma.
She is also identified with the Vedas,
the Vedanta, chastity, and

many

other things, but

is

no longer

regarded as a virgin.

Two hymns in the Harivamsa^ and the episode in the

Mdrkandeya P., known as the Devl-mdhdtinya or Chandimdhdtmya^ show a still greater advance. The Harivai'nsa
probably dates from the fourth, and cannot be later than the
fifth, century
and the Chatidi-mdJidtmya almost certainly
;

comes from the sixth century at latest for it forms the chief
background of Bana's Chandisataka, an ode to Chandi in
a hundred verses which was written at the court of the
emperor Harsha early in the seventh century.^ The narrative
of the Chandi-mdJidtmya celebrates the mighty deeds of the
goddess and refers to her daily worship and autumnal festival,
while the three hymns contained in it and the hymns from the
;

Harivai'nsa contain the theology of the

Devi-worshipping sect

method

is

cult.

here formed, and by the same

we have

seen adopted by the Vaishnavas and the

Devi is identified with the Brahman of the
Upanishads, and is thus made the one Reality, and set far
above all other divinities. The concept of the divine sakti *
finds here its earliest expression.
The idea seems to spring
from the conviction that the Supreme, if he is to remain

Saivas

VI.

as

the

xxiii.

The argument

MarAwtdeva P.XCl. 4;

Chaps,

lix

and

clxvi.

of Mr. R. D. Bhandarkar, /^^/?.<46". XXIII. 74, is

scarcely convincing \ for the line in question may, conceivably, have been
a common ascription of praise, and thus, as it stands in the inscription,
may not be a quotation from the Chandi at all.
10.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

151

beyond the sway of the law of karma, must be inactive. But

if the god is inactive, may not his spouse be his sakti, energy,
and be extremely active ? Hence she is more worthy of
worship, and the practical man will be more inclined to apply
to her when he wants to get something done for him.

The

narrative describes in great detail the furious fights in

which the

goddess

destroyed

appearance

terrific

find

She devours unnumbered

demons who were

power and her

certain

Here her

threatening the gods.

limitless

even ghastly, expression.

and drinks their blood. There

forcible,

foes

no detailed account given of her cult, but it is clear that

sacrifice was offered, and flesh and wine were used.
The
It is probable that human sacrifice was also practised.
goddess promises that she will never desert a temple in which
the Devi-mdhdtmya is read daily, and this document is still
one of the chief works in use among Saktas. It is also called
the C/iandi, from one of the names of the goddess, and the
Saptasati^ because it runs to seven hundred couplets.
As the story of Yoganidra is not told in the MaJidbJidrata^
but first appears in the Harivaihsa and the Vishmi P., the
hymns in the Epic are probably later than the main sections
of the didactic Epic, while the hymn in the Harivaiusci and
is

animal

the Devl-mdhdtmya are

still later.^

H. Saiira Literature.
169.

The sun was worshipped

in several

forms

in

the time

may be
gauged by the supremacy of the Gayatrl among
Vedic prayers. In the form of morning and evening prayer

of the Rigveda, and

the prominence of the cult

partially

finally

arranged

for

all

twice-born

men

the

sun

has

an

established place.^

In the great Epic

worshippers,

chamber
^

For a

lb.,

the

in
full

151

f.

the

we meet

Sauras.

morning,

for the first

When
he

time the sect of Sun-

Yudhishthira
encounters

one

leaves

his

thousand

exposition of these early passages see Bhandarkar, VS. 142.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

152

Brahman Sun-worshippers who have

eight thousand followers,^

and the theology of the sect appears in a number of documents belonging to this period, notably passages in the
Mahdbhdrata, the Rdmdyana, and the Mdrkandeya P., and
an inscription of the fifth century. The character of the
passage from the Mdrkandeya P., as compared with the other
Saura documents here dealt with, proves that it belongs to
this period.
Surya is the eternal Brahman, the supreme
Spirit, the Self-existent, the Unborn, the soul of all creatures,

the cause of

and

all

He

the gods.

Thus

Siva.

On him

things, the foundation of the world.

all

ascetics desirous of emancipation meditate.

is

He

is

the Vedas

the Lord of Brahma, Vishnu, and

the sect and

far

'-

its

seem

ideas

to

be purely

Hindu.
170.

But as early as the

first

century A.D. the Persian sun-

god, Mithra (Sanskrit, J///^zrrt), was introduced into North India;

for

his

name and effigy appear on

is much fuller evidence

dates, there

coins.'-^

Then, at later

in the literature

presence of Persian elements in the cult of the sun.

fragment

first

is

a line which occurs in the

Brahmans of Sakadvlpa,

the

Brahma Parvan

Magas

as

of Magians as the priests of

i.e.

the Scythian country, or Iran.^

The

VisJimi P. and

elsewhere, the original reading of which speaks of

the

of the

Next

comes
Samba, the son of

in age, probabl}^,

of the BhavisJiya P.

Krishna, according to this authority, was afflicted with 1-eprosy

and was cleansed by the help of Surya. In gratitude to the
god he built a temple in his honour where Multan now stands,
and, as a result of instructions received from Narada, took
a miraculous journey to Sakadvlpa, and brought thence
Magian priests for the temple. The narrative mentions
Zoroaster, the Zoroastrian girdle,

A vya?}^; a,

which the Magian priest holds

in his

and other

particulars.

installation
'

A^BN.

The

rule

is

the twigs, Ba?'sojn,

hand during worship,

also laid

down

that the

and consecration of images and temples of the

VII.

Vzs/rmt P.

Ixxxii.

II. iv.

'

14-16.

69-70; .VBH. YI.

xi.

Chanda, /AJ^. 225.

35-8.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

sun should be carried out by Magians.

name proclaims him

153

Varaha Mihira, whose

who was an

a devotee of Mihira, and

authority on astronomy and astrology, wrote about A.D. jS^-^

He makes it plain that in his day Siarya was represented in

images

his

temples by Magians, using the very

with

its

the rule for

these images and their

the installation and consecration of

the Purana.

down

Persian fashion, and he lays

in

sloka"^

This unique passage then

which occurs

in

the BliavisJiya P..

in

extremely accurate reflection of Zoroastrian practice

and ideas, and its agreement with Varaha Mihira, is much

more likely to belong to this period than the next. It is
probable, as Bloch argues,^ that the

name Samba

is

taken

from the ancient Persian tale of Sam, and also that the theory
that the sun-god cures leprosy, which was long current in

comes from Persia. Since, however, the name of the

god, Surya, and the name of the sect, Saura, are Sanskrit,
and since the whole of the theology is, like the Saiva theology,
India,

a reflex of the teaching of the Gitd,

was purely Hindu

in origin,

it

clear that the sect

is

and that the Zoroastrian features

are secondary.

ii.

Buddhism.

171. In India, during the three centuries of this period,

the Mahayana reached the summit of its strength and
splendour, and several branches of the

show great

to

vigour.

Hinayana continued

In Ceylon, during the fourth and

fifth

was a great outburst of literary activity,

almost exclusively the work of monks.
The religion also
continued to make progress in Khotan and Kuchar in Central
Asia, where, in addition to Zoroastrian propaganda, it now
had to face both Christianity and Manichaeism."* In China

centuries,

there

Macdonell, 31 8.

Brihat S., LX. 19. Vasu, Mayiirabhatija, 3, assumes that the sloka
is quoted from the Bhavishya P., and on that basis dates the passage
before A. D. 550, but "Csx^ sloka may have been in common use we cannot
be sure that it is quoted from the Purana by Varaha Mihira.
^

ZDMG.

1910, 733.

ERE.

art.

'

Manichaeism

'.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

154

great advances were made.

At

the beginning of the fourth

century the emperor gave permission, for the

subjects

to

become Buddhist monks.^

first

time, to his

Henceforward the

laid a far stronger hold on the people.

In A. D. 373
Chinese monks introduced the religion into Korea ^; and in

faith

A.D. 399 Fa Hian, the first Chinese pilgrim to leave home in

search of Buddhist learning and texts, arrived in India.

A. Hinaydiia Literature.
172.

Ceylon.

We

take Hinayana literature

The monks

there

made

full

and begin with

first,

use of

all

the

commen-

on the sacred books which were procurable from India,,

but they soon began to write themselves. At first they
translated these Indian works into Sinhalese, leaving only
taries

the verses scattered about in the prose untranslated, but at

they began to try what they could do

in Pali, which had

them the sacred language of their religion. Hence
in the fourth century there opened a brilliant period of Pali
literary activity.
Amid the numerous works prepared at this

last

become

to

time perhaps the most interesting

is

the Niddnakathd, an

commentary on the Jataka-book, which

shows that devotion for the Buddha was moving forward in
Ceylon on the same lines as in North India, though more
introduction to the

slowly.

This expository activity culminated in Buddhaghosha. He

seems to have been born a Brahman and to have become an
accomplished Hindu scholar; but, converted to Buddhism, he
became a monk and laboured in the Mahavihara in Anuradhapura, Ceylon, in the

first

He

half of the fifth century A.D.

absorbed the whole Buddhist system as taught there with

its

learning,

and became

its

classic representative.

His

all

first

work was the Visitddhimagga, or Way of Purity, a systematic

exposition of the Buddhism of the Pali books of very high
Thereafter he composed, on the basis of

quality.

all

the

Sinhalese and Pali work done before him, a series of great

^

Hackmann,

yS.

lb. 85.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

i55

commentaries on the chief books of the Pali canon.

works, while the
realized,

he

of the

life

monk

as a

In these
clearly

is still

thought of as a sort of divine being

also

is

Buddha

exercising cosmic powers, as in the

Mahayana.

Dhammapala,

a scholar trained also in the Mahavihara, lived on the coast

of India opposite Ceylon and wrote Pali commentaries at
a date a

His conception and outlook are the same

little later.

as Buddhaghosha's.

The

Dlpavaiiisa, the Island Chronicle, and the

Mahdvamsa,

the great Chronicle, are Pali epics, the former an artless work

rough language written

in

in

the fourth century, the latter

a work of genius, comparable with the great Indian kdvyas,

composed

in the last

Both rest
Mahavihara and
the commentaries, and both

quarter of the

on irregular notes of events kept

ancient Pali verses scattered in

century.

fifth

the

in

are partly historical but largely legendary.

173.
sects in

We know very little about the history of the Hinayana

India or about fresh literature composed

during the period

but

it

is

by them

quite clear that they were very

active in propagating their teaching in China

and

in

Central

The

Asia, for a great deal of their literature was translated.

permission granted at the beginning of the fourth century to

become monks led to the translation of the

Vinaya texts of four Hinayana schools within a period of
the Chinese to

twenty years, A.D. 404-24.

We

take the ancient Canon

tions of the Sutra Pitaka

^

the

The four leading collecDirgha, Madhyama, Sarhyukta,

first.

and Ekottara Agamas, as they are called in Sanskrit were

Three distinct renderings of the
translated into Chinese.^

Dharmapada
Of Sthavira

'^

are mentioned.
texts the Questions of

King Milindaf Buddha-

ghosha's commentary on the Vinaya Pitaka,^ and scores of

little

tracts

were translated into Chinese.^

Nanjio, 545, 542, 544, 543.

lb. 1365, 1353, 1321.

lb. 1358.

Winternitz,

II.

i.

152.

Nanjio, 615; 638; 645; 665; 670; 674; 693; 696; 698-700; 703;
707-10; 761; 1 1 13; 1327.
"

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

J56

The

Sarvastivadins were probably the most vigorous of the

Hinayana

The

schools.

as Vaibhashika,

influence of their philosophy,

shown by Vasubandha's

known

which
Sahghabhadra attempted to answer in his Nydydmtsdra-sdstra.
Two of the chief books of their Vinaya were translated into
Chinese in a. D. 404,1 and, probably about the same time, parts
is

were rendered into Kuchean.their Sutra Pitaka

probable that

It is

was translated into Chinese, but

possible as yet to identify the texts.

much
it

is

of

im-

Parts of the Sanskrit

have been found

originals

of the Sarvastivadin
in A.D. 383,"*

the

criticism,

and at

Abhidharma

in Central Asia.=^
The chief text
Abhidharma was translated into Chinese
the same time, or rather later, several of

commentaries.^

'fhe

old

Sarvastivadin

Buddha-biography had now become the famous Mahayana

work, the Lalita Vistara^
It was the Mahasanghika Ekottara Agama that was rendered into Chinese in A. D. 384-5,' and their Vinaya followed

A.D. 416.S

in

The Dharmagupta and

the Mahlsasaka schools, which were

related to the Sarvastivadins, were also active.

guptas had a famous

life

The Dharma-

of the Buddha, the Abhinishkramana

Sutra, which was in use during this period. The Dharmagupta Vinaya was translated into Chinese in A.D. 405,'-^ and
fragments of Vinaya texts in mixed Sanskrit, written during

our period, have been found in Kuchar in Central Asia, which

show a close relationship at least with the Dharmagupta texts.^*'

The Mahlsasaka Vinaya was

dered into Chinese.

It

the last of the four to be ren-

was done

in

A.D. 424.^^

we may take here Aryasura's famous work,

Finally

the

Jdtakamdld, which seems to belong to the fourth century.

^
Nanjio, 1 115,
translated
1135,
;

1
1

Two

160.

of the commentaries on the Vinaya were also

136.

MRBL.

Hoemle,

Nanjio, 1273.

174.

'

Nanjio,

357

ff.

MRBL.

4, 9.

lb.

166

ff.

lb. 1264, 1279, 1289.

ERE.

IV. 836
Nanjio, 11 17.
" Nanjio, 1122.

11 19.

" Hoemle,

Nanjio, 543.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

He

157

belonged to the school of Asvaghosha, and his

series of

Buddhist tales has

many

brilliant

of the qualities of the Siitrd-

laiiikdra.

Mahay ana

B.
174.

We

take

Mahayana

Literature.

literature next.

quite clear

It is

that the Great Vehicle grew and extended during our period

more rapidly than the Hinayana, thus proving

itself better

fitted for the circumstances of the time than the older school.

Vistara, one of the greatest of Buddhist books,

The Lalita

seems to have reached

its

some time

present condition at

Originally the Buddha-biography of the

during our period.

was taken over by Mahayanists and reby several hands. Although written partly
in verse and partly in prose, and consisting of material drawn
from many sources, early and late, it is yet a unity, a work of

Sarvastivadins,

it

written, possibly

genuine epic strength and

belief

interest,

and feeling which carried

it

and charged with

religious

to every part of central and

eastern Asia.

Supreme, boundless in
power and wisdom, and he is represented as surrounded by
In the
multitudes of Bodhisattvas nearing Buddhahood.
middle watch of the night, while he sits in profound meditation, there shoots out from the crown of his head a ray of
light which passes through the heavens and rouses all the gods

The Buddha

to attention.

is

conceived as the

They

sing a

hymn

of praise to the exalted

Buddha, and, throwing themselves

reveal the Lalita

at his

Vistara to the world.

feet,

beg him to

Yet, though the

Mahayana thus raise the Buddha to the place

of the Supreme, they do not make him altogether a god they
retain some consciousness of his human life, and recognize
that he possessed a real body which has left actual relics on

writers of the

the earth.

A
six
*

new
fresh

Saddharma Piindarika}

containing

chapters,^ appeared, probably early in

the third

edition of the

Nanjio, 138.

"

Chaps,

.xxi-vi,

SBE. XXI.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

158

century

One
i.

e.

for

it

was translated into Chinese about

A. D. 300.

of these chapters, chap, xxi, deals with dhdranls, spells,

words, phrases, or prayers believed to be

filled

with magic

power, and marks the time when this particular superstition

laid firm hold of the

Mahayana.

the Bodhisattva Bhaishajyaraja,

i.

The next chapter tells how

e. King of Medicine, burnt

honour of the Buddha and young Buddhists are

finger, a toe, or a whole limb, in order to win
great merit.
Thus the old Hindu tapas, self-torture, which
Gautama condemned utterly, has reappeared in Buddhism.
Another chapter describes and explains the transformation
which the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara undergoes in his efforts
No matter how frightful may be the danger
to save men.
a man stands in, this chapter affirms that, if he but think of
Avalokitesvara, he will be saved.
This explains how, transformed into a goddess, he became a divinity of mercy to China
and Japan.
175. Several fresh books belonging to the Paradise Mahayana seem to have been written during the period. Two of
these become very famous, the shorter Siikhdvatl and the
Amitdyur-dhydna-sutra. The shorter Sukhdvati is scarcely
perceptibly different in teaching from the larger work. The
main purpose of the A^nitdyiir-dhydna-sutra is to teach people
by meditation to see the paradise SukhavatI in hypnotic vision,
so that through this meditation they may obtain entrance to
it at death, but it also shows in some degree the influence
of the Madhyamika school and of the Vedanta. Vasubandhu's
his

body

in

urged to burn a

Aparamitdyiis-sutra-sdstra sums up the texts of the Paradise

Mahayana.
To the same general type of teaching belong three famous
sutras.
The early prose Kdrandavyuha glorifies the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, who is made so much of in the Saddharma Pundarika the Buddhdvataiiisaka (or Gandavyuha) is
while the Karunddevoted to another Bodhisattva, MaiijusrI
pundarlka tells of a Buddha named Padmottara, e. Supreme
1 ERE. I.
95.
;

i.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

159

Lotus, and his wonderful paradise, Padmadhatu,

Lotus-

i.e.

land.

T\i& Mahdsannipdta, of which the writer has no description,

gave

its

name

to a class of works in the Chinese Canon.

SiivarnaprabJidsa and the

Mahayana teaching verging towards the magic

trances, the goddesses,

All these

full

the

translated into Chinese.

of the developments of

Mahayana Buddhology

belonging to this period occurs so frequently that

Each Buddha has

be mentioned here.

spells,

and the inchoate theism of the Tantras.

Mahayana works were

One

176.

The

SamddJiirdja represent the

it

had better

three bodies, the dhar-

makdya, or body consisting of the law, construed by the

Madhyamakas as the void, by the Vijnanavadins in an idealist
sense, the satnb/iogakdya, or body of bliss, which he wears for
ever in his supramundane state and which is comparable with
the glorious bodies of the great Hindu gods, and the ninudnakdya, the formed or magical body, which he wore on earth,
and which is comparable with the body of a Hindu avatara.^

The Mddhyamakas.

a.

77.

Teachers of the

Madhyamaka philosophy were clearly

very active during the period.

lowed Nagarjuna
gives a

list

in

the

first

Aryadeva seems

to have fol-

Nanjio

half of the third century.

of his commentaries and original works.

The

last

of these, the Svddhislithdna-prabheda, has recently been found

in

Two

Nepal.

of the most famous of the Prajiia texts, the

Vajrachchhedikd Prajndpdraviitd and the Prajndpdraviitdhridaya-sTitra,

seem

to belong to this period.

says that the Vajrachchhedikd

is

'

Max

Miiller

one of the most widely read

and most highly valued metaphysical treatises in Buddhist

literature
while the Hridaya-sutra is the most widely read
Buddhist text in Japan'.
Proof of the popularity of the
Vajrachchhedikd in Khotan is found in the complete MS. of
the original Sanskrit text, and the MS. of the old Khotanese
version, both found by Sir Aurel Stein and now published.
'

',

Poussin,

ERE.

I.

97.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

i6o

There

is

{bhTiinis)

Madhyamaka work on

also a famous

the ten stages

of the career of the Bodhisattva, called the Dasa-

bhumika-sutra, on which Vasubandhu wrote a commentary.^

It

was originally a chapter of the BuddJidvatavisaka-sutra.

The Vijndnavddiiis.

b.

178.

new Buddhist philosophy

of very great importance

arose about a.d. 300, the leading writer being Asanga, the

Brahman

eldest of three

Mahayana,

to the

the side of

its

His

who became Buddhists of

brothers,

the Sarvastivadin school.

Asaiiga, however, soon passed over

idealist

metaphysics

it is

system has two names: from

called Vijiidnavdda,'-

Thought-

system/ because it teaches that nothing exists except thought,

while from the side of its practice it is called Yogdchdra, Yogapractice, because the

continued
illusion

practice

end can be reached only by the longThe external world is

of meditation.

only thought exists.

All

individual

intellectual

products are also mere phenomena, products of the dlayavijndita, the storehouse of intellectual impressions
in

each individual, which

is

But even the dlayavijhdna

belief in the existence of a self.

itself

has but a relative reality as compared with the one and

universal bodJii^
all

and forms

the sole foundation of the false

Buddhas.

Wisdom,' which

'

In

career.

Yet

spells, is

all

it

is

The

philosophy the use of dhdrains,

commended, and the

foundation text

is

belief that the Bodhi-

of the Shin-gon sect of Japan.'-

One

and

career,
'

and

is

explicitly

is

the chief scripture

chapter, however, called

the BodhisattvabhUmi, was used as a separate

It

is

Asanga's Yogdchdra-bhumi-

sdstra, u hich survives only in Chinese,

vives in Sanskrit.

necessary to

the bJiumis, stages, of the Bodhisattva

sattva attains vast miraculous powers, viblmtva,

taught.

by

under the Mahayana, and practise

in this intellectual

constantly

held and manifested

order to attain bodhi,

become a Bodhisattva
yogachara through

is

work and

sur-

deals with the stages of the Bodhisattva

thus the Vijiianavadin work corresponding to

Nanjio, 1194.

Grififis,

RJ. 249.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

the

Madhyamaka Dasabhnmika-sutra}

the Mahdydnasutralai'iikara,

is

161

Another work of

his,

a set of karikas, or memorial

accompanied by a prose commentary, the commentary

It is a clear, systematic
as well as the text being by Asanga.
statement of the philosophy. He left other works ^ also. The
verses,

famous text-book. MaJidydna-sraddhotpdda-sdstra, attributed

to Asvaghosha, seems to teach Asanga's system.

The Lankdvatdra-sutra, one of the greatest Mahayana texts,

Buddha as visiting Ravana in Ceylon. The
teaching is Vijiianavadin, yet in some points it seems to go
represents the

beyond Asaiiga and to draw very near the teaching of the

Vedanta, that the human soul is God. It is a controversial
work and attacks the Sahkhya, Vaiseshika, Nyaya, Pasupata,
and other Hindu systems.
179. Vasubandhu,^ Asanga's youngest brother, passed
over to the

Maha}ana

Hence his works

Mahayana. His greatest work,
founded on the Sarvastivadin Abhi-

at a fairly late date.

are partly Hinayana, partly

the Abhidharvia-kosa,

is

dharma, and has very close connexions with its chief scripture,
yet he has expressed in this work the fundamental conceptions
of Buddhism with so much skill and clearness that it is
Chinese and Tibetan
a standard work with all the sects.
translations survive, but the original

Sanskrit by Yasomitra, survives, and

scholars.

Amongst

his

is

many works we may mention

refutation

his

Tarka-

by a Buddhist, and the

sdstra,^ the earliest systematic logic

ParamdrtJiasaptati,

The
is lost.
commentary on it in
much used by modern

Sanskrit

AbJiidJiarma-kosa-vydkJiyd, however, a

seventy verses of the

in

seventy verses of the SdhkJiya Kdrika:'

180. A very large number of texts, Hinayana as well as
Mahayana, were translated into Chinese during this period.
Then, in A.D. 518, almost at the end of the period, the first
collection of Buddhist Chinese texts was made by order of
*

^
''

See 177, arid cf. ERE. II. 745.

For his date see 146.
Nanjio, 1252; Vidyabhushana, MSIL.

76.

Nanjio, 1245, 1184,

^

See 146.

1236'.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

i62

list of the books in the Tripitaka

was drawn up, which still survives.^ Chinese
Buddhism thus created a sacred canon of its own. Towards
the end of our period Chinese Buddhism had become so great
that, in A.D. 526, the Patriarch of the Buddhist Church was

the P^mperor, and in 520 a

as translated

removed from India

to China.^
iii.

181.

The

Jainism.

history of Jainism during this period

is

not yet

seems to have continued to make progress

The Digambaras were active
in the Kanarese country^ and also in Tamil-land. Svetambara
Jains were clearly growing in influence and numbers in North

well known, but

many

in

it

parts of the country.

India from Bihar in the east to Kathiawar in the west.

collection
at the

and publication of the Svetambara Canon

at

The

Valabhi

beginning of the sixth century gives vivid expression

Kathiawar had now become the leading centre

As the Buddhist sects created from the
of Jain
living vernaculars of the day several literary dialects (e. g.
MagadhI, Pali, mixed Sanskrit) and used them for their sacred
books, so the Jains created their own sacred dialect, which they
call Ardha-Magadhi, i.e. Half-Magadhi, but which modern

to the fact that

influence.

scholars usually call Jain Prakrit.

In this ancient speech, then,

number of
Digambara works, are written. But in Jain commentaries,
tales, and poems we meet with a younger Prakrit which is

the books of the Svetambara Canon, and also a

called Jain Maharashtrl, because,

to,

it

is

though

it

is

closely related

not yet identical with, Maharashtrl, the linguistic

modern Marathi.* But Jain writers from the time

of the Gupta empire used Sanskrit when they wanted to appeal
ancestor of

to the learned public of India in treatises on philosophic

and

religious subjects.
'

'
*

Hackmann, 80.
Nanjio, p. xxvii.
See a lon%^ series of Digambara inscriptions, Guerinot, 224.
Jacobi, ERE. VII. 467.
Pischel, GFS. p. 19; Winternitz, I. 14
"^

AND SECTS

PHILOSOPHIES

163

A. Svetambara Literature,
182.
tells

We

begin with Svetambara literature.

us that the books of the

Canon were

Jain tradition

collected, edited,

and reduced to writing at Valabhi in a Council of which

Devarddhi was president, 980 years after the death of Mahavlra. The initial date may have been held to be either 527 B.C.
or 467 B.C. Jacobi is inclined to take the latter, which would

As

give us A.D. 514 as the date of the Council.

the gathering

of the Council and the arrangement and publication of the

voluminous books of the Canon would involve considerable

"organization and expense, and as the dynasty of Valabhi rose

power about A.D. 490

to

sixty years earlier.

It is

it would seem
was undertaken in A.

to be

or 495,^

more

514 than
thus probable that the Svetambara

likely that the great task

D.

Canon dates from the beginning of the sixth century. It will

be remembered that the Canon said to have been arranged at
Tradition runs that

Pataliputra consisted of twelve Anga.^

the fourteen Purva, which formed the contents of the twelfth

Anga, were gradually

lost in the following centuries,

but that

the eleven were faithfully preserved and incorporated in the

new Canon

at Valabhi.

According to a

there were sixty treatises included in

183, Jains

it

list

in

the Canon,

besides the Aiiga.^

acknowledge that these sixty books came into

and there

existence in the interval between the two Councils

are certain traditions about the authorship of several of the

documents.^

Jacobi gives

it

as his opinion that these sixty

books were collected probably in the first centuries before

our era', and that 'additions or alterations may have been
made down to the time of the Council at Valabhi ^ while
'

'

Weber
Ahga as

well as the other books took place between the second

and the

fifth

gives

it

as his opinion that the compilation of the

centuries A.D.

EHL

In any case there must have been

Mabel Duff, CI. 308.

V. Smith,
327
In the NandisHtra Weber, lA. XVII. 283.

''

See

70.

Weber, lA. xvii. 281.

IA. XVII. 289.

SBE. XLV.

p. xl.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS

]64

a good deal of literary activity between A.D. 200 and 500.

is

It

probable that the Nandisutra and part of the Kalpasutra

by Devarddhi himself.^
184. We must now ask what has happened to the books
of the Canon since the beginning of the sixth century, and we
are

are at once confronted with the fact that a very large part of

the contents have been

documents.

forty-five

lost.
The Canon to-day
Weber ^ calculates that of

other than the Afigas edited at Valabhi nearly as

lost as there are preserved.

been

a large number of the books

Weber

Jacobi and

^ tell

is

consists of

the books

many have

But the disappearance of

not the only fact to be noticed.

many of the surviving works

and that the commentaries, based

us that

consist of incoherent parts,

on texts older than those available to-day, show that large

sections have disappeared, while numerous passages have been

The

interpolated.

texts

are

thus

in

a very unsatisfactory

condition.
185.

We

now

Two

turn to extra-canonical literature.

of

the most famous of the early writers were connected withPataliputra,

Gupta

and apparently flourished during the time of

Umasvati tells us himself* that he wrote

prosperity.

the TativartJiadJiigaiua-sutra at Pataliputra.

It is

a philoso-

comparable with the sutras which lie at the

of
the Hindu philosophies, and deals with all the
foundation
main constituents of the Jain system. It has been much used
phical work,

by both the

As the work refers to Patanjali's Yogacommentary on it was written by Siddhasena-

sects.

sutra,^ while a

whose date

gani,

the

is

first

half of the sixth century,

probable that Umasvati belongs to the

century.

it

is

or the fourth

Tradition connects Siddhasena Divakara also with

Pataliputra, and he

belongs to

fifth

the.

quoted by Siddhasenagani, so that he too

is

time of Gupta dominance, whether to the fourth

Weber, lA. XVII. 291

lA. XXI. 373.

"

Jacobi, Kalpasiitra, 18

Vidyabhushana,

Woods, Yoga,

XXI. 213;

f.;

MSIL.

xix.

9.

Jacobi,

SBE. XXII.

Weber, IA. XVII. 287

fif.

lii.

PHILOSOPHIES AND SFXTS

or the

He

century.

fifth

wrote a

hymn

165

of praise in Sanskrit

Kalydnamandirastotra^ which Jains greatly treasure,

also the Nydydvafdra, a Sanskrit poem in thirty-two short
stanzas, which forms the earliest Jain work on Logic.
Siddhasenagani seems to have been a contemporary of
verse, the

Devarddhi and to have been one of the earliest of those who

wrote bhashyas in Prakrit on the books of the Canon. He
is also the author of the first commentary on Umasvati's great
^
work. He is thus parallel to Vatsyayana and Sahara Svamin
^

who wrote

bhashyas a little earlier.

seems clear that the Jains of Gujarat began to

their

186. It

produce a popular literature in Prakrit at a very early date

and there is abundant evidence to show that down to the
ninth century at least they continued to produce a copious
;

and varied Prakrit

literature,

service to general

work

culture.

of importance in Prakrit

Jacobi assures us that

many

prove that

Paiiiiiachariya,

of Valmiki.

Jacobi
It

is

which must have proved of large

From our period only one Jain

its

Prakrit works preceded

and

is

it.

but

style unite to

its

It is called

the

a Jain adaptation of the Rdiiidyana

The author

inclined to place

is

seems to have survived

statements and

is

said to have been

it

in

Vimala

Suri.

the third or fourth century."

thus almost as early as Hala's famous anthology, the

Sattasal.
B.
187.

Digmubara Literature.

The Digambaras

possess no ancient

Canon

parallel

have
Svetambara books. As we have
a list of sacred books which they say they once possessed,
They pronounce the Svebut which are now no more.
tambara books apocryphal, and there is this amount of truth
in the charge that the Svetambaras undoubtedly modified the
seen above,^,'they

to the

For the

niryiiktis

and bhashyas

see Leuniann,

ZDMG.

XLVI.

581

fif.

'See 153.
^
For the whole subject see Jacobi's article in the
(Calcutta), Dec. 191 4.
'

See

135.

Modern Review

philosophies AND SECTS

t66

them into
Yet among the

ancient books, after the separation, so as to bring

full

consonance with their own standards.

books which the Digambaras possess, and which have a place

in their Secondary Canon, ^ there are at least two which bear
the names of books of the Svetambara Canon, viz. the SuryaprajnapH, and the Chandraprajhapti. The whole problem
of the relation of the Digambaras to the early literature needs
to be cleared up.
1 88. But there are two Digambara writers who seem to
belong to our period and whose works are well known to-day.
One is Vattakera, author of the Mnlachdra, a work on conduct.
It corresponds to the AcJidrdnga-sutra of the Svetambara
Canon, and is said to be an adaptation and summary of that
Another book on conduct, the Trivarndchdra, is also
The other writer is one of the greatest
attributed to him.
names in early Digambara history, Kundakundacharya. Ten
fundamental works of great importance, which have been
much expounded and studied, were written by him. They
are in Prakrit verse, and deal with the whole Digambara
system.
It seems to be impossible as yet to fix the dates of
work.

these men.

See

257.

CHAPTER V
THE SAKTA systems
A. D. 550-900.

The date with which our chapter opens is meant

when the Sakta systems began

189.

lo

coincide with the time

appear

product of these times.

of goddesses
theologies

is

The exaUation and

manifestly the

the adoration

an immense extension of the use of magic spells

a belief in the existence of occult channels and ganglia

human
coiled

the

in

frame, and in the presence of the goddess herself

up

snake and asleep

like a

new type

cult of foul,

During

in

the chief ganglion

and, in some sects, the inclusion in the

gruesome, and degrading practices.

this period the sects

became more highly organized

In addition to the Sakta element already-

than ever before.

described, each sect was expected to possess an

a manual;

of hypnotic meditation believed to be potent to

wake the goddess

by

new

characteristic of these

first

but other forms of faith and practice were very

prominent

to

they are unquestionably the most noteworthy

for

the Upanishad to prove that

was

its

Upanishad and

teaching had

come

consonance with the Vedanta

the manual to provide a statement of the theology of the
revelation and

in full

sect, a directory of its occult

and
and

ritual,

the

order of

number

and

directions

building

of

yoga
for

temples.

Each was

sannyasls.

of

gurus for

its

practice, rules of

the

preparation

Each
also

sect

had

expected

cultured members.

of

to

initiation,

diksha,

images
its

own

train

The layman

and regular instruction

philosophical theology of the sect from his guru, just

received

conduct

in

like

the

an

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

i68

Finally, each sect had

ascetic.

its

own mantra and

sect-mark,

tilaka.

One

of the most noticeable features of the period

the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, chiefly

the

in

the North,

company of itinerant
both Vaishnava and Saiva, who filled the

Scarcely less important

poet-musicians,

is

and exegetes who adorned

great series of philosophic thinkers

the great

is

temples of the Tamil country with their devotion and their

song.

Buddhism was
in the

Japan

carried to

in

the sixth, and to Tibet

seventh century, while long-continued emigration carried

both Hinduism and Buddhism to Cambodia, Sumatra, and

But India received as well as gave.

Java.

company

Persian Zoroastrians, hunted to the death by their

madan

of

Muham-

conquerors, found asylum in India at the beginning

of the eighth century

their descendants

are the Parsis of

to-day.

Hinduism.

A. The Philosophies.
a.

190.

TJie

During the

Karma

first

half of

Mimamsa produced two famous

known

Miindmsd.

as Guru, and Kumarila,

the

period,

Karma

the

scholars, Prabhakara,

who

is

called Bhatta.

who

is

Both

expounded Sahara's Bhashya, but they differed in some degree

in their interpretation of the system and founded rival schools.
The date of Prabhfd-cara in unknown, but it is clear that he
preceded Kumarila.

His work, the Brihatl, is purely an

he does not criticize Sahara.'

exposition of the BJidshya

Kumarila,

who seems

to have lived in the

eighth century,^ wrote a

first

half of the

commentary on the Bhdshya

which he frequently differs from Sahara:

Slokavdrtika verse on the first part of Chap.

in three

parts, in
a.

JhJi,

PSPM.

12.

I.

Pathak,yy?/yA'.46\ 1892, 227.

THK SAKTA systems

prose:

Tatiti-avartika:

b.

Chaps. II and III.

prose
c. Tuptlkd
:

on

the

rest

brief notes on Chaps.

169

of

Chap.

IV

to XII.

and

was further expounded by his own

disciple, Salikanatha, while Mandanamisra, also called Suresvaracharya, a disciple of Sankara, wrote several works on
Kumarila's system. His VidJiiviveka was in turn expounded
in the Nydya-Kanikd by Vachaspatimisra, whose position is
Prabhilkara's teaching

explained below.

Both Prabhakara and Kumarila maintain the original atheism

of the system, denying that divine action is needed in creation,
Both also
or in apportioning merit and demerit to souls.
hold a realistic view of the universe but they differ on the
question whether the soul is pure consciousness or not, on
the nature of perception, of inference, and of logical cate;

gories.^

Kumarila proved the more potent

influence of the

He

within the school and without.

two both

attacks Buddhists fre-

and tradition asserts that he used every

and weaken them wherever he went in his
scholarly journeys, and that he invoked the civil power to

quently in his works

means

What

persecute them.
tell

to discredit

but

it

historical

probable that

is

tradition so widespread

explained as the

first

and

strong

persistent.

we cannot

are,

facts

action

lies

mass of sects within that ample

opposes every other system vehemently.
priests, recognizes a

191. It

is

appears

and Kumarila.

Brahman
fence,

and

importance to observe that miikti, final

first time in Prabhakara
During the interval between Jaimini and these

in

the system for the

that

it

become a matter of such moment

could no longer be evaded.

For both systems see J ha,

Also Jha, Bhandarkar CV. 167.
'

to bo

of

thinkers Release had

Hindu mind

is

represents the system which takes

stand on the authority of the Vedas and of the

release,

behind a

His activity

vigorous manifestation of the spirit of

He

modern Hinduism.
its

the

PSPM.

and Keith,

They

JRAS.

to the

teach

1916, 369.

THE SAKTA systems

I70
that

release

is

won when both dJiarma and adharma

who

appear, and that he

perform only necessary

IQ2.

It

Rumania's
the

is

desires

release

dis-

should therefore

duties.^

a most interesting fact that by the time of

activity, the ancient

Karma Mlmarhsa

Vedic

sacrificial

system, which

Every-

expounds, was steadily decaying.

where temple-worship and the presentation of offerings to

images tended to take the place of the ancient ordinances,
and the movement went on with increasing force after his day.
Yet the Mlmarhsa maintained its place, because it provided
rules

for

the exposition of the Vedic literature, which

all

Although the Karma Mlmarhsa is

the one system recognized by all Smartas, the changes which
have arisen in their practice seem to have left no trace in the
scholars required to use.

system

itself
b.

TJie

Veddnta.

The earliest surviving commentary on the Vcddntaby the great Sahkara, who flourished in the first half
of the ninth century
but there is abundance of evidence to
show that a long line of writers and students of the Vedanta
193.

sutras

is

filled

We

the centuries between the time of the sutras and his day.

have already seen that three types of theory were current

within the school before the sutras were composed.^

doctrines were also held after that event;
sutras

for

Various

between the

and Sahkara there were representatives both of the

monism which he upholds and of the modified monism

taught much later by Ramanuja.^ One of the strict monists,
Gaudapada by name, the teacher of Sahkara's teacher, is the
strict

author of a very noteworthy poem, which

is

appended

to the

Mdndukya U. and is known as the Mdndilkya Kdrikd.^ So

far as we know, he wrote no commentary on the sutras, but

]ha,PSPM.

'

284.

Walleser,

83

DA V.,

that the writer's

ff.

145.

contends that the name Gaudapada is a mistake,

not been handed down, and that Buddhist

name has

evidence proves that the Karika was already in existence by

Scholars are inclined to think that the balance of evidence is

A.
in

r>.

550.

favour

THE SAKTA systems

his

Kdrikd has a very

171

special interest for us as the earliest,

document of the school of

work of genius, brilliant alike
in conception and expression.
Deusscn ^ compares him to
Parmenides.
He also wrote commentaries on a number of
Upanishads.
He must have flourished about the middle
of the eighth century.
From information found in the works
of Sankara and Ramanuja we are able to give the names of
or at least the earliest surviving,

monism and

illusion.

three writers

earlier

It is a

than Sankara

who taught

a theistic

Ramanuja's doctrine,
namely Bodhayana, author of a vritti, Tanka, author of a
vdkya^ and Dramida, author of a bhdshya on the sutras.^
19^. Sankara was the name assumed by a sannyasi born
at Kaladi in the north of Travancore, probably in A. D. 788.
He became a brilliant scholar and produced a number of
philosophical writings characterized by great intellectual
capacity and an extremely fine style.
He seems to have
lived until about a.d. 850.^ He left bhashyas on the Vcddntasutras, the Gitd and the chief Upanishads.
Besides these,
a number of Vedantic writings, mostly in verse, are attributed
interpretation of the sutras similar to

to him, the chief being the

his

doctrine

Upadesa-sahasri, a

Until

verse.

in

strictly

comparison are applied to these works,

to say

how many

decide against

scientific
it

will

summary

of

methods of

be impossible

by Sankara. The best scholars usually

them all. Numerous Sakta works in prose
are

and verse also bear

his

name, but there can hardly be a doubt

that they are not his oiTspring.

About the Veddnta-sutra-

bhdshya fortunately there can be no question.

195'

The

pure monism.

following

There

is

a brief outline of his advaitavdda,

exists only

Brahman, one without a

of the personal name of the writer and of his connexion with Sankara.
Certainly the Buddhist evidence cited in favour of the early date of the
Karikd does not seem to be cogent. See V,dsr\&\X,JRAS. 1910, p. 131 ff
,

Jacobi,y^06".
1

SUV.

514.

xxxiii. 51, . i.

_" Thibaut, .V^.^. XXXIV. xxff.

SL. 402; Keith, AA. 11. The date A.D. 805-97, proVenkatesvara
JRAS. 1916, 151 ff., is scarcely likely to

Macdonell,
posed by S. V.
vcv
be right, in view of the date of Vachaspati's Bhamati.
^

THE SAKTA systems

172

The material world is Maya,

Tat
The human soul is identical with Brahman
Thou art that.' But this contradicts all experience,

second, spiritual, unknowable.

illusion.

tvam asi,
and man must
'

live in his

tinguishes between

Therefore Saiikara dis-

experience.

supreme truth and the truth of experience.

Similarly, he recognizes not only

name para Brahman,

God

as he truly

under the

is

the supreme Brahman, but also the

same

being enwrapped in limitations and attributes as apara Brah-

man, the lower Brahman, who is the world-soul and a personal

God. The whole of our lower knowledge, however, our ideas
of the world, all our personal experience and our conception
of ourselves as distinct personalities

all

described as ignorance than as knowledge.

this

more

is

truly

Liberation comes

when a man rises from ignorance to true knowledge. This

comes finally by the grace of God, but a man may prepare
himself by study of the Veda and by the discipline of the
Vedanta. Even after knowledge is attained, the man conBrahman
tinues to live; but at death he receives final release
he is and into Brahman he is resolved.'
'

It

works

noteworthy that Sankara holds strongly

is

may

they can never help the

man

to reach release, but necessarily

Hence, when

bind him ever more firmly to transmigration.

a

that, while

prepare the soul for the discipline of knowledge,

man becomes

up

a sannyasi of the Advaita Vedanta, he gives

and the other duties of the ordinary Hindu comand seeks knowledge as the only means to release.

sacrifices

pletely,

This renunciation of the regular Hindu

life

is

typified in the

act of laying aside the sacred thread, which is part of the

ceremony of
196.

initiation into the life of the sannyasi.

The

teaching

striking resemblance

which

certain features of the

of Gaudapada and Sankara present to

philosophy led Hindu controversialists to assail

Buddhism

;
'

it

Mahayana
as

and some modern scholars have been

'

covert

inclined

and its doctrine of double truth have no

the Upanishads and must have been drawn from

to say that

its illusion

foundation

in

e. g. in

the

Padma

P.

THE sAkta systems

the rival

This contention

faith. ^

that there

no doctrine of

is

is

Vcddnta-sntras?

inclined to conclude that, in

unquestionably, along with other

ideas, the basis for a doctrine of

need go no farther

strengthened by the fact

illusion in the

But scholarly opinion seems now

the early Upanishads, there

is

173

pure monism, and that we

than the Svetdsvatara U. for the

afield

Gaudapada and Sankara were

some degree by the two philosophical
systems of the Mahayana."
197. But there are other characteristics of the Bhashya
which are worthy of attention. Most of them have a basis in
the sutras but they are clearly worked out by Sankara. All
the main features of orthodox Hinduism are accepted and
doctrine of mdyd, but that

probably influenced

in

buttressed with arguments, e.g. the inspiration of the Puranas,"*

the permanent presence of

each

all

the traditional gods, even though

a transient being,^ the visibility of the gods to rishis in

is

by the

ancient time,*' the eating of the sacrifice

assumption by a god of

many bodies

gods,'^

so as to be present at

the

many

Thus the great philosophy,

at one moment,^ &c.
which began by holding the popular religion in contempt,^ has
sacrifices

now become

its

willing servant.

by Sankara's day the Upanishads, the Gltd

and the Vcddnta-sutras were recognized as the fundamental
scriptures of the Vedanta.
At a later date they were called
the PrastJidnatraya or Triple Canon.
Although the Giid
and the Sutras are but sinriti, ihey are regarded with almost
as much veneration as the Upanishads, which are h'uti.
Indian scholars frequently speak of Sankara as one of the
greatest of the world's independent philosophic thinkers. The
It

279

is

clear that

e.g. Walleser,

DA V.

228".;

also Dr.

Jha

Thibaut, SBE. XXXIV. xci-xcvii ; Keith,

Barnett,JJ^AS. 1910, 1364 ]a.coh\,JAOS.
J/?AS. 1910, 129 ff.; Kehh,JJ?AS. 1916, 380.
2

'
'''

see Keith, //\ AS. 1916,

f.

I. 3,
33 SBE. XXXIV. 222-3.
28: lb. 202-3.
III. I, 7: SBE. XXXVIII. iio-i.
I. 3, 27 ; SBE. XXXIV. 199-200.

Bhashya on

On
On
On

.^6".

I.

3,

64.

XXXIII.

151

ff.

Poussin,

''

*^"

I-

3)

34
"

'

^^' ---

See

53.

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

174

truth seems to be that he never questioned the truth of the

basis of the Vedanta,

i.

e.

those writings which were

these theological limits

sophical capacity
198.

he

He seems

is

first

to have been a

as well as a thinker.

then

Yet within
Saiikara displays consummate philothe Thomas Aquinas &f Hinduism.

recognized as revelation of the

grade, srnti.

man

of organizing capacity

Tradition avers that he found the ascetic

orders of the Vedanta in disorder and regulated them, dividing

them into ten groups, placing each under one of his disciples
and naming them after these leaders. Certainly, the sannyasis
of the Vedanta to-day are in ten groups, and are known as
Dasnamis,

i.e.

sannyasis of ten names, and they unanimously

ascribe their constitution

also sannyasinls.

Khumbh Mela
He also

order.

and rule to Saiikara.^

company of them whom

There are
saw at the

at Allahabad in 19 18 belonged to the Giri

founded four monasteries, to form centres of

advaita learning and influence, Srifigerl

in Mysore, GovarSarada ^ in Dwarka, and Joshi at Badarinath in

the Himalayas. All four have survived to our day, and there
are a number of subordinate houses.
Sringeri, of which he
was himself the head, is the chief monastery, and its ruler is
the supreme Pontiff of all advaita sannyasis.
199. Sankara made many tours through India, and proved
a triumphant controversialist, if we may trust the traditions of

dhana

in Purl,

The

names are: l. Tirtha,

Aranya, 7. Parvata,

Asrania, 3. Sarasvatl, 4. Bharati,

Sagara, 9. Giri, 10. Puri. Only
the first three are pure, i. e. restricted to twice-born men, or rather to
Brahmans ; for Kshatriyas and Vaisyas are negligible. Half of the
Bharati order is also said to be pure. The other six are open to the four
castes, but to no others.
One often hears the phrase Sahkara's Da?idts
also
these are the innermost group of all ; for only a Brahman can
receive a danda, i. e. a bamboo rod ; and the ceremonial which attaches
to it is so troublesome that many prefer to do without it.
Many of the
Dasnamis have discarded clothing, and are called Nagas (from Nagtui,
'naked'). There were hundreds of them at the Kumbh Mela of 1918.
The goddess Sarasvatl as patroness of the sciences^ and speech is
called Sarada, and has five faces and ten arms
Krishna Sastrl, SII. 187.
Tradition runs that to^ her grace Sankara attributed his powers. To this
day the incumbent of Sringeri, whether in the monastery or on tour, publicly
worships a large number of idols, Sarada amongst ^them towering^ high
above the rest. For this reason some scholars say Sankara was a Sakta.
^

Vana,

5.

ten

6.

2.

8.

"^

THE SAKTA systems

his school

and, certainly, the extraordinary influence which

teaching had

his

175

many

in

the

parts of India in

following

Thus,

centuries forms the best corroboration of the claim.

is

clear that the

the

South and

it

whole vast body of Smarta householders in

in Gujarat, and many also throughout the

recognized him as their

day the superior of the monastery in
Sringeri, who always bears the honoured name, Sankara, is
Pontiff, not only of all advaita sannyasis, but of all the Smartas
of the South and the West as well.
Hence the immense
influence which the Sankara wields, and the wealth which

North, became his disciples, and

religious head.

flows

the

into

Sarikara's

To

this

monastery.

This connexion sheds light on

acceptance and defence of the main positions of

orthodox Hinduism in his BJidsJiya.

But his teaching produced large results outside the immediate
circle of his pledged disciples.
The Bhagavatas ^ in every
part of the country, a Ramaite sect,- which can be traced in
the literature, and which ought in

all

probability to be located

the South, and, at the other extremity of India, the Saivas

in

of Kashmir,'* all

taught

it,

200.

in

fell

under the

spell

of his philosophy, and

purity or with modifications, for centuries.

There are

also widespread traditions

"^

to the effect

that he persecuted the Buddhists and the Jains and destroyed

and cleansed the worship of a number of disrepusects.

To one who for the first time reads the
BliasJiya these late stories may well seem foolish inventions
nor can any one accept them as they stand yet his connexions
with orthodox householders give a certain plausibility to the
their books,

table

Hindu

He may

statements.

possibly have originated

the

Right-

hand movement among Saktas.^

'

See

210.

2
,

The two Sahkara-vijayas

"

See 317.

5gg

^ 219.

See

230.

are clearly far from historical, yet they

reflect tradition, portions of which may be in the main true.
The work
attributed to Madhava must have been written after that scholar's death
;
and both seem to have been provoked by the Matiimanjari and the
Madhvavijaya Krishnasamy Aiyar, 3 and see 279.
:

THE SAKTA systems

176

There are some Hindu scholars who say that he originated

and enforced the Smarta rule of worshipping the five gods/
but there is no evidence in support of the assertion.
201. The next outstanding writer on the Vedanta is
Vachaspati Misra, who occupies a very noticeable position.

He

tells

us himself that he belonged to Tirhut and that he

named Nriga and in one of his books, the

Nydyasuchhtibandha, he gives A.D. 841 as the year in which
it was written.^
His home and his date are thus known. He
lived under a king

was a Smarta Brahman, and must have been a very capable

He

teacher of philosophy.

which

left

seven books,

all

expository

and accurate philosophic

language, five out of the six orthodox philosophies of Hinduism,
the Vaiseshika being the only one of the six he did not
expound. He is thus a very striking figure. Every scholar
before his date is a controversialist, upholding his own school
against all comers, and fighting the teaching of every other
Vachaspati, on the other hand, knows no bias he is
school.
simply an honest expositor of real philosophic grasp and great
power of accurate expression. His books have therefore been
works,

set

forth,

in

clear

greatly admired and widely used as text-books since his day.

He

wrote a commentary, the BJidmati^ on Saiikara's BJidsJiya

which^^has been the most popular and useful of

all

the innu-

merable works written to expound that masterpiece, and has

been interpreted

in

turn
c.

by many

scholiasts.

The Sdnkhya.

The Sdiik/iya-kdrikd, which, soon after it was

honoured by an attack from the great Vasuwas
written,
bandhu, was translated into Chinese in the sixth century by
a Buddhist monk.^ Probably a little later, a scholar named
Gaudapada (seemingly not the same as Sankara's paramaguru) ^ wrote the Sdiikhya-kdrikd-bhdshya, which is of con 202.

'
=*

^ Woods, Yo^a,
207.
Nanjio, I'.co.
Cf. Takakusu, BEFEO. IV. i.
Jacobi,//iO^-. XXXIII. 52, 71. 2; Keith,/AM.V. 1916, 171

See

xxiii.

55.

87.

THE SAKTA systems

177

meaning of
summarized in the stanzas. Then about
A. D. 8 50 Vachaspati produced his Sahkhya-tattva-kaiimudl,
an exposition of the Kdrikd, which is regarded as one of the
most authoritative of Sarikhya works, and has been expounded

siderable importance in determining the precise

the

in

principles

many

super-commentaries.

The Yoga.

d.

A
203, There is a similar story to tell of the Yoga.
Bhdshya on the Yoga-sfitra was written some time after
A. D. 650 by an unknown writer, and Vachaspati wrote the
Tattva- Vaisdradi, also an

The Bhashya and,

still

of glosses.

It is

is

Si'itra,

about

more, the Tattva- Vaisdradi are masterpieces of

They

are far from being a loosely collected body

Their excessively abbreviated and disconnected order of

the philosophical style.

words

exposition of the

Woods remarks:^

A.D. 850.

intentional.

very noticeable that the fresh developments

theory and practice reflected

the Tantras,

in

in

Yoga

Agamas, and

Sarhhitas do not seem to have produced the slightest effect on

the ancient school.

e.

204.

There

is

T/ic

VaiscsJiika.

only one Vaiseshika writer to be mentioned,

Prasastapada, whose date

and without whose

is

in

the neighbourhood of A. D. 6co,

would be
But another work, the original of which
is lost, survives in a translation
in A. D. 648 the pilgrim,
Hiouen Tsang, translated the Dasapaddrtha, said to be by
Jnanachandra, into Chinese.
BJidsJiya the VaisesJiika-sutras

almost unintelligible.

f.

T/ie

Nydya.

205. The preceding chapter has shown that Vatsyayana's

Bhdshya, which lights up the obscurity of the Nydya-sutras,

belongs to the

fifth

or the beginning of the sixth century.

'

Yoga,

ix.

To

THE SAKTA systems

178

we now add U ddyotaka-ra's Nj/aj'a-vdr ftka. on the Bhdshya^

and Vachaspati's Nydya-vdrtika-tdtparya-tlkd, the former from
that

about A. D. 650, the latter from about 840.

On

these two closely related schools two significant facts

require to be chronicled here.

with Prasastapada, the

First,

atomic school becomes frankly theistic, and about the same

time both schools become closely connected with the Pasupata
Secondly, the question has been seriously raised,
whether the new doctrine of inference called vydpti, which
appears in Indian logical treatises at this time, is not due to
sect.^

the influence of the Aristotelian logic.^

The study

of logic in early India

was greatly enriched by

the labours of numerous Buddhist and Jain thinkers.

these scholars the most influential

by

far

Of

all

was the Buddhist

Dignaga, who flourished before the middle

of

the

sixth

Jain logician, Siddhasena Divakara,

lived probably a century earlier, and later Jain thinkers did

century

good

but the

first

service.^

B.
206.

been

in

earlier.
list

The Piirdnas.

seem to have
and probably

All the Puranas, except the Bhdgavata,

by the end of

existence
It is also

period,

probable that there was an authoritative

of the eighteen, in which

would have a
all were not

this

both the Siva and the Vdy7i

But, though the eighteen existed then,

place.

which they are to-day.

Numerous
and such like have
since then been foisted on the original texts, and large portions
of the originals have been lost, either through accident or
the

in

condition

in

sections, khandas, sarhhitas,

deliberate sectarian malice.

The Garnda P.
Smarta

priests

worship of the

is

for

it

five gods,

Keith, /i^^.S". 1914, 1097.

Vidyabhushana,

MSIL.

for the use of

contains detailed instructions for the

'

manual compiled

clearly a

and gives information

in

22-55 80.
Chaps. 16; 17; 22-24; 28-40; 42.
;

many

other

lb. 1096.

sAkta systems

thp:

subjects which a practising priest would

A^ni

is

also a

Smarta document

for

it

for the use of

Bhagavata

priests

is

^
;

for

attention to Vishnu than to the other four,

Pailcharatra Sarhhitas,^ which

The

want to have.

gives detailed instruc-

tions about the worship of the five gods

meant

179

it

but
it

it

may

more

gives far

contains a

be

list

of

possible in a Bhagavata, but

not in a purely Smarta work, and

it
uses the Bhagavata
Both Puranas show very distinctly
the influence of the Sakta teaching given in the Agamas,
Tantras, and Sarhhitas.
Of the original character of the
Ndrada, Vard/ia, Vdinana, and Brahmavaivarta Puranas it is
hard to speak with certainty, but all seem to have contained
Vaishnava material.'' The Siva^ Lifiga, and Kfirma Puranas
are all Saiva in general character, and all three ^ contain

mantra

at several points.*

copies of certain parts of the Lakulisa-Pasupata material

which seems to have appeared first in the Vdyu? Of the
Skanda ^ it is not possible to speak with certainty.

C. Svidrtas
207.

At an

the Smartas to

early date

make

it

and

their Literature.

some organizing genius persuaded

a regular practice to worship the five

gods, pancha deva, Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa, in

what
the
that

Panchdyatana Pujd^^ but the precise time and

Many Smartas say
was Sankara who imposed the rule some say Ruma-

is

called

name
it

of the organizer are unknown.

nia; while others say the practice

is

of

still

earlier origin.

But what is clear from the list itself is that the rule was
formed at a time when Brahma had already fallen into the
Chaps. 21
23; 69; 71; 73; 74.
^ Chap.
Bhagavatas often act as archakas,
39.
* e. g. in chaps. 27 and
48.
^ See the quotations in Madhva's Brahma-sutra-bhashya.
^ Siva, Uttarardha, IX, ix; Liiiga, VII
Kilrma, LII.
^
But see H. P. SastrT, I. Hi.
See 165.
' That is,
The methods of the worship as
Five-Shrines Worship
practised to-day explain the name.
See 352. For the word see Jacob,
'

'

'.

EAU.iyi.

THE SAKTA systems

i8o

background, and the

contained

five

gods were prominent.

chapter makes

in this

it

The

evidence

probable that that was true

the opening of the seventh century but it is impossible

anything like a definite date. It is also essential to
give
to
notice that the five are merely a paiichayat representing all

by

the gods

the orthodox

man

and, while he worships the

recognizes the whole pantheon

five,

Towards the end of

as he likes.

one on each of the

AtJiarvasiras

U}

may

he

worship as

this period five

many more

Upanishads,

were put together and called the

They are doubtless all founded on sectarian

divinities,

Upanishads.

208.

It will

phical position

be

From

perfectly.

at

once recognized that Sankara's philoso-

the Smarta conception of the pantheon

fits

the point of view of religious practice, the

only difference between the advaita

Mimarhsa

lies

Vedanta and the Karma

in the recognition of the Absolute behind

Thus it is not at
number of Smartas

strange that

Sankara won

all

over

the gods.

all

a large

to the acceptance of his system.

To

this day, in

most parts of South India and Gujarat, the

allegiance to Sankara as well as to the

word Smarta implies

five

gods and to Vedic observance.

209.

For the twice-born the most

interesting literature

published during the period would be the law-books and the

works on the Mimamsa. -The Narada and the Brihaspati'ax&
the chief legal smritis produced at this time, but there were

many

others.

The

publication of the great works of Prabha-

kara and Kumarila on the

Karma Mimamsa would

interest to all Srautas

and Smartas.

many

scholars

other notable

Both

of the

be of great

these writers,

period,

and

Prasastapada,

Vatsyayana, Udyotakara, and Vachaspati Misra were either

The Gariida P? seems to be a manual
Srautas or Smartas.
written for

Smarta
'

priests.

Weber, HIL. 170; Kennedy,

See 206.

HM.

346, &c.

THE SAKTA systems

210.

D.

Vaishnava Literature.

a.

BJiagavata Literature.

iSi

seems clear that the Bhagavatas followed the

It

two steps we have just dealt with

they
accepted the worship of the five gods and the advaita Vediinta.
Yet it seems as if their acceptance of the five gods had been
Smartas

less

the

in

serious than their recognition of Siva as equivalent to

Vishnu

much seems

so

sect to-day.

to be implied in the practice of the

Probably about the end of this period, after the

adoption of Sankara's system, some Bhagavata scholar wrote

the

Skanda U.}

identity of

to establish the truth of the doctrine of the

The philosophy

Vishnu and Siva.

the classical

passage

the Harivauisa on

in

is

advaita,

and

the subject

is

Bhagavata S."^ is mentioned among the Vaishnava

Samhitas, which may be a Bhagavata document.
311. Many Bhagavatas are temple ministrants in South
India to-day, and there is evidence which tends to suggest
that in early times still larger numbers performed that service.
The Agni P. seems to be a manual prepared for the use of
Bhagavata priests, as is suggested above.^ In the Tamil
country to-day, while in most temples the ritual is conducted
utilized.

accordance with the rules laid

in

Sarhhitas,

down

few temples

there are a

in

in the

Paiicharatra

which

Vaikhanasa

Samhitas are used. This is true of the shrine of Verikatesvara

on Tirupati hill, and of the temples in Conjeeveram, and
Sriperumbudur.
not yet known.

What the age of these Samhitas may be, is

They differ from the main group first of all
But there

in points of ritual.

Appaya
sistent

Dikshita

with Vedic

usage

Now,

is

a far

more

serious distinction

us that Vaikhanasa manuals are con-

while

Paiicharatra Samhitas are

Venkatewhich the Vaikhanasa ritual is followed to this day,

Siva and Vishnu were worshipped as equal until Ramanuja

unorthodox.'^
,

tells

it is

clear that in the temple of

svara, in

>

Jacob,

206.

EAU.

15.
*

^^^

jq^ j^ Schrader's

list,

/PAS.

8.

See the passage quoted by Chanda, /A/^. 100.

THE SAKTA systems

i82

Thus we can

interfered.^

scarcely be

wrong

in

concluding

that the Vaikhanasa Sarhhitas have for centuries been used

by

Bhagavata arcJiakas ^ for the ritual. It also seems clear that

there were many more temples in which Vishnu and Siva were
adored as equal i.e. Bhagavata shrines during this period
than there are to-day for many such temples are mentioned
in the hymns of the Alvars ^
and we know that Ramanuja
sought to substitute Paiicharatra for Vaikhanasa ritual wherever
he went. What is the relation between these manuals and the

Vaikhanasa-sutras

b.

21 2.

The

rise

Pdhchardtra Literature.

of the Vaishnava, or Pancharatra, Sarhhitas

the most notable fact in the Vishnuite history of the period,

is

but

it is

when or where
Kashmir in the

not yet possible to state with certainty

they were written.

They can be

traced in

tenth century, in the Tamil country

in the eleventh," and at

South Kanara,'' but clear references at earlier
dates are still lacking. The utmost we can say is that their
striking similarity to the Saiva Agamas and to the early
Tantrik literature, both Hindu and Buddhist, suggests that
the earliest of them arose about the same time as these three
literatures,
e. probably between A. D. 600 and 800, and thatthere is nothing in the general character of the books that is
opposed to such a date. iMore precise evidence may become
available any day.^

later dates in

i.

The Sarhhitas are supposed to number 108 but about

double that number of names are known. Lists occur in four
;

^ j_ g_ temple-ministrants.
Govindacharya, R. 142.
^
Krishna Sastrl, SlI. 12.
See 160.
^ In this connexion I am much indebted to Dr. Schrader's
excellent
monograph, Introduction to the Pancharatra and the Ahirbudhnya
Sanihita; also to Govindacharya's axi. JRAS. 1911, 935 ff. ; and to
^

the relevant section in Iyengar's Ojitlines.

'

Schmder, /PAS.

17

{.

''In Madhva's Bhashya on the Vedanta-siltras.

* A careful survey of Vaishnava Tamil literature
would likely provide
some evidence. Sankara's statement about Sandilya, Bhashya, II. ii. 45,
in all probability rests pn a Sarhhita.

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

183

Samhitas, three containing over 100 names each, the fourth

Taking the three long

containing only 34.

are

common

taking

rather hazy.

are thus

from interpolation

Hence,

all four,

it is

some time

only

are

1 1

Further, these

in precisely

results

books have suffered

same way as the Puranas.

the

who have

not strange that the few scholars

to their study

52 names

lists first,

common. The

do not agree

given

in their conclusions as

to which are the earliest documents.^

213.
earliest

It is

probably true that each Sarhhita, even

form, represented

some

variety of doctrine or worship.

Samhitas

is

a Ramaite work

it

sectarian

division

Thus one

or

in its

some

of the Agastya-

probable that the Nara-

is

siviha sprang from the special cult of the Narasirhha incarna-

which we deal with elsewhere and the Dattdtreya, theand the Saura may reflect the worship of Dattatreya, Ganesa, and the Sun.
That later developments are
reflected in the Sarhhita literature is plain.
Ramanuja's stay
at Melkote is described in several works
while Madhva
tion,

Gaitesa,

doctrine obtrudes itself distinctly in others.

will not

be fully

are realized.

produced

The

literature

intelligible until these sectarian distinctions

Schrader holds that most of the literature was

in the north,

but believes that several of the works

belong to the Tamil south, notably Isvara, Upendra^ and Brihad

BrdJmia.'^

may be
214.

ways.

He may

be

right, but,

on the other hand, these

northern works interpolated in the south.

The Samhitas
They mark first

are historically

noteworthy

in

two

the emergence of Sakta principles

in

But they are also notable as being the

the
first manuals formed to express both the beliefs and
In
are
as
Vaishnavas.
the
matter
of
practice
they
practice of
Like the
were the Kalpasutras of the Vaishnavas.''
it
the Vaishnava sect.

Schrader [IPAS. 20) takes the Paiishkara, Varaha, and Brahma as

the earliest of all, while Iyengar {Outlines, 175) regards the I.akshnii
as decidedly very old ', and says that the Padma is perhaps the oldest of
'

'

'

'

With this latter judgement my friend, Mr. A. Govindacharya Svamin

of Mysore city, agrees.
^ Govindacharya, //?^..S'.
IP AS. 16 f.
1911,940,
all.

"^

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

84

Saiva Agamas, the

Samhitas are said to consist of four

sections

Jhdiio pada

Yoga-pada

philosophical theology.

the

Kriyd-pada

new yoga teaching and

practice.

the building of temples and the

making

of

images.

Charyd-pdda

religious practice.

Only two Samhitas, however,

divided in this way, the
those which deal with

other ways

are

known which

Padma and

all

are actually

Even

the Vishmitattva.

the four categories are arranged in

and maay deal only with Kriya and Charya.

Indeed a very large part of all the material of the Sarhhitas

This explains why they were so long

deals with practice.

kept secret.

315. The theology of the chief Sarhhitas

is

essentially

a development of the teaching of the Narayanlya episode of

the Epic with the addition of a considerable Sakta element.

The

basis of the philosophy

outline of the teaching

analysis

is

is

the theistic Yoga.

Our

brief

taken from Dr. Schrader's excellent

In the supreme state Vishnu and

his Sakti

'

are one

Paramatman without distinction.

It is in
creation
they become distinguishable. Primary Creation falls

that
into

and Secondary Creation, which takes place

36,000 times between two Primary Creations, also falls

two

stages,

into two.

A. In the first stage of Primary Creation the Sakti awakes

if from sleep in her two aspects, kriyd, action, and bhuti,
becoming, and manifests the six gnna, i.e. attributes, of her
Lord, viz. knowledge, unrestricted power, energy, strength,
virility, splendour.
These six together constitute Vasudeva,
the first vyuha-, and his sakti Lakshmi. The six fall into
pairs, and from them
emanate in order Samkarshana,
Pradyumna, and Aniruddha, the second, third, and fourth
vyuhas, and their Saktis. From the vyuhas proceed twelve

as

See

168.

See

106.

THE SAKXA systems

SLib-vyuhas and twelve Vidyesvaras.

185

In this stage of creation

are produced also the vibhavas, or incarnations of Vishnu,

thirty-nine in number,

and Vaikuntha, Highest Heaven, with

all its dwellers.

B. In the second stage of Primary Creation the bhuti aspect

manifested

of the Sakti

is

Purusha and

Maya

Sakti.

the grosser forms,

in

Kutastha

The Kutastha Turusha

is

the

aggregate of individual souls, massed together like bees, while

the

Maya

is

From

the immaterial source of the universe.

from
produced Niyata, the regulator of all things
Niyata Kala, transcendental Time, regarded as a driving
force
and from Kala the Guna-body, whence the three

her

is

Sankhyan gunas emanate and

coalesce into Mulaprakriti, the

All these creations

impalpable source of material things.

remain

in

existence from the time they are created until the

time of Universal Dissolution, Mahapralaya.

C.

The

first

stage of each Secondary Creation corresponds

very closely with the Sankhyan evolution.

differences

Yet there are

the Vaishnava system starts not only with the

and Purusha but with Kala also, and the

Purusha is the one Kutastha Purusha instead of an infinite
number of souls. The other differences need not detain us.
D. The five gross elements, ether, air, light, water, and
earth, having been produced, coalesce into a mass, and the
world-egg, with the creator god, Brahma,' the fifth vyuha,
Mulaprakriti

in

it,

is

produced,

merable world-eggs

according to certain Sarhhitas, innu-

or,
;

and thereafter there come the

details of

creation.

Souls are of four classes, the liberated, those

tion, the ever-bound,

and those

fit

fit

for libera-

for darkness.

Predesti-

knowlege and
nation is
A
liberation by the grace of the Lord, and he is not merged
thus clearly taught.

in

him but

joins

advaitic in tone

him
as to

in

soul reaches

few Sarhhitas are so

Vaikuntha.
approach the idea of the absolute

identity of the soul and God, but the general teaching clearly

recognizes the soul as distinct.

The

soul

is

atomic

in size.

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

i86

but when liberated

is

omniscient and

in

a sense also omni-

potent and omnipresent.

The doctrine of the channels and centres of occult force in

human body with its method of Yoga practice and
miraculous results, which we describe below ^ as found in the
the

Sakta system, appears

works.^
are

The

indistinguishable

below.^

same form

in the

in

these Vaishnava

doctrines of mantra and yantra in the Sarhhitas

Magic

from

the

in all its forms,

Sakta

teaching

described

with innumerable spells and

and talismans, is carefully described and eagerly commended. The great sectarian mantras, Om namo Bhdgavate
Vdsudevdya (Bhagavata), Oj'ii namo Ndrdyandya (SriVaishnava), and the famous mantra of Narasimha are all
adored and studied and expounded in a thousand ways.
The sect-mark of the Sri-Vaishnavas of South India consists
of two white curving lines, like the outline of a vase, and
a single red vertical line set in the centre and meeting the
rites

white lines

"at

the base.

The white

lines represent

Vishnu,

the red line his sakti, in accordance with the Sakta doctrine

of creation.

The

Sarhhitas ordain that Vaishnavas shall not

only paint the sect-mark on the brow and elsewhere, but shall

brand the symbols of Vishnu on the body with red-hot

The twice-born Vaishnava is expected to select a guru
and receive initiation, dtkshdy from him. Initiation consists
of five acts, Tdpa, branding the symbols on the body, Pundra,
also

irons.

Ndina, taking a name. Mantra,

reception of the formula of adoration, Ydga, worship.^
There
is nothing in Vaishnavism that corresponds with cJiakra-pujd^^
and only vegetarian offerings are allowed in the temples.
painting the

sect-mark,

Vaishnava uses only vegetarian diet. The Paiichasystem is still unorthodox in these manuals,^ as we
found it to be in the Epic.
The religion of the Sarhhitas is open to all four Hindu

The

strict

ratra

'

See 232.
232.
See 234.

IPAS.

Schrader,

Govindacharya, yyPyJ^". 1911,946.

Schrader, IPAS, 97.

118

ff.

THE SAKTA systems

187

The

castes without distinction, but not to outcastes.

of the Gita

matter

in this

is

position

retained.

216. In the Tamil south, alongside of the Paiicharatra

manuals, about a dozen Sarhhitas are found, which are called

They

Vaikhanasa.

We

now

are discussed above.^

deal briefly with the few local groups or sub-sects

which can be distinguished at

I.

We

this stage in

Vaishnava history.

Tamil Vaishnavas.

Tamil country. From the

seventh to the tenth century there seems to have been a
succession of poet-singers in Tamil-land who wandered about
from shrine to shrine, composing hymns and singing in
217.

begin

with

the

the images of their loved divinity.

Many
and many were Vaishnavas. Of the latter
twelve are specially remembered, and honoured under the
title of Alvars.
Their religion was above all a passionate
emotion. Their chief joy was to gaze into the divine eyes of
a favourite image, and to pour out their praises in music and
song.
Often, after a long absence, the poet's feeling was too
much for him, and he fell unconscious on the temple-floor
ecstasy before

were

Saivas,

before the image, stunned

by the

during the night, he would

fall

flood of his emotions, or,

sick with

longing for the

beautiful face which he could not see until the temple-doors

were opened

some of them
local legends

in the

morning.

They taught

Outcastes, and

are said to have been Outcastes.

Apart from
and epithets suggested by the temples or the

forms of the images, their poems show only the influence of

The Sarhhitas were probably
the Epics and early Puranas.
late in penetrating to the

Yet these men have

Tamil south.

the teachers of the Sri- Vaishnava sect.

been regarded as
Their hymns have a great and honoured place in the training
of scholars and in public worship, and their images are worshipped

in

the temples.

88.

The

following
2

is

211.

the

list

of their

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

i88

names

in

the traditional order of their appearance;

Nammalvar,
Andal,

9.

One

6.

10.

Madhurakavi,

Tondarippodi,

11.

7,

i. PoySathakopa or

gaiar, i. Bhutattu, 3. Peyar, 4. Tirumalisai, 5.

Kulasekhar,

8,

Periyar,

Tiruppanar, 12. Tirumangai.

woman. Tirumangai and Nammalvar are the greatest, and Nammalvar is the most famous
of all.
There is no certainty yet as to the chronology of the
Alvars.
Barnett ^ suggests that Tirumangai and Nammalvar
belong to the eighth century or thereabouts, but other dates
of these, Andal, was a

by other scholars.
There are two Upanishads which probably belong to this
period, and which are both devoted to the Narayana-mantra,
Oiii namo Ndrdyandya^ namely the Ndrdyana and the Atmahodha Upanishads.^ The SrI-Vaishnava sect, which took definite
shape among Tamil Vaishnavas during the next period, use this
formula as their sect-mantra. Thus the Upanishads are probably

are proposed

connected with the

sect,

2.

218.

makes

it

The

The Narasii'nha

Sect.

date of the Nrismiha-tdpanlya

Upanishads*

plain that the Nrisimha, or Narasirhha, sect which

worshipped the Man-lion incarnation of Vishnu, must have

been organized, at the latest, quite early in this period. This
god is recognized all over India, but traces of his worship are
far more abundant in the south than the north
and he is still
;

the family god of

many

families in the south..

Yet we must

not assume that the sect was founded in the south.

mantra

The

an annsJitiibh verse, called the royal

mantra, mantrardja, of Nrisimha, and it is accompanied by

sectarian

is

four ancillary mantras.

pair of
'

The

chief scripture of the sect

Upanishads already mentioned.

BMCTB.

The

first,

is

the

called the

7.

K, Aiyangar, AI. 220, yj'j S, Aiyahgar, TS. i<^i^.

' Deussen, StlV.
747 ff,

As they were expounded by Gaudapada about A. D. 750 or rather later,

they cannot be dated later than the seventh century. See Deussen, SUV.
^

752

ff.

SAKTA SYSTEMS

THI-

\Hg
('/

Nrisii'nha-purva-tdpanlya^

is

")

two

in

parts, the first of

which

'

the royal mantra by mystic identifications and inter-

glorifies

pretations, and also the four Aiiga mantras, while the second

by means of the royal mantra

gives directions for the making,

of Nrisirhha and three other famous Vaishnava mantras, of

a diagram, yantra, which, worn on the neck, the arm, or in

a lock of hair, will

Upanishad, called

prove a potent amulet.

The second

Nrisimha-iUtara-tdpaniya,

the

also

en-

^i^*

its emphasis falls

on the sectarian theology, in which Nrisirhha is identified with
the supreme Brahman, the Atman, and the syllable Ovi.
Both Upanishads were expounded by Gaudapada, and the
first at least by Sahkara.
The use of the famous mantraraja
was not confined to the sect three chapters are devoted to
its exposition in the Ahirbudhnya S.^
The popularity of the
Nrisirhha Upanishads led to their being imitated in other
sects
the most noteworthy of these copies are the Rama,
Ganapati, Gopdla, and Ti'ipicrd
Tdpatiiya
Upanishads.^
There are two other documents belonging to the sect which
in all probability come from
this
period, the Nrisiiiiha
Upapiirdna^ and the NrisiniJia S."^ The former is men-

courages the cult of the royal mantra, but

tioned

by Alberuni

a.d. 1030,^ so that

in

latter,

it

almost certainly

more doubt about the

known reference to it is in Vedanta

belongs to the period, but there

as the earliest

is

Desika of the fourteenth century.

3.

219. In a

yana^ Rama

The

Rdma

late interpolated
is

hailed

as

Sect.

passage

the

devotees are mentioned, but there

organized Ramaite sect existed

in

Valmlki's

Rdmd-

one eternal God, and

is

in

his

no evidence that an

those early days.

But

there need be no doubt about the existence of such a sect in

this

period.

It

Chajis. 54 to 56.

See

implied

in

the

Rdvia-purva-tdpaiilya

See Schrader, IPAS. 143.

^ Eggeling, SMIO.
219; 239; 280; 316.
3515.
= Sarhau, I.
Schrader, IPAS. 8, 18.
130.
VI. 119: see 107.

'

is

THE SAKTA systems

iQo

Upanishad,^ which sets Rama forth as an incarnation of

Brahman, expounds a royal mantra Rdi'n Rdmdya namah
and describes a mystic diagram which leads to release and

other blessings.
vehicle

of

alphabet

secret

mantras.

secret

also

is

The

taught as the

Rdma-iittara-tdpaniya

Upanishad'^ consists mostly of passages taken from earlier

Upanishads, and

may

One

belong to a later date.

of the

Vaishnava Samhitas, the Agastya-Sutikshna Sainvdda^ is

a Ramaite work, and almost certainly belongs to this period
for it is referred to and quoted in the AdJiydtma Rdmdyana.^
Dr. Schrader's assumption that the worship of Rama is a
modern growth, and that a Ramaite Sarhhita must therefore
;

be a very recent production, is unfounded, for there is plenty

of evidence that Rama has been continuously worshipped

But

from very early times.

bearing Ramaite names
of their date
220.

must remain

We may also

and other Samhitas

until this

are carefully examined, the question

in

doubt.

reasonably ask whether there was not

This seems to be implied by what

a Dattatreya sect.

contained in the Yddava-giri

Mdhdtmya

in the

is

Ndrada and

Matsya Puranas, by various references elsewhere

treya, and by what the Manbhaus say.

to Datta-

E. Saiva Literature,

221.

It

is

not yet possible to say definitely

One

Saiva sects used or produced Agamas.

how many
inclined to

is

suggest, very tentatively, a division of mediaeval Saivas into

two groups as under

^i.

a.

Pasupata Saivas

Lakullsa-Pasupatas.

3.

Kapalikas.

4.

Nathas.

5.

Gorakshanathls.

\6.
1

Pasupatas.

2.

Rasesvaras.

lb. 818.
Deussen, SUV. 802.
Schrader, IPAS. nos.
See 294.
"^

Schrader,

26, loi, 133 in

IPAS.

list,

6, 19.

pp. 6 to 9.

THE SAKTA systems

b.

Agamic Saivas

It is clear that

191

1.

Sanskrit School of Saiva Siddhanta.

2.

Tamil Saivas.

3.

Kashmir

4.

Vira Saivas.

Saivas.

the second group were closely allied, and that

they accepted the Agamas.

The Tamil and Vira

themselves Mahesvaras to-day and do not

call

Saivas call

themselves

Pasupatas, although their theology depends on the Pasupata

doctrine of the Epic. Their writers reject the doctrine of the
incarnations of Siva as taught

by the Pasupatas, and tell,

numerous theophanies.

instead, stories of his having appeared in

first group were also closely connected in several ways,

and they do not seem to have recognized the Agamas but
as only weak remnants of them have survived until our days,

The

it is

difficult to

sects as far as

we can

There

is

now

deal with the

trace them.

Pasupata Saivas.

a.

222.

We

get clear information.

first

the parent sect of Pasupatas.

Prasas-

tapada, the early commentator on the VaiscsJiika-sutra, was

a Saiva, and almost certainly a Pasupata, and

Bharadvaja,

Uddyotakara, the author of the gloss on the Nyaya-bJidshya^

Bana and Hiouen Tsang
is definitely called Pasupatacharya.
both refer to the Pasupatas as one of the prominent sects of the
Sankara criticizes them in his Bhdshya, on the ground
time.
i.

e.

that

their

doctrine of

God

as the

operative

but

not

the

material cause of the world stands in opposition to Upanishad

doctrine.
I.

223.

The LakulJsas.

The Lakulisa system, which seems

form of the Pas'upata,^ arose

in Gujarat, as

to be a specialized

we have

a very early date, and probably developed a

literature before the

seen, at

philosophical

opening of the seventh century.

Conse-

quently they did not accept the new teaching of the Saiva
^
Bhandarkar believes there is but the one system, called indifferently
Pasupata, Lakulisa, or Lakullsa-Pasupata.

THE SAKTA systems

192

Agamas. During this period the sect spread as far south as

Mysore and also into Rajputana. The lists of the incarnations
of Siva, which are copied in the Linga and Kurma Puranas
from

the

and which mention LakulT, are Lakulisa

There is an image of Lakulisa, which belongs

Vdyit,

documents.^

to the seventh century, at Jharapatan in Gujarat.

TJie Kdpdlikas.

2.

The Kapalikas,

224.

the

i.e.

specialization of the Pasupatas, but

they were ever a

The

sect.

skull-men,
is

it

another

are

hard to say whether

evidence suggests that they have

never been more than an order of ascetics.

In doctrine and

practice they stand in the closest possible relation to the Left-

They seem

hand Saktas.

have been organized about the

An inscription,^ dating from
the seventh century, mentions the god
to

very beginning of this period.

the

half

first

of

Kapalesvara and

drama produced
characters

is

his

Aghoraghanta, a Kapalika

Chamunda

goddess

priest of the

In the Mdlatl-Mddhava^ a

ascetics.

early in the eighth century,^ one of the chief

in

ascetic,

who

a royal city, and

acts as
is

con-

nected with the great Saiva shrine, SrI-Saila, in the Telugu

Kapala-Kundala,

country.

i.e.

Skull-earring,

nun,

is

devotee of the goddess, and a pupil of Aghoraghanta.

practise yoga, and through

The

beliefs

they hold are

their practices

is

human

by the

carries a

hero.

have won miraculous powers.

of Sakta ideas, and amongst

Aghoraghanta

sacrifice.

sacrifice the heroine of the

killed

it

full

play to Chamunda, but

The nun wears

The Nathas

are

plots to
is

finally

a necklace of skulls, and

heavy rod from which hangs a string of

3.

Both

bells.

The Ndthas.

extremely hard to get hold

of.

The

Gorakshanathls, a special sect derived from them, are Saivas,

while

modern Nathas,

e.g.

Bhaskararaya of Tanjore, are

Saktas.
1
''

See

227.

ERE.

IV. 886

V. A. Smith,

Bhandarkar, VS.

EH

I. 3,

378.

118.


THE SAKTA systems
b.

193

Agamic Saivas.

is the chief literary event in

According to
this
period.
during
the history of Saivism
divided as
manuals,
tradition there are twenty-eight of these

225.

under
i.

The

rise

of the Aganias

Kamika,

Saivic:

Yogaja,

Karana,

Chintya,

Dlpta, Sukshma, Sahasra,

Ajita,

Amsuman, Sup-

rabha (Suprabheda).
ii.

Raudric

Vijaya,

Nisvasa,

Svayambhuva,

Agneyaka,

Bhadra, Raurava, Makuta, Vimala, Chan-

drahasa (Chandrajfiana),

Mukhayugbimba

(Mukhabimba), Udgita (Prodglta), Lalita,

Siddha, Santana, Narasimha (Sarvokta or
Sarvottara),

Kirana,

Paramesvara,

Para

(Vatula).

Each of these Agamas is then attended by a group of Upagamas, the total number contained in the list amounting to 198.

The date
The Tamil

of the earliest of these manuals

is

still

obscure.

poets, Tirumular, who lived somewhere about

A.D. 800, Sundarar, who was either a contemporary of
Tirumular or came a little later, and Manikka Vachakar,
whose date is not far removed from A.D. 900, all refer to the
Agamas, and both Tirumular and Manikka use much of their

phraseology .2 Mr.

J.

C. Chatterji

tells

us

'^

that the Siva-sutras

were promulgated in Kashmir by Vasugupta about A.D. 850

with the express purpose of substituting an advaita philosophy
for the more or less dualistic teaching of the Agamas, which
were then the foundation of the Saivism of Kashmir. This
statement is supported by references to two Agamas, the
1

Ramana's

Tr. of

Appayadikshita's Gloss

on

Srikantha's Saiva-

bhashya.

my

I owe this valuable information about Tirunullar and Sundarar to

friend, the Rev. Francis Kingsbury of Bangalore. For these poets see 229.
"^

A-^. 7-10; 36(a).

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

194

Matanga

who

and the Svayambhuva,

Somananda

in

of Kashmir,^

and by

flourished towards the end of the ninth century,

Kshemaraja,^ another Kashmir writer

belonging to the eleventh century. The earliest known MS.,

numerous quotations

Kir ana,

a copy of the

we may

in

is

dated A D.

From

924.'*

Agamas,

conjecture that the earliest

these facts

Hindu

like the

and Buddhist Tantras, are to be assigned to the seventh and

eighth centuries, yet, until more definite evidence becomes

No

we must not say more.

available,

The Agamas mark

'Z'z6.

among

scholar has as yet

Agamas

ventured an opinion as to which of the

are oldest.

the appearance of Sakta ideas

Saivas, and are also the

earliest

codes of

of their

Their

temple-building, image-making, and religious practice.

contents are supposed

The

Samhitas.

to

of

sketch

following

four

into

fall

Agamas

divisions,

teaching of

the

is drawn from Iyengar's

Mrigendra A., the first, or
Kdmika, the first Agama. The
in the first verse of the work

account,^ which

from

He

the

defects,

all-knower.

finitesimal soul the

He

is

the

the

based on

knowledge, section of the

the

like

whole system
'

Siva

web of bonds

is

is

condensed

beginningless, free

removes from the

that obscure

its

in-

nature.'

can create both gradually and suddenly, because creation

and he possesses an eternal instrument for the work, the Sakti, who is a conscious being and at
His body is all energy
the same time the Lord's body.
(sakti)
it is composed of the five mantras.
Being so utterly
is

of that double character,

different

from our body, no

themselves to

it.

times and on

all

but not manifest

Siva-sakti

is

evils or obstructions

Consciousness exists
sides, perfect in
in the unliberated,

because

is

in

all

is

unconscious.

who

is

She

is

beings and also of their release.

one of the Upagamas, and

A'^-. iq.

H. P.

Sastrl, II. xxiv.

all

them obscured.

a category intermediate between Siva,

the cause of the bondage of

'

can attach

the atman at

Siva and in the liberated,

pure consciousness, and Matter, which

This
svara A.

in

is

dependent on the Parame-

Hall, pp. 197-8.

Outlines, 151 ff.

THE SAKTA systems

She

is

the eternal

Word, the

195

subtle link between concept

and

utterance.

To

The theory

of the existence of a system of yogic nerves and

circles in

Siva

this

the body

is

attached the whole doctrine of mantras.^

is

"-

taught.

is

Pasupati,

Lord of

Hence man

flocks.

His body
The Pasu is, in

Pasu, the Lord's creature.^

himself

is

conscious.

is

his

called

is

unconscious

own

he

nature, the

abode of eternal and omnipresent Chitsakti, mind-energy.

But the Pasu is bound by Pasa, the bond, and it is threefold,
Anava, Ignorance, Karma, the result of his action, Maya, the
material cause of the world.
This last bond, Maya, does not
bear the meaning that it does in Sarikara's system. It stands
the beclouding, deceiving, materializing influence of the

for

Fettered by these bonds, the pasu

visible world.

is

finite,

bounded by his body. The Sakti is included

these bonds, and through them the Lord's work of obscura-

restricted being,
in

tion

of souls

is

Anugraha, the

carried

grace

of

The

out.

the

Sakti evolves also into

Lord, and

by the

destruction of the bonds leads the soul to liberation.

revealed that Identity zvith Siva results,

when

all

gradual
'

It is

fetters are

removed.'

But while

this

may

ing of the earliest

stand as an approximation to the teach-

Agamas,

it

is

of importance to recognize

that they are not a uniform body. Several sects are represented

them, and

in

shall

until these differences are clearly recognized

we

have no accurate conception of Agamic teaching.

227. The Liriga and Kuruia Pur anas are Saiva documents comparable with the Vaishnava Agtii and Garuda in
general character.
It is also probable that, like them, they
come from the middle of the period for they reflect the
teaching of the Agamas and the Tantras and refer to some
Both Puranas'* repeat with alterations and
of these texts.
;

See the account of mantras drawn from the Kiiana Ai^aifia in H. P.

- See
^
But see 109.
232.
* Linga, XXIV.
Kurma, I. liii. These texts are quoted by
124-33
Ramana in his Tr. of Appaya Dikshita on the Saiva B/iashya, pp. 13-14.
He quotes all the texts, except the original one in the Vayu.
'

Sastrl, II. xxvi.

THE SAKTA systems

196

additions the account of the twenty-eight incarnations of Siva

and their disciples from the Vdyu.^ In the Liuga there is

Om

a long dissertation on the mystic meaning of the word

letters of the alphabet,'-' in the mannei* of Sakta

and of the

Kurma * a number of the Sakta Tantras

and the worship of the Saktis is recommended.
not yet known which Saiva sects these documents come

treatises," while in the

arc referred
It

is

to,

from, except that the

The

228.

of incarnations

list

smearing of the

is

Lakulisa.

body with ashes was

part of

the practice of Pasupata ascetics from the time of the Atharand the sect-mark is now universally
vasiras U.^ at least
made with ashes. In all the sects, these marks seem to date
;

from the first part of this period, when the new manuals taught
The Saiva sect-mark, the
the power of magic diagrams.
Tripundra, as

it is

fingers horizontally across the brow,

on the

breast, arms,

is

ash drawn
and often also

called, consists of three lines of

by the

and other parts of the body as

thus probable that the Kdldgnirudra U.,^ which

meditation on the Tripundra, comes from the

first

is

well.

It

a mystic

half of our

period.

Tamil Saivas.

I.

229.

In the Tamil country the most noteworthy Saiva

There are first

Vaishnava
They
Ajvars, but they are not distinguished by any title.
personalities during these centuries are poets.
of

three

all

who

are in every

way

parallel to the

are called Nayanars, like other religious leaders, but

if

they

The
names are Nanasambandhar, Appar, and SundaraThe two former belong to the seventh, the last to the-

are spoken of as a distinct group, they are simply called

Three. Their
murti.

eighth or ninth century.

singers, filled

wandered from temple

'

See
See
See

Like the Ajvars, they were poet-

They
hymns and

with overflowing bhakti towards Siva.

to temple, singing their

OST.

165.

'

Muir,

^ 232.

"

112.

Chap. XII.
Deussen, SUV. 735.

IV. 329.

THE SAKTA systems

dancing

197

rapture before the images of Siva, the dancing

in

Uma, and drew crowds after them.

They show no dependence on the Agamas, though Sundarar
Lord, and

his beloved

mentions them, but use the Epics and the Puranas and express

Only

the traditional piety and devotion of the community.

a few of their
Tirumiilar^

hymns have been

{c.

a.d.

translated into English.

<Soo), in his

Tininiajitram^

is

the earliest

Tamil poet who reflects the theology of the Agamas. His

work is a masterpiece as a poem, and it deals with practical
religion.
still
greater man, Manikkawhose utterances are rubies
He lived about
A.l). 900,^ and left a large number of lyrical poems short and
long, which are known as the Tim- Vdchakam, The Sacred
He was a man of education and position conUtterance
Madura,
but a sudden conversion, in which the
nected with
personal influence of a guru was dominant, led him to give
up his position and become a wandering devotee. That he
was a cultured man who entered fully into the heritage of
the work of those who preceded him is clear from his poems.
Contents, style, diction, and mastery of metres all show the

Rather later there arose a

Vachakar,

'

'.

'

'.

He

accomplished poet.

uses freely the stores of the Epics,

Agamas, and

the Puranas, and the

literature that already lay

to find poetry in local

also the very rich

behind him.

He knew

customs and homely

Tamil

also

how

stories, especially

Over
amount
considerable

the mass of legends that illustrate Siva's sacred sports.

all

he threw the glamour

of his genius.

of the technical theology of the

Agamas

appears

in his lines,

and he frequently speaks of them as revealed by Siva. We

may also note his dislike for the Vedanta, which must mean
Sankara's mdydvdda.
Frazer, ERE. V. 23.
Barnett, BMCTB. 5
Harnett {BMCTB. 5 n.) says between A.D. 800 and looo; Frazer and
Cf. S. Aiyangar,
others says between A. D. 800 and 900 {ERE. V. 23J.
>

719.,

App.

III.

THE SAKTA systems

T98

Kashmir

2.

Saivas.

Kashmir the Saiva Agamas were accepted as

became the basis of all religious thought in the
Saiva community. Then about A.D. 850 the Siva-sutras were
In

230.

revelation and

promulgated

in

a mysterious

way

as a fresh utterance from

and under the stimulus of this work a rich philosophical

literature continued to spring up for three centuries. The Sivasutras and the Spanda-Kdrikds, which expound them, arc
rather practical in character, but by about A.D. 900 the Si%'aSiva

drishti of

Somananda provided

more

distinctly philosophical

groundwork for the system. The ontology is monistic, and

release depends upon a discipline which consists in the continuous vecogn\i\or\,pratyabhij?id, of man's identity with Siva.

Yet the world is not treated as a mere illusion. It is an

nbhdsa or manifestation of Siva through the Sakti, and is
present to his consciousness, though not in the form in which
it

appears to the individual mind.

tion of the universe keeps in the

but
is

it

The
main

has several interesting features of

called Trika, because

An

its

Sahkhya

own.

series,

The system

deals with three principles, Siva,

it

Sakti, an?i, or Pati, pasa, pasu,

law of recognition.

process of the evoluto the

and also Pratyabhijna from

outline of the teaching

may

its

be found

Madhava's Sarva-darsana-sangraha, or the details may be

The system is distinctly
studied in Chatterji's monograph.^
more monistic than the teaching of the Agamas, with which
How'
the new literature struggles to show its full agreement.
The activity of the great
are we to account for the change ?
Sahkara falls in the first half of the ninth century, and we

in

may be
visited

sure that the traditions are right

Kashmir during one

when they say he

of his controversial tours.

It is

thus most probable that he influenced the Saiva leaders very

deeply and was the source of the stimulus which created the
Siva-sutra and the

movement which
^

Kashinir

followed.

Shak>ts)/i.

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

Sakfa Liter atui-e.

F,

The Tantras.

a.

The

231.

sect of

199

Durga

now reorganized with

is

There

called the Siikta sect.

new

theology, a more varied cult, and a fresh literature.

It

is

no authoritative canon of the

is

Tantras, the literature of the Saktas.

In several places

sixty-four Tantras are found, and one

list

lists

of

contains three groups

of sixty-four,^ but these catalogues differ so seriously the one

from the other

that, as yet at least,

Hundreds of Tantras

the student.
and, although
still

many

they are of

help to

little

are mentioned in the

lists,

number

are lost for ever, a very large

In addition there are several Sakta documents

survive.

scattered about in the Puranas, and

numerous hymns

in praise

of the goddess, lineal descendants of those already discussed,

are found in various places.

Only a very few of these

certainty, but there

are a

approximately discerned.

authorities can be dated with

any

number more whose age can be

It

scarcely possible as yet to

is

belonging to the sub-sects, references to

which are found from quite early times.^ The whole literature
classify the texts as

awaits the
to

do

age

is

is

toil

of scholarly investigators.

to give brief notices of

approximately known.

What we

propose

the important works whose

all

In this

way an

outline of the

history will be afforded and a basis of study provided.

MS.

that that

MS.

of the Kubjikdviata T. in Gupta character proves

work dates from the seventh century at latest. A

of the Paraiiiesvaramata T.

is

of the MaJiakaulajndiia Vinirnaya

dated A.D. 858, and a

is

MS.

quite as old,^ the works

themselves being probably a good deal older.

of these three Tantras would give a very

full

A careful study
account of early

Sakta philosophy and worship. From the Kubjikdmata we

conclude that a formed Sakta theology and ritual were

may

Avalon's Tantrik Texts,

H. P.

SastrT,

'

lb.

Ixxvii, Ixxviii

I.

I.

I. ii.

Dutt's

Ixiv, Ixxviii.
;

II. xxi, xviii.

Mahdniri'dna

T. v.

THE SAKTA systems

200
already

The Nisvdsatattva

existence about A. D. 600.

in

MS.

beHeved to date from the eighth

century,* gives detailed regulations for all aspects of Sakta life.
Samhitd', a

It is

of which

is

probable that a few more of the existing Tantras come

from

this period, but, in the

better to

The

absence of clear evidence,

it

is

acknowledge our ignorance.

CJiandi-sataka of

seventh century, but

work, and

its

it

Bana belongs

to the

first

half of the

rather a literary than a religious

is

value as a source

is

The

thus rather limited.

Mdlafi-LIadJiava of Bhavabhuti, a drama produced at Kanouj

early in the eighth century, gives in several scenes very vivid

and the magic practices of the Saktas

pictures of the worship

of that time.

The contents of the Tantras might, like the contents of the

Vaishnava Sarhhitas and the Saiva Agamas, quite well be
divided into four classes. Theology, Yoga, Construction of
A very large protemples, images, &c., Religious practices.
under the last
falls,
as
of
fact,
a matter
portion of the matter
The Sakta system is fundamentally an
of the four heads.
unlimited array of magic rites drawn from the practice of the
most ignorant and superstitious classes. The following seem
its more prominent features as represented in the early

to be

books.
232.

The system^ sprang from Saivism, and

it is

many

genetic idea

The

other goddesses also.

since the eternal, inconceivable

the main cult

found associated with

gathers round the wife of Siva, but

is

this

that,

Supreme, Siva-Brahman,

altogether inactive, while his spouse

pure activity,

is

creation and recreation of the world and

grace and liberation are her functions.

all

is

sakti, the

the work of divine

She

is

thus of far

more importance than Siva without his sakti Siva is a corpse.^

From sakti comes the adjective sakta, which forms the name
:

of the sect.

The dogmatic

with Brahman, but,

'

H. P.

Sa&trl,

I.

runs as follows

so far as she

in

'"

Ixxvii.
^

Kubjikd

T.,

is

the Sakti

differentiated, she

See Avalon,

chap.

i.

TGL.

is
is

Introd.

one
the

THE SAKTA systems

Brahman

active aspect and manifests

From

beings.

Brahman.

to

in all

201

created things and

the point of view of religion she

is

superior

Philosophically, the system, like the sectarian

theology of the Puranas, follows the theistic Sankhya and

uses only a few Vedantic ideas.

The

or indirectly with Mula-prakriti

Sakti

is

identified directly

the whole world

is

merely

the unfolding of the Sakti.

and miraculous side of the Yoga system plays

There are two starting-points. The
first is dependent on the analysis of the sacred sellable Om
already carried out in the Yoga Upanishads. Nada, biiidii,
and bij'a are momenta in creation the Sakti is sahda, sound,

The

ni)'stic

a large part in Saktism.

Word. Thus every letter of the alphabet is instinct

with the power of the Sakti and mantras, i.e. words or phrases

the eternal

framed from these

letters in

accordance with their inner powers,

are omnipotent spells, which in Saktism are at the service of

initiate.
Every mantra is thus a divine
whole body of the mantras is identical with
vast majority of these mantras are nonsense
Hring, Hung, Tha, Aing, Hum, Phat, sparks

the

creation,

and the

the Sakti.

The

syllables such as

from the blazing

furnace of aboriginal superstition whence the system arose, or

from the equally superstitious stores laid up

vcda.

On

the other liand, within the

teaches, there are

the

in

the AtJiarva-

frame, the system

immense numbers of minute channels

threads of occult force, called nadl.

all,

human

Sushumna,

is

in

The most important

the spinal cord.

or
of

Connected with

these channels there are six great centres, or circles {c/iakra),

of occult force situated in the

human

trunk, the one above the

Each of these is described as a lotus. Muladhara, the

lowest and most important of all, contains Brahman in the
other.

form of a

and the Devi lies asleep, coiled three and

round the lihga like a serpent.^ In this posture

lihga,

a half times

This probably has reference to the three and a half morae of the
Yoga Upanishads 100.
^ See an image in G. N. Rao, Hindu Iconography, I. 328, and Buddhist
images in which a snake coils round the Buddha's limbs, Getty, GNB.
Plate VI.
*

syllable 0?'n, as taught in the

THE SAKTA systems

202
she

is

called KundalinI, the coiled one.

may be waked and

By Sakta yoga

she

induced to ascend to the highest chakra.

These channels and centres form the basis of all the miracleworking power which the initiate can achieve.
They are
mentioned, along with the marvellous results that
gained through them, in the Mdlatl-Mddhava>
b.

It is

233.
rise

Mantra,

Ya^itra,

may

be

Mndra.

possible to trace in pre-Christian centuries the

of adoration mantras, brief expressions of the unutterable

reverence of the soul for the divine, or human, centre of the

faith.

In this period the doctrine that the Devi

sound

in

led to the conviction that the sectarian

is

incarnate

mantra

is

the

and that it is instinct

with supernatural power.
Hence it was studied in every
possible way, worshipped with deepest reverence, and used for
the formation of spells and amulets.
Saktas made large use of mysterious diagrams, yantra and
concentrated essence of

all

divine truth,

mandala, often engraved on metal

plates, patra, consecrated

made with the fingers,

movements of the hands, called ?iydsa, for

pots and jars, ghata, ritual gestures

mudrd, and

ritual

The

the bringing of the goddess into the body.^

belief in the

magic power of diagrams led to the use of sect-marks. These

are lines, curves, circles, spots, and designs which are painted
or smeared on the brow and other parts of the body, in order
to place the person under the protection of these powerful
instruments and the divinities they represent.''^
The Sakta
sect-mark is the Saiva Tripundra.^ All the sect-marks have
a phallic significance.
They refer to the union of the god
with his sakti.
c.

234.

The new Sakta

T/ic Cidt.

cult

is

fourfold.

There

public worship of the goddess in temples.

is

From

first

the

the very

^ Avalon, TGL. xcii, xciv, cv, cvii.

Act. V. at the beginning.
This will be evident at once to any one who will take a look at Moor's
table of sects-marks, Hituiii Pantheon.
^
See 22S, and of. Avalon, TGL. Ixviii.
^
^

THE SAKTA systems

203

time when the system

was organized, the offerings were

vegetarian, animal, and human, and the three forms were prac-

human

sacrifice.^

Vegetarian

offerings are laid before the image, while animals

male goats

tised until the British abolished

and buffaloes

are

distance from
In the

out.

it,^

first

usually sacrificed in the open air at a

and there also human

sacrifice

little

was carried

half of the seventh century, during the reign

emperor Marsha, the greatest of all Chinese pilgrims,

Hiouen Tsang, was almost sacrificed to Durga."' In the MdlatlMadJiava^ the heroine is seized by a priest of Chamunda, one
of the many forms of the goddess, and carried to her temple to
be sacrificed, but is rescued by the hero.
There is, secondly, Chakra-pujd. i.e. circle-worship, which
is the characteristic cult.
It is now called Vamacharl, or Lefthand.^ An equal number of men and women, who may belong
husband,
to any caste or castes, and may be near relatives
wife, mother, sister, brother
meet in secret, usually at night,
and sit in a circle. The goddess may be represented by an
image or a yantra, which is actually a drawing of the pudendum
muliebre in the centre of a circle formed of nine pudenda.

of the

The

liturgy of the cult consists in the repetition of mantras,

the ritual in partaking of the five tattvas, i. e. elements,

wine, meat, fish, parched grain, and sexual intercourse.

i.

viz.

The third form of the cult of the goddess is Sddhana,

Yoga practice meant to bring a man to perfection.
The fourth form is sorcery, whether for white or black

e.

purposes.

Detailed instruction

scene in the Mdlati-MddJiava

is

given

in

the Tantras,

takes us in the twilight to the

burning-ground, fetid with the fumes of the funeral pyre, and

shows us the hero, Madhava, his hair ceremonially braided,
a sword in one hand and a piece of human flesh in the other.
^
At both Vindhyachal and Kalighat the writer was told by the priests
that human sacrifice continued at these shrines until it was prohibited by
Cf. TTA'^. VI. 850,
the British.
The head is usually severed from the body by a sword or big knife.
^ Waiters, I. 360.
^ Act. V.
" See
^ Act. V.
317.
'^

THE SAKTA systems

204

He

come to invoke the disembodied spirits that haunt the

hoping to barter the human flesh for supernatural power
to aid him in winning Malati.
235. It is evident on the surface that the major elements
in the cult have arisen from gross magic practice
but the
has

spot,

goddess

philosophically described as the energy and the

is

manifestation of the supreme Brahman, and the books represent the grossest elements of the cJiakra-pujd as potent
for

means

reaching release from transmigration,

10^6.

So

far as

one can discern at present, the

earliest

worship of the goddess included animal, and probably human,

and wine. Whether it was

not know. This early
cult seems to have persisted unchanged in the temples in
most parts of North India until the British put down human
When the nevv Sakta teaching appeared about
sacrifice.
A.D. 600, the secret circle- worship was added to the old ritual,
and also the personal yoga-practice for the awakening of
sacrifice,

and the

also stained

by

Kundalini.

It is

ritual use of flesh

erotic practices

impossible to

we do

tell

how

widely circle-worship

was practised at any particular time in the past, but clearly it

had a great vogue for many centuries in Bengal, and it is by
no means extinct to-day. Sakta yoga has been practised in
all

parts of the country

237.

down

Men and women

are welcome

to

in the slightest

of

to our

own

all castes,

become Saktas

times.

and outcastes as

well,

yet the faith does not interfere

with the social rules of caste.

This freedom

was natural in a cult which sprang from the lower orders.

Then, when the cult became a regular Hindu sect, it would be
retained as necessary in the fight with Buddhism and Jainism,
and

for the

winning of the masses, since such a large proportion

of the people of North India at that time must have been

outside the castes.

Like the other sects, the Saktas advised all those who
wanted to make real progress in the faith to select a guru
and undergo initiation {dlksJia).

THE SAKTA systems

Saura

G.

The Saura

238.

sect

Literature.

was clearly numerous and powerful

Numerous Sun-temples

during the whole of this period.

many

existed throughout the north, ^ and

Of

of Surya."

his

205

worship

kings were devotees

south at this period there

in the

seems to be no evidence. His priests were called Magas,

Bhojakas, Sakadvlplya Brahmans for the Magians were at
an early date accepted as full Brahmans.^ By far the most
important Saura document belonging to this period is the
Saura Sauihitd, a work of the same nature as the Vaishnava
Samhitas but devoted to the worship of Surya. The only
known MS. is in Nepal, and unfortunately has not yet been
examined in detail. It is dated A. D. 941, but doubtless the
;

work itself is much earlier.'* Of considerable interest also is

the Surya Sataka of Mayura, who seems to have been a rival
of Bana at the court of Harsha in the first half of the seventh
century.

It

is

a Sanskrit

poem

Sragdhara metre and the GaudI

than a religious work

but,

of one hundred stanzas in

style,

and

is

rather a literary

composed by an accomplished

poet at the most brilliant court

of the

time,

it

exhibits clearly the current theology of the god.

are only a

little in

advance of those that meet us

in

naturally

The

ideas

the earlier

Surya as the source of Release is the point on which

stress is laid.
It is noteworthy that, in the BJiaktdviara
Stotra by the Jain poet, Manatuhga, who seems to have been
a contemporary, praise is heaped upon Surya without stint."
The Sdniba P., a Saura document connected with Orissa which
tells the story of Samba and the Magas,'^ probably belongs
to this period
for it is mentioned by Alberuni in A.D. 1030.
works.^

most

Bhandarkar, KS". 1 54; Vincent Smith, EHI. 345, 372.

See especially Chanda, lAR. 145, 161.
* Chanda, lAR. 161;
224; Bhandarkar, VS. 154. The Kubjika
a very early work, expresses the fear that they will receive such
cognition
H. P. Sastrl, I. Ixxx.
* H. P. Sastrl, I. Ixxvi.
See also no. 203 in Schrader's list, IPAS.
" Ouackenbos, SPiM.
lb.
p. 266.
Bloch, ZDMG. Ixiv. 733 Vasu, Mayurabhunja, iii.
'

T.,
re-

'

li.

THE SAKTA systems

3o6

Agni P.,^ which is a Bhagavata docuCanada P.^ which is Smarta, deal with the

Several chapters in the

ment, and

in the

images and the worship of Surya.

H.

The

239.

pati

is

Gdnapatya Literature.

early development of the god Ganesa or Gana-

him begins
That probably

traced by Bhandarkar,^ but our interest in

at the point

when he became

happened early

the god of a sect.

in this period,

but the date remains doubtful.

god comes before us in the Yajnavalkya

Sviriti* in the opening lines of the Mdlatl-MadJiava and in
inscriptions of the eighth and ninth centuries, while the theology
appears in the Upanishad called indifferently Varadatdpanlya

The worship

of the

or Ganapatitdpamya, which probably belongs to this period.

is proclaimed the eternal Brahman, and a royal mantra
honour is given and explained in imitation of the
Another Upanishad belonging to
NrisiviJia-tdpaniya U.^
the sect probably lies behind the Ganapati U. which forms
In the lists
a part of the Atharvasiras US' of the Smartas.
^
is
mentioned,
Sarhhitas
a
Ganesa
Savihitd
Vaishnava
of

Ganesa
his

in

which probably belongs to the sect. The passages in the

Agni ^ and Gariida ^ Puranas which give directions for his
worship are to be regarded not as belonging to the Ganapatya
sect but as rules for the cult of the god by Bhagavatas and
Smartas in Paiichayatana piija.
There is thus the best of evidence that the five gods were
widely worshipped during our period, while
but

little

ii.

240.

Brahma

received

attention.

The

Buddhism.

ancient monastery of Nalanda in Bihar rose

about the beginning of the period to the position of a university,

1
""

"
^

and

all

the schools took part

Chaps. LI, LXXIIl, XCIX.

Chaps. VII, XVI, XVII, XXXIX.
See 218.
Vans Kennedy, HM. 493. See 207.
Chaps. LXXI and CCCXIII.

in

the teaching, discus-

VS. 147.

"

lb. 148.

IPAS.
XXIV.

Schrader,

"

Chap.

7.

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

sions,

and writing that went on

207

In China there was

there.

great translation activity throughout the period, and two of

the most noteworthy of the Chinese pilgrims, Hiouen Tsang

and

Tsing, visited India in the seventh century.

Japan

Buddhism in A.D. 552, and it was introduced into

Cambodia about the same time, and into Tibet about

received

A.D. 640.

A.
241.

We

TJic

Hmayana.

do not hear of the production of

by the Indian Hinayana

sects

fresh literature

during this period, and

in

Ceylon no books of real religious interest seem to have been

written.
Yet it is clear that a number of the schools were
still active.
It is noteworthy that the whole Mulasarvastivadin
Vinaya, and a number of the books of the Vinaya of other
Hlna}'ana schools,^ were translated into Chinese, while

all

the

works of the Abhidharma of the Sarvastivadins were

The Dharmareproduced in both Chinese and Tibetan.^
gupta Life of the Buddha, the Abhiniskkrainana-sfttra, was
translated into Chinese in A.D. 587, and into Tibetan at
After I Tsing returned to China he spent
a later date.^
chief

twelve years
a

solid

translating texts.'^

in

block

of thirteen

works

Amongst

these there

representing

the

is

Miila-

Vinaya, but nearly all the other books of

produced
versions belong to the Mahayana school.
which he
Chinese Buddhism was essentially Mahayana, though it used
the Hinayana Vinaya and Abhidharma freely, and the old
Sarvastivadin

sutras to

some

extent.

B.

The MaJidydna.

Mahayana

literature of the period Sutras do not

noteworthy books may be mentioned,
aJidkanindpumiarika.
the RdsJitrapdla-pariprichchJid and the
The former is poor in language and style. It discusses the
242.

In the

play a large part.

^
3

Two

Nanjio, 1107, II27, 1128, II39, I142.

lb. 1263, 1265, 1275, 1277, 1281, 1282, 1296, 1317.
lb. 680.

lb. Col. 441.

THE SAKTA systems

3o8

qualities of the Bodhisattvas,

and prophesies the coming

The first chapter

between Buddha and the

of Buddhism.
cussion

fall

work is a discreator Brahma, in which the

of the latter

former reasons from Buddhist premises to the conclusion that

there can be no creator.

The ancient monastery of Nalanda

Behar graduallydeveloped, probably in the sixth century, into a great Buddhist

university, where thousands of students and numerous teachers
of all the schools, both of the Hinayana and the Mahayana,
243.

taught and disputed and wrote.

manner of

in

picture of the buildings,

gathered from the memoirs of Hiouen Tsang and

From about

A.D. 600 to 850

vadin schools.

and Tibetan.
more noteworthy books.

lated into Chinese

a.

Madhyamaka and

Vijnana-

greatest

and many were trans-

Here we can notice only the

The Mddhyaviakas.

names

of the

Chandraklrti and Santideva.

first

be

Tsing.

continuous series of manuals on each of

these philosophies was produced there,

The

possible to trace the succes-

it is

sion of scholars, especially in the

244.

may

study, teaching, disputation, and worship,

Madhyamaka school were

who lived in the

Chandraklrti,

half of the seventh century,

is

famous

for his

Prasannapddd,

an excellent commentary on Nagarjuna's Kdj'ikd, and for his

Mddhyainakdvatdra, which deals with the whole doctrine of

Mahayana as well as the Madhyamaka system. Santideva,

who lived about the middle of the seventh century, wrote
the

S ntrasamuchchhaya, and

three works, Sikshdsaimtchchhaya,

Bodhicharydvatdra^ the

first

and the

last of

the three being

summary

of Mahayana
Madhyamaka school in twenty-seven
verses, karikas, accompanied by a bulky prose commentary
which consists largely of extracts from the literature. The

famous.

The

SikshdsarmichcJihaya

is

teaching according to the

double work forms an excellent manual of the teaching.

The BodJiicharydvatdra^ i. e. Entrance on the Wisdom-life
'

',

is

a noble

poem

in praise of the ideal of

the Mahayana, the

THE SAKTA systems

life

of the Bodhisattva.

It

so

is

filled

209

with living devotion,

M. Barth compares it to the

Iviitation.
The root idea is that only by self-sacrifice can
the Bodhisattva help to win the world to wisdom and reach
tenderness and passion that

Therefore must the novice practise

enlightenment himself.

charity and compassionate feeling, worship the

celestial

Bodhisattvas with

Mahayana

Buddhas and

the rich accompaniments of the

and prepare himself by careful thought and

cult,

steady discipline to meet

journey and

all

to suffer

the difficulties

all

martyrdom

for the

of

the

sake of others.

long
In

both these works Santideva seems to go farther than other

teachers in this regard.

He

says the Bodhisattva must not

shrink from taking upon himself

the damned.

The

Chandragomin was the

vadin school.

He

the sins and tortures of

Tlic Vijndnavddins.

b.

\ 245.

all

doctrine of vacuity must also be plumbed.

chief scholar of the Vijiiana-

lived early in the seventh century,

and was

thus the contemporary and opponent of Chandraklrti.

He

famous as a poet, a learned writer, a logician, and a grammarian. Two of his works have been preserved in Sanskrit,
is

the Siskyalckhadhar)na-k(n>ya,3. romantic

classical style,
in

and

his

poem

grammar,^ and one,

of the refined

his logic, survives

Tibetan.
C.

The Sdkta Movement.

new movement, which really amounted to a

Buddhism during this period,
is
movement.
It
in all things parallel with the
the Tantrik
Tantrik movement in Hinduism and, like it, it was repudiated
by the best schools of the parent faith. How was such a
thing possible in Buddhism ?
Because the main conceptions
of polytheistic paganism had never been repudiated and
condemned.^ All Buddhists believed in the Hindu gods and
246.

disastrous revolution, arose in

^
'-'

Vidyabhushana,yy4.V/>. 1907, no.

roussin, Opinions, 343 ff.

2.

THE SAKTA systems

2IO

demons, the need of honouring them, the supernatural power

of sainthood, the occult potency of yoga-practices, both
physical and mental, and the power of magic spells.

these things were kept in the background

Although

early Buddhism,

in

and in the Mahay ana they got the

opportunity to grow and spread. The numerous Buddhas
and celestial Bodhisattvas of the Mahay ana above all Avaloconceived like Hindu divinities in heavens of glory
kitesvara
and pleasure, and worshipped in like manner, opened the door
they were not

killed,

wide to Hindu superstition.

347. The full system appears

in

Every

the Tantras.

Buddha and every Bodhisattva has here a wife, his saV^ti a

new esoteric cult in all points the same as the Hindu chakrapuja has been formed, in which wine, women, flesh, magic
;

and diagrams are the most prominent

features; eroticism rises in the literature, justified by Gautama's
hypnotic yogalife in the harem before he became an ascetic
practice, with all the Hindu theories of occult centres of power
syllables, spells, postures,

the

in

body and

who

the guru,

out question

in

and a quasi-pantheistic philosophy, based on

Madhyamaka system

the

is recommended
Buddha, must be obeyed with-

the letters of the alphabet,

identical with

is

of vacuity but closely related

to

Vedantism, declares that all men are Buddhas.

Taranatha, the Tibetan historian, says that Buddhist Tantras

were

We

can trace these books

seventh century, but no evidence

The

farther back.

is

of

that

for

and

Vajrabodhi,

Chinese

in

first

^
;

well be

half of the

yet available to carry

them

half of the seventh

first

and the

his

pupil

Tantras which

Amoghavajra

in

the middle

Subhakrishna,
translated

into

the second decade of the eighth century,- must

belong to the
bodhi died

the

already quoted by Santideva

it is

century

in

TatJiagata G^ihyaka, a perfect specimen

of the class, must belong to the

century

may

written in the sixth century, and he

first

right.

latter half of the

in his seventy-first

Winteinitz,

II.

i.

262.

seventh at

year

in

772,
^

latest, for

and

his

Vajra-

name and

Nanjio, cols. 443-8.

THE SAKTA systems

the

name of

his

211

word vajra, which was

new system. This word, which

pupil contain the

a distinctive epithet of the

meant thunderbolt and diamond, and which had

originally

been commonly used in the Mahayana in these senses, is used

in Tantrism as an esoteric word for penis, the ideas of power
and preciousness connected with thunderbolt and diamond
being carried over with

The new

it.

Mahayana, and was

some considerable time scarcely distinguished
from it.
Even when its nature had become quite clear, and
the system as such was frankly repudiated, a good deal of its
poison remained in the Mahayana.
The aim of the movement is clearly the acquisition of
probably

systemi took shape within the

for

and magic rites are used, in order

most mighty supernatural beings
known to the devotee, and hypnotic practices and mighty
spells, which are believed to be potent in a thousand ways
by themselves, are regularly employed.
248. From the immense mass of Buddhist Tantrik works
the Chinese canon ^ enables us to sever a large number
belonging to this period, but most of them are but names
Yet a few of the early Tantras are known.
The
to us.
Tatlidgata Gtihyaka, which must date from about A.D. 600,^
is evidence that the system had been already formed in all its
main features by that time.
It contains instructions for
esoteric worship, meditation, and yoga-practice, has much
to say about magic spells, diagrams, and postures, and in
obscenity and superstition it is not exceeded by anything
It may be compared with the Hindu Knbjikduiata T.,'
later.
which probably belongs to the same century. In some points
the Tathdgata Gnhyaka is an extreme work
for it recommends the use of ordure in worship and in food, a feature
which comes from the Kapalikas.
The MalidvairocJianaabhisauibodhi, translated into Chinese in A.D. 724, and preserved also in the Tibetan canon, is one of the most important
power.

Erotic, gruesome,

to secure the help of the

Nanjio, cols. 444-S.

"^

See

p a

247.

''

See

231.

THE SAKTA systems

212

The Buddha

is here the whole universe.

Vajrabodhi
Amoghavajra, who introduced Tantrism into
China, seem to have given the chief Tantras of their school
These also would afford clear
the epithet Vajrasekhara.^
evidence of the character of seventh-century Tantrism in
India,
I Tsing, the Chinese pilgrim, between 700 and 712,

Tantras.

and

his disciple

translated

the

Siivavnaprabliasottmnaraja, a

Vijnanavadin

fuller and later form of the Siivarnashowing many Tantrik features. The Pahchakrama, which probably comes from the ninth century, is an
elaborate treatise on Tantrik Yoga, while the Mahavieghasutral^ which belongs to the sixth century, is a manual of

work, essentially a
prab/idsa, but

magic.

The Sragdhara-stotra, an

artistic poem in the kavya style

honour of the Buddhist goddess Tara, by Sarvajiia-mitra
of the ninth century, may serve as an example of the best
in

Tantrik odes.

249.

Dharanis,

i.

magic

e.

spells,

form a part of the

Mahayana system, but they found a still wider field in

Tantrism.
The power of a dharani may be obtained by
pronouncing it once or many times, by writing it over and
over again, or by agitating mechanically the paper on which
is

it

written.

In Tibet they are twirled in prayer- wheels, or

fastened to trees and poles and fluttered

by the wind.

They

are used in worship, in meditation, in hypnotic practice, and

in magic.
A few of the more potent were incised in stone
and set up in temple or monastery. Syllabic spells such as
krum, kriih, phat are so much more powerful because they
are meaningless.
The famous mantra of Avalokitesvara,

Oui mani

padme

huin,

'

Om,

the jewel in the lotus

's

the

There are also numerous

spells in the form of short or long sutras.
Perhaps the most
famous of all is the Praiyangird DhdranI, which is of very
best

example of a phrase

spell.

Nanjio, cols. 444-8.

Nanjio, 186, 187, 188, 244, 970; VVinternitz, II. i.
^ Some
scholars believe that Mnnipadine is a proper name in the
vocative: see Thomas, yAVi^'. 1906, 464 ; Francke, y/i'^vls. 1915, 397.
^

THE SAKTA systems

early origin.

stone in

in

It

many

is

found

in

all

The

places.

the canons and was incised

MaJiaiiidyuri

spells against snake-bite dating

213

is

a collection of

from the seventh century at

Such collections were common.

Buddhism was introduced into Tibet in 747 by
Padmasambhava, and the monastic order was established
two years later. The founder was a Tiintrik scholar, but the
Buddhism of Tibet may be most fairly described as the Mahayana with Tantrism included. The translation of Buddhist
books into Tibetan was begun soon after the introduction of
latest.

2.50.

In the middle of the ninth century the king,

the religion.

Ral-pa-Chan,;employed a large number of Indian and Tibetan

scholars in the work of translation, and the bulk of the
existing canon thus

came

into existence.

iii.

One

251.

this time

is its

Jainism.

most noteworthy features of Jainism at

almost complete immunity from the poison of

of the

and this healthy freedom is still characteristic of the

Goddesses are praised in hymns and represented in
temples, but do not receive worship, and there is no foul
ritual.
The Sakta Yoga,^ with its nddis and cJiakras in the
Saktism

religion.

human

frame,

is

accepted, but

it is

not very prominent.

A. Svetdmbara Literature.
252.

Gujarat, and especially Valabhi, remained the chief

centre of Svetambara activity throughout this period.

The

was now in possession of a formed canon of sacred books.

It had been written and published, and copies had been placed
The best Svetambara scholars
in all the chief monasteries.
thus naturally set to work to make these precious documents

sect

intelligible to all

who

cared to read them.

The

sect also

took

a very worthy place in the production of popular literature in

Prakrit.
'

irnsf
few scholars distinguished thcniselves

For some account of Jain Yoga, see Rhandarkar^

Garbe,

SY. 39;

C.uerinot, 469.

/i\

in logic.

1883-4,

no;

THE SAKTA systems

214

Amongst

men who were attracted to

Emperor Harsha at Kanouj in the first half
of the seventh century we find Manatunga, a Svetambara
poet, who is remembered on account of his stotras^ the
the numerous literary

the court of the

Bhaktdmarastotra and the Bhayaharastoira.

by an

are rather sacred odes to be recited

hymns

congregational singing.

for

Bappabhatti,

the latter half of the eighth century and

in

King

A ma

won

stotras

who
for

lived

Jainism

of Kanouj, the son and successor of Yasovarman,

the author of another famous ode, the

is

These

individual than

Mallavadin (early ninth century) wrote on

Sarasvatistotra.

logic.

Haribhadra, one of the very greatest of

all

lived in the latter half of the ninth century.

Jain authors,

He was

born
and brought up a Brahman, and when he became a Jain was
able to use his Brahman culture to help the religion he had
chosen.
He is famous as a writer on Jain doctrine and
conduct, as one of the most brilliant of commentators, and
as a competent writer on logic.^
He also did something for
popular Prakrit literature. Yet he is best known to-day for
his

ShaddarsanasaimicJichliaya^ a treatise

philosophical

and

Vaiseshika,

dealing with

six

systems, the Buddhist, Nyaya, Saiikhya, Jain,

Karma Mimamsa.
Nyaya and the

should remark that the

In

case

some reader

Vaiseshika are practi-

a brief account of the atheistic and

Lokayata to make the number up to six.
Amongst other works he composed several manuals of Jain

cally

one,

he adds

materialistic

teaching.^

Another famous Svetambara scholar named Silanka was

These two, wishing to bring
the study of the Jain sacred texts into the open scholarly life
of India, wrote fresh commentaries on them in Sanskrit, and
a contemporary of Haribhadra.

also translated large parts of the old expository literature into

more conservative than

Sllahka for here and there in translating he left stories and
other well-known sections in the old Prakrit.
Of Silarika's
^ Gudrinot, 71; Peterson, III. 34-5.
Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 48
Sanskrit.

Haribhadra was a

ff.

little

THE SAKTA systems

body

great

of

work a good deal has been

215

lost,

but his com-

mentaries on the Achdrdnga and Sutrakritdfiga sutras, and

work on the Avasyaka survive. The commentary on the AcJidrdhga was finished in A. D. 863. Of
Haribhadra's work there remain expositions of the PrajndIt
paHd,JanihiidvTpaprajnapti, Dasavaikdlika, and Avasyaka.
is noticeable tliat these brilliant commentators lived just a
little later than Safikara and Vachaspatimisra.
253. As we have already seen, the Jains took a worthy
a portion of his

part in the production of popular literature in Prakrit.

of

it

is

beyond

lost

recall,

to this period survive

and enable us to form some idea of

A Jain

range and

its

grammatic

stanzas, well

value.

its

anthology, consisting of 704 epi-

worthy to stand beside Hala's famous

Sattasai, has been preserved.

and

Most

but a few masterpieces belonging

It

is

named

the

Vajjdlaggd,

was arranged by Jayavallabha. Its date is probably

the eighth or ninth century.
Haribhadra also wrote a book
in Prakrit, the Samaraichchhakahd., which consists of nine
it

romances.

As he

says himself in the introduction, he wrote

the book for the purpose of giving instruction in Jainism, and

chose the romantic method

in

order to attract readers.

The

book proved very popular, and was

later put into Sanskrit.

by name,

pupil of Haribhadra's, Siddharshi

of an allegorical

work

in

Prakrit, written

in

is

the author

A.D. 906, the

It is a view of human life

which the virtues and the vices figure as persons. Jacobi
speaks of it as a work of rare originality and says it is
worthy of comparison with the Pilgrim's Progress. The work
was later abbreviated by two Jain authors.^

UpaniitibJiavaprapahcJidkatJid.

in

'

'

B.

Digambara

Literature.

The

chief centre of Digambara activity throughout

was a section of South India, corresponding to the
Mysore and the southern part of the Maratha country. The
sect enjoyed the favour of the Chalukya kings, who ruled at
254.

this period

Guerinot, pp. 79, 148, 155.

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

2i6

BadamI

(Vatapl) from the middle of the sixth to the middle

much support and

of the eighth century, and received

recogni-

tion from their successors, the Rashtrakutas,

whose capital at
first was Nasik but afterwards Manyakheta farther south.^
They had also considerable influence in the Tamil country.
The literature of the period is extremely rich and varied.
Perhaps its most strikingly notable aspects are Jain dogmatics
and ethics, legendary literature in the form of Puranas, and
logic.
It is to the Digambara Jains that we owe the rise and
early growth of Kanarese literature
they used it for popular
:

literature.

255. Samantabhadra, who came between Umasvati and

Kumarila, and thus probably flourished about A. D, 6co, wrote

GajidJiaJiastiniahdbJiashya, the chief Digambara commentary on Umasvati's TattvdrtJiddhigavia-sutra. The introduction, called Devdgamastotra or Aptamimdvisd, a Sanskrit

the

poem
Jain

of 115 stanzas,

method of

is

dialectic,

regarded as the best exposition of the

known

Syadvada,

as

i.e.

the

'

may-be

'

and of the Jain conception of a Tirthakara as an

Its influence on Jain logic was very great.
It contains a review of contemporary schools of philosophy,
including the advaita Vedanta.
He is also the author of two
famous hymns of praise, and of two books on Jain conduct,
one of which, the Ratnakaranda-SrdvakdcJidray is much used.Akalanka, a junior contemporary of Kumarila and a senior
contemporary of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I, probably
lived about A. D. 770.
His most famous works were a sacred
ode, the Akalahka-stotra, and a commentary on the Aptamldoctrine,

omniscient being.

mdi'nsd

named

Ashtasati.

In addition to Samantabhadra's famous work, five

mentaries on Umasvati ought to be mentioned, the

Sa7'vdri/iasidd/n

by Pujyapada,

c.

A.D.

TattvdrtJiatlkdvydkhydlavikdra, which

is

700,

first

the

comcalled

second,

believed \6 be

by

Akalanka, the third an anonymous work named Rdjavdrtika

also written in the eighth century, the fourth Slokavdrtika
'

Smith,

EHl. 427

ff.

The

other

is

by

Yuktdntisasaiia.

THE sAKTA systems

217

the fifth a Kanarcse work, which

c. <Soo, and
seems to have perished, the CJiuddniani by Srivarddhadeva,
whose date is unknown.
To the ninth century belongs an anonymous work on Jain
philosophy called Jayadhavald, which finds a place in the

Vidyananda

Digambara Secondary Canon.^ A brief catechism in Sanskrit,

PrasNottaramala, dealing with Jain topics, is said to have
been written by Amoghavarsha I, the Rashtrakuta king who
reigned from A. D. 815 to 877 and was a munificent patron
Digambara Jains.
Three famous logicians, Vidyananda, Manikyanandin, and
Prabhachandra, were contemporaries, and may be dated about

of the

A. D. 800.

We

256.

lived

in

the

now
first

turn to popular poetry.

half

of the

Raviklrti,

who

seventh century and wrote

He built a
in Kanarese, is the author of the JinakatJie.
temple and inscribed on it a eulogy of Pulikesin H, which is
our chief source of information about him. He was followed
by a number of poets who produced Digambara Jain Puranas
was Ravishena, who is the
author of the Padma Pnrdna and probably lived in the
second half of the seventh century. The Harivai'iisa P. was
During the reign of Amowritten by Jinasena in A. D. 783.
in Sanskrit.

ghavarsha

The

earliest of these

(A.D. 815-77),

who has been

already mentioned,

and his disciple

Gunabhadra, the chief authors of the Digambara Puranas.
Jinasena wrote the first forty-three chapters of the Adi P. or
there

lived

Jinasena,^

pupil

of Virasena,

TrisJiaslitilaksJiai'iamalidpnrdnasahgraJia,

and

is

also the author

of the Pdrsvdbhyudaya, an imitation of Kalidasa's McgJiaduta.

'

See

257.

current identification of the authors of the Hnrivamsa P. and the

on the similarity of name only, and is clearly untenable. Not
only is there no mention of the Harivamsa in the Prasasti of the Utfara P.,
where it could not have been passed over, if it had been Jinasena's work,
but the ascription of both works to the same author is chronologically almost
impossible: the Harivamsa was composed in 783; Jinasena, pupil of
Virasena, was alive in 837, the date of the Jayadhavaldtlka {JBBRAS.
1894, 226), and his pupil Gunabhadra completed the Uttara P. not long
before S98.
I owe this note to Prof. Keith.
_J

The

Adi P.

rests

THE SAKTA SYSTEMS

3i8

Gunabhadra completed the Purana left unfinished by his

master, and wrote the Uttara P.
He is also the author of
the Atnidmisdsana.

detailed analysis of the Harivainsa P.

by R. L. Mitra

gives a very clear idea of the contents of Jain Puranas.

It is

an imitation of the Hindu Harivamsa. It contains numerous

legends of the Jain Tirthakaras, mythical histories of the
ancient dynasties which

we meet

in

the

Mahdbhdrata and

Puranas, and amongst them the whole story of Krishna

but

the heroes are represented as Jains and every event speaks

in

Laws

favour of Jainism.

of conduct, religious

rites,

and

other ceremonies also bulk large.

The

chief

monument

of Jain literary activity during this

an anthology of four
hundred quatrains on moral and religious subjects, compiled
probably in the eighth century.
257. The Digambaras, as we have seen, acknowledge
that they once possessed a Canon, which has been long lost.
In place of it they now recognize a sort of Secondary Canon.
It might probably be better described as the framework of
a Canon for, while there are four classes of works recognized,
there seems to be no fixed list of books for each, although
there are a few works which always find a place in the framework.
It seems probable that this Secondary Canon dates
from the end of this period, for it bears the mark of the time,
We fit into the framework the
as will be readily recognized.
books which were already in existence before the end of the
period

in

Tamil

is

the Ndladiydr,

period.

Canon.

All these are

now

recognized as belonging to the

THE SAKTA systems

219

DIGAMBAKA SECONDARY CANON.

J .

Prathamanuyoga (legend and

vai'nsa,
2.

history)

Padnia, Hari-

Tris/ias/iiilakshanamahd and Uttara Puranas.

Karananuyoga

(the

universe)

Suryaprajnapti,

Chaii-

draprajhapti, nwd Jay ad/i avala.

3.

Dravyanuyoga (philosophy)

Pravachanasara, Sama-

yasdra, Niyamasdra, PancJiattJiiyasanigahasiitta, all by Kunda-

kundacharya

Umasvati's TattvdrtJiddJiigama-sutra with the

a. Samantabhadra, GaiidhaJiastima-

following commentaries,

hdbhdshya

b.

Pujyapada,

Sarvdrthasiddlii;

TattvdrtJiatlkdvydkJiydlavikdra

nanda, Slokavdrtika

f.

d.

Srlv^arddhadeva,

Akalaiika,

c.

Rdjavdrtika

e.

67/?7(/a;;/^2'?

Vidyaand the

Aptamividuisd of Samantabhadra, with the worlds on dialectic

and logic dependent thereon, a. Akalahka's Ashtasatl b.
d. ManiVid}'ananda's Ashtasdhasri, and c. Aptaparikshd
;

kyanandin's Parikshdmukha, and

e.

Prabhachandra's Prameya-

kainala-indrtanda.
4.

and

Charananuyoga
Trivarndchdra

srdvakdchdra.

(practice)

and

Mfddchdra
Ratnakaranda-

Vattakera's

Samantabhadra's

CHAPTER
RHAKTI

,
"'

258.

The

during these

sects

VI

A. n.

900 TO 1350.

which ruled the development of Hinduism

centuries

received

their

inspiration

in

large

measure from the enthusiastic bhakti of the wandering singers

of the Tamil country described in our previous chapter.

Much of the peculiar fervour and attractive power of the

Bhagavata Piu^ana comes from the devotion of the Alvars,
and the introduction of their lyrics into the SrI-Vaishnava
temples produced great changes and prepared the way for
Ramanuja.
So the hymns of the Saiva singers inspired
Manikka Vackakar, while their introduction into the temples
gave the community a splendid uplift and made possible the
creation of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta. Ramanuja's influence,
in turn, told powerfully on all the sects.
The two greatest
books of the period are his Sri-bJiashya and the Bhagavata P.
From them come two streams of bhakti characteristic of the
period, the one quiet and meditative, the other explosive and
emotional. The latter type of devotion can be felt in the
atmosphere everywhere from the thirteenth century onward.

The Muhammadan conquest of North India (i 193-1303)

was an immeasurable disaster to Hinduism as well as to the
Hindu people, and it gave Buddhism its death-wound.
i.

Hinduism.

A. The Philosophies.
a.

259.

The

The

Karma

history of the

Mtinanisd.

Mimamsa

school during these

centuries seems to be a blank until quite the end of the period.

Then, probably about

a. D.

1300, flourished

Parthasarathi

BHAKTI
who

Misra,^

among

wrote,

Karma Mimamsa,

number

221
of other works on the

the Sastra-dlpika, which, on account of

popular modern style, soon found readers, and has, since

its

then, been

But,
period,

faith-

Kumarila.

we know little about the

we hear a good deal about

if

very prominent

is

He

more studied than the ancient manuals.

fully follows

school itself during the

the system outside.

which was produced about A.

I).

1065 and

is

It

a drama

the Prabodhachandrodaya^-

in

described below.^

In the case of most of the theistic sects which rose to the

dignity of a presentation of the Vedanta

own

we

convictions,

find that

in

accord with their

they held the

Karma Mimamsa

and taught that karma,

as well as the Vedanta,

action, as

well as jfidna, knowledge, was necessary for the winning of

release.^

This

is

true

of the

Bhagavatas, Sri-Vaishnavas,

Madhvas, and Vishnusvamis, and possibly of others.

b.

The Vedanta.

260. Quite at the beginning of our period there appears

a noteworthy bhashya on the

named Bhaskaracharya, and

kara-blidshya:'

by a scholar

Veddnta-sTitras

therefore often called the BJids-

Its interest lies in this that its

standpoint

is,

bhedabheda yet it is not one of the modern

sectarian commentaries but definitely of the same type as the
lost Vedanta work of Asmarathya mentioned in the Sutras^
Bhaskara does not name Sahkara, yet he attacks him all
through the commentary, and Bhaskara, in turn, is assailed by
Udayana in the Kusiiiiidiijali. As Udayana's date is about
A.D. 980, Bhaskara must have written between 850 and 980, and
not advaita, but

His date is unknown, but as the earliest known reference to the work
Madhava's Nydyamaldvistara ( 338), the above conjecture is not
likely to be far from the truth.
See Ramamisra Sastri, Mimamsd-sloka^

in

is

vdrtika, Intro., Benares, 189S.

- Taylor's Jr.,
pp. 13, 14, 15, 49, 61, 78
270.

Thus Thibaut

the earliest

See

f.

'

mistaken
surviving bhashya
is

SEE. XXXIV.

xix.

See

285.

thinking that Ramanuja's Srlbhashya

after Sankara.
in

is

BHAKTI

222

thus probably at some point near the beginning of the period.^

He

attacks the Pancharatra Vaishnavas also.

Yadava Prakasa

of Conjeeveram wrote a fresh advaita bhashya about A.D. 1050,

but, at a later date,

pupil

Ramanuja.

was won over

It

is

not

to

Vaishnavism

known whether

"by his

the

own

Yddava-

bhdshya survives or not.

But the main history of the school

Vedanta during these centuries seems to consist in the
continuous study of Sankara's Bhashya with the help of
Vachaspati's Bhdmati.
This belief is confirmed by the most
outstanding advaita work of the period, the Veddnta-kalpataru,
which was written by Amalananda just before A.D. 1260:
it is an ample exposition of the Bhdniatl.
Two popular advaita works might quite naturally find
mention here, the PrabodhacJiandrodaya and the YogaVasishtha-Rdmdyana yet as their connexions are more with
of the

householders than sannyasTs, they are dealt with elsewhere.^

261. But the most startling feature of the progress of the
Vedanta during the period is the rise of the sectarian bhashyas.
The movement seems to have been created by a single man,

Ramanuja for the great success of his SrJ-bJidsJiya stirred so

much emulation that every sect was impelled to endeavour to
produce a bhashya that would justify its theology. As each
;

of these theistic bhashyas will be discussed in connexion with

the sect which created

length here.

yet

The

we may with

it,

there

is

no need to deal with them at

dates of a few of them are

still

uncertain,

safety conclude that the following appeared

during the period

Ramanuja's Sri-bJidshya, Madhva's Sutra-

bhdshya, Vishnusvaml's Brahma-sutra-bJidshya^ and Srlnivasa's

Vcddn ta-Katcstid^Jia?

The Kus7ividnjali of Udayana, which is discussed under the

Nyaya philosophy,"* may be mentioned here as further evidence
Hindu history.
we may mention an extraordinary work, which,

of the great vogue of theism at this stage of

Here
^

^
^

also

See the Rhumika

See ^ 270.
See 265.

to

Vindhyesvarl Prasad's edition of the Bhashya.

2 See the table below,
340.

BHAKTI
though

it

223

shows a sceptical and destructive

spirit,

yet maintains

the chief positions of the advaita Vcdanta, the KJianclaiiakJiandakJiddya,

i.

e.

the date of which

The

The Szveets of Refutation} by Sriharsha,

is

the latter half of the twelfth century.

Upanishad commentator during the period was

Sankarananda, the guru of Madhava, the advaita Vedantist.
He must have flourished in the first half of the fourteenth
century.
Madhva, the founder of the Mildhva sect, left dvaita
commentaries on ten of the chief Upanishads.
chief

The SdhkJiya.

c.

During these centuries no noticeable manual of the

Sankhya philosophy appeared, and the system seems to have
undergone very little modification. It is described by Alberuni,
the Muhammadan scholar, in his work on India dating from
262.

A.D. 1030.
d.

The Yoga.

263. The Yoga system remained almost stationary also.

The only outstanding work belonging to the period is the
Rdj'amdrtanda, a commentary on the Yoga-sutra, ascribed to
Bhoja, King of Dhara (1018-60).
It is clear and easy but of
no great value. Alberuni deals with the Yoga as well as the

Sankhya, and Garbe is inclined to believe that he used the

Rdjamdrtanda. If that be so, it must have been written during
the earliest years of the king's reign.

The new Yoga

of Gorakshanatha,

found no entrance into the school of

is

described below,^

Pataiijali.

TJie Vaiseshika.

e.

264.

which

In the tenth century two very noteworthy thinkers

Udayana, a writer of great

two works on the system. The first
Necklace of Rays
which is a com-

wrote on the Vaiseshika system.

clearness and force,
is

left

the Kirandvall, or

'

mentary on Prasastapada's BJidshya.

'

See also

265.

',

The

other work, written

"^

302.

BHAKTI

224
in A. D. 984, is called

the LaksJiandvali, or

Necklace of Defini-

'

Srldhara, the second writer,

tions' of Vaiseshika terms.

belonged to the south-west of Bengal,

mentary on Prasastapada called the

is

who

comwhich
it was

the author of a

Nyaya- K and

all,

has been used as an authoritative manual ever since

written in A.D. 991.

The Nydya.

f.

Udayana wrote

265.

work, which

also on the

Nyaya system.

an exposition of Vachaspati's Tika,

is

But Udayana

the Nydya-vdrtika-tdtparya-parihiddhi.

famous

for his Ktisuindiijali, i.e.

'

His
called

is

is

most

Handfuls of Flowers', a

metrical treatise in seventy-two memorial couplets with a para-

phrase

in prose,

The

of God.

the purpose of which

fact that the

work

is

is

to prove the existence

frequently called the

Nydya

Kitsumdnjali, coupled with the settled theistic teaching of the

school,

makes
and

his text

it

natural

we should

translation,^

refer to

it

here.

Cowell, in

bespeaks a hearing for the work

because,
though obscure and technical,

it

professes to grapple, from a

standing-point, with the world-old problem,

Supreme Being

is

in the history of

curiosity,

to

be proved

philosophy

especially

Hindu

the existence of the

and perhaps those who are interested

turn over some of the pages with

may

when they

arguments and objections

From

how

occasionally recognize old familiar

in their quaint Oriental disguise.

the eleventh century onwards the

Nyaya and VaiseThe syncretism

shika form practically one combined school.

commences with

Sivaditya's Sapta-paddrtJia-niruparia^ which

probably belongs to the eleventh century. It is continued in

a twelfth-century work which has been widely used, the A^frj'rt
Chintdniani of Gahgesa,
thirteenth century,

paskdra, written

in

and

in

in

the Tarka-bJidslid of Kesava of the

Sahkara Misra's Vaiseshika-Sutro-

the fifteenth century.

school has been ably described by

^

P. V.

"

This syncretistic

Suali.^

See Keith on SuaW,

JRAS.

]ntroduzio7te alio Studio dclla Filosojia Indiana.

1914, 10S9.

BHAKTI
From

2'i5

the point of view of logic and dialectic, great interest

attaches to that section of the

K Jianda7iakhandakhddya

'

which

criticizes logic

The object of Harsha is to prove that the logicians with their assumption of the reaUty of existence were guilty of a complete blunder,
and his mode of doing so is the simple one of taking each of the definitions set up by the Nyaya school and proving it to be untenable*

During the tenth and eleventh centuries logic was

cultivated by Buddhists at Vikramaslla, but the last name
mentioned by Vidyabhusharta is Sahkarananda,^ whose date is
about A.D. 1050. Among the Jains logic was continuously
studied, and logical works were produced throughout the
Devasuri* of the twelfth century was the greatest of
period.
their writers on logic, but there were many others.
367. Madhava's Sarvadarsanasangraha may be recommended to the student as a most helpful outline of the chief
systems current in India towards the end of the period, though
266.

date

its

falls

within the limit of the next period.^

TJie Piirdnas.

B.
268.

The emergence

signal importance, but

rise

is

a fact

is

discussed at another point.^

Canon of eighteen Puranas

there was already a

century, the

it

of the Bhdgavata P.

of the Bhdgavata

in

of
If

the ninth

to a position

of such

Canon would create

The confusion which the lists show to-day may

authority as to require recognition

a difficulty.

in

the

be the direct result of that circumstance.'^

it is

very hard to date

in Puranas,

but the evidence

In the present state of Puranic study,

individual
1

See

MSIL.

documents occurring

261.

142.

'
If the old
Siva, Narada,

"^

lb. 38.

Canon stood

Keith, //?^6-. 1916, 377.

" See
272.
345.

See

Brahma, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu,

as follows
Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga,
Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurraa, Matsya, Garuda, Brahmanda, the
substitution of the Bhdgavata for the Siva, followed by various attempts
to find a place for the expelled Purana, would account for all the
phenomena.
:

BHAKTI

226
available

period

suggests

that the

following

may

belong to the

Vaishnava

Narasiniha

Khanda

of the

Upapurdna

Padma

P.,

the Uttara Khanda, which

Saiva

Sakta

Saura

part

of

the

Patala

which praises the Bhdgavata

is

Sri-Vaishnava.

Vayaviya S. of the Siva P.

Devi Bhdgavata Upapurdna.

Brahma P.

Ganapatya

xxi-xxviii.

Gancsa Upapurdna,
C.

Smdrta

Literature.

269. The most noticeable piece of Vedic literature produced during this period is Bhatta Bhaskara Misra's ^ commentaries on the Taittiriya Sauihitd, Aranyaka, and Upanishad
of the Black Yajus. He lived in the Telugu country, belonged
to the Atreya Sakha of the Taittiriya school, and wrote his
commentary on the Samhita in A.D. 1188."
Hemadri, a learned Brahman, held the office of chief minister
at the Yadava court in the Maratha country under two kings
towards the end of the thirteenth century, and was clearly
He wrote an encyclopaedia of
a man of much influence.
orthodox Hindu observances, the ChaturvargacJiintdmani^ a
work of large importance to Smartas.
270. Several pieces of popular literature written from the
standpoint of the advaita Vedanta during the period were
probably meant for Smarta householders rather than for
sannyasis, and ought therefore to be mentioned here.
At the court of Kirtivarman, the Chandel king of Jejakabhukti, about the year 1065 and possibly in the city of
^
To be carefully distinguished from Bhaskaracharya who wrote the
Bhaskara ^Bhashy a, above, 260.
^ The Sloka in the B/iashya on the Sathkild in the Mysore Text reads
Nishpavake sake, 1410 in the Saka era, i.e. 1488-9. But the commentary
We must therefore suppose that
is unquestionably earlier than Sayana.

mo

Saka, i.e. A.D. 1188-9.

the sloka ought to be read nishpdpake sake,
The confusion o{ p and v \n a South Indian MS. is a very likely error.
I owe this note to Prof. Keith.
Cf. also Seshagiri Rao, SSTM. 1893-4, p. 3.

BHAKTI

227

Khajuraho, there was produced a Sanskrit drama called Prai.e. The Moonrise of Wisdom.
The author
was a sannyasi named Krishnamisra. The play is an allegory
of the deliverance of the human spirit from the temptations
and delusions of the world. Vishnu-bhakti stirs up Discrimination, and, using the Upanishads, Faith, Good Sense, and their
numerous allies, inflicts a signal defeat on Delusion, Love,
Greed, and their many attendants. The rise {ndaya) of Wisdom
{prabodJid) naturally follows, and the human spirit realizes its
own absolute identity with God, renounces Action, and adopts

bodhachandrodaya,

dispassionate Asceticism as the only right rule of

number of

life.

The

abstract conceptions which take part as persons in

make it rather hard to follow, but it contains abundance of life and movement also. Apart from the fact that
Vishnu-bhakti plays a leading part, there is no aggressive
Vaishnavism in the play. The supreme Brahman is definitely
the play

called Vishnu,
to,

and several times

especially Krishna, but

it

his incarnations are referred

only once.

The philosophy

There are no
is mentioned

goes no further.

references to Vaishnava literature,

is

and Lakshmi

The

pure Advaitism.

scenes

which followers of Buddhism, Jainism, Materialism, the

Karma Mimarhsa, the Sankhya, Yoga, and Nyaya philosophies
and the Kapalika form of Saivism are represented in discussion
with one another are amongst the most vivid and interesting
In the great battle the Buddhists, the Jains, and
in the play.
the materialist Lokayatas, or Charvakas, range themselves
with Kama and the Vices under their general, Moha, while
Vaishnavas, Saivas, and Sauras gather round the goddess
Sarasvatl, and are aided by all the six orthodox philosophies
and by Grammar and the Virtues to inflict a signal defeat on
in

the atheist host.

hostile

When

the question

is

raised

Hindu disputants brought themselves

how
to

these ever-

any common

is found in hostility to the common

and we are told that wise men perceive that the orthodox
sects and philosophies are only seemingly opposed to each
other, that in truth they all celebrate the one Reality. So far

action, a sufficient reason

foe,

Qa

BHAKTI

228
as the writer knows, this

harmony

of the

is

the

first

Hindu systems

time the idea of the inner

finds

expression in Hindu

literature.

The Voga- Vdsishtha-Rdmdyana is one of many Sanskrit

poems written in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries to
popularize a philosophy or the theology of a sect.
scarcely parallel with the

Rama

of

Adhydtma Rdmdyaiia

It

is

for the story

here serves merely as a dramatic setting for the

exposition of the Vedanta.

It is

a very long and diffuse poem,

running to some 32,000 stanzas.

The system taught

is

the

Vedanta, but there already appears in it that admixture

of Sahkhya ideas which is still more prominent in Madhava
and Vijiiana Bhikshu. The value of yoga is also emphasized.
adv.iita

It

may

date from about a.d. 1300, or

The Right-hand movement among

earlier.

Saktas, which

below,^ can be traced from the period, and

As

all

its

is

is

described

probably older.

connexions are with Vedic Hinduism,

it

ought to

be mentioned here as affecting the religious practice of

many

Smartas.

Vaishnava LiteraUirc.

D.

General.

a.

271.

The only type

of

general

Vaishnava

literature

belonging to this period consists of translations or adaptations

of the

Epics.

It

is

important to realize that vernacular

books are usually literary rather

than religious in their influence. The HI ahdbhdrata appeared
in Tamil in the tenth century and in Telugu in the eleventh,
while the Rdnidyana was rendered in Telugu about iioo and
in Tamil in the twelfth century.
Jain adaptations of the two
Epics were written in Kanarese verse, the Mahdbhdrata in the
tenth, the Rdmdyana in the eleventh.
But all the greatest
Vaishnava literature was produced by the Sects.

versions of ancient religious

'

317.

BHAKTI

229

Bhagavata Literature.

b.

Tlie

I.

Bhagavata Pur ana.

^^
272. About the beginning of this period the Bhagavata P.
the
Bhagavata community
seems to have been born from
;'

and during the following centuries a number of new sects

sprang from the influence of the Purana. Under this heading
we therefore comprehend all the work produced both by the
parent body and the dependent sects. Of the two dominating
events of this period the earlier is the appearance and the

No theory of its date and

advanced has been accepted by scholars as satisfactory.
Can sufficient fresh evidence now be produced to
bring the problem nearer solution ?
While
273. The work has several characteristic features.
the Harivavisa and the VisJimi P. each gives some account of
Krishna's youth spent among the gopas and gopis of Vrindainfluence of this great Purana.

origin yet

neighbourhood, they deal with the whole

vana and

its

Krishna.

The Bhagavata

spends

all its

scarcely refers to his later

strength over his

boyhood and youth.

among

she

is

the gopis

a later creation.

who wanders

Yet there

of

but

Secondly,

Radha does

the gopis play a very large part in the work.

not appear

life

life,

is

a favourite

alone with Krishna

and the

other gopis remark that she must surely have worshipped

Krishna
in that

in

a former

The Bhagavata
from

it

therein

life

with more devotion than the

way must have won

is

really a great work.

all earlier literature is its

true greatness.

lies its

rest,

and

her favoured position.

What

new theory

Some

of

its

distinguishes

of bJiakti

and

utterances on this

subject are worthy of a place in the best literature of mysticism

and devotion.

careful study of those passages will convince

the student that they are expressions of a living religious

experience.^
the

We may

work arose

in

may

with absolute certainty conclude that

some centre where there was a group

of

be most conveniently studied in the Bhaktiratnavali, a collection of bhakti passages from the BJiagavata made by
a Madhva ascetic named Vishnu Purl.
'

This element

'
''

BHAKTI

230

Vaishnava ascetics who lived a

life

of fervent devotion, and

was rooted there. In

power
Hence the hold it has had on some of the
of the BJiagavata.
best Vaishnava communities and on many o( the noble minds
that the writer's religious experience

this rich religious

element

lies

the chief source of the

of India.
in this work is a surging emotion which chokes the
makes the tears flow and the hair thrill with pleasure-

Bhakti
speech,

able excitement, and often leads to hysterical laughing and

and to long trances

produced by gazing
praises, remembering him

weeping by turns, to sudden fainting

of unconsciousness.

We

are told that

at the images of Krishna, singing his

in meditation,

keeping company with

fits

it is

his devotees, touching

bodies, serving them lovingly, hearing them tell the

mighty deeds of Krishna, and talking with them about his
All this rouses the passionate bhakti
glory and his love.
which will lead to self-consecration to Krishna and life-long
Such devotion leads speedily to
devotion to his service.
release.
Thus the whole theory and practice of bhakti in
this purana is very different from the bhakti of the BJiagavad^ ^uJcr & ha^ *^
gltd and of Ramanuja.
their

>

But we must

also recognize in the BJiagavata the presence

of another fresh element of a very different character, a long

series of highly erotic

passages which go far beyond anything

the Vishnu P. and the Harivai'iisa contain, and which seem to

consort

ill

with the high devotion to the Lord and the service

which we have been considering.

In these
passages Krishna's dalliance with the gopis is described in
sensuous and glowing poetry which captivates the Hindu
heart.
The tenth book, which contains them, has been transof his

saints

lated into all the chief languages of India.

Yet the author

expects these highly wrought narratives of the passions of the
gopIs to stimulate bhakti.
The utter self-abandonment of
Krishna has come to be regarded as a symbol
Meditation on these scenes is expected
to produce that passionate bhakti which is regarded as the
their love for

of spiritual devotion.

BHAKTI

231

This, the leading religious idea

highest reh'gious experience.

of the Bhagavata, lies at the foundation of the whole series of

which sprang from it.

Another noticeable feature of the Purana

sects

is

this,

that

its

philosophic teaching stands nearer to Sarikara's system than

to the theistic

Sankhya which dominates

earlier Puranic works.

274. All scholars agree that it is the latest of the eighteen

Puranas. Old material has been incorporated into it, but as

a work

is

it

the latest of

all.

In the fourth chapter of the

book of the Purana itself there is a passage which implies

and there is
it was composed last of all the eighteen
a late section in the Padma P. which states that Vyasa promulgated the Bhagavata last of all as the extracted essence of
first

that

all

the

rest.

Hindu estimates of the age of

ordinary extent, some assigning it

the

work vary

to an extra-

to the earliest times, others

Vopadeva, a well-known scholar of the second

Even in the time of Sridhara
commentary on it, who
the
author
of
the
most
famous
SvamI,
probably lived about A.D. 1400, there were Hindus who said it
had been written by Vopadeva, a fact which seems to imply
that scholarly Hindus of those days suspected that it was
a late production. All European scholars have spoken of it
as a late work, but, while Colebrooke, Burnouf, and Wilson
accept the suggestion that it is the work of Vopadeva, students
attributing

it

to

half of the thirteenth century.

to-day are inclined to give

that

author
used

it

earlier

it

a higher date.

quite impossible to believe that

is

it

Madhva, who regarded

for
in

it

And

the truth

as fully inspired

the creation of his sect, lived at least

than Vopadeva.

is

Vopadeva was the

and

years

fifty

Vopadeva's name became associated

it.
But

with the Purana because he wrote several books on

the belief in

its

inspiration implies

its

existence for

some con-

siderable time before the days of Madhva's activity

fortunately,

we

and,

possess another piece of evidence which proves

as an authoritative
it was already recognized
work some two centuries before Madhva wrote. Alberuni, in

clearly that

BHAKTI

233

work on

his

us the

and

it is

Thus

precisely the

it

was

same

in A.D. 1030, gives

the Vislmii P. in his day,

in

as the

list in

our

MSS.

of to-day.

by 1030 the Bhagavata had

absolutely clear that

is

it

which was completed

India,

of Puranas as

list

not only been written but had already gained such acceptance
as to have

won

its

Puranas.

We

must, then, acknowledge that

have been written

Can we

275.

present recognized place as the

in

fifth

of the

can scarcely

later than, say, A.D. 900.

discern

where

a passage in the eleventh book

have been

it

was written ? There is

which suggests that it may
it

The passage

runs thus in

Dvapara ages wished

to take birth in

the Tamil country.

English

Men

born

in the Krita, Treta,

the Kali age, because they

would be born great souls

in various

but in the Dravida land they would be found in some numbers,

by the

living

that in this age

These souls would be thinly scattered

devoted to Narayana.
places

knew

of such

side

rivers

as

the

Tamraparnl, Kritamala,

Payasvinl, Kaverl the holy.

Then

in the Bhagavata Mahdtiiiya, a late appendix to the

Bhagavata, there is an episode ^ which bears on the question,
but which cannot be understood unless we distinguish care-

fully

between ordinary bhakti and the bhakti of the BhagaIn this episode bhakti, incarnate as a young

vata P.
says,

'

was born

in

Dravida

'.

Now

woman,

to say that the bhakti

of the Svetdsvatara Upanishad, the Gitd, and the early Puranas

was born in Dravida would be absurd but if we realize that,

in this appendix to the Bhagavata, bhakti necessarily means
the passionate and many-sided devotion of the great Purana,
there is no difficulty, and it becomes clear that the work
asserts that this bhakti arose in Tamil-land.
Now, it was in
the Tamil country, by the side of the rivers just mentioned,
that those Vaishnava poet-singers who are known as Alvars
composed their hymns and went from shrine to shrine, singing
and dancing in fervent devotion before images of Vishnu and
;

XI.

JRAS.
"^

I.

V.

38-40.

191

27.

It

is

quoted

949.
(;rierson,y/?yiJr. 191

in

another connexion by Govindilcharya,

1,

1,

800.

'

BHAKTI
his Avataras.

No

centuries.

excitement

in

Their period

is

233

the seventh, eighth, and ninth

other group of early Vaishnavas exhibit so

many

Further,

their bhakti.

much

of the temples

they frequented were dedicated to both Vishnu and Siva.^

We may thus

be certain that the ministrants of those temples

were Bhagavatas, and that a considerable section of the people
belonged to that community. Now, if in the Tamil-country
there was a group of Bhagavata ascetics

devotion as the Ajvars and expressed

should have precisely the

mentioned

in

'

who

felt

the same

in similar fashion,

it

we

great souls devoted to Narayana

the B/idgavata, and in such circumstances the

bhakti referred to

in

the Bhagavata Mdhdtviya would be

born.
276.

It

thus seems natural to conjecture that the Bhaga-

vata was written about A. D. 900, in the Tamil country,

some community of

who

felt

ascetics belonging to the

and gave expression to the bhakti

the work.

If

it

Bhagavata

in

sect

characteristic of

arose in such a centre, the advaita philosophy

would inevitably be one of

naturally receive the

2.

We now

its

characteristics,

and

it

would

name Bhagavata.
The Bhagavatas.

Purana arose in
would gradually
and
find acceptance among Bhagavatas all over the country
Telugu,
Kanathat clearly happened.
Whether in the Tamil,
rese, or Maratha districts, the Bhagavata P. is the chief
277.

the

way we

turn to the sects.

If the

suggest, one would expect that

it

scripture of the Bhagavatas.

The

Ndrada-bJiakii-sutra

are brief

compendiums

and

the

Sdndilya-bJiakti-sutra

of the bhakti system, probably

meant

be committed to memory by ascetics. Both are clearly

dependent on the Bhdgavata P., and neither mentions Radha.
The Ndrada is simple both in language and thought, and is
practical in aim
the Sdndilya is sutra-like and philosophic,
to

its

standpoint being bheddbheda.

'

Krishna

The Bhagavatas

SastrT, SII. 72.

of the south

BHAKTl

234
use only the Ndrada.

among

It

probable that

is

the Bhagavatas at quite an

it

was produced

early date.

nexions of the Sdndilya-sutra^ which has been

The conmuch used

the north, are still obscure.

It may be a Nimbarkite
document.
It seems clear that the Vasiideva and Goplchandana Upanishads ^ are Bhagavata books for the Urddhvapundra made
with a single line of creamy goplchandana, which these
Upanishads praise, is the Bhagavata sect-mark. As Narayana wrote commentaries on them, they belong to this
in

period.

Towards the end of the thirteenth century, Vopadeva, a

famous grammarian belonging to the Maratha country, wrote
several works on the Bhagavata P., the chief of which were
the Harilildy which is an abstract of the Purana, and the
Miiktdphala, which sums up its teaching.
His name thus
became associated with the Purana, and the myth about its
authorship arose.

The Bhaktas of

3.

the

Mardthd

country.

The Vaishnavas of the Maratha country are Bhagait is not known when the Bhdgavata P. began to
be used by them. In the thirteenth century the movement
became a popular one, and all their literature is in the
vernacular so that there are marked differences between them
and the Bhagavatas of the Tamil and Kanarese districts. The
unbroken tradition of the country is that the Bhakti movement
began with a poet named Jiianesvara, who is popularly called
Dnyandev or Dnyanoba. According to another tradition,
278.

vatas, but

which appears

in

the Bhakta Mdld, he was a disciple of

Vishnusvami.
Jnanesvara

Bhagavadgitd
couplets.
tone, but

is

the author of a work in MarathI verse on the

called

the Jhdnesvarl, which runs to

Its date is A. D.
it

1290.

The work

also lays great stress on yoga,

1

Jacob,

EAU.

fif.

is

10,000

advaitist in

and the author

BHAKTI
says he

is

235

the disciple of Nivrittinath, the disciple of Ganinath,

the disciple of Gorakhnath.^

He

also the author of the

is

Haripaih, a collection of 28 abhangs, or hymns.

His poetry

decidedly shows the influence of the Bhagavata, and his note

is

that of an enthusiastic bhakta.

Tradition makes him the

His poems are philosophical

thought, and have had a great and

greatest of a group of saints.

tone and

in

full

of reflective

on the educated classes. There need be no

doubt that he was the coryphaeus of the whole bhakti movement of the Maratha country. It is not at all unlikely that
he should have also come under the personal influence of
VishnusvamI, who was probably his senior by some thirty
lasting influence

or forty years at most.^

That would account

while scholarly Maratha Bhagavatas

still

for the fact that,

use the old Bhagavata

Vdsudevdya, the mantra in

Rcnna-Krishna Hai'i, which is the VishnusvamI
Mantra.^ It ought to be noticed, however, that Jnanesvara and
the other Maratha bhaktas do not, like VishnusvamI, recognize
Radha. He is also the author of the A mritdmibhava, an advaita
Saiva philosophical work in MarathI verse. He was thus a true
Bhagavata, honouring Siva as well as Vishnu, and following
Sankara in philosophy.
mantra,

Oi'n

common

use

naino BJiagavate

is

4.

The Mddhvas.

279. The first sect directly founded on the Bhdgavata P.

seems to have been the Madhvas. They are simply an offshoot from the Bhagavatas, the sole reason for the schism
being the detestation in which the founder held Sankara's
Vedanta.
Madhva (i 199-1278),* the founder, was born at
Udipi in South Kanara, and organized his sect in the early
decades of the thirteenth century. While still quite young,
he became a sannyasi, and received a training in Sankara's
system.
But in addition to the regular Vedanta treatises, he

gave much time to the Aitareya

^
=

U.y the

Mahdbhdrata, and

^ See below,
This statement occurs in his Amriianubhava.
281.
* Bhandarkar, VS.
Grierson, ERE. VIII. 232.
See 281.
58 f.
;

BHAKTI

236
the BJiagavata
religious

life.

This

P.

work

last

clearly

dominated

his

Before his period of training was over, he

broke away from

Soon

Sankara,

he began public

after,

discussion, and gradually formed a system for himself, based

in

the main on the Bhagavata P.

He was

successful

in

gathering a community of some size and in winning a number

of notable converts.

many

The theology which he taught

points like Ramanuja's

but the philosophy

is

is

in

frankly

He distinguishes very sharply between man and

God, and thus stands further away from Sankara than any
other exponent of the Vcddnta-sutras, except perhaps Vishnusvaml. Apart from the theolog}% his system is very similar
to that of the Bhagavata sect.
The centre of the religion is
the adoration of Krishna by bhakti, as taught in the BJiagadualistic.

Radha

vata, without recognition of

are reverenced.

Siva also

is

but

the other avataras

all

worshippped, and the

five

Gods

are recognized.

Madhva's chief works are

both on the Vcddiita-sutras.

his

Bhdshya and Anuvydkhydna, u

The Bhdshya

short prose treatise, which seeks to

is

a comparatively

show by an array

of proof-

Madhva's explanation of the Sutras is the only right

texts are drawn from {a) the Rigveda, ib) the
Upanishads and the Gitd, (c) the Puranas, the Vaishnava
Samhitas, and other late works. The book is thus of very

texts that
one.

The

except as an account of the teaching of the sect.^

His exposition of the Bhdgavata, the BJidgavata-tdtparyaiiirnaya, and a companion volume on the MaJidbhdrata are
also works of considerable importance for the sect.
He wrote
commentaries on ten Upanishads.
little interest

The followers of Sankaracharya opposed and

Madhva with a good deal of bitterness so that
;

persecuted
ever since

also gives us many quotations from the Puranas and Saiiihitas

to be useful as revealing in part the condition of these texts
in his time. The Sarhhitas quoted are the Bhagavata, Vafdha, Na?-ayana,
Puriishottaiiia, Parama, Mdyavaibhava, which occur in Schrader's list,
^

It

which ought

IP AS.

fif. ;

and the Vyotna,

quoted by Madhava

Bri/iat,

and iMahd besides.

in his exposition of

Madhvism

.S'/).S".

The
v.

BriJiat

is

BHAKTI

237

those days there has been Httlc love lost between the two

Madhva

believed himself to be an incarnation of

probably
Vayu, and,
as a result of Sankarite persecution, he
taught that Sankara was a reincarnation of an obscure demon

groups.

named Manimat who appears in the Mahdbkdrata}

About half a century after Madhva's death, Jayatlrtha was
His commentaries on the founder's
are amongst the chief books of

the head of the sect.

most

works

important

the sect.

Rddhd.

5.

Madhvas

280. Neither the Bhagavatas, nor the

Radha

they do not go beyond what

is

recognize

contained

the

in

Bhdgavata. But all the later sects who depend on the great
Purana do recognize Radha. We must therefore ask whence
her story came.

We
a gopT

in the Bhdgavata P. there is'Krishna favours so much as to wander with

have seen above that

whom

her alone, and that the rest of the gopis surmise that she must

have worshipped Krishna with peculiar devotion in a previous

This seems to be
life to have thus won his special favour.

Radha arose, and

name Radha comes from the root

the source whence

conciliating, pleasing.

book she
scholar

first

She

appeared

suggests to

me

is

t'ddJi

probable that the

in

the

thus the pleasing one.

is

is

it

sense

not yet known, but an Indian

that

it

may have

been the Gopdla-

tdpani-Upanishad, which contains an account of Radha, and

reverenced by

Two

all

of

In what

Radha-worshipping

is

sects.

early sects recognize Radha, the Vishnusvamis

and

the Nimbarkas, but the chronology and the relationships are

Sankara's demon-origin is mentioned in Madhva's exposition of the
After his death, Pandit Narayana, the son of one of
his disciples, published two Sanskrit works, the Manij/ianjari and the
Madhvai'ijayci, in which the theory of the two incarnations is fully set
See Grierson, ERE., VIII. 232. It is possible that the Sankaraforth.
A long
vijayas were written as a counterblast to these Madhva works.
polemic against Madhvism has also been interpolated into the Saura
Pandita Radha Charana GosvamT of Brindaban.
Purana.
^

Mahdbhdrata.

"^

BHAKTI

23
still

Tradition sets the leaders

obscure.

order,

Madhva, VishnusvamI, Nimbarka

seems

to.

fit

recognize

with their teaching

in

Radha

at

all,

for

in

the following

and

order

that

Madhva does

and Vishnusvaml's theology

is

not

very

Nimbarka strikes out quite a new

Yet the seemingly natural may not be the
historical order. There is one historical fact which necessarily
suggests a doubt it is quite clear that Radha was worshipped
and praised in song in North India before Madhva's day for
Jayadeva's Gltdgoviiida belongs to the end of the twelfth
century.
There is a tradition in Bengal that Jayadeva was
similar to Madhva's, while
line for himself.

a Nimbarkite

but

in the

Gitdgovinda Radha

not the consort, of Krishna, as she

seem

Sufficient evidence does not

the question, but

we may

is in

is

the mistress,

Nimbarka's theology.^

to be available to settle

conjecture that the

myth

of

Radha

grew up quite spontaneously at Brindaban on the basis of the

narrative of the Bhdgavata P., and that her worship was
organized there, perhaps about A. D. iioo, and thence spread
to Bengal and elsewhere.
If that is the history, Jayadeva's
poetry, on the one hand, and the rise of the two sects, on the
other, are easily explainable
and it is possible that Nimbarka
may have developed his Radha-theology at Brindaban while
VishnusvamI was forming his simpler system in the south.
;

6.

The Vishnusvdmis.

Of VishnusvamI very

known, but it is believed

His system is precisely like
the Madhva system, except that Radha is acknowledged.
She is simply Krishna's favourite among the gopis, his
281.

little is

that he belonged to the South.

mistress.
VishnusvamI, like Madhva,
pronounced as Madhva, if not more so.

is

a dualist, quite as

Tradition states that

he wrote commentaries on the Gitd, the Veddnta-sutras, and

His Bhdgavata-bhdsJiya is referred to by

the Bhdgavata P.

He

under Laksmana Sena, King of Bengal, who reigned c. 1 170EHI. 403) and some of his verses appear in the Saduktikarnd>/irita, an anthology by Sridhara Dasa, which dates apparently from
A. D. 1205.
The chronology is also opposed to his being a Isimbarkite.
^

lived

1200 (Smith,

BHAKTI

comment on BJidgavata P. I. 7 and

work survives, but it has not been seen by
In Madhava's SarvadarsanasahgraJia there is

Siidhara Svamin

any

in his

said that the

is

it

239

scholar.

a reference to Vishnusvaml's devoted adherent, Srikanta Misra,^

and to a work by him named Sdkdra-sidd/ii, the teaching of

which is clearly dualist. The Bhakta-indld says that Vishnusvaml was also the teacher of Jnanesvara, the Maratha bhakta
and the story is probably true.^ In any case it is clear that
the sect was widespread and popular for centuries.^ The
sectarian mantras are said to be Ovi Rdnia-KrisJindya najiiah,
and 0)'n Rdma-Kris/ina Hari. The Vishnusvamis and all other
Radha-worshipping sects use the Gopdlatdpanlya U. and the
;

Gopdlasahasrandina.

The Bhagavatas, the Madhvas and the Vishnusvamis, like

Ramanuja,* uphold the Saniuchchhaya doctrine
i. e.
they
teach that, in seeking release, men should perform their full
religious duty as Hindus as well as seek the knowledge of
Brahman, while Sankara finds release in knowledge alone.
;

7.

The Nimbdrkas.

Nimbarka was a
Telugu country who settled
282.

scholarly

Bhagavata

from

the

at Brindaban, accepted the story

of Radha, and created a sect of his own.

The date

is

uncer-

Nimbarka's philosophic position is bhcddbheda, dualistic

monism.
He was considerably influenced by Raman uja, and,
like him, laid great stress on meditation.
He goes far beyond
VishnusvamI in his account of Radha.
She is Krishna's

tain.^

'^

'
*

Cowell; p. 141.
For a suggestion with regard to the

See

285.

As Nimbarka's

"^

name

See

Ndrada Pancharatra^

278.
see 2)11'

See Bhandarkar, VS.

62.

said to have been Bhaskara,

it has
been suggested that he is identical with Bhaskaracharya, who wrote the
Bheddbheda bhdshya about A. D. 900
But the mere cosee 260.
incidence of name is scarcely sufficient to outweigh the following considerations.
It is extremely unlikely that one man should write a pure
Vedanta bh^lshya and also a sectarian Vritti and, as our knowledge
of the literature stands at present, it would seem probable that the name
of Radha and her worship appeared at Brindaban at a date considerably
later than Bhaskaracharya, say about A. D. iioo.
"

original

is

BHAKTI

240

and

eternal consort,

Goloka,

lives for

ever with him

in the Cow-world,
Like her lord, she

above

all

the other heavens.

became incarnate

in

Brindaban, and was his wedded wife

far

The story
Nimbarka Krishna

of the

there.

is

is

gopis

the eternal Brahman, and

also uncounted

Goloka.

remains

To

unchanged.

not a mere incarnation of Vishnu

he

from him springs Radha, and

gopas and gopis, who sport with them

Nimbarka thus

in

necessarily centred all his devotion

on Krishna and his consort, to the exclusion of other gods.

He thus gave up the Smarta position of the Bhagavatas, and
became fully sectarian. All the later sects owe a great deal
to him.
He wrote a short commentary, a sort of Vritti, on
the Veddnta-sutras called Veddnta-parijata-smirabha, and
a poem of ten stanzas, the Dasasloki, which contains the
quintessence of his system
but the Bhashya of the sect is
Srinivasa's Veddnta-KaustubJia, a lengthy work of considerable
merit.
Later leaders also produced scholarly works. Nimand the
barkas use the Gautarmya S} for their ritual
Krishna section of the BraJima-vaivarta P. seems to be a
Nimbarka document interpolated into the Purana. The Sdndilya-bJiakti-sutra may be of Nimbarkite origin."^ '
;

Pdhchardtra Literature.

c.

I.

283.

The

TJic Sri- Vaishnavas.

Sri- Vaishnavas of the

Tamil country reached

summit of their history during these centuries, and became

the model on which many other sects sought to form their
The introduction of the singing
literature and organization.

the

of the enthusiastic lyrics of the Alvars

of the sect

is

''

into the

an event of much importance.

temple service

The

use of Tamil

in the worship brought the cult nearer the people

and the

and passionate devotion of the hymns made the bhakti of

The man to whom Vaishnavas
the sect more vivid and real.
rich

Schrader,

IP AS.

7,

no. 44.

See

277.

See 217.

BHAKTI
owe the change

is

Nathamuni.^

a4i

His date has been disputed,

but the end of the tenth and the beginning of the eleventh

century seems to satisfy the evidence best.^

He

gathered the

hymns

of

in four

groups of about a thousand stanzas each, and set

The whole collection is called Ndldyira

Nammalvar and

of the other Alvars, arranged

them
them

to Dravidian music.

Prabandkam, or book of
ceeded

hymns.

He

arranging for the regular singing of these

in

also suc-

hymns

in

temple of Srirangam at Trichinopoly, where he

great

the

four thousand

The practice spread to other shrines, and now obtains

most of the more important temples.
But Nathamuni was also a theologian and teacher. Under
him a school of combined Sanskrit and Tamil scholarship
arose at Srlraiigam,^ whence he is called the first Acharya of
The study of the Ndldyira Prabandhani was one of
the sect.
the chief parts of the curriculum, and a series of commentaries
was written on them.
The succession of teachers is Nathamuni, Pundarlkaksha,
Ramamisra, Yamunacharya. Of the second and third * very
little is known, but the fourth, who was the grandson of
Nathamuni and lived in the middle of the eleventh century,
was a competent scholar and left several significant works.
He was a sannyasi, like the other teachers of the school. His
chief books are the Siddhitraya, which seeks to establish the

resided.
in

reality of the

human

soul

opposition to the school of

in

Sahkara, the Agamapramdnya, on the authority of the Vaish-

nava

Agamas

or Samhitas, and

exposition of the Bhagairndgltd,

works

284.

in

all

Sanskrit.

In these

found the earliest statement of the Visishtadvaita

is

philosophy, of which

the Gltdrtha-saitgraJia, an

Ramanuja

Ramanuja

is

the classical exponent.

received his early philosophical training

^He was the grandfather

of

Yamunacharya,

whom Ramanuja

succeeded

at Srirangam.
-

He was

a contemporary of

Nambi and

of Rajaraja the Great.

See

306.

At quite an early date another school rose in the neighbourhood of

Tinnevelly.
Govindacharya, /AM^". 1912, 714.
* But see Rajagopalachariar, VRI.
^

BHAKTI

242

Conjeeveram from a teacher belonging

in

to the school of

Sankara, named Yadava Prakasa,^ but he disagreed with his

guru and adhered to the modified monism which was taught

He was still a young man when Yamunacharya

Although he had not been trained in the school, he was
already so prominent as a Vaishnava scholar that he was invited
at Srirangam.
died.

He

to succeed him.

down to

accepted the invitation, but did not settle

teaching until he had learned

all

he could from former

The appointment gave him

pupils of the school.

the temple of Srirangam as well as of the school,

a sort of pontifical authority in the

and

cessful as a teacher

control of

and also

He was most

sect.

suc-

For some twenty

controversialist.

years he lectured, held discussions and wrote books. The sect

grew steadily in influence. He produced three philosophical

works of importance, the Veddrthasaitgraha, which seeks to

show that the Upanishads do not teach a strict monism, the
Srlbhdshya, a commentary on the Vcddnta-sutras, and a Gltd-

The SrlbhdsJiya is a fine piece of work.

system taught in these works antagonizes SanThe
285.
kara's illusionary monism with great skill and thoroughness,

bhdshya.

and also opposes the Bhedabheda system of Bhaskaracharya.^

Ramanuja fpllows a long succession of theistic scholars, the most
famous being Bodhayana, who lived before Sankara and wrote
a gloss, Vritti, on the 'Veddnta-sutras, now unhappily lost.^ The
^
following summary of the system is abridged from Thibaut
:

There exists only one all-embracing being called Brahman, who is

endowed with all imaginable auspicious qualities. The Lord is allpervading, all-powerful, all-knowing, all-merciful his nature is fundaHe contains within himself whatever
;

mentally antagonistic to all evil.

material or immaterial
exists

and

Matter and
different,

souls, as

ruler'

of

all.

in

two

is

periodically alternating, conditions.

world-rest, matter
is in

'internal

the

forming the body of the Lord, exist

and

During the period of

souls being apart from bodies, their intelligence

a state of contraction. The Lord is theii said to be in his casual

When the period comes to an end, creation takes place

condition.

owing
'

See

to

an act of volition on the Lord's

260.

See

260.

See

193.

part.
"

Unevolved matter

SBE. XXXIV.

xxviiff.

BHAKTI
then, evolving, acquires

Owing

to

sensible characteristics, while souls enter

its

into connexion with bodies,

243

and

their intelligence

undergoes expansion.

former actions, souls are implicated

in

the process of

and from this Release is possible only through true

knowledge of the Lord, which rests on a study of the scripture and
consists in constant devotion (bhakti) to him and meditation (upasana)
on him. The released soul enters paradise and enjoys intercourse with
the Lord for ever.
The Lord is a personal being. Brahman is but another name for
Narayana-Vishnu, the god of the Vaishn iva sect.
transmigration

Warm-hearted devotion to a god must have been a frequent

in early Hindu religious feeling, and as early as the
Svetasvatara U., which probably dates from about the fourth

element
century

B.C., \vc find

highest religion.

it

spoken of as an important part of the

Gltd its place is more distinctly

In the

Here in the school of Ramanuja it becomes still

more prominent, for it is the loftiest and most impoi'tant
factor in the means of deliverance.
It remains, however, quiet
affirmed.

and meditative, an aspect of man's reaching out towards fuller

knowledge of God, and thus very different from the bhakti of
the BJidgavata P.

Ramanuja

holds, in opposition to Saiikara, that the

man

who

wishes to win release ought to continue to do his duties

as a

Hindu while he seeks the knowledge of Brahman with

Works and knowledge are both
to final release.

a view

necessary for the great

SaimichcJihaya or

'

end

in

view.

'

They

thread.

is

doctrine.

ought therefore to study the

Vedanta. This theory is then typified
nyasls of the school of

This

Ramanuja do not

in

the

called

The serious
Karma Mimamsa as well

combination

seeker
as the

the fact that san-

lay aside the sacred

continue the worship of Vishnu and

may

even

act as ministrants in temples as well as heads of monasteries.^

Srl-Vaishnava sannyasTs are quite a distinct order from Sankara's
Only Brahmans are admitted, and they carry a triple da)ida
in contrast with the single danda of Sankara's Brahman sannyasis
see
'

Dasnamls.

The two

orders are distinguished as Ekadandis and Tridandis.

Ramanuja's convert, Yadava Prakasa, wrote the Yati-dharma-sainuchchhaya on the duties of Tridandis Govindacharya, R., 72- Non-Brahman
Srl-Vaishnava ascetics are called Ekangas.
198.

BHAKTI

244

The

2H6.

event for the SrI-Vaishnavas.

It

instance to provide the sect with a clearly expressed

first

philosophy

in

literature, a

matter of great

and

was a most important

was doubtless meant in the

writing of the Sri-bhdshya

full

But

ascetics.

The

accordance with

it

moment

its

beliefs

and

ancient

its

for the training of teachers

was not merely of large practical

value.

when it was
connexion with the Vedanta by this illus-

dignity of the sect was vastly enhanced

brought into living

bhashya ever written.

it was felt to be
during the folsimilar
works
produced
from the long array of

trious work.

We may

It

realize

was the

how

first

sectarian

valuable an acquisition

lowing seven centuries.^

It is also

probable that Ramanuja

hoped, by linking the sect to the Vedanta, to get rid, to some

extent at least, of the reproach of heterodoxy which had

dogged the

sect

throughout

its

history.^

His own punctilious

observation of caste rules in the matter of food and intercourse

with other castes was doubtless intended to help

same

in the

direction.
287.

There were two types of Vaishnava temples

in

the

south in his day, one class using Paficharatra Sarhhitas for

Vaikhanasa Sarhhitas,^ the latter

Ramanuja did
probably Bhagavata shrines,

their ritual, the other using

being
he could to unify the sect by substituting Paiicharatra
Vaikhanasa manuals wherever he could win over the

class
all

for

authorities.*
288.

While he held

but the twice-born

may

strictly

by the ancient

eager to teach both Sudras and

Vishnu-bhakti,

rule that

none

read the Upanishads, he was most

Outcastes the doctrine of

In this he was a faithful disciple of the Alvars.

In certain places he arranged that the Outcastes should have

the privilege of visiting the temple one day

there

in

the year.

But

no reliable evidence for the statement, so often made,

is

that he ate with Outcastes, or that he took any step to alter

^

See
See

340.

211 and 384.

*
Rajagopalachariar, VRI.
charya, R. 142.
^

See

94 and

215.

i,\

Padmanabhachar, ZTiJ/. 252

Govinda-

BHAKTI
He

position.'

social

their

maintained

is

clearly revealed

thread of purity, with which Sudra

and Outcaste adherents of the

caste sacred thread.

Hindu

the ancient

His position

restrictions in all their fullness.

in the use of the pavitra, or

245

sect are invested.

Acknowledgement

they are capable of receiving spiritual

whom

The

a low-

made

religion, yet

kept rigorously apart from the twice-born.

a group of people of Sudra caste

It is

thus

is

that

they are

Satanis

are

he taught and con-

nected with the sect, but no suggestion was

made

that their

caste status should be altered.

He

took a journey through India for the dissemination of

his system,

and seemingly with great success.

He went

south

Ramesvaram, up the west coast through Malabar and the

Maratha country to Gujarat, the north-west, and Kashmir, and
The
returned by Benares, Purl, and Tirupati to Sriraiigam.
wide influence of the sect in later times was probably largely
due to what he was able to accomplish during this journey.
389. InA.D. 1098 Kulotturiga I, the Chola king, started
a persecution against the Vaishnavas, and Ramanuja was
to

obliged to

flee.

He withdrew

the acquaintance of the

The

to the

Mysore, and there made

Crown Prince ^ of

the Hoysala dynasty.

royal family and a large proportion of the people were

was won over by Ramanuja and took

mark his conversion, Vishnuvardhana. For
a long period Ramanuja resided in Mysore, chiefly at Melkote,
teaching and discussing and building, and Vaishnavism became
firmly planted.
The Chola persecutor died in 11 18, and in
112a Ramanuja returned to Srirangam, where he died in 1137.*
Jains, but the prince

new name

He

is

to

worshipped as an incarnation

in

the temples of the sect.

See especially the early Tamil Life translated by Govindacharya,

^ See
Chap. X, and Rajagopalachariar, VRI. 141.
385.
^ He succeeded to the throne about ten years later and reigned until
^

1 141.
K\ce,JRAS. 1915, 527
The chronology of his early life

A. D.
*

fif.

is

still

doubtful.

Tradition places

whole life becomes more comprehensible if we

suppose he was born about 1050 and succeeded Yamuna about 1080.
A record which was recently found in his monastery in Melkote, Mysore,
makes it plain that he arrived in Mysore in 1098 and left in 1 122 JRAS.
his birth in A.D. 1017, but the

1915, I47ff.

'

BHAKTI

246

There is no lack of early biographical material. Not

to speak of contemporary poems and such like, which arose in
290.

the school, his early

life

dealt with in the Bhutapiirl

is

Md-

hdtmya (Bhutapuri is Sri Perumbudur, where he was born),

a section of the Hdrita Samhitd, while in other Sarhhitas his

The Isvara

later activities are dealt with.

Sanihitd speaks of

Nammalvar, and Ramanuja, contains a Mahatmya of Melkote in Mysore, and enjoins the use of the Tamil
hymns of the Ndldyira Prabandham. The Brihad Brahma
Saihhitd also refers to Sathakopa and Ramanuja, and speaks
of the Dravida land as the place where Vishnu's devotees
abound. These texts must be old, the sections dealing with
Ramanuja being probably twelfth-century interpolations.
Finally, in the thirteenth century, a detailed Life was written
in Tamil by Pinbajagia-Perumal-Jlyar.
291. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, or possibly
early in the fourteenth, the head of the school of Srlraiigam
was Pillai Lokacharya. He wrote a brief treatise in SanSathakopa,

i.e.

skritized Tamil, the Artha-pancJiaka, or Pentad of Truths,

which is a very excellent summary of Srl-Vaishnava doctrine.
Sudarsana Bhatta, who ruled at Srirahgam towards the close
of our period, may be mentioned as having written a commentary on the Bhdgavata P., which, though not mentioned

by Ramanuja, had

won

the interval

in

itself

a place in the

sect.

292.

The mantra

of the sect

Oin namo Ndrdyandya}

symbols on the body are
of the Sarhhitas.

The

in use, in

accordance with the rules

and

system are both called the

sect

Sri-Vaishnava Sampradaya,
Sri
*

(i.e.

The

the famous early mantra,

is

sect-mark and the branding of

i.e.

Lakshml) and Vishnu.

its

the tradition with regard to

No

other Hindu sect

is

more

old erroneous statement, so often repeated, that the mantra of

is Om Rdmdya ftamah, comes from Wilson {Sects, 40), and

probably arose from the idea that the ^mantra of Ramanuja must be the
same as Ramananda's see 387. Sri-Vaishnavas use also a secret
mantra called the Dvaya, or dual mantra, which is clearly phallic, referring
Govindacharya, A'. 14, 48, 52.
to Sri and Vishnu

the

sect

BHAKTI
exclusive in

its

allegiance

247

the worship of Siva or any god

other than Vishnu, his consorts, and his representatives,

Radha

forbidden.

is

not acknowledged at

food and caste Srl-Vaishnavas are extremely

ministers to

all

the four castes, while for

is

In matters of

all.

strict.

many

The

sect

centuries the

were taught Vishnu-bhakti, and several outcaste

outcastes

names occur

Yet the
strength of the sect is in the Brahman community.
Every
SrI-Vaishnava Brahman bears one of two names, Acharya or
the

in

list

of SrI-Vaishnava saints.

Aiyangar.
3.

The Manbhaus.

The Mahanubhavas (i.e. men of the great experience)

Manbhaus are a Vaishnava sect found in the Marathlspeaking area, who claim a high antiquity for their system but
293.

or

acknowledge that

from the thirteenth

their organization dates

century.

Several

common
as

noteworthy characteristics, which

they have

in

with the Vira Saivas, are probably to be explained

due mainly to

of Ramanuja.

racial

and

local facts, partly to the influence

The more noteworthy

of these features are

Both are rather more heterodox than ordinary Vaishnava and Saiva sects, so that Hindus frequently deny that
Manbhaus are Hindus at all, and some Vira Saivas deny that
the Vira Saiva sect is a Hindu community. They are both
these

Vira Saivas worshipping Siva alone, Manbhaus recognizing Krishna alone. Both sects refuse to worship

strictly sectarian,

images, though each worships a symbol of

each sect

all

full

members may

its

own god.

In

Both sects
dead, and in both

dine together.

are strictly vegetarian, both bury their

more importance than the temples.

Each sect claims to have five founders. Any caste-Hindu is
welcomed as a full member in either sect if he is willing to
undergo initiation. Round each of the two sects there is
the ascetics are of far

a circlet of half-converted groups

law.

As

who do

not keep the

full

the Vira Saivas are about a century older than the

BHAKTI

248

Manbhaus, it is possible that the latter may have followed the

example of the former sect in some points.
294. The unexplained figure of Dattatreya hovers shadowy
and indistinct behind Manbhau history. The sect claims him
as^the source of

sannyasi

its

system.

If,

as

is

possible, a real historical

concealed in this mist, his connexions were with

is

the Maratha country and with Yadavagiri

He

Mysore.^

is

(i.e.

Melkote)

in

the

usually represented as a sannyasi with three

is accompanied
by four dogs and a cow, which stand for the Vedas and the
earth
but Manbhaus deny that they worship him in this
form.
To them he is an incarnation of Krishna.
Chakradhar, who flourished in the middle of the thirteenth
century, seems to be the actual founder of the sect as we know
it.
He was followed by Nagadeva Bhatta, \yho was a contemporary of Ramachandra, the Yadava King (i 271-1309),
and of Jilanesvara,^ the author of the Jndnesvai'i.
He did
a great deal to propagate the community.
Of their later
history very little is yet known.
It is clear that they have

heads, so that he stands for the trimurti, and he

suffered from orthodox opposition.

them the Supreme, and they will worship no

There are many devatas, but only one ParameThey have, therefore, their own places of worship, and

Krishna
svara.'

to

is

other god.

'

not enter 'ordinary temples.

will

have

in their shrines a

terrace,

which they worship

in the

of their worship seems to be

treya

as their founder,

name

unknown.

and therefore

Dattatreya Sampradaya,

Muni Marg

Instead of an image, they

quadrangular or circular whitewashed

the

of God.
The nature
They speak of Datta-

call

Sri-Datta

their system the

Sampradaya, the

(the reference being to Dattatreya), or the

Man-

bhau Panth.
But while they speak of Dattatreya as their original founder,
they say they have had a fresh founder in each of the four yugas.
^

The Manbhaus connect him

with the Sahyadri

Yadavagiri Mdhdtmya of the Narada P.

in the Mysore.
See 289.
^

.See 2 78.

tells

how he

Hills, while

the

visited Yadavagiri

BHAKTI
They

249

thus recognize five pravartakas, propagators (also called

the Pahchakrishna)} and have a mantra connected with each.

When any one wishes to become a Manbhau, he must repeat the
initiation from a Manbhau monk.
well-marked groups, ascetics and
two
295.
householders, ascetics again falling into two distinctly organOn the monks rests the sect
ized groups, monks and nuns.
with its teaching, discipline, and worship. Monks and nuns

five

mantras and accept

They

fall

into

are carefully kept separate.

Their chief scripture

the Bhagavadg'itd, but they have

is

own

a large literature of their

fied

Marathl alphabet

In consequence of

Marathl.

in

the persecution they were subjected

for their

to,

they adopted a modiso as to keep

literature,

it

one of the reasons why it is still so little

known. Amongst their oldest books are the Lild Sai'nvdd,
Perhaps we may take
the Llld Charita, and the Siitrapdth.
these as belonging to this period. The Dattdtreya U.^ and the
secret.

This

Dattdtreya

is

S? are probably also connected

3.

296.

Very

little

The Narasimha

Sect.

known about

is

the activities

Narasirhha sect during this period, but

was
is

still

popular.

The huge

with the movement.

of

clear that the

it is

the

god

monolithic image at Vijayanagar

proof that the dynasty favoured him.

There are

still

many

The Narafamilies in which he is

simha SJ^ may belong to this period. The Narasiihha
Upapurdna, which has been already mentioned,^ was translated
into Telugu about A.D. 1300.
the patron of the family.

4.

297. Serious

The

members

Rama

of the

Sect.

Ramaite

literature has been already noticed,'^

found

sect,

it

whose early

hard to reconcile

human words and actions of Rama and Sita in

II-VI
Books
of the Rdmdyana' with their belief that Rama

the entirely

Darsan Prakas,

No. 61 in Schrader's
See 218.

58.
list,

IPAS.
''

See

No.

p. 7.

219.

12 in the
'

list, p.

Schrader,
''

See

364.

IPAS.
48.

8.

BHAKTI

250
is

The

the eternal God.

Ramayana,

AdJiydtnia

Rdmdyana,

or spiritual

seven books, bearing the same names as the

in

books of the early Epic, tells the whole story afresh with
a view to meeting these difficulties. The theology is advaita
throughout, but Sakta elements are added, so that Sita has
a place beside the eternal Rama. In order to shield Sita from
the reproach of having been carried away by Ravana and kept
in his harem, she enters the fire, leaving only an illusory Sita
behind her, before the appearance of the demon and the real
goddess does not return until the fire-ordeal at the end of the
;

When Rama

story.

at

any point talks as a man, it

that his divine consciousness

Release

is

is

and a

explained

Rama alone fervent bhakti is the

Rama mantra is taught.^ The man who

obtainable in

path to release

is

temporarily clouded by mdyd.

;

wishes to obtain release must give up works altogether

for

they only bind the soul to sanisdra. The work is thus

opposed to the Samiichchhaya ^ doctrine. It contains the

and the Rdma-gltd^ in fiftycompendia of doctrine meant to be committed to

memory for constant repetition and meditation. The ^work
clearly depends not only on the Rdmdyana and the advaita
Vedanta but also on the BJidgavata P. and the Ramaite
Agastya Sainhitd^ mentioned above.*^ There were already
many Ramayanas in existence when the book was written.
Among these there was undoubtedly the Pampa- Rdmdyana,^
and possibly the
a Jain version of the Epic in Kanarese ^
author may have known the Yoga- Vasishtha, the Adbhuta, and
the BJmsimdi Ramayanas.
There existed also an Adhydtma
Ndrdyana, which is several times quoted by Madhva in his
Bhdshya. The date of the work is probably the thirteenth or
Rdma-hridaya'^

in eight slokas

six slokas,

"^

fourteenth century

A.D. 1608, calls

Mil.

it

Eknath, the MarathI poet,

modern

poem.^''

It

who

died in

was translated into

M.

* VII. v.
2 See
i.
ig^ and 285.
"219,
IV. iv; VI. V.
MI. iv. 77.
* Some of the episodes in the Adhydtma are like episodes in the Patnpa* Rice, KL.
Ramdyatta.
30, 33.
" Bhandarkar, VS. 48.

See

8, 34.

III.

ii,

iii;

'"

BHAKTI
Malayalim

251

There

seventeenth century.

in the

is

Kana-

also a

rese version.^

There can thus be no doubt about the existence of an old

which found release in Rama alone. Was it in the south
but the
or the north ?
It would be perilous to be dogmatic

sect

relations of the literature thus far tend to indicate the south

There

rather than the north.

is

no

distinct

i.e.

sadhus,

bility,

who

find salvation in

Ramaite

sect in

many Rama-bhaktas,

the Tamil country to-day, but there are

Rama.

These, in

proba-

all

are survivals of the old sect.

E. Saiva Literature.

Pasupata Saivas.

a.

298.

fifteenth-century

gives us in his

'

commentator,

Brahmavidydbharana a

Advaitananda,

clear sketch of Pasu-

pata theology which enables us to realize the essentials of the

system.

The

five categories

give the roots of the system

nature and Pahi,

{c)

yoga

mentioned by Sankara
{a)

the cause, Pati,

practices, {d)

{b)

really

the

effect,

Vidhi, requirements,

Duhkhdnta, release from

sorrow. They taught that true knowledge of the cause and
effect, constant yoga practice and meditation, and the regular
fulfilment of the rules of the order were all necessary for the
The rules enjoin bathing and
attainment of the end in view.
i.e.

various necessary practices,

{e)

sleeping in ashes, expressing exultation

by

laughter, dancing,

singing or bellowing, and pretending to be asleep, sick, lame,

love, or

in

mad.

In release the soul was believed to attain

The

the divine perfections.

chief scripture of the sect seems

to have been a sutra-work called indifferently Pahipati-sutra

or Pdsiipata-sdstra^ but
I.

299.

stem,

Of the

it

does not seem to have survived.

The Lahdlsas.

Lakullsas, a branch from the main Pasupata

we have an account by Madhavacharya,^

/ This Kanarese version contains a

bhachar, LTM. 133.
2

SBE. XXXIV.

434

ft".

Madhva
In

^pg^

the fourteenth-

interpolation.

Padmana-

See Cowells's

tr.

103.

BHAKTI

352
century Vedantist.

The teaching seems to be identical with

The differences seem to

the Pasupata theory just sketched.

have been confined to the practices enjoined, e.g. bathing and

sleeping in sand instead of in ashes.
Madhava quotes

number of books, but in most cases he gives no indication

whether the books belong to the main Pasupata sect or to the
Lakullsa branch, and all the literature seems to have perished.
Throughout the period the sect was most active in Gujarat,
Rajputana, and the Mysore, as is made clear by many inscrip-

tions.

They

are well summarized

2.

TJie

by Bhandarkar.^

Kdpdlikas.

No

Kapalika literature seems to have survived so

period as well as the previous one we are
dependent on scattered notices. The references to them in
300.

that

for

this

the Sahkara-digvijaya imply that they were

still

active during

Then, in the Prabodhackandrodaya, a drama

produced in A.D. 1065 which we have already used,^ a Kapalika ascetic and a Kapalini are brought on the stage and
Kapalika practice is described and illustrated with great
vividness.
The evidence of the Mdlatl-MddJiava^ is here
corroborated.
Kapalika ascetics are practically Saktas the
these centuries.

characteristic

Sakta-worship

elements of

human

sacrifice,

appear, and with them the

Sakta jewellery of human bones, the elaborate system of yoga,
and the superhuman powers that spring therefrom. The

strong drink, and sexual licence

among the ashes of the dead, and

and drinks out of a human skull. In this play a Buddhist
and a Jain ascetic appear on the stage, and are reduced to
a very miserable plight by the Kapalika and the nun who
accompanies him. Ramanuja's few sentences* on the system
corroborate the erotic element of this account for he says the
Kapalika meditates on himself as seated in the pudendum
Kapalika, besides, dwells

eats

muliebre.^
'

VS, 119-20.
Sribhashya,

'^

SEE. X LV

1 1 1

See
52o

f.

270.

See

Cf. 3 2 5

234.

BHAKTI

253

The Gorakhndthis.

3.

301. The Gorakhnathls {Gorakshandthis) seem to be closely

related to the Kapalikas. They form a sort of inchoate sect for
;

Gorakhnath {GoraksJiandtJia) is worshipped in many temples

in North India, especially in the Punjab and Nepal
yet the
laity does not seem to be organized.
The ascetics, who are
usually called Kanphata Yogis, i.e. Split-eared Yogis, are the
strongest part of the sect. It is most probable, but not certain,
that the movement sprang from a yogi named Gorakhnath.
a great
302. Goraksha seems to be a name of Siva
many wonderful tales have gathered round the name of
Gorakhnath, who is said to have founded the sect of Gorakhnathls; and both Tantrik Hinduism and Tantrik Buddhism
glorify the whole company of sainted Nathas
so that one is
tempted to take all the tales as so much mythology. Yet
Gorakhnath is probably a historical character
for the
Kanphata Yogis are a well-defined group of ascetics, and the
rise of a new type of Yoga literature, with which his name is
;

associated,
order.

It

is clearly connected with the appearance of the

seems most probable that he flourished about the

beginning of the thirteenth century

reference to
Jfianesvara,

for

the earliest historical

him yet noted occurs in the Aniritdmibhava of

the Maratha bhakta, \v\\osq Jloniit is A. D. 1290.^

Gorakhnath's name

associated with the rise of a

is

new type

of yoga, which has had a considerable vogue in certain circles

but has never found

way

its

It is called HatJia-yoga,

and

theory that, by certain

into the ancient school of yoga.

its

most

distinctive element

ritual purifications of the

is

the

body and

supreme concentration
yoga can be attained. It
therefore deals with a large number of strange bodily postures
{dsajia),^ purifications of the channels of the body {sodhana),
certain prescribed physical exercises, the

mind

of

See

called sauiddJii in the old

278.
later

'The

Yogin relies on dsana, the older muni on upasana'

Hopkins, /yi6'5. XXII. ii. 334.
^

BHAKTI

254

modes of breath-regulation {prdndydind)^ and exercises in

which posture, breathing, and attention are combined {nmdrd),
and which bring with them miraculous powers. To Hathayoga is usually added in the later books Rdja-yoga, a more
intellectual discipline to which the physical training is then
subordinated.
Gorakhnath is said to be the author of two
Sanskrit treatises, Hatha-yoga ^ and Goraksha-sataka^ and on
them depends the later literature, which is dealt with in the
next chapter.^ Several works in Hindi verse exist which are
also attributed to the leader

but as their date

is

said to be

the middle of the fourteenth century,* clearly they cannot be

assigned to him, unless

possible

for

them.

it

be found that an earlier date

They may have been

There thus seems to be

followers.

written

sufficient

by

ground

is

his
for

believing that Gorakhnath was a noted yogi, that he lived and

founded his sect somewhere about a.d, 1200, and that early
stories connected with

the

name Goraksha and

the Nathas

gathered round his head after his death.

4.

TJic Rasesvaras.

303. Another Saiva school is described by Madhava,'^

which was called the Rasesvara or Mercury system, but does
not seem to have survived. The peculiarity of their teaching
was this, that they thought that, without an immortal body,

and that the only way in which

an immortal body could be developed was by the use of
mercury, rasa, which, they declared, was produced by the
release could not be attained,

creative

conjunction

of Siva

and

his

spouse.

acquisition of a divine body, the aspirant,

by the

yoga, wins an intuition of the Supreme, and

this

life.

number of ancient teachers

is

After

the

practice of
liberated in

of the school are

named, and several philosophic manuals.

^

This book does not seem to exist to-day, but see Hall, 17.
Hall, 18
Aufrecht, Cat. Sansk. MSS. in Bodleiaji Lib?aty, 236.
* Misra Baiidhu Vinode, 21.
See 423.
;

SDS.,

ch.

ix,

Cowell, 137.

BHAKTI
b.
J.

255

Agamic Saivas.

Sanskrit School of Saiva SiddJidnta,

T/ic

Sarvadarsanasahgraha ^ Madhava describes

what he calls the Saiva Darsana, and quotes in illustration of
its teaching six of the Agamas, as many writers, and several
304. In

his

anonymous works. All the literature is

apart from the Agamas, none of it seems
Several

in

Sanskrit, but,

however, belonging to the school lived at

writers,

dates later than

in

to have survived.

Madhava

We

our next chapter.

and these are therefore described

call

the Sanskrit school of Saiva

it

Siddhanta.
in

This school and the teaching of the Tamil Saivas as contained

the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta are usually treated as one,'^ but

seems quite clear that they are distinct. The Sanskrit school
in the main a following of Brahmans, many of them being
temple-ministrants, its Vedantic standpoint is Visishtadvaita,
and its literature is in Sanskrit while the following of the
Tamil school is almost entirely non-Brahman, its Vedantic

it

has

standpoint

Advaita^

is

abheda,* and

all its

2.

305. The
period

is

historical

or,

according to other writers, Bhed-

literature

is

in

Tamil.

Tamil Saivas.

literature of the

extremely rich

in

Tamil Saivas belonging

lyrical

The chronology

legend.

is

poetry,
still

to this

theology, and

obscure

in

many

points, but the relations of the larger events are fairly clear.

who probably

Pattinattu PiHai,

some

the author of

lived in the tenth century,

is

beautiful devotional verse, which, along

.

with the work of several minor authors, found a place in the

sacred
istic
^
"^

Canon

'

but a number of poems of a highly monothe-

and Puritan character, which belong to a much

Cowell, 112.
e.g. see Cowell's

Nallasvaml,

of the Saiva Darsana in Madhava's

The standpoint
63, 67, 68, 88, 244.

tr.

56'.S'.

called Sivadvaita.
''

So Umapati,

Tiru-arul-fiayaft, Ixxv.
In the Eleventh Tiru-murai.

later date,

SDS.
is

sometimes

BHAKTI

256

have been erroneously assigned to

They are dealt with below.^

this

tenth-century poet.

306. Nambi-andar-nambi was a contemporary of Nathamuni the Vaishnava leader and of Rajaraja the Great, the
Chola king (a.d. 985-1018). He gathered the Tamil hymns
of The Three into one collection, named it the Tevaram,
i.e. DEVArAM, the Divine Garland, and with the help of
Rajaraja had them set to Dravidian music. He then arranged
to have them sung in the chief shrines.
An inscription of
Rajaraja's shows that he introduced them into his magnificent temple at Tanjore.
Sung by a special choir, quite

from the priestly ministrants, they gave the worship

distinct

a fresh interest and splendour without disturbing the ancient

Sanskrit

liturgy.

Manikka Vachakar's glorious verse was

probably too recent to find a place in this collection.

Nambi's name is also connected with the formation

body of Tamil scripture, which is called the TIRU
MURAI, i.e. the Sacred Books. He collected most of the
Saiva hymns then in existence and grouped them in eleven
books ^ and the collection was completed by the addition of
307.

of a larger

a twelfth

in

the twelfth century.

The

Tevdrdin,

[b)

the Tiruvdchakain,

the Ttru Isaipa, lyrics

(c)

nine authors, {d) the Tiriimantraiu,

{e)

contents are

(a)

the

by

miscellaneous poems,

own works, (/) the Periya Piirdnam^ or

Great Legend, a Liber Sanctorum, forming the Twelfth Book.

including Nambi's

Sekkirar, the author of the Periya Piirdnam, the Great Legend,

may be
poem

dated
in

in the first half

of the twelfth century.

It is

seventy-two cantos on the lives of the sixty-three

Saiva saints

erf

the Tamil country, and

is

founded on a decad

of Sundarar's and the Tondar-tiriiv-antddi, which

is one of
Nambi's poems. No work is more loved by Saivas than the
Periya Pnrdnain. To about the same date we may assign
a famous translation, the Skanda P., done into Tamil verse and
called the Kanda Purdnam, by Kaiichl-Appar of Conjeeveram.
^

See

He began

under

426.

his son

the compilation in the reign of Rajaraja

Rajendra

I.

and

finished

it

BHAKTI
308.

Thus

the

far

Tamil

257

had

Saivas

no

own but were dependent on

theology of their

formulated

Agamas,

the

which are probably of northern origin and are in Sanskrit.

The defect was remedied by a brilliant school of thinkers, who
were also Tamil poets, during the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries.
Meykanda Deva, who is regarded as the fountain
of the dogmatic, was a Siidra and lived early in the thirteenth
century on the bank of the Penner river to the north of
Madras. He translated twelve Sanskrit sutras from the
Raurava Againa into Tamil verse. To this work, which is
^

known
Siva

',

logical

as

Siva-jndna-bodha,

he added a few notes

'

in

Instruction in

Knowledge of

Tamil prose, and a

series of

analogies also in prose in support of his reasoning.

The system which

this work unfolds is called the Saiva

He was also a noted
Reasoned Saiva system
His most famous disciples are
teacher and had many pupils.
Arulnandi Deva and Manavachakam Kadandan. The latter
is famous for his Unmai
Vilakkaui^ a treatise in fifty-four
stanzas consisting of questions and answers on the main

Siddhanta, or

'

'.

The former wrote

points of Siddhanta teaching.

jndna-siddJii^ a noted
is

work

in

two

parts, of

the Siva-

which the

first

a criticism of other Indian schools of thought, including

Buddhism and Jainism, while the second

is

full

statement of

Saiva Siddhanta teaching so put as to form a rich commentary

on

his

teacher's

and to meet,

masterpiece,

if

possible,

all

Arulnandi's disciple was

objections to the Saiva Siddhanta.

Marai-jfiana-sambandha, a Sudra and the author of Saiva-

A Brahman named Umapati from the temple

Chidambaram became a disciple of his, ate the leavings of
But he
his food and was in consequence excommunicated.
became the supreme theologian of the sect, and left numerous

samaya-neri.
in

works, eight of which are included

of the Siddhanta.

The

following
^

See

among

is

225.

the

the canonical books

list

BHAKTI

358

THE FOURTEEN SIDDHANTA SASTRAS.

Uyyavandan (A)
Uyyavandan (B)
Meykanda Deva

i.

....

Tinivuntiydr

2.

Tirnkkalirriippadiydr

3.

^iva-jiidna-bodha

f4.

Siva-jhdna-siddhi

Manavachakam Kadandan
/'

IrupdvirupatJm

5.
6,

Uninai-vilakkam

7.

Siva-prakdsa

8.

Tirn-artil-payan
Vifid-venbd

9.

Umapati Sivacharya

The

Meykanda

four

dha, and

Umapati

10.

Porripakrodai

11.

Kodi-kavi

Nehchu-vidu- tutu
6^ ;;^ ai- neri- vilakka in

Sank alpa-nirdkar ana

1 4.

Deva, Arulnandi, Marai-jnana-samban-

who together form a succession of teachers

The Four Santdna Achdryas,

There are two of
i. e.
teachers forming a continuous series.
the writers whose dates are not known with certainty, the two
Uyyavandans.
They are said to have flourished in the
and

disciples, are

known

as

latter half of the twelfth century,

may

but

it is

belong to the school of Meykanda.

the development of this dogmatic was

possible that they

It is possible that

influenced in

degree by the literature of Kashmir Saivism

stands quite near the earlier system

Kashmir

some

for the later

yet Siddhantists do not

and it is
Tamil Siddhanta was influenced
by the Sanskrit Siddhanta. The two are quite closely allied.^
The tradition in the sect is that Meykanda was directly taught
recognize the

much more probable

literature as

authoritative

that the

by some one from Kailasa.

3.

309.

period

is

KasJiniir Saivns.

we know about Saivism in Kashmir during this

summed up in the growth of its literature and it

All

This stands out

in

Madhava's essay, SDS. VII.

BHAKTI

259

seems to have been the more philosophic side of the system

represented by Somananda's Si'iur Drishti that ruled the
development, although the study of the earlier literature was

The
who

Somananda are his pupil

Isvar a-pratyabJujiidkdrikas; Abhinavagupta (about A.D. 1000) who expounded

still

kept up.

Utpalacharya,

chief followers of

the author of the

is

Utpala's Karikds in two commentaries, wrote several works on

the Saiva

Agamas and

called ParauidrtJiasdra

century,
raja the

summary of
and

finally

the Pratyabhijna doctrine

Kshemaraja

of the eleventh

who wrote the Siva-sutra-vimarsiiii. After Kshemamovement died down yet the literature probably
;

influenced Saivism in

South India during the thirteenth and

later centuries.
4.

The Vira

310.

Vlra Saivas.

Saivas, also called Liiigayats, are a sect

which seems to have been founded on the borders of the

Karnatak and the Maratha country in the middle of the
twelfth century, and soon attained considerable proportions,
spreading rapidly towards the south, especially
country.
that

it

Lingayats believe that the sect

was merely reorganized

in

seems to be rather more probable

elements united

in

is

in the

Kanarese

extremely old, and

the twelfth century, but

that, while

the sect are old, the sect

it

most of the

itself

came

into

In the Karnatak for centuries the

being about A. D. 1160.^

mass of the people had been either Saivas or Digambara

the new sect seems to be essentially a fresh formation
meant to give Saivas a more definite theology and a closer
organization, and to win over the Jains to the worship of

Jains

Siva.

Two

features of the sect

the great prominence of the

monasteries, and the large measure of religious

equality which

probably

may

full

Lingayats enjoy

in part imitations

within

of Jainism.

the

and
sect

social

are

Racial characteristics

also have played a part in forming the organization

^ Bhandarkar believes
VS. 134.

it

came

into existence

S 3

about a century earlier

BHAKTI

26o

we have already seen,^ Liiigayats and Manbhaus,

community formed in the Maratha country about
century later, have a large number of common features. Both

for,

as

a Vaishnava
a

morality and bhakti are very prominent

in

Liiigayat teaching.

Critical scholars have usually held that the founder of the

was Basava, the prime minister of Bijjala, the Kalachuri,

who became King at Kalyan in A. D. 1156, but Fleet is inclined
to believe that Ekantada Ramayya of Ablur, whose career is
mentioned in an early inscription, was the real leader, and that
Basava came in as a political and military auxiliary. The
Ekorama,
tradition is that the sect was founded by five ascetics
Panditaradhya, Revana, Marula, Visvaradhya ^ who are held
to have sprung from the five heads of Siva, incarnate age after
These are regarded as very ancient, and Basava is said
age.
Yet the early
to have been but the reviver of the faith.
some
contemporaries,
all
his
literature shows that the five were
still
very
But the whole early history is
older, some younger.
sect

obscure

and, until the early literature, Sanskrit, Kanarese,

and Telugu, has been carefully read and compared with the
inscriptions, this darkness

is

likely to remain.

311. The organization of the sect is sufficiently noteworthy.

Five original monasteries, the first heads of which were the
five ascetics, must first be noted
:

First Mahants.

Monasteries.

2.

Kedarnath, Himalayas.
Sri-saila, near Nandyal.

3.

Balehalli,

1.

Ekorama.
Panditaradhya.

West Mysore.

Bellary boundary, Mysore.

4.

Ujjini,

5.

Benares.

Visvaradhya.

In every Liiigayat village there

affiliated

to

one

Jahgamas are a
^

Revana.
Marula.

of

caste,

the

five

is

a monastery, and each

original

monasteries.

and from them come nearly

See 295,
These five are mentioned

in the

all

is

The

Liiigayat

Suprabheda Agarna.

BHAKTI

261

Every Lihgayat must belong

Gurus.

have a guru

he need not

visit

to

a monastery and ninst

a temple at

all.

Liiigayats regard Siva as the Supreme, and must worship

him only

that

is

the meaning of the

name

of the sect, Vlra

Saivas, stalwart Saivas, worshipping Siva alone.

modes of

worships his
lihga

worship of Siva are two

their

own Jahgama guru

which he wears

in

Then, the

each Lihgayat

and he worships the small

hung round his neck,

a reliquary

whence the other name of the sect, Lihgayat, lihga-wcarers.

Image-worship is prohibited.
When a boy is born, the father sends for his guru, and the
ashtavatma, eight-fold ceremony, which makes the baby
a Lihgayat is performed
guru,
mantra, Jangama, tirtha, prasdda.
:

be

coverings

'

protections against

',

vibhfiti,

rudrdksJia,

These eight are held

to

sin.

When a young Lihgayat chooses

mony is held in which five pots,
mahants of the

linga,

a guru for himself, a cererepresenting the original

These are
symbols used by Smartas in their
private worship are placed.^
Four are so placed as to form
a square, while the pot which represents the monastery
to which the chosen guru is affiliated is placed in the
placed

five great

monasteries, are used.

precisely as the

centre.

A
He

Lihgayat worships privately twice a day before meals.

down, takes his lihga from its reliquary, places it in the

sits

palm

of his left hand,

and goes through the prescribed forms

of meditation and adoration in that posture.

Meditation

is

in

accordance with the six sthalas?

When

the guru visits the home, an elaborate ceremony,

padodaka,

which

at
'

The

i.

all

lihga

born Hindu.
of the best
2

e.

the washing of the feet of the guru,

is

No

performed,

Lihgayat what the sacred thread is to the twiceLihgayat may wear the sacred thread, even if he be

to the
full

Brahman

See 352.
These are

is

the family, and possibly friends as well, are present.

blood.

'
six stages of spiritual progress, through which the Lihgayat
passes in seeking union with Siva, bJiakd, ina/wsdy pnisada, prdnalihi^a,
saratia, aikya.

BHAKTI

262

The head of the house also worships the guru. The guru sits
down in Yoga posture, and the householder, sitting before him,
goes through the sixteen operations of Hindu worship, and
other elaborate ceremonies.

There are a few Lingayat temples, most of which have been

as memorials to individuals, but they do not form

built

a necessary part of the organization of the sect.

312. The word Jaiigama is used in two senses, first for

member of the caste, and secondly for a practising Jaiigama.

Most Jangamas marry and

Those who wish to become practising
They must also be trained
Jangamas must remain celibate
in a monastery and receive diksha, initiation.
The whole sect
is in the hands of these practising Jangamas.
They are of two
classes, Gurusthalas and Viraktas.

Only the

earn

latter

their

is

worshipable.

living.

Guntsthnla Jangamas are trained to perform

all

domestic

ceremonies and to act as gurus, and a number of them will be

in every village monastery.
These village monasteries,
which are the real centres of Lingayat organization and life,
and the five original monasteries are called GnrustJiala ^

found

monasteries, because they are guru schools and residences.

But there are a few monasteries of another type, in which

is given, and in them
Virakta Jangamas are trained.
They are usually called
Shatsthala monasteries, because in them the six stJialas or
philosophical and theological instruction

stages

in

the

process of

The duty
313. The social

taught.

reaching

of Viraktas

is

union

with

Siva

are

to teach.

construction of the community, as

it is

to-

and the history behind it is still

more difficult. Liiigayats affirm that Basava did away with
all caste distinctions, whether with regard to religious privileges,
intermarriage, or interdining, but that at an early date the
community fell away from this practice. It would be unpardonable to speak dogmatically about Basava's teaching

day,

is difficult

to understand,

*
Gurusthala monasteries
Putravaroa.

fall

into

two sub-classes, SisJiyavarga and

BHAKTI
until the early literature has

been

263

examined, but,

critically

in

the light of other cases in which similar claims have been

made, only to be proved untenable when carefully investigated,

is surely wise to reserve judgement.
A somewhat similar

it

condition of affairs in the

the original
a

number of

still

very

Manbhau

sect suggests the idea that

in each case may have consisted of

groups among whom caste restrictions were

community
social

elastic.

desire to win over the Jains

may have

helped to perpetuate the freedom.

In order to understand the present position of affairs,

we

must distinguish between full Lingayats and semi-Lingayats.

Among the latter Lingayat practice is imperfect and caste
restrictions

are confessedly rigid.

The

there are two groups.

who

first

Of

arc the

are found mainly in the Kanarese

these semi-Lingayats

Aradhya-Brahmans,^
and Telugu districts,

and arc clearly half-converted Smartas. They wear both the

sacred thread and the linga.
In their private worship they are
Lingayat, but they intermarry with Smarta Brahmans,
a Smarta performs the wedding ceremony for them, and they
The second group are the
will not dine with other Lingayats.
Outcastc Lingayats, for
full

ceremonies, and

whom

who

aie

no Jangama

will

not admitted

in

Lingayat society.
Amongst full Lingayats caste restrictions
rigid,

but

are free to dine together.

all

Jangamas and

in

marriage remain

As

a matter of fact

certain high-class business families

interdine with the rest.

When

perform the

any sense to

do not usually

the guru visits a disciple, they

dine together.

314. All
pollution

is

vegetarians

full

Lingayats bury their dead, and no thought of

associated with the place of burial.

and

strict

abstainers.

demned, and widow remarriage

of the

community have

is

They

Child-marriage

is

are

con-

some

sections

may attain

Release

allowed, but

fallen back.

Vira Saivas are taught that each person

^
In Mysore there is a group known as Aradhyas,
Lingayats and do not wear the sacred thread.

who

are pure

BHAKTI

264

by practising the prescribed meditations and passing

in this life

through the six stages. Bhakti holds a large place in their

Their philosophy shows very clearly the influence
practice.
of Ramanuja, and from an early date the teaching and litera^

Tamil Saivas exercised a considerable influence

ture of the

on them.
315. Lingayat literature is mostly in Kanarese and Sanbut there are also several rather important books in

skrit,

Telugu.

Unfortunately, so

spent on them

that, in

study has as yet been

little critical

many

cases,

it

is

impossible to assign

dates or to sketch their contents.

One

works is the life of Panditaradhya,

It was written in a mixture of
Sanskrit and Telugu by Somanatha, who lived at Palakurki
the

of the very earliest

Mahant of

SrI-Saila.

near Warangal during the reign of the

i.

e. in

first

the last decades of the twelfth century.

author of the original Basava Purdna, which

There

verse.

be even
date

its

earlier,
is

another important work

in

is

also the

is

in

Telugu

Sanskrit which

may

the Sj-Ikara-bhashya on the Veddnta-sntras

discussed in our next chapter.

There are

Agama

is

Prataparudra,

He

also a

literature.^

number of Lingayat documents

The SuksJima

is

in

the

entirely Lingayat, while

the Suprabheda, SvdyambJiiiva, Kdmika, Paramesvara, and

Vdtula

all

contain Lingayat material.

It

is

probable that

these sectarian works are of fairly early date.

Of

great importance for popular Liiigayatism are the early

Kanarese sermons known as Vachana. Some are attributed

to Basava himself, others to later men.
The character of the
Kanarese in which some of these are written proves that they
belong to the thirteenth century at latest.^
There are then the Kanarese Puranas, which are of various
dates. The Siddhardma (the legendary life of the first Mahant
of Sholapur) for example,
^

by Raghavaiika, the

translated those attributed to liasava into English.

are

pupil of Hari-

^ Seep.
See Bhandarkar, VS. 134 ff.
193.
My informant is Rao Sahib P. G. Haikatti of Bijapur, who has

still

unpublished.

Unfortunately they

BHAKTI
haia,

is

a fourteenth-century work

265

^
;

and several others

may

belong to the same century.

F.

The Left-hand School.

a.

316.

Sdkta Literature.

considerable

list

of Tantras can be formed which

from the tenth or the eleventh century. A MS.

of the Brahma- Ydniala bears the date A.D. 1052,^ and a MS. of
the Nityalinikatilaha, a work dealing with the daily rites of

seem

to date

the Kubjika sect of Saktas,

is dated
1197^; while in the
works of two Saiva scholars belonging to Kashmir, Abhinavagupta, \v\\os,e: JIor?(ii is A.D. 1000, and his disciple Kshemaraja,
there are quotations from the Devi- Ydrnala, KulacJmddmani,
a lot tar a, Kidasdra, Aviritesa, and Mdlini-vijaya Tantras.'^
Clearly these cannot be dated later than the tenth century.
Lakshmldhara, a scholar who lived at Warangal towards the
end of the thirteenth century,^ quotes from the Vdniakesvara T.
a list of sixty- four Tantras, which is almost the same as the
list found in MSS. of that Tantra to-day.
As the Vdniakesvara was already an authoritative work in his time, it must

be a good deal
a

list

The

older.

KiilacJineidniani 7. also contains

of sixty-four Tantras, which

kesvara

list.

In each of these

Tantras which we

may

is

lists

very similar to the J^dnmthere are three groups of

take to be characteristic of the

first

half of the period, eight Bhairavas, eight Bahurupas,and eight

Yamalas. These last the Brahma, Vishnu^ Rudra, L^akshnil,

Umd, Skanda, Ganesa, and Graha Ydnialas receive their
name from Yamala, a pair, the reference being to a divinity
and his sakti in sexual union. The pose is called Sanibara in
Nepalese Buddhism and Yah-yiim in Tibetan Buddhism, and
images of this character were common.*^ In their character

^ H. P. Sastri, II. xxii.

Rice, KL. 43.
Hall, 197 f.; Chatterji, KS. 38.

lb.

I.

Ixiv.

See Intro, to Saundaryalaharl by A. Mahadeva .Sastri and Panditaratnam K. Rangacharya. But see also below, p. 3S9, n. i.
^ H. P. Sastri, II. vii.
Getty, GNB. 181 and passim.
There are
similar sculptures on some of the temples at Khajuraho.
"'

BHAKTI

266

these Tantras are parallel with the Buddhist Tantras which

appear

the Tibetan Canon, and in Chinese translations, in

in

the tenth and eleventh centuries.^

Some

of the

names

coincide,

Sambara, Jala-Sambara, Kalachakra, Mahakala.

The Smindaryalaharl is a famous ode to the goddess in
a hundred stanzas, of which Stanzas 1-41 are frequently pubThe
lished as a separate ode under the name AnandalaJiarl.
whole is usually ascribed to Sankaracharya, but serious scholars
regard the ascription as a mistake. Lakshmidhara, the scholar
already quoted,

who

belongs to the end of the thirteenth cen-

commentary on

tury, has a valuable

it.

As he

unhesitatingly

accepts the authorship of Sankara, there must be a tradition

of some age to that effect behind him.

back to a

fairly early date,

but

it

is

The work

thus goes

not yet possible to be

Another work often by mistake^ attributed to

Sankara, the Prapanchasara T., rather a foul book, has been
much used and has had many commentaries written upon it.
We cannot be mistaken in assigning it to this period. Along
with it we may take two books belonging to the Kaulas, who
are amongst- the extremest of the Saktas, the Kaula U. and
Of the latter we are told
the Parasnrama-Bhargava-sntra.
exposition
of
all
branches of the Kaula
is
a
complete
that it
system
and that the worship of Devi according^ to the
Kaula marga is generally based on the directions given in this
Of the Kaula U. we are told that it is a work
work.' ^

more

definite.

'

'

',

in terse prose, the ethical

its

directions are

code of the Kaulas.

vague and

indistinct.

ritualism cannot lead to liberation,

It

It

is

enigmatic, and

hints that the shackles of

which can be secured only by throw-

ing off the blind restrictions imposed by social conventions.

There are some half a dozen other Sakta Upanishads, all of

which probably belong to this period. These are as follows
two Tripnratdpaniya Upanishads, modelled on the Nrisivihatdpaniya works, the Tt'ipiird., Shatchaki'a, and Bhdvand
:

>

'

See

324.

From confusion with a non-Tantrik work of the same name.

From an anonymous essay in SJM. III. (1897).

BHAKTI

1e^

Upanishads, and finally the Devi U., included in the fivefold

Atharvasiras U.^ which doubtless rests on an original Sakta
Upanishad. The Tripiird U., which consists of sixteen stanzas

and claims to belong to the Sakala Sakha of the Rigvcda^ giv'es

a brief outline of the philosophic basis of the Sakta system
and describes the various modes of worship in use.

The Sdraddtilaka T. is a work of very great authoritj*.

by Lakshmana Desika, a scholar belonging to the
eleventh century. The book deals almost exclusively with
written

spells (mantras)
is

and sorcery, and scarcely mentions

who

thus rightly connected with SarasvatI,

speech

is

Sarada.

called

of creation and of

human

opens

It

speech.

It

with

ritual.

It

as goddess of

philosophy

describes and classifies

mantras, gives rules for the preliminary arrangements necessary

for the

use of mantras, for initiation, and for the use of the

sacrificial fire.

The body

of the

and employment of mantras.

many

yantras.

Shatchakra

U.,

The

last

work deals with the formation

A few mudras are

chapter

mentioned above,

is

described and

on Tantrik Yoga.

deals, as its

name

with the six chakras of occult force supposed to

The

implies,

lie

in the

As Narayana commented on it, it must belong

to this period at latest.
The Bhdvand U., also mentioned
above, teaches that the human body may itself be considered
human body.

a SrI-chakra.

We may

two vernacular Sakta works belonging

poem on Chandl belonging to the
thirteenth century and a Telugu translation of the Mdrkandeya P the date of which is about 1300.
also note

to this period, a Bengali

.^

b.

317.

TJic Right-JuDid School.

There seems to be no evidence

in

the early literature

of the existence of any Devi-worshipping sect which repudiated

the coarser elements of the ritual, or of Devi-temples in which

animal

sacrifice

was not permitted.

'

See

207.

All seem to belong to

BHAKTI

268

what is now called the Left-hand ( Vdmdchdrl) section of the

Sakta teaching and cult. But from the thirteenth century, if
not earlier,

we hear

of Sakta scholars

who

followed the pure

path of the Right-hand {Dakshindchdri) section, and also of

Right-hand

literature.

In Gujarat and in South India to-day

many Devi-temples in which no animal sacrifice is

permitted. The individual scholars with their private practice

there are

and the temples with their public cult seem to be both connected with the Smarta community, and the cult is in full
conformity with Vedic usage. Can it be that these facts point
back to a mediaeval reformation ? It is curious that, in tradi-

pseudonymous Sankaravijayas, there is

movement, and it is attributed to
Sankara. For example, in Conjeeveram local tradition says
he compelled the goddess Kamachiamma, i.e. the Love-eyed
Mother, to give up human sacrifice. A very remarkable image
of Sankara is worshipped in her temple there, ^ and the
tion as well as in the

said to have been such a

ministrants are Nambutiri Brahmans,

who

declare themselves

descendants of priests introduced from Malabar by Sankara.^

The

we know, who follows the

Lakshmidhara, who has been already
mentioned. His name as an initiate was Vidyanatha. In his
commentary on sloka 31 of SawidaryalaJiari he gives the list
of sixty-four Tantras discussed above, and also gives two other
318.

first

Right-hand path

as follows

lists

scholar, so far as
is

Misra or Mixed Tantras:

(3)

Kalanidhi,

(7)

Barhaspatya,

Samaya
(2)

(4)

or

Sanaka,

(3)

Kularnava,
(8)

(1)

Chandrakala,

(5) Kulesvarl,

(6)

{1) JyotisvatI,

Bhuvanesvarl,

Durvasasa.

Subha,
Suka,

i.e.

(4)

Pure,

Tantras:

Sanandana,

(5)

(i)

Vasishtha,

Sanatkumara.

By Mixed

Tantras he seems to mean books which give instruc-

tions

the worship of the goddess with a view both to

for

earthly blessings and release, while Pure Tantras teach only

'
''

See a print from a photograph

Maclean, ERE. VII. 646.

in

my

Pritner of IHnduisDi, 119.

BHAKTI
way

the

They

to release.

practice the Devi

may

teach

is

works

five

called Srividyd.
is

how by

meditation and yoga

be raised from the Muladhara, through

four other chakras, to Ajiia,

practice

269

and thence

to the Sahasrara.^

Unfortunately this

last

This

group of

not yet known, and no account of them can be

given.
Tlie BJiakti School.

c.

There

319.

is

another form of Right-hand worship

among

Saktas which has come from the influence of the Bhagavata P.

Release

is

sought by the path of enthusiastic emotional bhakti

The

towards the goddess.

chief scripture of this discipline

is

the Devi Bhagavata, which is usually reckoned one of the

Upapuranas. The devotees of the goddess, however, deny

one of the Upapuranas and affirm that it is the

work to which the fifth place among the Puranas
belongs by right, and that the Krishna Bhagavata was written
by Vopadeva about A. D, 1300. A remark which Sridhara
makes at the beginning of his great commentary on the
Bhagavata P. enables us to realize that this claim was already
that

is

it

original

'^

common

in his

day.

It is

thus clear that the Devi Bhagavata,

being posterior to the Bhagavata P. and prior to Sridhara,

who

lived about A.D. 1400, belongs to this period.

It is

not

yet possible to say anything about the date of the Agastya-

which expound the bhakti of the Devi Bhagavata and

Narada and Sdndilya-^\.\\.x2iS.

sfitras,^

are thus parallel to the

G.
320,

It is

probable that the splendid

of the Vaishnavas and

weakened the

The

Saura Literature.
rise of the chief sects

Saivas during our period gradually

cults of the Sun, Ganesa,

and other minor gods.

Sauras have an honourable place in the Prabodhachaiidro-

daya.^

There were several great temples

built to

Surya during

the early centuries,' but towards the end the popularity of the
'

^
*

See Avalon, TGL. cxxxii ff.

See the essay in SJM. III. (1897).
Notably Mudhera in Gujarat and Kanarak

^
^

in Orissa.

See
See

326.
270.

BHAKTI

37

god waned.
chapters

in

There
the

is

very

little

Brahma P.

literature to notice.

few

containing the theology of Surya

and the praise of Orissa and of the temple of the Sun at

Kanarak, and the song of the Sun-god in Bengali recently
published by Mr. Dinesh Chandra Sen ^ may belong to this
period, and the great inscription at Govindapur in the Gaya
district by the poet Gangadhara,^ which dates from A.D. 1137,
is a Saura document.
H.

Gdnapatya Literature.

321. The Ganapatya sect clearly continued active during

the early centuries of this period, even if it decayed towards

The usual sectarian mantra seems to have been

Ganesdya tiainak^ while the sect-mark was a circlet of red
minium on the forehead. The most important document of
the sect, apart from the Upanishad described above,^ is the
Gancsa Pur ana, ^ the bulk of which consists of legends in
the close.
Si'l

glorification of Ganesa, including stories of his

having cured

leprosy, but also deals with the theology and the worship of

names of the god. Ganesa

the supreme Brahman can be known only by mystical con-

the sect and details the thousand

as

templation, but he
in the usual

may also be worshipped through

Hindu way.

work, but seemingly of later origin.

Digvijaya

is

his images
Ganapatya
The date of the Sankara

Th.t Miedgala P.

very doubtful, but

it

is

may with

also a

safety be regarded

as reflecting facts belonging to the latter half of the period.

speaks of the Ganapatyas as divided into six sub-sects,

It

according as they worship Maha-Ganapati, Haridra Ganapati,

Uchchhishta-Ganapati, Navanita-Ganapati, Svarna-Ganapati,

and Santana-Ganapati, while one section of the UchchhishtaGanapatyas revered Heramba-Ganapati and had very foul
XXI-XXVIII.

2
KSi". I. 23-4; 164-71.
Epigrapliia Iftdica, II. 338.
* See
239.
The
legends are briefly described by Stevenson, JRAS. VII.
The reference to Moresvar, noted by him, is probably an inter319.
1

polation.

BHAKTI
Many

rites.^

South

in

god occur also in the

them are still to be seen in

of these forms of the

Mndgala P.^ and

images

371

number

of

India/' but the sects

have

all

disappeared.

Yet, as the sect decayed, the position of the god as a minor

god of obstacles and success, adored by all

Hindus, became firmly established.
He is praised in this
sense in the Skanda P.^ and elsewhere.
To this period also
belongs a singular document which gives one of the many
variant myths about his birth and his elephant head, the
divinity, the

Ganesa-Khanda of the BraJiuiavaivarta

P:'

The

story

is

told

to glorify Krishna as the Supreme, this part of the Purana

being probably of Nimbarkite

I.

Dharma

origin.''

Literature.

322. The gradual decay of Tantrik Buddhism in Bengal

left a deep but not altogether healthy deposit in

and Orissa

In most cases

Hinduism.

was the old

it

sects that received

the deposit, but in one case at least there was a fresh growth.

The

central member of the Buddhist Triratna

Buddha,
Dharma, Sangha gave birth to a new Hindu god, Dharma,
whose worship spread abroad and produced an important
literature in early Bengali, which bears many marks of its
Buddhist source. The prime scripture is the Sunya Purana}
a lineal descendant of Nagarjuna's Sunyavada, by Ramal
Pandita, which seems to come from the eleventh century.
It
deals with both theology and ritual.
One of the chief names
connected with the cult is Lau Sen, King of Maina in Bengal
in the eleventh century, who worshipped Dharma, and from
whose heroic feats a famous legend arose. This story forms
the basis of a series of Bengali romances known as the Dharma-

like the Buddhists who adored Heramba.

This work catalogues thirty-two forms of Ganapati, while the Sdraddtikaka T. speaks of tifty-one forms Krishna Sastrl, SIl. 173.
*

They were unclean Saktas,

'

lb.

165-76.

Skanda

Wilson, Works,

'

Sen,

P.,

Prabhasa Mahatmya.

HBLL.

III. 103

fif.

See Kennedy, HAf. 352.

See
282.

BHAKTI

37-1

The

maiigal poems, written from the twelfth century onward.

earliest writer

was Mayura Bhatta.^

ii.

Buddhism.

A. The Sdktas.
323.

The Tantrik

Ganges, founded early

University called Vikramasila, on the

in the

ninth century, rose to splendour

and showed a great succession

two centuries. Yet the religion was slowly
dying, poisoned by Tantrism and weakened by Hindu violence
Few books were produced except Tantrik
and criticism.
works and manuals of logic,^ and even these failed towards
about the opening of

this period

of scholars for

the end of the eleventh century.

India in

in

the great

Islam destroyed Buddhism

conquest of the North just before

A.D. 1200.

There is a considerable number of Tantras and related

works which, from their common features, and from the dates
at which they were translated into Chinese and Tibetan, would
seem to belong to the tenth century or thereabouts. One of
the most distinctive, the SrikdlacJiakra T., is said to have
been written in A. D, 965. The Chandaniahdroshana, He-vajra,
Hcruka, Ddkini-jdla-sanibara, Manjusri-miila, and BJiuta 324.

and the Mahjusri-ndma-sahgiti'^ (called

which a long list of the
names of MaiijusrI forms a hymn of praise, belong to the
same time and class.

tfdinar a

Tantras,

also Paramdrtha-ndma-sahglti), in

325. In these there appears

erotic features of Tantrism.^

first

New

an intensification of the
Buddhas, each with his

Heruka and VajrayoginI,

and the high religious value of intercourse with women is more
It was probably as a result of this
insisted on than ever.

sakti,

make

their appearance, e.g.

^ Vidyfibhushana, MSIL.
Sen, HBLL. sofif.
135
Vajrasattva utters the CJiandainahdrosliatui T. Irom the pudendum
muliebre of VajradhatvTsvarl. Cf. the Buddhist Tantrik monk in Act III
of Prabodhachandrodaya (pp. 34 f. in Taylor's tr.), which was produced
about A. D. 1060, and see 300.
1

ft".

BHAKTI
movement that the practice of
Buddhas in sexual union with

^73

representing in scripture these

their spouses arose, a practice

which appeared also in Hinduism.^

In Bengal the erotic
liuddhism of this period was called Sahaja." Romantic love
for beautiful girls

was made the path to

in the

Very

release.

of the literature of the school remains, but

it is

little

reflected later

poetry of Chandidas, the Hindu sakta, and

its

foul

practice long infected Bengal.

The second

works is a theistic
outcome of the Mahayana
theory of the three bodies of the Buddha"^ and of the idealism
of the Vijfianavada school, especially as expressed in the term
alayavijiiana^ The movement was also powerfully influenced
by the Vedanta, by the theism of the Nyaya, and by Saivism.
The universe and all Buddhas come from an eternal being
e. the original Buddha, and Svayambhu,
called Adi-Buddha,
the self-existent, the process being represented by the
i. e.
triple system of Dhyani-Buddhas, Dhyani-Bodhisattvas and
Manushi-Buddhas, as follows
326.

fresh feature of these

or pantheistic theology/* the final

i.

ADI-BUDDHA.
Vairochana

Akshobya

Samantabhadra

Vajrapani

Dipankara

Kanaka-

Dhyani-Buddhas.
RatnasamAmitabha
bhava

Amoghasiddha

Dhyani-Bodhisattvas.

The

Ratnapani

Avalokitesvara

Manushi-Buddhas
Kasyapa
Gautama

three grades of being are suggested

Visvapani

Maitreya

by the three bodies

of the Buddha, while the five beings in each grade

come from
Former

the original five Buddhas of early Buddhism, the three

'

See

''

Kumaraswamy, The Dance of Siva, 103 (New York,

HBLL.
'
*

316.

37.

See Poussin,
See 176.

ERE.

art.

'Adi-Buddha'.
See 178.
'^

1918)

Sen,

BHAKTI

274

Buddhas, Gautama, and the coming Buddha, for these are

the Manushi Buddhas of the third grade. The theory was
developed alongside Tantrism, which teaches that every

Buddha and every Bodhisattva has

By

Buddha

a wife.

contemplative power [dhydna), the Adi-

five acts of his

The Dhyani-Buddhas
do with man or the world, but live in thought-

creates five Dliydni-BiiddJias.

have nothing to

Each, however, has a son who is a

Dhydni-bodhisattva and has never been a man. Through him,
in turn, a MdnusJd-BuddJia, i. e. a human Buddha, is brought
ful

peace

in

into being,

nirvana.

and a world within which the Manushi-Buddha

plays his part.

One

In most of the forms of this theology the eternal

personal, so that the system

is

Aisvarika system of Nepal, but

thought

is

distinctly theistic,

in others,

e.

g.

is

the

where Vijiianavadin

prominent, the idea tends to exclude personality

approach the pantheistic conception of Brahman

The system is
the
Sinkdlachakra
works,
such
as
found most often in Tantrik
T., but it was held by Mahayanists also for it appears in the

and thus
as held

to

by Sankara and other Mayavadins.

;

Gtinakdrandavyiiha^ which

is

new

poetic version of the old

Kdrandavyuha. ^
B.
327.

Buddhism

Buddhist Lands.

lingered on in great weakness in Bengal,

where a few pieces of

literature

may

be traced,^ until the six-

monks and
nuns were absorbed by the Chaitanya scct.^ In Orissa the
faith has survived in disguised forms down to the present time.*
teenth century,

But

if

when

the last groups of Tantrik

Buddhism died out

in

India proper,

it

continued to

thrive elsewhere.
328. In
rise of

Nepal,

fresh literature
1
*

in

the

first

part of the period,

we

trace the

the Aisvarika, or Theistic, system explained above, and

seems to have been

written.

Nepal

It is in

' See
=
Sen, HBLL. 15-55.
See 175.
Vasu, Archaeological Survey of Mayurabhunja, Chap. II.

370.

BHAKTI
that the theistic

theology appears

275

Gunakdrandavyuha^ is found. The same

the Svayambhu P., which is a Mahatmya

in

of Nepal and probably

is

as late as the twelfth or thirteenth

The DasabJiundsvara is a later recension of the

Madh}'amaka Dasabhumaka-sutra? augmented with resumes

century.^

in Prakrit verse.

It is

found

in

Nepal.

The most interesting fact about Nepalese Buddhism is that

its sacred books \vere in Sanskrit, and the great majority of
existing Sanskrit texts, whether Mahayana or Tantrik, have
been found there. They can be most conveniently studied in
No traces of
R. L. Mitra's Nepalese Buddhist Literature.
The character
a Nepalese Buddhist Canon have been found.
of the texts found there would naturally lead to the conclusion
that the books in use in the middle ages must have been very
similar to those of Tibet, i.e. the literature

a considerable
there

one

infusion

is

of Tantrik works.

Mahayana with
Further, while

a curious sort of substitute for

is no real Canon, there is

Nine very famous works eight of them being Mahayana

sutras, the ninth,

one of the greatest of the early Tantras

are

held in special reverence and receive regular divine worship.

The

following

is

the

list

THE NINE DHARMAS.

1
-

1.

AsJitasaliasrikd Prajndpdratiiitd.

2.

GandavyuJia.

3.

Dasabhimiisvara.

4.

SamddJiirdja.

5.

L ahkdvatdra-siitra.

Saddhanna-pundarika.

7.

Tathdgata-guhyaka.'

8.

Lalita-vistara.

9.

SuvarnaprabJidsa.

See 326.
This inference rests on a reference to Radha (Mitra, 254)
See 177.

'l

See

280


BHAKTI

276
329. Buddhist
Ceylon continuously

literature
until

in

Pali

has been written

our times/ and also

in

in

Burma from

the eleventh century downwards.^

In A. D. 972 the Chinese Canon, as

330.

printed from

wooden

it

then was, was

Numerous editions followed

destroyed by fire or by civil war.

blocks.

for the blocks

were often

But many new

added between

translations, especially of Tantrik works,

were
972 and the beginning of the fourteenth
Since then there has been no change. The full

century.^

A. D.

Canon was printed

in

the fourteenth century, and has since

been frequently published.'*

331. Corea and Japan did not translate the sacred books,
but contented themselves with the Chinese Canon.
It is

important to realize
a

influence.

how wide

imperfect

rather

of

set

field

Canon

the Chinese

translations

has

had

of the Christian Scriptures in Japanese, one of the

sects

texts

published Japanese versions of the three

for

its

few years ago, stimulated by the example

Amida

SukhavatI

which they regard as supremely valuable, but

then no Japanese could read a Buddhist text in his

until

own

tongue.

Though

332.

the bulk of the Tibetan translations

had

been made by the end of the ninth century, more were added
the eleventh, and a few as late as the thirteenth century.

in

The

following quotation gives

published

some

about the Canon as

facts

The whole forms a series of over three hundred volumes, each of

which with its wooden covers makes a package about 26 in. long,
8 in. broad, 8 in. deep, and weighing about 10 lb.
The volumes
generally are in the form of xylographs, or prints from carved wooden
blocks, as with ancient Chinese books, no movable type having been
employed occasionally MS. sets of the entire canon are to be found.
;

The sacred
(b) the

texts consist of

two great collections

(a)

the canon, and

commentaries.

Winternitz, II.

MiiheWlode, Pali Liieratu7-e of Burma.

Nanjio, Intro,

i.

174-81.

xxii.

'

i.e. sects that

Nanjio, Cols. 450-8.

worship Amitabha.

'

BHAKTI
The canon,

277

or A'<i-gyur (vulgarly Kanjiir), 'translated word', forms

some

a series of one hundred, or in

one hundred and eight,

editions,

volumes, and comprises 1,083 distinct books.

great sections, as

compared with the three

It

is

divided into seven

divisions of the Pali canonical

scriptures, or Tripitaka.

The commentary Tan-gytir (vulgarly

Tanjicr)

is

a great encyclopaedic

on metaphysics, logic, composition, arts, alchemy,

&c., including the commentaries of ancient Indian Buddhist writers,
Nagarjuna and others, and also some texts by Tsong-Kha-pa and other

library of ancient lore

Tibetan

saints.^

A, D. 1206 Jenghiz Khan the Mongol conquered

His grandson Kublai Khan, converted to Buddhism
by a Tibetan abbot, gave this abbot and his successors
temporal power in Tibet in A. D, 1270, and opened Mongolia
The abbot, with the aid of a staff of scholars,
to Buddhism.

About

Tibet.

carried

out the stupendous task

of translating the

whole

Tibetan Canon into Mongolian. The Mongol script is a modification of Syriac which had been introduced into Central

Asia by Nestorian missionaries.

Thus Indian Buddhist

litera-

ture received a sudden expansion of influence, and was carried

wherever the Mongols

went.'^

iii.

Jainism.

A. Svetdmbara Literature.

?)?>?>'

Svetambara

literature

was already very

varied at the opening of this period, and during the

centuries

playing

rose to

it

all its

its

three

utmost splendour and strength,

variety and brilliance in

Then came

Hemachandra.

and

rich
first

the

its

dis-

chief representative

Muhammadan

conquest of

the North, in which Jains were cut to pieces, harried, and

persecuted

The

in

the

fact that the

same way as Hindus and Buddhists were.

community survived at all is proof of the

character and organization, but

strength of

its

regained

former influence and splendour.

its

The work
1

Waddell,

of elucidating books of the

ERE.

VII. 789.

Canon
''

it

has never

in the classical

ERE.

VII. 786.

BHAKTI

378
style

Sanskrit, so

in

begun by Haribhadra and

brilliantly

Sllanka in the ninth century, was carried forward by another

pair of writers,

Abhayadeva of the eleventh

century,

who took

Sllanka for his model, and Mal'ayagiri of the twelfth century,

who

followed Haribhadra.
There were other scholars
notably Santisuri, Devendragani and Tilakacharya who did

further expository
suri,

work of

Srichandra-

real value in Sanskrit.

a junior contemporary of

Hemachandra,

left

number

of Prakrit commentaries.

Several works of genuine religious power were written

during the period, especially by Hemachandra and Asada

and Jain apologetic, dogmatic, and philosophy were eagerly

cultivated.
Criticism of Hindu and Buddhist philosophy was
very popular, the writers usually following the example of

Haribhadra and calling their works Six systems

A number
of famous sacred odes were composed, the most notable
'

'.

writers being Sobhana, his brother Dhanapala, and

Abhayadeva

the expositor.

Innumerable romantic tales both in Sanskrit and Prakrit

Dhanapala, Devendragani, and Devabhadra wrote

appeared.

Sanskrit,

in

while

Hemachandra 's'^ Vasudcva

Closely allied to these

.Prakrit.

is \\\e

Hmda

is

in

praba?idha, a narrative

of a semi-historical character consisting of a series of stories

about well-known men of the recent past, and also the charita,
or biography of a Jain saint.
Both of these types of books
minister to the instinct which seeks to
lives,

but they are

of

first

all

know

the facts of men's

edifying literature, and for that

reason the tales are treated with a good deal of freedom.

Hence, while a great

more recent

many

stories, especially

few are

in

Prakrit,

e. g.

those of

elements, legend plays

Most of these books

a large place in them.^

but

of the

date, contain historical

are in Sanskrit,

Gunachandra's MaJiainra-

cJiarita.

334.

During the first half of the period the powerful

Vedanta leads to the acceptance among Jains

influence of the
^

Biihler,

Hemachandra, 6

Tawney, Prabandhachinidmaiii, Preface.

BHAKTI

279

of a sort of Brahman, an eternal S[:)irit behind the Tirthakaras

and the idea survives here and there to this day, but it has
never really modified or weakened the essential atheism of
the system. This faint reflection of Vedantic thought in
Jainism is curiousl)' similar to the far more powerful AdiBuddha doctrine in Buddhism,
;^;^^. The following seem to be the most outstanding
'

personalities

Two
century,

among

the writers of the time.

brothers belonging to the

latter

Sobhana and Dhanapala, the

half of the tenth

latter a

protege of both

Muiija and Bhoja, kings of Malwa, distinguished themselves

greatly as writers of sacred odes in Sanskrit.
RisJiabJiapaiicJiasikd, fifty stanzas in praise of

of the Tirthakaras,
still

tales

is

Dhanapala's
Rishabha, one

well known, while Sobhana's

hymns

are

Dhanapala's Tilakaviaujarl, a volume of

highly artificial Sanskrit, is worthy of comparison

more famous.
in

with the Yasastilaka by the contemporary Digambara scholar

Somadeva.

Abhayadeva

is

the greatest

name among Svetambaras

of

Following the example of Silanka, he

the eleventh century.

wrote Sanskrit commentaries on nine of the chief canonical

works, viz. the third to the eleventh Angas inclusive, and

many other texts. Of his original works the best known is

an ode to Parsvanatha called Jayatihuyanastotra, which he
is said to have composed, as a plea for release from a disease,
while standing in worship before that Tirthakara's image.
Devabhadra (1086-1169), a famous logician, completely
defeated the Digambara scholar

Kumudachandra in a conwomen, held at

troversy on the question of the salvation of

the court of Jayasirhha at Anhilvara-patan in Gujarat in a. d.

1 1

24,

and thereby prevented the Digambaras from getting

a foothold in the city.

But the greatest of

who lived from

'

lA. VII. 106

Suali,

GSAI.

iocSq to
;

all
1

Svetambara writers is Hemachandra,

and spent most of his life in Anhil-

73,

Rice, Mysore and Coor^ fnnn the Inscripiiofis, 103

Barth, Rl. 146.

IX. 28

BHAKTI

28o

He had

vara-patan the capital of Gujarat.

great influence

from A. D. 1125 onwards, and still greater after 1159,

when he won over king Kumarapala to Jainism.
He was

at court

a writer of extraordinary industry, scholarship, and versatility.

His chief religious books are the Yogasdstra, a treatise on

Jain ethics and asceticism, and the Vltaragastiiti, a poem in
thirty-two stanzas in praise of the passionless life, both written
to establish his royal convert in the faith.
His three works
the

in

field

of legendary

and biography, already

history

referred to, are the TrisJiashti-salaka-piinisJiacharita, a Jain

history of the world,

its

appendix, the

Parisishtaparvan,vj\i\ch.

contains the lives of the Jain prophets and teachers, and his

Mahdviracharita.

biography of Mahavira, the

His Vasndeva

Hindtty a large collection of romantic tales, told in Prakrit

and mostly

in prose,

chchhakahd.

He

Rdmacharita.

may

is

be set beside Haribhadra's Samarai-

Ramayana, the
was not merely

also the author of a Jain

But

his

religious but covered

literary

activity

almost the whole

field

of the culture

and science of mediaeval India. He wished to give Jains the

fullest possible opportunity of becoming educated and capable
men. He therefore wrote on logic, grammar, rhetoric, poetics,
lexicography, and politics. His Sanskrit and Prakrit grammars
and lexicons are weighty scientific works which have been
widely used.

Asada came of the royal family of Bhilmal in Gujarat.

One of his sons died young, and a Jain teacher did his best
The bereaved father wrote
to give him religious consolation.
1
the
Vivekamahjarl
in
memory
of his son, working
in
191
the

teacher's

Another of

words

of

his works, the

consolation

beautiful

into

Upadesakandali

is

verse.

praised as being

on the road to Release.

Vivckavildsa, which was written about

rich food for pilgrims

Jinadatta's

1220,

is

a sort of

summary

A. D.

of religious knowledge, including

sketches of systems other than Jain.

Amarachandra,
thirteenth

century,

noteworthy poet of the middle of the

wrote

for

the

Jains

the

Bdlabhdrata,

BHAKTI

281

a sketch of the MahdbJiarata in some 6,500 Sanskrit verses,

and a Kavya on Padmanabha, the Jain Tirthakara who is

expected to appear next. He is also the author of three

works on poetics.
Prabhachandra is the author of the earliest life of Hemachandra, the Prabhavakacliarita^ which appeared about 1250,
while his contemporary Devendrasuri is remembered because
he wrote five of the six Karmagranthas.
Merutunga (A) flourished early in the fourteenth century,
and is most famous for his Prabaiidhac/nntdinani. The first
four chapters of this prabandha contain a good deal of
valuable history and biography, but the remainder is legend.
He also wrote the Miinjaprabandha in Prakrit. Rajasekhara
is

the author of

which

is

Prabandhakosa (published in 1349 at Delhi),

and a collection of tales called

of considerable value,

A ntarakathdsangraha.
B.

o^'ifi.

Digambara

The Digambara

rich as the

Literature.

literature of the period

Svetambara, yet

it

is

not so

has considerable variety and

Commentaries were written

Kundakunda's works, and Nemichandra (late
tenth century) produced a number of fresh philosophic books
a large part of

it is

in

Kanarese.

on several of

of considerable importance.

Numerous puranas both Sanskrit

and Kanarese appeared, and legendary history and biography

were not neglected. Amongst the most popular works are
Jain versions of the Epics in Kanarese.

At

the beginning of the tenth century lived Amritachandra,

He expounded three of the works

Digambara scholar Kundakunda, the Saniayasdraprdbhrita, the PahchattJiiyasavigahasutta^ and the Pravachanasdra, and wrote a work on the Digambara categories,
a brilliant commentator.

of the early

the Tattvdrtliasdra, and the PitriisJidrthasiddJiynpdya on the

means whereby man may reach perfection.

Balachandra
[loo) wrote a commentary on the Prdbhritasdra, another
of Kundakunda's works.
{c.

BHAKTI

283

One

of the

most famous of Kanarese poets

is

Pampa, who

wrote in 941 his Kanarese adaptation of the Mahdbhdrata,

which is known as the Pampa-BJidrata, or the Vikramdrjuna
Vij'nya.

We

He

tales told in

of the

is

also the author of the

Kanarese Adi Purdna.

Somadeva, a series of

notice next the Yasastilaka of

very

artistic Sanskrit, to

Digambara

sect.

It is

recommend the Jainism

technically a kathd,

position in prose which breaks

into verse

i.

e.

a com-

when the
a work of

story

becomes surcharged with feeling.

It is
great
literary power, which would have held a high place in Sanskrit
It was written in A. D. 960
literature, had it not been Jain.
under the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III.
Chamundaraya was chief minister to the Western Ganga
king Marasimha II and also to his successor Pafichaladeva.
They reigned in Mysore. He is noteworthy first as having
erected at Sravana Belgola a colossal image of Gommatesvara
about A. D. 980, and secondly as being the author of the
Chdmimdardya Purdna, which is the earliest existing work
in

Kanarese prose and

is

dated

A. D. 978.

It gives

an account

of each of the twenty-four Tirthakaras.

One

of the teachers

whom Chamundaraya

Nemichandra Siddhanta-chakravarti,

who

is

revered was

the author of

dogmatic works in Prakrit verse, which have been much

Dravya-sauigraha, Gommaiasdra, Labdhisdra, KsJiapanasdra, and Trilokasdra. The Dravyasai'iigraha and the
Trilokasdra are always included among the' books mentioned
five

used,

under the Secondary Canon, He seems to be the Nemichandra who lived about A.D. 990 and wrote the first Kanarese
novel, Lildvati.

The Paramdtma-prakdsa is a Sanskrit work in 344 stanzas

by Sri-Yogindra Acharya, but the date is not known. The
purpose of the work is to oppose theistic teaching, and the
method employed is to try to show that the human soul is
the truly divine spirit.

Numerous Vedantic terms

are used.

Asadhara, a layman and a native of the country by the

BHAKTI
Sambhar

lake, fled, while

still

283

young man, from

his

home,

end of the twelfth century, to escape the violence of

There
the Musulman invaders and took refuge in Dhfira.
most
works,
and
wrote
fourteen
he became a learned Jain,
The most famous of these is the
of them on the Jain faith.
DJiarviainrita, or Nectar of Religion, which describes the
His TrisJiasJitisniriti is a
duties of Jain ascetics and laymen.
collection of stories about sixty-three persons drawn from the
at the

Jain Puranas.

There were a number of notable men among the Kanarese

poets.
Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna all tenth-century
men are called the three gems, but Abhinava Pampa also
deserves a place beside them. Pampa's Adi Pnrana is said
His
to be 'unequalled in style among the Kanarese poets'.
in
which
Bhdrata,
Kanarese Mahdbhdrata, called the Pampa

Jain

he

own
much admired.

identifies his

princely patron Arikesari with Arjuna,

The fame

is

also

in

each case on a Kanarese Purana.

flourished

but
It is
is

it

is

about

his

A. D.

iioo,

is

Pampa Ramdyana

of

also the author of a Purana,

that has brought

a Jain recast of the ancient story.

Jain,

and

We may

all

Ponna and Ranna rests

Abhinava Pampa, who
him glory.

The whole atmosphere

the heroes are faithful to the Jain faith.

mention the Jivaka-Ciiintdinani} a Jain

Tamil Kdvya or romance in verse, written probably in the
also

tenth century.
'

Barnett,

BMCTB.

4.

CHAPTER

VII

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
TO

A.D. 1350

337. The new factor

centuries

is

in

iHoo.

the reh'gion of India during these

That influence seems to be

the influence of Islam.

but we choose
1350 as the opening year of the new period, because it is most
probable that further research will succeed in discerning its
scarcely traceable in the literature before 1400

activities a

good deal

Islamic ideas are not so gener-

earlier.

ally diffused as the great elements

which have hitherto formed

the distinguishing features of our periods, but they seem to be

of greater importance than any other force operative during

these centuries.
It

was, in the

first

instance,

that Islam found entrance to

Hindu

through the teaching of Sufis

Hindu

and gurus

hearts.

They fraternized

and each learned to respect

life.
But not until the last
quarter of the fifteenth century did the movement show any
notable force. Kabir was the man through whom the leading
ideas were popularized.
From his time the condemnation of
idolatry and polytheism became frequent.
But large sections
of Hinduism show little or no reaction to the influence of
with

ascetics

the other's religious faith and

Islam.

Perhaps the extraordinary

fourteenth century onwards

rise of

may

the vernaculars from the

be partly due to the serious

weakening of Sanskrit scholarship consequent on the impoverishment of Hinduism and the destruction of Hindu schools
and monasteries by the invaders.
Akbar, who had come to the throne in 1542, transformed
the character of the empire by his policy of giving Hindus
equal rights with Muslims and admitting them to the highest
positions in the army and the administration.
He thereby

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

285

not only gave Hinduism freedom once more to raise

its

head,

but greatly changed the feeling of Hindus towards the Empire.

He

had many Hindu works translated

into Persian,

and

his

great-grandson, Dara Shikoh, followed his example.

Hinduism.

i.

A.
a.

338.

From

TJic Philosophies.

The

Karma

Minidnisd.

the very beginning of this period to the middle of

the seventeenth century there was great activity in the

treatise

The

Karma

Three authors produced each a famous

and a very large number of ancillary works appeared.

Mimamsa

school.

earliest, written

during the

decades of our period,

first

is

Madhava's Jaimiuiyanydya-indld-vistara, a full exposition of

the system in verse, accompanied by a commentary in prose.
Colebrooke says
It

as a

follows the order in Jaimini's text; not

summary (though

the

title

by way of paraphrase, but

rather implies amplification) of

its

sometimes explaining
and of approved deductions from it
separately the doctrine of Bhatta and of Guru, under each head
but more commonly confined
at other times that of the old scholiast
yet often furnishing more than one application
to that of Bhatta alone
to the same text, as Bhatta himself does.*
purport,

This work has had a great vogue, partly because of its clearness,
largely also because the verses could be easily committed to
memory. The author and his brother Sayana were closely
connected with the court of Vijayanagara and with Saiikara's

monastery

Hindu

of

at Sringerl.

scholars.

They

are

Apa Deva

'-^

amongst the most

illustrious

wrote, about A.D. 1630, an

elementary manual, the Miindi'nsd-iiydya-prakdsa, which is

usually called the Apadcvl and has been much studied, because
is

it

Then Khandadeva

easy.

ME.

I.

(died

idd^ produced

300.

His son, Ananta Deva, author of the Smriti Kans/itb/ia, wrote

command of Baz Bahadur Chandra of Kumaon, who died in 1678.
^

CI. 281.

the

at the
Dufif,

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

286

won

Bhdttadlpikd, which has

itself

reasoning.

its brilliant logical

of

1624) has a treatise in verse on the

talked of in

its

day, the

an honoured place because

Appaya Dikshita^ {^SS"^-

Mimamsa which was much

Vidhi-rasdyaiia

in

it

he attacks

Kumarila.

The Mimarhsa has been

atheistic, in the sense of not recog-

nizing the Supreme, throughout

its

who almost

never hindered Smartas,

history

to the last

yet that has

man

recognize

Brahman of the Upanishads, from making full use of the

system. Vedanta-Desika ^ in his Sesvara Mimduisd mainthe

tains that

Kumarila acknowledged the existence of God, and

other writers have argued that the acknowledgement of

is -quite consistent with

its

b.

God

principles.
TJic

Veddnta.

339. During this period an immense number of treatises

were written on the advaita Vedanta, commentaries, supercommentaries, summaries in prose and verse, and partial
expositions. Here we note only a few of the more noteworthy

At

manuals.
the

the beginning of the period there appeared

Panchadasihy BharatTtlrtha and Madhava, an independent

exposition

in

verse of the whole system running to fifteen

chapters, as the

went further

name

implies.

It

betrays the tendency, which

later on, to bring into the

Vedanta

century,

Advaitananda

wrote

the

ideas belonging

In the fifteenth

to the other systems, especially the Saiikhya.

Brahnia-vidydbharana,

commentary on Sankara's BJidshya which Colebrooke

found useful. His disciple Sadananda is the author of a brief

a prose

outline of the Advaita in prose called the Veddnta-sdra,^\{\z\\

forms a useful introduction to the philosophy but the student

must realize that contamination of the Vedanta from the
;

Saiikhya proceeds further in

it

than

in earlier

works.

Madhu-

sudana SarasvatI, a sannyasi of the SarasvatI order, flourished

before A.D. 1550, and wrote a well-known work on the nature
of release in the Advaita, the Vcddnta-kalpalatikd.
^

See 354.

See 381.

He belongs

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
to the

group who believe that

philosophy teach

essentially

Bhikshu's Vijhixndmrita

is

all

the

287

the six systems of

same

doctrine.^

Hindu

Vijiiana

a dualist bhash)'a, an attempt to

Sankhya can be established

prove that the dualism of the

within the Vedanta.^
^^40. Several fresh sectarian

this period.

The

bhashyas were written during

following table

may

be found useful

SECTARIAN BHASHYAS.
Approx.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

a88

work, and when he returned to Europe translated

this

for

word

first

This was the form

into Latin.

it

word

which the Vedanta

in

reached Europe.
c.

\ 342.

Throughout

Sdnkhya.

TJie

this period the

Sdnkhya Kdrikd con-

Madhavachaiya's summary of
in
Sarva-darsana-sahgraha,
written
his
Sahkhya doctrine
about A.D. 1380, is based on it and several commentaries on
it and on Vachaspati's SdhkJiya-tattva-kainmidi have been
written.
But there are two other expositions of Sankhya
teaching which have also been largely used, the Sdnkhya-sutras

tinued to be

much

read

for

and the Tattva-savidsa. The date and the author in each

case are quite unknown. Max Miiller thought that the Tattvasaindsa was older than the Kdrikd but scholars of to-day do
not follow him. Clearly, it is much more likely that these two
are comparatively late works for there is no clear reference
The Tattva-samdsa
to either before the fifteenth century.
;

represents a form of arrangement of the

Sankhya

principles

considerably different from the form exhibited in the Kdrikd.

The Sdnkhya-sutra

gives a good deal of space to criticism of

the other philosophical systems, including the Vedanta

it

yet

makes a very great advance towards the Vedantic conception

of God.

Keith says

The work makes remarkable

efforts to

accord with scripture, to which

it

prove that

attributes

its

views are

in full

conclusive value, and

endeavours to show as accordant with the Sanikhya itself///^ statoiiaits

scripture regarding the personality of God, the unity of the absolute,

tft

the joy which

is

asserted to be part of the nature of the absolute, and

the heavenly bliss acknowledged in the

Vedanta as a step on the way

Indeed the text goes so

the traditional rules of action has a good

far as to

to final release.

lease,

and

The Sutra

to talk of the

effect

hold that obedience to

towards securing

final re-

attainment of the nature of the absolute.

thus approaches the doctrine, which became very

popular during this period, that

'

all

SS. 94.

the six

Hindu systems can

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
be shown to be

in

harmony with each

developments of doctrine of

other.

289

There are other

In the middle of

less interest.^

the sixteenth century there lived in the vicinity of Benares

named Vijnana Bhikshu who

a Sankhya sannyasi

movement a

carried this

His fundamental conceptions seem

little farther.

havebeen those of the ancient theistic system called SahkhyaIn any case he was a Sankhya dualist, and yet a theist,

to

yoga.

conceiving

God

soul, perfect

Sankhya

not as the universal

and ever

free.

He

spirit,

but as a special

wrote a bhashya on the

Sdhkhya-pravachajia-bhdshya.

Sfitra, the

gives expression to the conviction that

In

it

he

the six systems are

all

authoritative, in spite of their differences,

Sankhya sannyasTs are now so

know

that, as late as

Hariharananda was

rare that

9 1 2, a learned

alive

and teaching

d.

it is

of interest to

Sankhya yati named S vami

in Calcutta.^

The Yoga.

343. Three useful works on Yoga produced during this

period may be mentioned.
Madhava's chapter on the subject
in his

SarvadarsanasahgraJia

Yogasdrasangraha
Sarasvati's

{c. i\.T>.

380), Vijnana Bhikshu's

(mid. sixteenth century), and

commentary on the Yoga-sutra,

called

Ramananda
Maniprabhd,

written about A.D. 1600.

Yogis of this great old school have become very

have never had the good fortune to meet one.
e.

The Vaiseshika and

the

rare.

Nydya.

344. The work of the combined school of Vaiseshika and

Nyaya was vigorously pursued by Annam Bhatta and Visvanatha Panchanana, who were Vaiseshikas, and by Jagadlsa and
Laugakshi Bhaskara, who were Naiyayikas. All four lived
somewhere about 1600. The Bengali school of New Logic
started with Vasudeva Sarvabhauma,^ who taught at Nuddea

from 1470 to 1480, but was brought to

*

full

intellectual free-

- Chatterji, HR. xiv.

See the fine analysis in Keith, -SVV. 92 ft.
Sen, CC. 80 fF.
Sarvabhauma became an enthusiastic follower of

Chaitanya.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

290

dom by

Raghunatha Siromani.

his pupil,

of teachers

succession

thereafter

down

There was a long

end of the

to the

seventeenth century.^

The most famous

numerous critical summaries

saw the light about
Sixteen
A.D, 1380, the Sarvadarsanasahgraha of Madhava.
345.

of the

of philosophical systems written in India

systems are sketched, arranged so as to form a gradually

ascending series. First come the materialistic Charvakas, the
Buddhists and the Jains, then six of the sectarian theologies,
and finally the Hindu philosophies,^ the whole series culminating in the Vedanta."
B, Reconciliation of Systems.

We

346.

noticed

above

the

"*

statement made

in

the

Prabodhachandrodaya that the six systems of Hindu philosophy are not mutually exclusive systems but that they all
celebrate from various points of view the same glorious and
uncreated God. Vijfiana Bhikshu,^ the sixteenth-century
Sahkhya sannyasi, who is a theist, acknowledges that the
Sahkhya system and the Karma Mimarhsa are atheistic, yet
he holds that all the systems are authoritative, and reconciles
them by distinguishing between essential and practical truths,
the latter being false or imperfect theories inculcated with

a view to some practical end, and therefore to be neglected in

a general survey.

Similarly,

Madhusudana Sarasvati^ wrote

rather later

The

ultimate

systems,

is

to

scope of

all

the

Munis, authors of these different

support the theory of illusion, and their only design

^ See a full statement by Manamohan Chakravarti mJASB. Sept.

191 5,
pp. 259fr.
These are seven instead of six, because Panini's grammatical teaching
is included, on account of his theory of the eternity of sound.
^ In the vulgate text of the work there is no essay on the Vedanta,
the explanation probably being that readers were expected to turn to the
.Panchadast. Recently, however, a text was published in Poena on the
basis of a manuscript discovered in Tanjore, in which an essay on the
Vedanta completes the work. Is this essay genuine 1
*
^ See
In 270.
342.
^ Prasthdnabheda
Muir, OST. IV. 102.
'^

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

391

one Supreme Ciod, the sole essence

Munis could not be mistaken since they were omniscient.
But as they saw that men, addicted to the pursuit of external objects,
is

to establish the existence of

for these

could not
to

at

all

them a

once penetrate into the highest truths, they held out

variety of theories, in order that they might not

into

fall

Misunderstanding the object which the Munis thus had in

view, and representing that they even designed to propound doctrines
contrary to the Vedas, men have come to regard the specific doctrines

atheism.

and thus become adherents

of these several schools with preference,

of a variety of systems.

Most modern Hindu scholars occupy a

347.

point.

Mr.

J.

representative.

systems are
dualistic

realistic

all

Thus, in

reality, there are

They

dictory.

types or grades of
capacities

he proceeds

only three metaphysical systems of the

it

were, three great standards, suited to different

minds different

intellectual (and only intellectual)

and temperaments.

The

position of Kablr,"

glance to be

first

this

are regarded as forming a graduated series in which the

three systems form, as

348.

From

These systems again are not considered as mutually contra-

Hindus.

the

Sahkhya and the Yoga are

the

the Vedanta monistic.

similar stand-

may be taken as
The Nyaya, Vaiseshika, and Karma Mimarhsa
statement

C. Chatterji's

ciliation of

still

wider

and

Islam and Hinduism

simpler, surer, and

more

all his

for in
;

school,

him there

but the truth

practical.

For the

seems

is

in

at

a reconit

is

far

reconciliation

is

between one school of Islam and one school of Hinduism, the

latter already seriously modified by the laying aside of
idolatry.

But the boldest of all is Akbar's Divine Faith, the

which was meant to sum up all religions, a creation

349.

Dill IldJii^

which died with

Hindu pandits

at

its

own

the

imperial

creator.

little

later,

court of Aurungzebe suggested

to

many

all

Bernier^ the idea that there might be

true religions,

proceeding from the one God.

350. Early in the eighteenth century, Prannath taught, at
'

HR.

V. A. Smith, Akbar, 209

5.

ff.

See

396.
Travels, 328.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

293

Panna

in

Bandelkhand, that

reconciled in his

Messiah, the

own

the religions of India were

all

person, since he was at once the Christian

Mohammedan

Mahdi, and the Nishkalahkavatdra,

'the stainless incarnation', of the Hindus, and expressed the

dogma

in his

Kiilljama Sahcb}
C. TJie HindiL People.

351. The Hindu people are

three old groups.

There

is

still

first

roughly divisible into the

the mass of the

who belong

common

no sect, but acknowledge all the gods and worship whichever they think is likely
There come next the orthodox
to help at the moment.
twice-born men, who acknowledge all the gods and worship
them with Vedic rites, and in addition hold some religious
philosophy, either monistic or theistic. The third group are
people, caste or outcaste,

to

Each sect holds a theistic theology, worships

own god as the personal Supreme, and identifies him with
Groups of the uncultured
the Brahman of the Upanishads.
the Sectarians.
its

common people may be found here and there, especially in the

south, who cling intelligently to a sectarian theology and cult.
As will be evident from our survey, Hinduism produced
a long series of great sects from the twelfth to the sixteenth
From about 1550, however, the effort rapidly
century.

One

most noteworthy facts

1700 is the steady persistent
decay of the sects ^ all over North India and also in wide
Multitudes have drifted back to
regions farther south.
undifferenced polytheism, carrying with them the merest

weakened and died away.

of the

in the history of the religion since

Uneducated pujdris ^ with their

shreds of the old thought.
numerous images and mongrel ritual strengthen the reactionary
movement. This fact makes fruitful research exceedingly
difficult
^

over wide areas.

Gx\'s,\so\A., Forman Christian College Magazine, July
Growse, M. 230
JASB. XLVIII. 171; Russell,
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Khan of Qadian is an exact modern

Wilson, 315

f.;

and Nov. 1905;

TCCP. 216
parallel
"^

ff.

see Walter's

fif.

Ahamadiya Movement,

See Chanda's statement, lAR. 143

ff.

Calcutta, 1918.
I.e. temple-ministrants.

MUSLIM influencp:

293

D. Stud r la Lih'ra/nrc.
352.
first,

the

Srauta

The orthodox twice-born fall into two groups. The

Srautas, who still perform some of the ancient

sacrifices, are so

few in most parts of India that they

are seldom distinguished

Sindrtas,

who

from the much larger group, the

content themselves with the worship of the

gods and the observance of the Sandhya,

In South India and

in

is

e.

Gujarat the word Smarta connotes,

in addition, allegiance to

India the Smarta

i.

five

the daily prayers.

free

Sankara's Vedanta

philosophy.

in

may

but

in

North

He may follow
or he may find

accept the Nyaya system

an attempt to blend Ramanuja's theism with
the strength and simplicity of Sankara's thought. The worship
of the five gods in PancJidyatana Pujd is observed at home.^
Images, or stone and metal symbols,^ or diagrams, or earthenware pots, may be used to represent the divinities. The image
or symbol of the god whom the worshipper prefers is placed in
the centre, and the other four are so set as to form a square
around the central figure.'^
353. Hindu temples are supposed to fall into two classes,
Smarta and Sectarian. In a Smarta temple, whether it is

Sankara

he

satisfaction in

dedicated to Siva, Vishnu, Devi, Surya, Ganesa, or

some other

god, the ritual and liturgy ought to be Vedic, and the five gods

In sectarian temples, the ritual and

ought to be Tantric (i. e, based on the Sarhhitas in
a Vishnava temple, on the Agamas in a Saiva temple, and on

ought to be worshipped.
liturgy

'
In Gujarat and in the Tamil country Smartas may be found who no
longer worship the five they worship Siva and reverence the others.
Vishnu, the Sdlagrdina pebble
The more usual symbols are
the Devi, a piece of metal, or the
Siva, the Narinadehuira pebble
Svarnarekhd stone found in a river in South India; Surya, a round
piece of Silryakdnta^ i.e. sun-stone, or of sphatika, i.e. crystal ; Ganesa,
the Svartiabhadra, a red slab from a stream near Arrah.
' A Smarta Brahman one day invited me to have a look at his domestic
chapel. It was a very small room. The sacred place was about two and
a half feet square, and was sunk some six inches below the main level.
In the centre of this little quadrangle stood the linga, while an image
stood in each of the corners, V^ishnu, Devi, Surya, and Ganesa.
:

"^

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

294

the Tantras in a Sakta temple), and the chief deity ought to

be some form of the god of the sect, even

are also recognized.
As a matter of fact,

if

other divinities

com-

in the north,

paratively few pure Smarta temples are to be found

^
;

and,

while in the south and west sectarian temples are managed

with a good deal of strictness,

the north laxity

in

men

Pujarls are usually

spread.

of

little

is

wide-

education, and they

very naturally tend to introduce images of popular gods

addition to the divinity of the temple, and to follow their

whims

matters of

in

in

own

ritual.

Brahman
own worship in
Grihya-sutra of his own

In most Saiva temples in North India a Smarta

can go forward to the

liriga

and perform

accordance with the directions of the

his

The pujarl of the temple conducts

cJiarana.

the puja of sixteen

operations {shodasa upachard) at certain fixed times, but the

Smarta Brahman's worship

is

quite independent.

India this personal worship in the temple

In

many

Saiva temples

in

the north,

all

is

In South

not permitted.

worshippers, including

women, are allowed to approach the linga, place a few bilva

leaves upon it, and pour some Ganges water over it, while they
mutter their mantras or prayers.

Most Smartas give

their

preference to Siva, but others

are Vaishnava or Sakta in their leanings^ and in earlier times,

doubtless,

many,

like

Raja Blrbal,^ were Sauras.

354, The first fifty years of the period are memorable for
the brilliant Vedic and philosophic work done by the brothers,

Madhava and Sayana.

Madhava's three books, the Nyaya-

^ A temple may be found here and there in which the five gods are
Thus in the ^"allabhacharya temple in
arranged according to rule.
Udaipur the main temple is the shrine of Krishna, while Siva has a small
shrine in the NE. corner, Durga in the NW., Surya in the SW., and
Ganesa in the SE. In Saiva temples in Gujarat one frequently finds, in
addition to the linga, images of the Devi and of Ganesa, while Vishnu
is represented by a tortoise, and Siarya is not pictured, because he is
visible in the sky. There is usually an image of Hanuman also. Frequently
she is represented by a snake
there is no separate image of the Devi
coiled round the lower half of the linga. This is the concept of Kundalini
from .Sakta Yoga see 232, and cf. Krishna Sastrl, ^7/. 185, ;/. I.
2 V. A. Smith, Akbar, 165.
:

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

295

mdld-vistara on the Mimarhsa, the Panchadasl on the Vedanta,

and the SarvadarsanasahgraJia, a review of philosophic

systems, have been dealt with above under the philosophies
but the style as well as the subject would inevitably make
each a work of very great interest to thinking Smartas. The
works of Sayana (died 1387), on the other hand, deal directly
with the literature on which the orthodox twice-born depend.
A series of valuable commentaries on the Rigveda, the
Aitarcya BraJnnana and Aranyaka, and on the Taitiirlya
Sai'/ihitd. Bj'dhniana, and Aranyaka of the Black Yajurveda
were written in whole or in part by Sayana. They have been
;

of large service to Hindu scholars ever since, and European

The PrastJidnabheda
who has been already mentioned,

them a great debt.

scholarship owes
of

Madhusudana

Sarasvatl,

is

interesting as

showing the orthodox method of regarding

and sectarian systems with their

the various philosophies

literature.

The

Ways

to

i.e.

',

title

of the work means

'

Varieties of the

God.

Raghunandana Bhattacharya {c. A.D. 1500) dealt

with the detailed religious duty of the Hindu in his

In Bengal
fully

Ashtdvivisati

Tattva,

work

greatly

treasured

by the

orthodox.

Appaya Dikshita, 1 552-1 624, one of the most famous

Smarta scholars of the time, produced a large number of
books on very varied subjects. Amongst his religious works
is
the Sivdrkamanidlpikd, a Sanskrit commentary on Srlkantha's Saiva-bhdshya, which has been much used.^
In
his

later

years

he

followed

the

right-hand

practice

of

Saktism.^

One very practical type of Smarta literature consists of

manuals, usually called prakarana-grantJias, written for the
purpose of applying Mimarhsa principles to the ceremonies
enjoined

in

smriti books, and forming an offshoot from the

Mimarhsa proper.

One

of the earliest and chief of these

is

the

Smriti-Kattstubha, written by Ananta-deva, son of the author

^

See

424.

See

270 and

317.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

296
of the Apadcvl}

They may be found

in local

forms

in all

parts of the country.

is the author of an exposition of the Vedanta
Marathi verse called the Vivekasi?idhu^ which is much

Mukundaraj
in

admired.

It

has been referred to the reign of Jaitrapal, King

of Devagiri in the Maratha country at the end of the twelfth

century, and has therefore been called the earliest piece of

Marathi

literature,

but the character of the language scarcely

does not seem to be nearly so ancient

Jhanesvari^ Further, Mahlpati, who
wrote lives of many of the Marathi poets, makes him a
contemporary of Tukaram. His date is thus quite uncertain.
The Yoga- Vasishtha-Rdmayana discussed above,^ was
It is mentioned and quoted by Bharatltirtha
widely used.
and Madhava in the Panchadast and thejiidna- Vasishtham,
an adaptation in Tamil verse by Alavantar Madavappattar,
appeared about A. D. 1600.
bears out the claim.

It

as the language of the

E.

Vaishnava Literature.
General.

a.

The most prominent type

of general Vaishnava
produced during the period consists of free renderings
and adaptations of the Epics and the Puranas in the verThe Mahdbhdrata appeared in a Bengali dress in
naculars.
the fourteenth century and often afterwards, in Tamil in the
fifteenth, in Kanarese about 1500, and
in
Hindi in the
The Rdmdyana was produced in Bengali
nineteenth century.
in the fourteenth century and often afterwards, in Malayalim
in the fifteenth, in Kanarese in the sixteenth, in Hindi in the
Three Vaishnava
seventeenth, and in Oriya at a later date.
Puranas, the Vishnu, Vardha, and Padma, were translated
It would be unwise to
into Telugu in the fifteenth century.
lay much religious stress on these versions.
The bulk of
literature
in
serious Vaishnava
arose
the sub-sects.
\ o^^^.

literature

See

33S.

""

See

278.

=*

270.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
b.
I.

297

Bhdgavata.

The Bhagavata Conuimiiity.

^S5^- Probably about A.D. 1400, Srldhara Svaml, Mahant

of the Sankarite monastery, Govardhana, in Purl, wrote a
commentary on the Bhagavata P., the Bhagavata BJiavdrtha
is by far the most famous exposition of the
was clearly an excellent scholar, and he must
have had access to a very trustworthy tradition. He begins

Dlpikd, which

work.
his

He

commentary with the

distinct statement

that the great

Purana was not written by Vopadeva. The fact that this

theory was already current proves that Srldhara wrote at a
time

considerably

flourished.

by

As

the

later

than

A.D.

commentary was

when Vopadeva
known everywhere

1300,
well

the end of the fifteenth century, Sx\d\vdirdJs Jloruit

reasonably be placed about A.D. 1400.

may

His interpretation of

is advaitist, since he was a follower of Sankara

and since the Bhagavata itself tends to be monist, his Dlpikd
is usually regarded as most authoritative.
The Purana was translated into many languages, either
completely or partially, during the period. It appeared in
Telugu and Bengali in the fifteenth century, in Braj and
Persian in the sixteenth, in MarathI and Kanarese about
A.D. 1600, in Gujarat! and Malayalim in the seventeenth
century, and in Hindi in the nineteenth.
sectarian bhashya on the Veddnta-sutras, which is called
the Siika Bhdshya, and which purports to be a Bhagavata
work, seems to have been written late in this period. Its
standpoint is Visishtadvaita, and the texts used to establish
the teaching of the bhashya are drawn from the Bhdgavata P.,
Upanishad texts being cited only as subsidiary evidence.
The author is called Sukacharya, and is said to have been the
founder of the Bhagavata monastery at Talkad in Mysore,
but the work is probably pseudonymous. It is a suspicious
circumstance that a Bhagavata bhashya should be not advaita
but visishtadvaita. Further, no Sukacharya appears in the

the Purana

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

298

guruparafnpara of Talkad, nor yet among the gurus of the

Matha of Mulubazil, the only other Bhagavata monastery in
Mysore, while the authorities of both monasteries refuse to
recognize the Stika Bhdshya as a Bhagavata work.^
The Bhagavatas, being both Smartas and devotees of
Vishnu, occupied from the first rather an unstable position
between the orthodox and the sects, and their acceptance of
the Bhagavata P. deepened the difficulty for them.
The
results are visible in their history.
In the Mysore and the
Tamil south they are a scattered community possessing very
io^N

temples of their own and only a few monasteries. They

in SrI-Vaishnava temples but distinguish themselves

worship

from SrI-Vaishnavas by wearing the ancient sect-mark, a single

upright line of cream-coloured goplchandana,^ and by using
the Bhagavata mantra." Occasionally individual Bhagavatas
pass over to the SrI-Vaishnava community.
In the Kanarese
country on the western coast they

although greatly outnumbered

number

maintain themselves,

still

by Madhvas, and

venerate Siva as well as Vishnu, observe Vedic

recognized as Smartas.

Bhagavata

the

have a

Throughout these wide areas they

of temples.

except

They

recognize no

Sridhara's.

All

rites,

still

and are

commentary on
the

other

sects

dependent on the Bhagavata P. have experienced the same

difficulty of maintaining the Vedic position, and most are in
consequence

now

frankly sectarian.

2.

MardtJia Bhaktas.

357. There seems to have been an interval of quite a

century after Jiianesvara before another star of any magnitude

among

arose
singer

is

the Maratha Bhagavatas.

Namdeva.

There

is

The next

notable

a local tradition to the effect

am

deeply indebted to Mr. R. Narasimhachar, Director of Archaeoin Mysore, who, at my request, wrote to Talkad for
information with regard to the age of the bhashya, and elicited the facts
'

logical

Research

stated in this sentence.

^

See

277.

See

161.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

399

that he and Jnanesvara met at least once, while in the Bhakta-

and disciple. In consequence of this Namdeva has usually been placed at the end
of the thirteenth, and the beginning of the fourteenth, century
but his Marathi is of such a character that Sir Ramakrishna
as master

inald they are regarded

Bhandarkar
a

number of

inclined to date

is

his

hymns occur

him a century

in the

later.^

Now,

Sikh GrantJi, and he

is

regarded as one of a few bhaktas who, coming just before

Ramananda, prepared the way for him. There seems to be
evidence to show that Ramananda flourished in the
second and third quarters of the fifteenth century so that
Namdeva's_/?(?r?/?V would be somewhere about 1400 to I430'
Mr. Balesvar Prasad, who is a most careful student of Hindi

sufificient

which agrees perfectly with the above reasoning and with Sir Ramakrishna's
conjecture.
This chronology is finally established by one
which
of Namdeva's own abhahgs, 'Gone are the saints

literature, gives

A.D. 1423 as

\\\s

Jlortdt,

','

makes it absolutely clear that Jiianesvara and his saintly

companions lived long before him. He was a tailor, shiinpi,
by birth and occupation, but he spent his life propagating
In his
bhakti in the Maratha country and in the Punjab.
Maratha
in
the
appears
first
verse the influence of Islam
country.
He and those who followed him criticized idolatry
with some severity but continued the use of idols. A large
body of Marathi hymns are attributed to him, and a considerable number of Hind! hymns appear under his name in
the Granth, the whole forming a mass of verse of very high

quality.
careful comparison of the two groups would
probably throw further light on the man and his life. He

was

influential

country, as

is

in

the

Punjab as well as

proved by

a shrine dedicated to his

in the

Gurdaspur district.^

VS. 92.
Macnicol,

PMS.

41.

in

the

Maratha

hymns in the Granth and by

memory and still in use at Ghuman
his

Another Maratha

singer, Trilochan

'

SBS.

'

Macau] iffe, VI.

II. 26.

39.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

300

by name, seems
but very

little

hymns appear
his

in

known about him.

memory, seem to be

The next
Eknath

He

been a contemporary of Namdeva,

Three of his Hindi
the Granth, but his Marathl hymns, and even

to have
is

is

lost in his native land.

among the Maratha bhaktas is

who was a Brahman and lived at Paithan.

leader of eminence

(died 1608),

said to have

spoken and acted

in

opposition to caste,

and to have suffered for his zeal. But he has been most
through his Marathl verse translations from the

influential

Bhdgavata P}
He left also a collection of twenty-six
abhahgs called Hm'ipdth. In philosophy he was a monist,
like Mukundaraj and Jiianesvara.
Tukaram (1608-49) was a petty shopkeeper.
He is
passionately devoted to Vithoba, and his personal religious
life is reflected with great vividness in his moving lines his
longing for God, his humility, his sense of unworthiness, his

boundless need, his trust

for help.

It is his

own

in

God, and

religious

life

and prayers

his appeals

that occupies his soul

as in most forms of Hinduism, there are but few traces of the

passion for winning others.

of his god.

He

his spirituality,

is

His worship centres

in

the image

conscious of Vithoba's omnipresence, and

and yet somehow the

invisible

God

is

identified

with the adored image before which the worshipper bends.

His hymns are of a very high order, and are probably the
Maratha country. There is
scarcely a theological or philosophical system to be found in
his writings, but so far as philosophical thinking may be
traced, he tends to be a monist.
Sivajl, the man who welded
the Maratha race into a strong people, rose to prominence in
the last few years of Tukaram's life, and he sent some of his
councillors to beg him to come to court, but Tukaram sent
largest religious influence in the

him a few stanzas instead.

Narayana (1608-81), who

later

took the name of

Ram

Das, probably under the influence of the Ramanandi movement, was also a poet, but his verse has not laid hold of the
^

Parts of these are sung in Sahklrtan in the temple at Pandharpur.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
same way

301

Yet he exerted great

His poem,
Dasabodha, contains much shrewd wisdom, but it is philopeople

in the

as Tukaram's.

personal influence over Sivajl from 1650 onwards.

sophical rather than religious.

still

mantra of their own.

Satara, where there

Ram

is

Chandra, and a

Brahman

sect.

named

poet,

popularity during the

stories of the

Sridhara, rose to great fame and

quarter of the eighteenth century.

first

His leading works present

is

small sect, the Ram-dasls.

The head-quarters are at Sajjangarh, near

the Samadh of Ram Das, a temple to
Ram-dasi monastery. There are many

sadhus belonging to the

perpetuate his name, wear a sect-mark, and use a secret

in

stirring

Marathl verse the great

Ranidyana and the MahdbJiarata.

His influence

not directly religious, except in so far as the stories he

reproduces have a religious character.

Mahlpati,

who

flourished

later in the

same century, gave

his strength to writing the lives of devotees

358.

The Bhagavatas

and

saints.

of the Maratha country to-day form

movement, the literature of which, apart

itself and Sridhara's commentary, is all
in the vernacular.
The god is Vitthal or Vithoba both
these names are merely local variations of Vishnu.
The chief
centres are Pandharpur, Alandi, and Dehu, but there are
numerous shrines throughout the country. In the chief
temple of Pandharpur Vitthal wears a curious sort of crown,
a popular bhakti

from ihe.Bhdgavata P.

which the

priests

say

is

standing for both gods,

Siva's
is

truly

lihga

so that the

Bhagavata.

image,

Vitthal

has

several consorts installed near him, each in a separate shrine,

Rakmabai

(i.e. Rukmini), Radha, Satyabhama, and Lakshml

noteworthy that Radha takes no place in Marathl
literature. Mahadeva, Ganapati, and Surya are also installed
so that, taking Lakshml as devi, the five gods are still worshipped there. No Outcaste is admitted to Bhagavata temples
in Maharashtra.
Namdeva's head, represented in brass, is
placed on the lowest step of the stair which leads up to the
gate of the temple and the shrine of an Outcaste named

but

it

is

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

303

Chokamela ^ is on the opposite side of the street. Monthly

and annual pilgrimages are made to the chief sacred places.

The

Those who have made

pilgrims are called Warkaris.

the pilgrimage a

As

number

of times are allowed to carry a red

Dynanoba,
and sing Abhangs. There are also hired singers
called Haridasis, who sing Marathi Abhangs and portions of
Eknath's translations from the BJidgavata in the temple of
Pandharpur.
banner.

Tukaram

One

they march

along,

they

shout

'

',

of the best

institutions

of the

movement

is

called

Harikathd, a sort of sermon in song which the leader opens

by shouting aloud several times, Jai Rama-Krishna Hari.

He

hymns and

then sings a number of

expounding each
exhortation

is

found

the south also, where the singer

in

Bhagavata and the musical sermon

359.

The

bhakti

movement

in

is

Ranachor Rai,

is

called

called Kalakshepaui.

Gujarat remains Smarta

general character to the present day.

are dedicated to

other texts in verse,

This method of mingled song and

in prose.

i.e.

The two
the king

in

chief temples

who

the

left

an allusion to the occasion on which, according to the

mytholog}', Krishna left Mathura and came to Dwarka.

fight,

These two great shrines are

Ahmadabad.

both

In

accordance with Vedic

3.

360.

not yet

The history of
known so that
;

the

at

Dwarka and

ritual

is

at

still

Daker near

conducted

in

rules.

TJie

the
all

Mddhvas.

Madhva sect during this period is

we can do is to give some account

have dealt with it.

A Madhva ascetic named Vishnu Purl, who belonged to
Tirhut and probably lived in the second half of the fourteenth
century, made a selection of the finest utterances on bhakti in
the Bhagavata, and arranged them according to subject in

of the literature, so far as scholars

thirteen groups.

of gems, and
*

He was

He

named

a Mahar.

called each of these collections a string

the whole Bhaktiraljidvali, or

His poetry survives, and parts of

it

'

Necklace

are very

fine.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

Gems the best introduction to Bhagavata bhakti.

was translated into Bengali by Lauriya Krishna Dasa early

of Bhakti
It

303

',

in the fifteenth century.

was a later Madhva ascetic, Isvara Furl, who won

It
Chaitanya to the faith. The new leader amply repaid the
Madhva community for this service. During his southern
tour, 1509-11,116 stimulated Madhvas by his preaching and
It is probable, indeed, that it was
his enthusiastic singing.
^

he that started Sarikirtan and Nagarklrtan in the sect for

there seems to have been little emotional singing before his
;

day.

In any case the

writing

first

great outburst of Kanarese

among Madhvas came

shortly after his

visit.

hymnThe

was Puramdar Das, but there were many others.

Madhva scholars, Sri Vyasa Raja, was
He lived in the south and
a contemporary of Chaitanya.
wrote a number of works which are still much used.
In the eighteenth century another group of enthusiastic
bhaktas produced Kanarese hymns in praise of Krishna. The
About
chief writers were Timmappa Das and Madhva Das.
work
Kanarese
the same time lived Chidananda whose
Harihhakti-rasdyana, the Sweets of Devotion to Krishna ',
is
well known.
The Harikathasara, a clear account of
Madhva doctrine in Kanarese prose, the date of which I do
not know, is a very popular book.
There are also many Kanarese translations of Sanskrit
works. They are almost without exception Vaishnava, and
many of them are probably the work of Madhvas, but they
Yet
are rather entertaining poems than religious books.
they must have helped the Madhva cause. Between 1508
and 1530 the Mahdbharata was rendered into Kanarese by a
number of writers, and about 1590 the Rdmdyana was translated by a poet who called himself the younger Valmiki,
Kumara Valmiki. The Bhagavata P. was translated about
the same time, and rather later a special translation of the
tenth book, known as Krishna LildbJiyudaya, was written by

chief singer

One

of the most noted

'

See

364.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

304
a

The Jaimini Bhdrata by

Madhva named Veiikaya Arya.

Lakshmlsa Devapura, the date of which

tion of the
sacriftce,

is

1760,

is

a descrip-

wanderings of the horse for Yuddhishthira's horse-

but the aim in view

Madhva
Dasnamls.

are

ascetics

Madhva

is

the praise of Krishna.

belonging

sannyasis

to

Sahkara's

himself and his chief disciples belonged

to the Tirtha order, but in the later history

many were

Purls

or Bharatls.
4.

361.

The

Vishnusvdmls.

TJie

history of the Vishnusvami sect

throughout this period.

is

very obscure

Since the seventeenth century they

have been very weak and the absence of a strong tradition is

sufficient to account for the lack of information.
Bilvamafigala, a Vishnusvami ascetic, is remembered
;

of his Krishnakarndmrita, a Sanskrit poem on

Krishna and Radha which has been much admired. There
are stories which connect him with Calicut and with the
foundation of the temple of Padmanabha at Trivandram,

because

He probably lived early in the fifteenth century.

Another scholar belonging to the sect, Varadaraja by name,
wrote a tJkd on the Bhdgavata P. A manuscript of it, about
300 years old, lies in the library of the Sanskrit College,
The date of the
Benares, but it has not been examined.
writer is unknown.
The rise of the Chaitanya and Vallabha ^ sects at the
beginning of the sixteenth century bore very heavily upon the
and the Vishnusvamis
Vishnusvamis and the Nimbarkas
were in the long run almost completely absorbed by the
At the Kumbh
Vallabhas. The sect is now extremely small.
Mela at Allahabad in February, 19 18, I met some half a
dozen Vishnusvami ascetics. They wore the old sect-mark on
their foreheads, and talked freely about the sect.
Two
Travancore.

monasteries, they averred,

Udaipur

in

still

Rajputana and one

1

See

survive, one at Kankraoli near

at

364 and

Kamban
372.

near Bhurtpore in

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

305

They also say that Vishnusvaml's Bhdgavatathe U. r.

bhdshya still survives, and that a copy lies in each monastery.
They use two books,

the ]^ishnu-rahasya and the Tattvatraya,

which they ascribe to Vishnusvan:!!.

5.

The Nimbdrkas.

362, The history of the Nimbarkas from 1350 to 1500 is

unknown, but a reorganization of the sect appears to have
been carried out about A.D. 1500, whereby the householders
of the community were placed under one pontiff and the
sannyasis under another. The succession in each case seems
The first pair
to have been faithfully kept up until to-day.
of leaders, Kesava Kashmiri, the head of the lay division, and
his brother-in-law, Harivyasa Muni, head of the ascetics, were
contemporaries of Chaitanya and Vallabha. Kesava Kashmiri
was a well-known scholar and commentator. His Kraniadipikd, a manual of the ritual, consists in the main of extracts
The Nimbarkas practise a very
from the Gantamiya S.
quiet type of Sanklrtan, the hymns for which were written by
Harivyasa Muni and Sri Bhatt, who lived about the same
It is probable that the Saiiklrtan was suggested by the
time.
practice of the Chaitanyas.^

The two

chief centres

of the

Nimbarka

sect to-day are

Sallmabad, south of Ajmere, and Brindaban.

The

succession

of the pontiffs in each case has been preserved,^ but not

known about the

is

They have

history.

much

suffered from the

competition of the Chaitanyas and the Vallabhas, like the

Vishnusvamis, but not to the same extent.

They

still

possess

a number of temples at Brindaban and elsewhere.

6.

Rddhd-KrisJina Literary Verse.

363. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries a great

deal of Radha-Krishna literature was written in North India.

Chandl-Uas, who belonged to Jayadeva's

district of Bengal

owe many of these facts about the Nimbarka

Charana Goswami, Honorary Magistrate, Brindaban.
^ Growse, M.
Bhandarkar, VS. 62.
147
*

sect to

and

Mr. Radha

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

3o6

138010 1420, though a Sakta,^ wrote Radhaand Vidyapati,

Krishna hymns of great power in Bengal!
who belonged to Tirhut, and used Maithili, the dialect of that
part of India, produced in the middle of the fifteenth century
Radha-Krishna lyrics which not only pleased his own people,
but captured the heart of Bengal when re-expressed in

flourished about

Bengali.

It

seems most

likely that

Umapati Dhara

also,

and Bengal! have recently

whose Krishnaite songs
been made known, belonged to Tirhut and was a contemporary
Narsirig Mehta, a Brahman belonging to
of Vidyapati.
Junagadh in Kathiawar and a famous Gujarat! poet, wrote
many Radha-Krishna lyrics which are very popular, but are
His flowering time may be placed at
also rather erotic.
Mira Ba!, a princess of the house of Merta in
1450-80.
in Maithili

Jodhpur, became the wife of the heir-apparent to the Mewar

throne, but he died before the assassination of his father, the
great Kumbha Rana, in 1469.2 Left a widow, and rather ungraciously treated

by her

the throne, she

Chittore and

left

brother-in-law,

who had succeeded

became a

to

disciple of Rai Das,^

the Ramanand!, and then a devotee of Krishna.

Her Radha-

very famous but rather disappointnumerous songs in Gujarat! attributed to

The two
her, some of them containing an erotic element.
It is not
groups require to be critically examined together.
known whether any of these poets belonged to the Vishnusvam! or the Nimbarka sect. As Chand! Das was a Sakta, the

Krishna lyrics
ing.

in Braj are

There are

others also

also

may have

written Krishnaite verse without belong-

Yet this rich

ing to any Krishnaite community.
teaching
of
the
two sects.
the
of
vogue
proves the

literature

his name, Servant of Chandl, the goddess.

information comes from the palace records of the Mewar family.
friend the Rev. Dr. James Shepherd of
I am greatly indebted to my
Udaipur for ascertaining the actual facts. Much legend has gathered
'

Hence

"

My

round Mira Bai's name.

5
She mentions him in three of her

lyrics.

See

393.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
7.

364.

Two new

The Chaita7iya

sects

307

Sect.

were founded

at the

opening of the

sixteenth century, the Chaitanyas and the Vallabhas,

labha

was probably the

Chaitanya

first

earlier

of the

two,

but

Val-

we take

because his teaching and practice stand

in

closer relation to the earlier sects.

Visvambhara Misra (1485-1533) was born in Nuddca, in

Bengal, and made himself a name as a student and teacher of
In A. D. 1507 he was
logic and grammar while still young.
won to a serious life and the practice of the passionate bhakti
of the Bhagavata P. by Isvara Purl, a Madhva sannyasl.
He
at once began to preach, and disciples and supporters gathered
round him, notably Advaitacharya, an old and revered
Vaishnava scholar, and Nityananda, who for many years had
been a Madhva. But he came also under the influence of the
Nimbarkas and the Vishnusvamis, and used with great
delight the songs of Jayadeva, Chandl Das, and Vidyapati.
He thus went beyond his Madhva teachers, and gave Radha
a very prominent place in his thought and his worship.
He
spent a great deal of time singing Radha-Krishna hymns with
his followers, rousing them to devotional excitement {sankirFrequently he led them out through the city in
tanci).
procession, dancing and singing with such fervour and contagious emotion as to carry the people away in devotional
These new methods were destined
raptures {nagarkirtaua).
to prove very fruitful.

he became initiated as a Bharati sannyasl by

Madhva, Kesava Bharati, and took the name Krishna

In 1509

Chaitanya.

He

then went to Purl

in

Orissa to the temple of

Krishna (here called Jagannath, Lord of the World), but for

some years he spent most of his time in long journej's in the
south and in the north.
He was already believed to be
an avatara of Krishna by the people of Nuddea, and his cult
had begun. From about 1516 he lived at Puri. His adherents
increased rapidly from the time he became a sannyasl, notably

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

3o8

Sarvabhauma, the greatest authority on logic of the day,

Pratapa Rudra, the King of Orissa, and Ramananda Rai,
Pratapa Rudra's Brahman minister. Rather later, he won
two scholars who were destined to become the theologians of
the faith. He gave them new names, Rupa and Sanatana, and
sent them to Brindaban to seek out the old sacred sites (then
lying desolate through Muslim fury) and produce a Sanskrit
Several of his disciples became accomliterature for the sect.
plished hymn-writers, especially Narahari Sarkar, Vasudeva
Ghosh, and Varhslvadana. They wrote not only RadhaKrishna hymns but songs in praise of Chaitanya, called
Gaur Chandrikd for his beauty and fair complexion had
brought him the name Gaur Chandra. He passed away
;

in 1533-

Chaitanya was neither an organizer nor a writer. He left

the organization of the sect to Nityananda, while Rupa and

Sanatana took up the task of expressing the theology. Nor

can we be sure that he had a settled system in his m.ind
though it was probably he that decided that the philosophic
;

position of the sect should be the

rather

than

the

Bhedabheda

Dvaita of Madhva.

His

of

Nimbarka

chief

reading

seems to have been the Bhdgavata P. with Sridhara's

commentary, the lyrics of Jayadeva, Vid)'apati, and Chandl
Das, the Brahma Sai'nhitd and the KrisJinakarndinrita}
His power over men came from the reality of his religious
experience, from the' overpowering emotions which he
exhibited when gazing on a divine image or discoursing
on Krishna and his love, and from the sincerity and
contagious

new modes
myth the basis

passion of his

Radha-Krishna

of praise.

He made

and
Hindus had
nothing else that could touch the hearts of men so powerIn his hands the unplcasing tale was unquestionably
fully.^

the

worship, because, as he

tells

of

his

teaching

us himself, the

used in masterly fashion for noble ends.

^

He

brought manuscripts of the two last-mentioned works back with

- Sen, HBLL.
south.
536.

him from the

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
The

historian of Bengfill

nava community

literature

309

describes

the Vaish-

Bengal as utterly stunned and crushed

by the passing- of Chaitanya
in

From 1533 to 1590^ the Vaisnava community of Bengal lay enervated

by an overpowering feeling of forlornness. The sankirtana parties lost
all heart, and their great music which had taken the country by surprise
and flooded it with poetry, broke in the midst of their enthusiastic performances, and sounded no more on the banks of the Ganges. The
companions of Chaitanya, mute and stricken with a sense of their great
loss, one by one departed from the world
and the history of this period
shows no striking feature of the Vaisnava movement and no activity
of any noteworthy nature.^
;

failed and music died away, the sect

Nityananda continued to organize the community

But, though literature

lived on.

and give

it

rules of

on the work

conduct

and

his son

Virachandra carried

after his father's death, receiving as

many

as 2,500

Buddhist monks and nuns into the new ascetic orders in one day.^
365. Rupa and Sanatana and some others had been

some years before the death of

community continued to grow.
The leaders, six of the companions of the Master Rupa,
Sanatana, with their nephew Jiva, Raghunatha Das, Gopala
were known as the six
Bhatta, and Raghunatha Bhatta
Gosvamis, a word which had come to mean authoritative
These inen preached, taught, and won
religious leaders.
converts, but their chief task was to form the theology and
settled

in

Chaitanya,

Brindaban

and the

for

little

the ritual of the sect and to express both in dignified San-

They wrote on bhakti, philosophy, and

and produced commentaries, dramas, and lyrics, each
work having a bearing on the faith, worship, or everyday
life of the community.
No Bhashya on the Vcddiita-sutras
was produced at this time, but Jiva's Saisandarbha, a philosophical and theological work of large compass, more than
made up for the lack. The Hari-bhakti-vildsa on the ritual
was composed by Sanatana, but was attributed to Gopala
skrit

literature.

ritual,

>

Probably a

slip for 1570.

Sen,

VLMB.

68.

lb. 164.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

3IO

They sought

Bhatta.

out

the ancient sacred spots in and

all

around Mathura and Brindaban, and described them

the

in

mdhdtmya, now a portion of the VardJia P., and

It was they that established the
in the Braj-bJiakti-vildsa.
pilgrimage round the sacred places of Mathura and Brindaban called the Ban-jdtrd. They also arranged and started
MatJiurd

the annual

festival,

the

Rds

lild.

366, An awakening in Bengal about 1570 led to the

writing of five distinct works on Chaitanya's life within a

Two

very few years.

One

Bengali.

in

of these were in Sanskrit, the others

of these

was

Kavikarnapura's Sanskrit

drama, the CJiaitanyachandrodaya, the

PrahodJiachandrodaya, the

title

suggested by the

taken from

scenes

Chaitanya's

Another was Vrindavana Dasa's Chaitanya Bhdgavata,

But much though the
a beautiful life in Bengali verse.
Gosvamis of Brindaban admired the Chaitanya Bhdgavata,
they desiderated a fuller and completer work. Accordingly,
life.

at

their

request, Krishnadasa

unremitting

(1582), which

D.
in

Sen

C.

is

calls

Kaviraja,

produced

labour,

now

the

the standard

seven years of

in

Chaitajiya-charitdmrita
life

'the most erudite and instructive

it

Bengali about Chaitanya and his followers.'

whole

historical,

legend.

poem

to

Mr.

of the leader.

yet

there

Many members

is

It is

work

on the

considerable admixture

of

of the sect commit the whole long

memory.

367, It was a fortunate circumstance for the Gosvamis

that the great Akbar mounted the Mogul throne during the

Brindaban for, through his

were able not only to continue their

earlier years of their residence at

religious tolerance, they

religious

and

literary

erect a series of

received the large

work without molestation but

magnificent temples in Brindaban.

sums of money necessary

also to

They

for these beau-

works of art from certain Rajput princes and other

wealthy men whose favour they had won.
368. During the first forty years Of the seventeenth
century the Chaitanya movement produced in Bengali a
tiful

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

3[i

group of brilliant hymn-writers. The greatest of the choir

was Govinda Das, but Jiiana Das, Balarama Das, Jadunandana Das, and Raja Vira Hamvlra produced work of striking
excellence also.

At

the beginning of the eighteenth century Baladeva wrote

bhashya on the Veddnta-sutras, calling it the

Gotniida-bhdsJiya and giving its philosophic point of view the

for the sect a

distinctive

name

achintya-bheddbheda, thus confessing that

the relation between

God and

the soul

is

in

the last analysis

inconceivable.

Among

Chaitanyas, as in

certain other sects,

the rules of caste were relaxed in the

matter of religious

369.

privileges.

Any

the

become a member of the

worship, and read its books. There

person could

community, share its

were a few of the ascetics who were ready to eat with faithful
bhaktas, no matter what their caste was but there does not
seem to be any evidence that Chaitanya ever broke his caste.
Then, most of these breaches of caste-law soon passed away
and the rules of marriage and of the priestly function of
Only lineal descendants
the Brahman were never disturbed.
of the personal companions of Chaitanya ^ are recognized
These rule the monasteries and control most
as Gosvamls.
;

of the temples.

Chaitanya was a sannyasi of the BharatI order of

Dasnamis, and a few of his companions also
accepted sannyasa, but Nityananda and Virachandra intro 370.

Sankara's

duced the

easier discipline of the

modern sddhn,

calling the

and Vairaginis, precisely as Ramananda

These orders were soon flooded with thousands of converts from the degraded Sakta Buddhist orders, then passing through the last stage of decay in Bengal.
The consequence was that great impurity prevailed, despite the fact
that marriage was permitted.
To this day these ascetic
orders have a very bad reputation even among members of

ascetics Vairagis
did.

the sect.
'

There are a few exceptions

to this rule, especially in Orissa.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

312

371. In the temples of the sect the chief images are

Krishna and Radha, but Chaitanya with Advaita and Nityananda are also installed in each temple. There are also a

number

of temples dedicated to Chaitanya himself.

As

klrtana plays an important part in the worship.

of Tamil India, this vernacular psalmody

sects

which

does not

interfere

The Kirtanlya

liturgy.

Sanin the

is

an extra

with the ritual of the

Sanskrit

or head-singer and his choir

sit

in

the jagamohana, the section of the temple in front of the

main shrine, and sing to the accompaniment of cymbals and

drums and now and then there is dancing as well. It is
the rule to sing one or more Gaur Chandrikd' as a sort of
interpretative preparation for the Radha-Krishna hymns, a
series of which is sung on each occasion.
Sahkirtan parties
are now and then held in private houses also, and are kept
up for many hours, hymns illustrative of many forms of
;

religious

emotion being rendered.

number of sects of rather doubtful teaching and morals

claim some connexion with Chaitanya. The Kartabhajas,
the Darbesh, and the Shains show the influence of Islam and
are more or less respectable, but the Bauls and the Kishoribhajas are no better than the left-hand Saktas.
8.

372.

Vallabha,

Brahman belonging

TJie

Vallabhdchdryas}

or

Vallabhacharya

(1479-1531),

Telugu country and a contemporary of Chaitanya,- was born in Benares, the son of a
member of the VishnusvamI sect. He received a Sanskrit
education and wandered about for several years meeting
Mention is specially made of his
scholars in disputation.
vanquishing Smarta scholars at the court of Krishnadeva of
The details of his life are by no
Vijayanagar (1509-29).
to the

^ I have received muchjielp in the understanding of this community

from Pandit Magan Lai Sastri of Broach and P*oona, who is a sincere
Vallabha and also a competent scholar.
* But he was not his father-in-law
the two men had the same name,
but that is all the basis the story has.
:


MUSLIM INFLUENCE

nor yet the influences that went to the making

nfieans clear

His relation to the VishnusvamI sect especially

of his sect.

There need be no doubt, howfor there is abundance

to be cleared up.

requires

313

ever, about the teaching of the sect

of literature

but

it

waits to be studied.

Vallabha called himself an incarnation of the god Agni.

He acknowledged no human teacher but said he learnt his

system direct from Krishna. Yet it seems absolutely clear
Nimbarka the theory of Krishna
Radha as his eternal spouse and

that he took over from

the eternal Brahman, of

as
of

the highest heaven where they sport.

He

calls his philosophic

i>i07iism,

but his monism

is

system Suddhadvaita,

i.

e.

pure

certainly not so rigid as Sankara's.

in contrast with the impure monism

whose system includes the doctrine of maya and
does not lay stress on bhakti. Vallabha acknowledges that
men of knowledge may rise to release by means of knowIt is called

pure monism

'

'

of Sankara,

ledge, but his

way

is

the

way

Bhakti

of bhakti.

is

the means,

for bhakti is higher than knowledge

it is also the end
and the true bhakta will live and sport for ever with Krishna.
According to Vallabha, bhakti is given by God it comes by
his grace.
The word for grace in the system is pushti. This
use of the word is founded on a passage in the Bhagavata
P} I am assured that the word pushti is never used in
the literature as a name for Vallabha practice.
?>!?>' The following is an outline of the theology of the
reality, intelligence, joy
Krishna, who is Brahman
sect.
alone exists.
From him there go out, as sparks from fire,
the material world, souls, and the antaryamin, or indwelling,
god.
In souls, which are atomic and identical with Brah-

but

man, the balance of the three gunas being upset, the

bute of joy

is

concealed

so that they

attri-

are seen to possess

Released souls
above the heavens of

only reality and intelligence as attributes.

rise to

Vishnu,

Krishna's heaven, which

Siva,
^

and

II. X, 4.

Brahma, and
The

liliX

in

far

is

there,

Book VI

is

by the favour of

called Poshana.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

314

Krishna-Brahman, they attain to the pure condition of

his

divine nature.

Krishna's heaven

is

called Vyapi-Vaikuntha,

a heavenly Vrindavana and glorious forests.

and

From

in

it

is

Krishna's

side springs Radha, and from the pores of the skin of Krishna
and Radha come millions of gopas and gopis and also cattle
and all the denizens of the woods. Krishna and Radha sport
eternally in the celestial Vrindavana with their devotees.
The loftiest aspiration of a Vallabha is to become a gopi
and sport with Krishna in his heaven.
The cult is called seva, service of Krishna. There are
eight times of worship daily in each temple.^
The mantra
of the sect is Sri Krishna saranani mama.

374-

0"s extraordinary

position held in

peculiarity of this sect

the

is

by Vallabha's son Vitthalnatha and

it

his

No

one can become a guru of the sect, or

own one of the temples of the sect, except a descendant of
descendants.

Vitthalnatha in the male

line.

The

are paid servants of the guru to

Along with
guru

this there goes the old

god.

Since the

pujarls in the temples

whom

the temple belongs.

Hindu doctrine

Vallabha who

that the

devoted
Krishna ought to dedicate everything to Krishna, and since
the guru is Krishna, the highest teaching of the sect leads
is

faithful

is

to

the faithful bhakta to shower his wealth on his guru.

is

This

the more significant since a large percentage of the rich

business class of Western India belong to the sect.

ally,

the

title

given to

Origin-

gurus was acharyas, teachers, but

when they became wealthy, they began

to live as princes

and since then they have been called Maharajas.

Each Maharaja lives in a house which is also a temple,
and in it he has a reception-room next the room in which
Krishna is worshipped. Since the guru is Krishna, he must
be worshipped as Krishna. This worship is performed in
the reception-room, and in many cases the worship of the
guru is more elaborate and passionate than the worship of
1

Wilson, Works,

I.

126

ff.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
The

315

and the Hturgy remind the worshippers

and, whether they be men or
of the story of the gopis
women, they look forward to becoming gopIs and sporting
In worshipping the Maharaja,
with Krishna in Goloka.
women shower their devotion upon him as being actually
Krishna, the darling of the gopis.
Hence, when the MahaThere
raja is a vicious man, they are in the utmost danger.
Accordhas been a great deal of immorality in certain cases.
the god.

ritual

ing to

my

century.

informant, these

He

assures

me

abuses arose

that there

is

in

no

the eighteenth

basis for

them

in

the literature.

375. In certain cities societies have been formed

Vallabhas which meet from time to time

An

among

the Rds-Jiiaruiali,

in

men and women

which there is promiscuous intercourse. The circle gets its name from Krishna's
dalliance {rds-llla) with the gopIs, but its methods are copied
from the chaki-a-pujd of the left-hand Saktas.

or circle of holy sport.

equal

meet and take a meal together,

number

of

after

The facts about the Maharajas and the Rds-mandall were

made public in a suit for libel which was heard in Bombay in
1862.

A full account of

it is

given in The Sect of the MahdrdjaJis.

fact in the history of the Val-

Another very remarkable

There
is
the absorption of the VishnusvamI sect.
no close connexion in doctrine. Vishnusvaml's philosophy
is dualistic, and he regards
Radha as a woman, Krishna's
mistress at Brindaban. Vallabha's philosophy is monistic, and

labhas
is

he holds Radha to be the eternal spouse of Krishna.

a long time there has been a saying
to the effect that the

same, which

is

common

in

Yet for
North India

Vishnusvamis and the Vallabhas are the

true only in the sense that, since most Vishnu-

svamis have entered the Vallabha

now no difference

fold, there is

between them. The idea that the two sects are one can be
traced back to the middle of the seventeenth century, and was
probably one of many means employed by the Vallabhas in
the process of absorbing the sect.

Vallabhas reckon

themselves

as

Tt

is

usually said that

belonging to

the

Rudra

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

3i6

Sampradaya along with the Vishnusvamis, but

that

is

mistake.

376, Vallabha wrote a number of scholarly books in Sanboth commentaries and original works, in exposition of
the
There are first three fundamental works
his system.

skrit,

Vedanta-sTitra-aniibJidsJiya, the

SiibodJiinl,

which

is

a com-

mentary on the BJiagavata P., and a manual of his doctrine in

the Tattva-dlpa-nibandJia, which is accompanied by
and then seventeen short
in prose called Prakasa
gloss
a
The chief of these is the SiddJidnta Rahasya, in
poems.
which he tells how Krishna gave him his revelation. He
Giridharajl and Balakrishna Bhatta
left nothing in Hindi.
are two early leaders whose SiiddJiddvaitainartanda and
Prameyaraindrnava are systematic Sanskrit works of considerable value. Of more recent scholars GosvamI Sri Purushottamajl seems to be the most noteworthy.
The Ndrada Panckardtra, the text of which was published
in Calcutta a good many years ago, has thus far proved an
enigma, and it will remain such until it is carefully read in the
verse,

light of the history of the sects.

one might conjecture that

it is

polated or partly re-written,

From

a superficial glance

an old Vaishnava Samhita interby Vishnusvamis and then

first

by Vallabhas.
Vallabha had four noteworthy disciples, and his son Vitthalnatha, who succeeded him, had also four and all the eight
lived in the Braj district, i. e. Mathura and Brindaban and the
country round, and wrote religious poetry. They were called
the Ashta CJiJidp, literally the Eight Seals, or die-stamps, pro;

ducing genuine poetic coin.

They used

the local dialect of

Hence, since their time all

vernacular Krishnaite poetry has been written in Braj. Many
By far the greatest
other Vallabha singers followed them.
blind
poet of Agra, who
of these lyric poets was Sur Das, the
Hindi, which

is

called

Braj.'

flourished seemingly in the latter half of the sixteenth century.

He was

a singer of wonderful power.

*

Grierson,

LH.

Besides writing Radha20.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Krishna songs, he reproduced

in beautiful verse

317
a large

number

of episodes and passages from the Bhdgavata P.

There was also a

admirable V^allabha literature

far less

in

Braj which laid a good deal of stress on the erotic side of the

Perhaps the most prominent are Gokul Nath's

i.e. eighty-four talcs, and the Braj
Vilasa (1743) by Braj BasI Das, which is the popular authority
long list of these books is given
for Radha's life and loves.
by Growse. Dayariim (i 762-1 853), one of the greatest of
Krishna myths.

CJiaurasl Barta (1551),

Gujarati poets, was a Vallabha.

One

of his verse

is

erotic,

TJie BJiakta-mdld.

9.

377.

Much

of the most important modern bhakti books

the Bhakta-mdld} or Garland of Vaishnava Saints.

It is

is

not

a sectarian work but a most catholic effort to commemorate

the greatest figures in

many

sects.

We

deal with the

work

here because the author, Nabhajl, though not a Vallabha him-

Ramanandl, was a disciple of the Vallabha poet

Agra Das, and was asked by him to write the Garland. Priya
Das, who wrote the gloss, was a follower of Chaitanya. In
those days some of the Vaishnava bhaktas of the north did not

self but a

make much of these sectarian distinctions. Nabhajl flourished

when Giridharajl was head of the Vallabhas and Tulsl Das was
still alive, i. e. between 1585 and 1623.^
The BJiakta-mdld is
a poem in old Western Hind! and mainly in the Chappai metre.
It is

an extremely compressed work, and,

comprehensible apart from

like a sutra,

is

scarcely

commentary, which is a most

valuable exposition of the text, though written about a century
later.
The Garland is a most useful work, though parts of
its contents are legendary.
It has been imitated and adapted
in several of

'

See

'^

For

.Sir

its

the vernaculars.

G. Grierson's

this information

6",
1910, 87, 269.
1909, 607
indebted to Mr. .Syama Biharl Misra of

articles, y/v'yi
I

am

Allahabad, one of the authors of

RIB V.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

3i8

The RadJid-

lo.

VallabJiTs.

378. Hari Vamsa, also called Hit

to both the

Madhvas and

Jl,

was much indebted

the Nimbarkas, but he founded

new sect in Brindaban about 1585, the Radha-Vallabhis.

The chief temple of the sect still stands there, dedicated
to Radha-Vallabha, Radha's darling, Krishna.
The founder
a

three works,

left

in

Sanskrit,

the

in

They

are Saktas,

'

Hindi.

Krishna

work
is

Rddhd-siidhd-iiidJii, 170 couplets

Pada and Sphit-pada,

by his followers.
placing Radha above Krishna.
A member
to me in Brindaban, in December 1917
Chmirdsl

Many works were

both

of the sect

first

the others,

said

written

He may do

the servant of Radha.

is

of building the world, but

Radha

of Krishna

sits

We

at best but her Secretary of State.

the coolie-

Queen. He
win the favour
as

by worshipping Radha.'
II.

The Hari-DdsJs.

h 379* SvamT Hari Das, who lived at the end of the sixteenth
and the beginning of the seventeenth century, founded the
Hari Dasis, and appears to stand close to Chaitanya in his
teaching and sympathies. He left two poems in Hindi, the
Sddhdran SiddJidnt and the Raske Pada. The sect still owns

a fine temple

in

Brindaban.
12.

TJie

SvdinJ-Ndrdyanls.

380. In Gujarat there is an active reforming sect called

Svaml-Narayanis who worship Krishna and Radha.
The
founder, Sahajananda, or Svaml-Narayana, disgusted with the
gross immorality of the Vallabhas, began shortly after 1804 to
denounce them and to teach a purer system. He soon gathered
a large company of followers and a sect was formed. Jetalpur,

twelve miles south of

Ahmadabad,

there are temples elsewhere also.

use pictures instead of images.

form the body of the

is

the head-quarters, but

In worship they frequently

Besides the householders,

sect, there are

two orders of

who

ascetics.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Their philosophy
their theology

to

Hindu

is

319

the Visishtadvaita of Ramanuja, but in

They conform

they follow Vallabha.

strictly

law, keeping the rules of caste witii great care

they

gods and they are vegetarian in diet. They

retain the Vallabha mantra. They have produced a good deal
worship the

five

of Gujarat! poetry.
c.

I.

Among

381.

Pahchardtra.

The Sri- Vaishnavas.

the Sri-Vaishnavas, Vedanta-desika was head

of the school in SrI-rangam just after the middle of the four-

century,^ and

teenth

stimulating teacher.

proved a

prolific

writer as well as a

poet of some power as well as an

exact scholar, he wrote numerous books in both Sanskrit and

Tamil, commentaries, dogmatic manuals, controversial works,

and poems. One of his most famous works is an allegorical

drama, the Sahkalpasuryodaya, and another is the SatadfishanJ,
a controversial work against Sankara's system.
382. He had a number of active theological opponents,
who wrote and spoke against him freely, and the outcome of
the controversy was the formation of two schools within the
community, which finally led to a serious schism. He is recognized as the leader of the northern school, the Vada-galai.

Ramya-jamatri-muni (1370- 1443), also called Manavala-mahamuni,

is

recognized as the leader of the southern school, the

Teiigalai.

desika.

much

He

taught at Sri-rahgam rather later than Vedanta-

His commentaries are scholarly works and have been

used, but his original writings are of

little

importance.

Since the days of the two leaders the gulf between the subsects has

become deeper.

They

differ in doctrine

on a number

of minor points,^ but, unfortunately, the schism which has

resulted from the difference of opinion

than the doctrinal differences.

He was a contemporary and

SDS., Cowell, 76.

in

"^

Each
friend of

Govindacharya,_/A'yi^V. 1910, 1103

is

much more

serious

sect has seized as

Madhava, and

1912, 714.

is

many
quoted

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

320

of the temples as possible and

So deep

The

is

the division that

it

numerous law-suits have resulted.

prevents intermarriage.

northern school stands in general nearer the central

Vaishnava doctrine, and in questions concerning Sri stands

nearer the Sakta theology, while the southern school represents more fully the special theology of the Sri- Vaishnava sect.
While both schools use both Sanskrit and Tamil, the southern
uses both the Tamil language and the hymns of the Ndldyira
Prabaiidhmn more than the northern does. In consequence
of the division, two forms of the sect-mark have been evolved,
the southern having a slight prolongation

Widows belonging to
tonsure.
The northern

down

the

nose.

the southern school do not undergo

pontiff has his seat at Trivallur, while

his southern rival resides at the

Ahobila Monastery

at

Nan-

ganur, near Tinnevelley.

Appaya Dikshita (1552-1624), though a Smarta

commented on several Sri- Vaishnava books, especially
the works of Vedanta-desika.
The Yatindramatadlpikd, e.
-Light on Ramanuja's Opinions, a useful summary of SrlVaishnava doctrine, contains a good many new ideas not
383.

Saiva,

i.

found

in

the Sarhhitas.

eighteenth

century,

by Srinivasa of the
Rangaramanuja, who

It is

the seventeenth century.

half of

wrote a series of Visishtadvaita com-

mentaries on the Upanishads for the

The bulk

first

lived in the

of the Uttara

Khanda

sect.

of the Padiiia P. will

probably be found to be a Sri- Vaishnava document belonging

to the beginning of this period.
384.

The

ritual

in

almost

all

SrI-Vaishnava temples

is

Pdilchardtra, each temple using one particular Samhita, but

there are

still

a few which use Vaikhanasa Samhitas,

e. g.

Conjeeveram, Sriperumbudur, and Venkatesvara on Tirupati

seems clear that these Samhitas are Bhagavata in

and have been used by Bhagavata ministrants for
many centuries.^ Ramanuja, in his eagerness to extend
Pancharatra influence, sought to oust them and to introduce

hill.

It

origin

See 211 and

287.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Sarhhitas and ritual instead

Pancharatra
succeed

321

'

but he did not

About a dozen Vaikhanasa Samhitas

in all places.

are known.
3.

?>^S-

Th^

Satanis are a group of people

to the SrI-Vaishnava sect,

the

status

The name
daval,

'

of
is

Sdtdnis.

who

Sudras, exercise

certain

priestly

to be a corruption of the

said

non-wearers

'

are attached

and who, though they have only

functions.

word Satta-

they do not wear the tuft of hair

on the crown of the head nor the sacred thread. The explanation of their position seems to be this, that they came
under the influence of Ramanuja, and that he allowed them
to continue certain sacerdotal usages

from time immemorial.

in certain

Telugu

They

which they had practised

Mysore and
Tamil country.

are found in the

districts as well as in the

They act as priests in certain temples, usually those dedicated

Hanuman. These temples bear the SrI-Vaishnava sectmark, and Sudras worship in them freely, while Brahmans

to

do darsana, i. e. to look at the

images, not to make offerings. When about to begin the rites
of worship, Satanis shout Ramanuja, Ramanuja'.
They are

also visit them, but merely to

'

also appointed to certain functions in the regular SrI-Vaishnava

temples, the chief of which

is

to bear processional images

and

they are employed by Brahmans to brand Outcastes with the

discus

and conch of Vishnu.

Some

Satanis of earlier times

receive honours in the temple of

Srirangam at Trichinopoly.
It is sometimes stated that they claim to be Brahmans and to
know the Vedas. These claims they probably do make for
they are priests, and know and use the hymns of the Ndldyira
Prabandham, which is called the Tamil Veda.
;

Seshagiri Sastri,

a few manuscripts.

SSTM.

1893-4, p.

6.

The Adyar Library

possesses

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

322

3.

386.

which

is

The Manbhaus.

The only feature of Manbhau history during this period

clear

the enmity which separates the

is

community

The hatred which Maratha

bhaktas have always had towards Manbhaus comes out very

from the more orthodox

sects.

poems of Eknath,

distinctly in the

Giridhar, and others, and

them away
A similar rule
and the other shrines.
operates in Gujarat.
Smarta Brahmans show as severe an
attitude.
In 1782 Madho Rao Peshwa promulgated a degree
is

active to-day in the prohibition which keeps

from Pandharpur

to the following effect

The Manbhaus
entirely outcasted.

nor with the

If

six

are entirely to be

Darsanas,

No

They

condemned.

They have no connexion

are to be

with the four castes

caste should listen to their teaching.

they do, then they are to be put out of caste.

What
known.

the real cause of this hate

may have

The orthodox have always charged

been

the

is

not yet

Manbhaus not

only with heterodoxy but also with gross crimes, especially

They

are also often spoken of as if they were

There are to-day persistent tales to the effect
that they procure little girls to be brought up as Devadasis,
but how much truth there is in them is not clear.
The Manbhaus are found scattered about wherever MarathI
is spoken, but they are not a numerous body.
They wear
dark grey robes, and beads and ear-rings of tulsT-wood.
Their own MarathI literature is gradually being made known
by MarathI scholars. Only when it has been carefully investigated, and when kindly intercourse with the community has

seduction.

Outcastes.

enabled scholars to learn about their

life,

will

it

be possible to

sketch their teaching and their history, and to settle the question
of the charges so frequently brought against them.

The

mahant has his monastery at Ridhpur, Karanjhar,

Berar, but they have a number of monasteries and shrines elsewhere.

chief

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
4.

333

The Ramdnandis.

We

now turn to a noteworthy development in North

387.
India, the rise of the Ramaite movement.
Several Vishnuite
bhaktas preceded Ramananda. the real leader of the movement, notably Namdeva and Trilochan ^ from the Maratha

Sadana and Beni - who belonged to the north.

one of the most important names in modern
Hinduism, yet we know very little about him with certainty.
Widely divergent dates have been suggested for his activity,
country, and

Ramananda

but

is

now seems

it

possible to fix his floruit within narrow

His royal disciple Plpa was born in A. D. 1425,^ while

another disciple, Kablr, seems to have lived from 1440 to
8.*
It is clear that he was not Ramananda's latest
1 51
limits.

Hence we

disciple.^

Ramananda
may be ten

He was

lived

shall not be far wrong if we suppose that

approximately from 1400 to 1470.'' We

years

wrong

either

way, but scarcely more.

an ascetic, and seems to have spent most of his

life in

Benares.

All tradition agrees that he belonged to the sect of Ramanuja

and, as his followers to-day use a modification of the SrlVaishnava sect-mark, we may be certain that he had at least

but no more definite statement

some connexion with it
seems possible. The Sri-Vaishnavas have from the earliest
days acknowledged all the incarnations of Vishnu and their
and although Krishna has always been most proconsorts
minent, R ama has been continuously revered and also Narasirhha.
It is therefore very noteworthy that Ramananda worshipped
Rama and Sita and their attendants alone the common
practice of his disciples makes it impossible to escape from
To him and his followers is due the
this conclusion.
;

practice of using the

>

See

name Ram

for the
''

357.

Supreme which

Macauliffe, VI. 84

is

88.

" See
VI. III.
396.
See a hymn by Dhana in Macauliffe, VI. 109.
* The above date places Ramananda
350 years after Ramanuja. The
guru-parampara in two forms given by Grierson {Ind. Ant. XXII. 266)
would agree well with this interval.
='

lb.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

324

common

so

in

Further, the mantra

the north.

SrI-Vaishnava mantra

but

Oi'ii

Rdmdya namah

we have seen, is not the same

name of the Sampradaya ^

;is

there

the

is

not the

is

the tilak,

a difificulty about

Ramananda was

not a

Tridandi sannyasi, as he would have been, had he belonged

and he was not nearly so strict
to the SrI-Vaishnava sect
^

matters of food as the SrT-Vaishnavas are.

in

How

are

we

to account for the divergences?'*

in

388.

We

Rama

alone had been long in existence, and that the

have already seen that a sect which found release

litera-

ture tends to indicate the south rather than the north as

home.
lived

its

Ramaite community
the Tamil country among the SrI-Vaishnavas and

now we suppose

If
in

that this

Ramananda belonged to it, the

Ramananda would then come
solved.
that

Rama

doctrine of salvation in

The

mantra.^

alone,

puzzle

is

completely

to the north with his

and with

Rama-

his

very similar but not identical sect-mark

then comprehensible, and

is

also the different attitude to certain

Ramananda would bring with him to

Rdmdyana and the AgastyaSntlkshna Samvdda. Now, we cannot prove that he actually
carried these books with him, but it is clear that the Adhydtma
Rdmdyana was much used by his followers for it is one of
Further,

caste-rules.

north

the

the

AdJiydtma

the chief sources of Tulsi Das's great work, and all Ramanandls
know it and use it to-day and the Agastya-Sntlkshna Sani;

vdda

is

also used

by Ramanandls to-day

with Ramananda's biography included

389.

We

therefore believe that

in

for

it

is

published

it.*"

Ramananda was an

ascetic

belonging to the Ramaite sect which produced the AdJiydtma

Rdmdyana,

much

so

that he

came

to the north about 1430

and had

success that he decided to stay, and took up his

See 292.
Clearly, the story told in

=*

^
See 285.
See 393.
X. 569 does not explain the facts.

ERE.

See 297.
Bhandarkar, VS. 67, n. 2. I have not seen this edition of the work,
but 1 have received a letter from Sir Ramakrishna, saying that it is the
Agasty a-S uilkshna Saihif-dda.
^

'

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
residence in Benares.
to use

It is

probable that he was accustomed

Ramanuja's Srl-bhdsJiya

though it is written from

and moderate doctrine
a most attractive work to all the theistic

the Srl-Vaishnav^a standpoint,

of theism

made

it

325

for,

its

clear

its use by his followers to-day and

no Ramanandl bhashya has ever appeared.
Its continued use would also help to blur the original distinction
between the two groups, while during the early decades of the
movement the newly fledged bhaktas of the north would be

sects.

This would explain

also the fact that

glad to link themselves with the illustrious scholar of the south.

390.

enjoyed

The

The
in

Ramananda's movement

greater freedom which

certain caste matters

master's complete neglect of

acceptance of disciples

is

requires closer
all

definition.

caste distinctions in the

scarcely a novelty

for the theistic

had already recognized that men of all classes could

by means of bhakti press on to spiritual religion and Release
but Ramananda seems to have gone a little farther. Among
sects

his personal disciples

Outcaste, but a
this

we

find not only a Sudra, a Jat,

Muhammadan and

at least

and an

one woman.

In

extended freedom we see evidence of Muslim influence.

Certain Hindu and Musulman teachers in the fifteenth century

were ready to receive both Hindus and Musulmans as disciples,
and there was a tendency to recognize both religions as in

some sense

legitimate.

But there

is

no evidence that he

relaxed the rule that restricts priestly functions to the Brah-

man

and he made no attempt to overturn caste as a social

institution
it was only certain of the religious restrictions
of caste that were relaxed.
Those who follow Ramananda
are still strictly orthodox in all caste matters.
Not until
Christian criticism was brought to bear at the beginning of
the nineteenth century was there any definite attempt made
to show that caste as a social system is cruel, inhuman, and
immoral. Much confusion has been caused by careless statements to the effect that Ramananda gave up caste-distinctions
altogether.
Ramananda did, however, use greater freedom in
matters of food than is the custom among SrI-Vaishnavas.
;

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

3^6
In

harmony with

his great

care for the

stands the almost unbroken custom

common

people

among Ramanandis and

the related sects of using the vernaculars for their literature.

had long been customary

It

the chief sects to use the

in

but the Maratha bhaktas

and Ramananda practically gave up the use of Sanskrit
altogether.
Ramananda does not seem to have been a distinguished writer one single hymn of his survives, not among
his own followers but in the Sikh Grauth}
391. It has been frequently assumed that Ramananda
taught the Visishtadvaita system of Ramanuja.
This is
one of the many points with regard to the leader on which
no direct evidence is available
but the indirect evidence
which does exist scarcely points to that conclusion. One

vernacular as well as Sanskrit

of the characteristics of the whole

from him

is

movement

to advaita concepts while holding hard

Rama.

that springs

a constant use of advaita phrases, a clinging

The teaching

is

by the

personality of

usually a sort of compromise be-

tween theism and strict monism.^

That certainly seems
to be true of Kabir, TulsT Das, Nanak, and others who owe

Ramananda. Naturally, the suspicion

they may owe the common teaching to their
common master and we remember the advaita theology
of the AdJiydtma Ramdyan(i.^ Yet it is quite likely that
he used Ramanuja's Sn-bhdsJiya in these vernacular move-

their

inspiration

arises

to

that

ments there

is

very

standpoint of the
392.

little

strictness

about the philosophical

sect.

Like the Maratha bhaktas, Ramananda

criticized idols severely,

but there

is

may have

not the slightest sign that

he or his immediate followers gave up Hindu worship. It was

Kablr who initiated the practice of eschewing all idolatry as
wrong. What is to be recognized in Ramananda and all his
But see
In the
appears, as
than lo the
^

See

Grierson, LH. 7.
few cases in which a clearly conceived theology actually
in Kablr, the approach is to the BJiedabJieda doctrine rather'
Visishtadvaita of Ramanuja.

297.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
followers

God,

is

327

their vivid faith in the reality of the

and

spiritual

invisible,

whom

one personal

they called Ram.

Yet, in

no break was made with idolatry,

the Brahman priest, the Hindu pantheon, or the old mythology.
There is a compromise between a living theism and an idolatrous
and mythological polytheism. Kablr was the first to preach
a theism so real and consistent that it would tolerate neither
gods, nor idols, nor myths.
spite of this vivid faith,

393. About A.D. 1500, if we may hazard a conjecture, the

theory of the four Sampradayas took shape in the north, as
follows

1.
2.

Sampradaya the Ramanandls.

Brahma Sampradaya the Madhvas.
Rudra Sampradaya the Vishnusvamls.
Sanakadi Sampradaya the Nimbarkas.

Sri

3.

4.

This theory must have had

its

where these

origin in the north,

were dominant and the famous old Bhagavata

Sampradaya, the SrI-Vaishnava Sampradaya, and the Datta-

four

sects

treya

Sampradaya were

little

heard

of,

mean

the

'

tradition

and before the

The names

the sects of Chaitanya and Vallabha.

handed down from

has been generally held that the Sri

It

the

SrI-Vaishnavas of the south,

Sri

',

i.

e.

Lakshml.

Sampradaya covers

but their phrase

SrI-Vaishnava Sampradaya, so that

it

rise of

are taken to

the

is

cannot be accurately

Similarly, it has been said that the Rudra

Sampradaya covers the Vallabhacharyas, but they altogether

applied to them.
repudiate the

title.

Ramananda's influence has been so widespread

that the

student needs to be careful to recognize the whole.

In the

most direct line of descent stands the order of ascetics

bear his name, the

Ramanandl

Vairdgls,

i.

e.

who

those without

passion, also called Avadhutas, i.e. liberated ones.

They

are

sadhus, and live under a less rigid discipline than Sahkara's

They have many monasteries in Benares, Ayodhya,

and elsewhere. They are very numerous
at the Kumbh
Mela at Allahabad in 191 8 the}' alone could be compared in
sannyasls.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

328

numbers with Sankara's Dasnamls. Ramananda's influence

upon the Hindu laity of Hindustan has been very great, but it
The ordinary Hindu householder
is diffused and irregular.
who worships Ram and Sita belongs to no sect or sub-sect
yet his thought and his practice are saturated with the ideas
of Ramananda, borne down to him by the teaching of his
disciples, and above all by a disciple who came several generaRamananda does not seem to have
tions later, Tulsl Das.
wished to found a sect and certainly no community named
after him exists to-day, although two or three petty groups
founded by his followers may still be traced. Of his im;

mediate disciples
a few

hymns two

who

did not found sects but

deserve mention,

Dhanna and

left

at least

Pipa.

There

number of organized sects formed by the

disciples of Ramananda, but most of them have passed away.
These sects of direct Ramanandl origin (i. e. which acknowledge Sita as well as Ram and use images) seem to have
seem

to have been a

suffered severely from that process of sectarian decay

we have already mentioned, probably because

reason

belongs

for

to

their

existence

no sect

feels

strongly as the sectarian.

cases

Name.

there

which

is

the ordinary householder

Ramananda's

The

influence

little

who

quite

as

following are the only clear

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

329

parents in order to devote herself altogether to the worship of

Rama.

Tulsl went to her and begged her to return but she

turn urged him to give himself to the religious
by her words and her devotion, he decided to
she suggested.
He began the new life by becoming

refused,

in

Inspired

life.

do

and

as

a Vairagi, his guru being Narahari, the sixth in preceptorial

descent from

From Ayodhya

Ramananda.

as head-quarters,

he wandered far and wide, preaching the faith of Rama.

a
in

command

which, as he believed, he had received from

a dream decided him to write a

of the

common

Ramayana

He began

people.

in

the work at

But

Rama

the language

Ayodhya

in

1574, writing in the Hindi dialect used in that district, which

and since that time that
is called Eastern Hindi or Baiswari
;

has been recognized as the Ramaite speech, just as

dialect

Braj

'

is

recognized as the Krishnaite vehicle.

At

a rather

he left Ayodhya
where his room and his idols may still be seen. The great
poem, the title of which is the Rdma-charii-mdnas, the Lake
He
of Rama's deeds, was finished in Benares about 1584,
wrote a number of other works, but the first work is his
masterpiece.
Indeed it is one of the greatest books of modern
Hinduism, and has probably influenced a far larger number of
Hindus these last three centuries than any other work.
The poem is based primarily on the old Ramayana, and, in
imitation of it, is divided into seven books with the same titles.
But the faith q/" Ramananda was in the main the outgrowth of
the Vaishnava life and literature of the centuries immediately
preceding his time. The mediaeval Ramayanas, above all the
Adhydtina,h\x\. also the Yoga- Vasisht/ia, the Adb/mta, 3.nd the
Bhnsnndi, and other works such as the Hanumdn Ndtaka,
were much read and studied by the bhaktas. Hence the main

and settled at Asi Ghat, Benares,

later date

story of Tulsl Das's work

religion

is

is

the

same

as Valmlki's, but the

that of the mediaeval poems, and

incidents reflect

them

also.

Brahman who worshipped

Tulsl

the five
1

See

many

of the

Das had been a Smarta

At many points in
gods.

376.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

330
his

poem

his

great reverence for Siva

is

clearly expressed,

indeed takes such shapes as are scarcely reconcilable with

a true theism. Thus, in one place, Rama says Without prayer
'

to Siva

no one can

teaching of the

attain to the faith that

poem

also contains

many

require.'

The

advaitic elements

which strike one as very strange beside the personality of the

god of love whom TulsT adores. He accepts all the mythology of Hinduism and also a great

The Hindu system

stories.

is

many

grotesque modern

carefully preserved, the duty of

and upholding the old institutions being

Men are saved by dying in Ayodhya or
Benares as truly as through faith in Rama. Yet, in spite of all
this, Tulsl Das's faith in Rama uplifts him and enables him to
His tender love for
present a very noble conception of God.
the humblest as well as the greatest of his devotees, his
condescension in becoming incarnate for their sakes, his
sympathy and endurance of suffering for those who are devoted
to him, and his readiness to forgive are expressed with great
dignity and power.
Many of Tulsi's ideas come very near
Christian thought indeed
and there is not an impure image
The Tulsl Das
or word in the book from beginning to end.
Gitd
it
is a noble poem,
Rdnidyana is thus the vernacular
which teaches theism, divine incarnation and the love of God,
although it is burdened with the whole vast weight of Hindu
orthodoxy and mythology. Tulsl Das deserves the splendid
renown which his great work has brought him. He lived for
the people and loved them, and taught the very best he knew,
in the language of the people, and in poetry which reaches the
observing caste

emphatically taught.

heart even in a translation.

d.
I.

Kabir and

395' Sects of indirect

vitality

Refarmed,
his Influence.

RamanandT

origin

than those which sprang from

influence.

the

show

far

more

master's direct

All these groups arose from the teaching of

Rama-

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

331

nanda's disciple Kablr, the earliest being the church of his

own

All the others arc clearly the

followers, the Kablrpanthls.

outcome of his influence yet no single one of the founders

was an immediate disciple.
396. Ramananda's movement provided the Hindu influence
which went to the making of Kablr (1440-15 18), but Islam also
;

contributed largely.

but

It is possible,

is

it

not certain, that

he was brought up by Muhammadans. It is plain, however,

that the mystic Islam of the Sufis laid hold of him, whether

he ever lived the

Muhammadan

Sufi mysticism has

its

or not.

life

Muhammad's

roots in

experience and

teaching, but the leading elements of the system

two external
flowed

into

The

sources.

Islam through Greek philosophy.

Christian teaching, and Christian asceticism.

was Indian thought, but whether

Buddhism

it

at a very early date, or

not yet clear.

The

human

Gnosticism,
other source

reached the Sufis through

God

Sufi conception of

the

in

The

through Vedantism

heart.

It

is

later, is

tends to be im-

He works

manental rather than transcendental.

but especially

came from

was Neoplatonism, which

first

everywhere

possible for the

humble soul which turns away from the things of sense

Many Sufis go
find Him, and see Him, and know Him.
far

as

to identify self with God, like

Vedanta

and the state of

fana,

after death, called

bliss into

lies

to
so

the thinkers of the

which they hope to enter

very near Hindu thought.

It is

accompanied by everIn order to

lasting life in God yet individuality passes away.
reach illumination {gnosis) and union with God (called al-kaqq,
the Real, the True, sat), it is necessary to walk the path
not quite absorption in God, for

it

is

{tarigat), a

way

of

life

usually divided into stages.

The

spirit

and many Sufis

have been fakirs, but the great majority have been householders and have earned their bread by labour. The teacher,
whether called Shaikh, Pir, or Murshid, has to be obeyed

of this rule of

implicitly.

life is

The

to

details

some extent

ascetic,

of Sufi practice are not unlike the

methods of Yoga, the purpose being to escape from one's own

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

^S'2

individuality and, through illumination, to realize that

This temper of thought goes so

the only reality.

Sufis as to induce the idea that revelation

Hence

religion belong to unreality.

God is
many

far in

and every organized

all religions

are of equal

no longer an orthodox Muslim.

Kabir, then, came into close touch with this system, but it
does not seem possible to tell who the teachers were whom
he met or which books he read. When the story of Islam in

value,

and a Sufi

India

is

is

written in detail,

it

may

be possible to realize more

It seems probable
was a weaver and
lived in Benares, and was probably brought up as a Muhammadan. But he became a disciple of Ramananda, and Hindu
There can be no doubt of his
ideas poured into his mind.
relationship to the great leader; for he says in one of his
poems, Ramananda illumined me '.^ He also mentions Rai
He was brought before
Das, the Chamar, as a contemporary.
the Emperor Sikandar Lodi, who reigned from 1489 to J^iy.
The student can thus feel here that he is on the firm ground
The Emperor banished him from Benares, and he
of history.
thereafter lived a wandering life, and died at Maghar near

clearly the influences that

went to form him.

He

that he lived from A.D. 1440 to 1518.

'

Gorakhpur.
397. In the

life

of Kabir the

two

thought, the Sufi conviction that

The

religions mingled.

strongest elements of each laid hold of

all

him and formed

his

ordinary religions are

but forms dictating his general attitude to the two faiths.

Hence he was persecuted from both sides, and the Emperor
banished him from the centre of Hinduism
peace.

The groundwork

in the interests of

of his system of beliefs

is

Hindu

for

he accepts transmigration and karma, and thus stands within

further
the circle of Indian rather than Islamic thought.
Brahman, maya,
catalogue of Hindu ideas might be compiled

llla,^

detachment, cessation from work,

release,

bheddbheda relation, &c.

coincide with Sufi conceptions

'

Tagore, One

'He

is

I',

the

but most of these coincide or almost

;

so that a

number of them may

Hundred Poems of Kabir,

36.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

333

be regarded as common ground. On the other hand, he

denounces idolatry as foolish, false, and wrong, declares divine
incarnation impossible and laughs at the forms of asceticism
Sir George Grierson
here Islam rules.
as silly practices
:

believes that Christian

may

influence also

be traced

his

in

teaching.^

He

was a

strict thcist, calling

God Ram,

but recognizing no

consort, incarnation, or other divine attendant.

He

sees

God

man, and realizes the close relationship

between God and man, declaring that man is the same as God
and yet distinct from him. His verses refer to God in many
shining phrases which touch both the heart and the spirit.
The love of God for man finds clear and strong expression in
his lines, and he constantly speaks of the rest and peace there
is for the man who realizes that love, and the detachment from
both

nature and

in

in

the things of the world which

it

brings.

and is blunt, unpolished,

sometimes even coarse. There is little attempt made to reach
He does not care whether his words are
literary form.
Hindi, Persian, or barbarous, nor whether his sentences are
grammatical or not, so long as they strike home. Tagore's
398. Kablr's poetry

is

in Hindi,^

beautiful renderings scarcely reflect the style of the original,

though they are not unfaithful as translations. But he was

of great penetration and a poet of considerable
His best utterances are probably the loftiest work in
power.
the Hindi language; and hundreds of his couplets have laid
a mystic

hold of the

common

heart of Hindustan.

Large masses of poetry are ascribed to him, but until the

whole has been examined critically, it is impossible to tell how

much

genuine.

is

of short
followers.

Some

hymns and
'

"

About, the year 1570 the Blj'ak, a collection

utterances, was compiled by one of his

poems and

thirty years later a large

were

sayings

included

in

the

number of
Sikh

his

Granth.

JRAS.
The

1918, 156.
dialect is 'old

Allahabad and

Audh

',

Awadhi, the language spoken in West Mirzapur,

George Grierson, /AM 5. 1918, 152.

Sir

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

334

Besides these, innumerable couplets and witty sayings are

currently ascribed to him, and the Kablrpanthls have a considerable literature,

much

of which they say

master, but which, in the main,

399"

The

sprung from

following

is

his teaching

list

is

came from

the

clearly of later date.

of the chief sects which have

and influence

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

335

begging, and the prohibition of the use of flesh as food, of

intoxicating drink and of tobacco.

In a few cases infanticide

and widow-burning were prohibited. The drift towards
Hinduism, however, soon brings in the doctrine of divine
incarnation, the worship of gurus, and the formation of an order
of Sadhus,

who become

the divine gurus of the sect

the rules

against flesh, wine, and tobacco are gradually relaxed

sect tends to

become

restricted to the clean

castes;

mythology, especially the story of Radha, creeps

finally

idols

reappear.

In

one case obscene

rites

the

Hindu

in

find

and
an

entrance at an early date.

2.

The Kahirpanthls.

400. Kablr formed a community, which is known as the

Kabirpanth {pajith, representing the Sufi tariqat), but how
much of its present character and organization comes from
him it scarcely seems possible to say. Since he was altogether
opposed to idolatry, he must have made fresh arrangements
for the worship of God, but how far he went we do not know.

We

can hardly believe that he instituted an ascetic order.

He

would be certain to give the guru a prominent place in the

he would by no word or act lead men to believe that
he or any other teacher was an incarnation of God. Since
his day Hindu influence in various forms has found its way
There is an order of monks and also
into the community.
The monks are the teachers and leaders of the
a few nuns.
community, and they are ruled by two chief mahants or abbots.
The earliest centre seems to have been the Kablr-chaura
monastery in Benares, with which is associated the monastery
at Maghar where Kablr died.
The rival mahant has his seat
in
the Central Provinces.
There are many
at Chattisgarh
monasteries subordinate to each. The Benares mahants trace
their descent from Surat Gopal, while the Chattisgarh mahants
Each sub-sect has its own literalook back to Dharm Das.
The worship, which consists of prayers, ritual, and
ture.
The various
exhortation, is conducted in the monasteries.
sect, yet

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

S36

by the Bishop of Lucknovv in his

There is an initiation ceremony comparable with
baptism, and a rite called Jot Prasad, which has analogies
with the Lord's Supper. But a considerable place is taken by
the worship of the mahant, and in the monastery in Benares
a large picture of Kablr is used in such a way as to indicate
a return to idolatry. Although Kablr denounced divine
incarnation, the books teach that he is an incarnation of the
Supreme.
Indeed the practice of the sect as a whole is
acts of worship are described

manual,^

The

saturated in Hinduism.

sect-mark, the rosary, the mantra,

and many other details are conspicuous.

T/ie Sikhs.

3.

Nanak (1469-1538),

401.

Sikhs,

i.

e.

the Lahore
i.

the founder of the religion of the

the disciples, was a Punjabi, born in Talwandi in

district.

His

life is

Birth-witnesses, but there

e.

told in xwxvn&xows
is

not

much

that

Ja7iamsdkhis^
is

yet

known

He

belonged to the movement

which produced Kablr, and was unquestionably influenced by
him, but there is no evidence that they ever met. Nanak
with certainty about him.

associated with numerous teachers, both

Knowing

Sufi writings as well as the

saints.

Hindu and Muslim.^

both Persian and Hindi, besides Punjabi, he read

He wandered

hymns and

to his teaching in

hymns

of the Hindi-speaking

over North India, giving utterance

all

brief sayings in a

Punjabi and Hindi which would be understood

His

disciple

while

mixture of
and wide.

Mardana went with him and played the rebeck

Nanak

and arranged
most of them

As

far

sang.
for

He

gathered large numbers of followers,

them thejapji, a

in praise

collection of pieces of verse,

of God, put together for daily prayer.

is not comparable with Kablr

yet his verse is
and pithy, an excellent vehicle for his teaching.
Two Sanskrit works on philosophy are also ascribed to him,
the Nirdkdra Mimdihsd and the Adbhita Gltd?

a poet he

clear, simple,

Westcott, Kablr.

Barnett, Hztiduisni, 39, n.

"

I.

See

for

example

Macaulifft.',

VI, 356-414.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
His religious convictions are

337

main the same as

and he must be
worshipped from the heart, and not with images. Hinduism
and Islam are two paths, but there is but one God. Men of
all castes and races can know and love God.
The life of home
is praised rather than asceticism, and the moral side of religion
Kablr's.

is

God

is

one, eternal,

strongly emphasized.

In

in

the

spiritual,

Nanak many fragments

of the

monistic Vedanta appear along with numerous phrases which

imply the personality of God.

Karma and

transmigration

are retained, the conception of indyd as a delusive, deceptive

and also the conviction of the importance of the guru.

in which
individuality is lost. Nanak was a humble man who confessed
his own sinfulness freely, and did not dream of calling himYet he stands nearer Hinduism
self an incarnation of God.
than Kablr for the whole Hindu pantheon is retained in his
force,

Release brings union with God, or rather absorption,

poems.

The first,
402. Nanak was followed by nine other gurus.
Guru Angad, invented for Nanak's hymns a new alphabet,
which is known as Gurumukhi, and is now used for the

He left a few utterances in

and Ram Das each wrote a considerable number of hymns.
Guru Arjan, with whom the
succession became hereditary, was a notable figure, a poet,
His leadership covered the last
and a man of affairs.

vernacular
verse.

of

the

Punjab.

Amar Das

Gurus

twenty-four years of the reign of Akbar, and he took

full

advantage of the opportunity which the Emperor's tolerahim.

He built the central Sikh shrine,
tion afforded
known as the Golden Temple, at Amritsar. But his chief
service

to the

community was the formation

of

its

sacred

book.
It is possible

that the collection of Kablr's

poems

Bijak, which took place about the time w^hen Arjan

guru,

suggested the idea to his

to

In

the

any case

he

hymns of Nanak and the other gurus,

them his own hymns and a considerable body

gathered together the

and added

mind.

in

became

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

33^

of poetry by Kabir and other singers.^

first,

then the So-Darit, which

is

He

placed the /apj'i

used by the Sikhs for even-

song, and then two other sets of verses, which are used as

a prayer before retiring to

of

hymns

is

rest.

Thereafter the whole body

divided into groups according to the Rag,'*

the type of music, to which they are sung.^

i.

e.

The Granih

Sahib, or Noble Book, has proved of very large value to the

manual of instruction and theology as well

as their hymnal and prayer-book. As is evident from Arjan's
own compositions, Hindu ideas and practices were finding
The guru was already
their way into Sikhism in his days.
worshipped as the Supreme Being.
While Akbar honoured Arjan, his son Jahangir was suspicious of the Granth, and subjected him to tortures to which
he succumbed. His death did a great deal to rouse the martyrspirit in the community. His son Har Gobind, the next guru,
formed a bodyguard for himself The ninth guru, Teg
Bahadur, who was an old man when he accepted the headship of the community, wrote a number of hymns and stanzas.
The intolerant Emperor Aurunzebe imprisoned him and
finally put him to death, but not before the guru, according to
Sikh tradition, had prophesied that Europeans would come to
India and destroy his empire. This prophecy has done a great
A poetical work of
deal to bind the Sikhs to Briti.sh rule.
some importance was produced by Bhai Gur Das, a contemporary of the fourth, fifth, and sixth gurus. It is an outline of the Sikh faith, and is partly translated by Macaulifife.*
It is called B/iai Gnr Das Ki War.
403. Gobind Singh, the son of Teg Bahadur, saw that the
He therefore formed
Sikhs must fight the Mogul empire.
and trained an army which became a formidable force. In
Sikhs.

It is their

These hymns by others than Sikhs were altered here and there by the

editors.
^

For the Rags see Macauliffe, V. 333. For an exposition of the Indian
see Fox Strangways, Micsic of Hindustan.
For the prosody of the hymns see Trunipp, Adi Granfh, cxxviii iif.

Rag
*
'

IV. 241.

MCJSLTM INFLUENCE
order to give his warriors the

fullest

339

support from religion, he

hands the Khanda-ditake a series of solemn

Sword,
and
to
Baptism
the
Pahul, or
of
wear
five articles the
them
to
vows. These vows bound
names of which begin with the letter K,' to worship God
regularly, to share a common meal, and to eschew idolatry,
Each
pilgrimage, satl, infanticide, tobacco, and intoxicants.
man adopted the surname Sitigh, Lion. They thus became
It was
a new otttffHffltt y wit faitt-^w4ttdi Caste disap peared
called the Khalsd, a title derived from a word meaning pure.

summoned them

to accept from his

He

refused to appoint another guru, declaring that the Grantk,

which he added his father's hymns and a single couplet of

and no other guru
his own, must henceforward be their guru
from
what he saw in
Doubtless
he
realized
appointed.
has been
guru-worship.
grave
danger of
Sikhism and elsewhere the
With him Hindu influence came into the community still
more freely than before. Before organizing the Khalsa, he
seems to have worshipped the goddess Durga,^and he certainly

to

had translations made by his court poets of the episode of

Chandl in the Mdrkandeya P.^ These and other Hindu
He left
narratives were used to fire the valour of his men.
also a number of other writings, mostly in Hind!,'* but some
After his death his works, along with certain

Persian.^

in

and compositions by men employed by him, were

gathered together in one volume by Bhai Mani Singh. Later
it was called the Granth of the Tenth Guru^ but it has never
translations

been received as authoritative.

Gobind Singh for worldly ends,
while the
Parts of

it

Adi

It is
e.

used by the followers of

the promotion of valour,

Granth is used
by Macauliffe.

or Original

are translated

g.

for religious ends.

Kcs, hair (never cut) ; Kach, drawers ; Kirpan, dagger

bangle (of iron) Kahga, comb.
According to one account he offered her human sacrifices
But see Macauliffe, V, Chap. VIII. He may have been
xi.
Sivaji's example.
' Macaulifife, V. 80.
See above, 168.

One of these is a set of prayers called the /ap Saheb.

^ Macauliffe, V. i, 22,
67, 68, 83, 201, 260 ff.
'

Karf/ia,

"^

Z 2

Trumpp,

moved by

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

340

404. The transformation of the church into an army did

not prove altogether healthy for preaching practically ceased
;

among them, and Hinduism continued

munity. The GrantJi^ now recognized

The

com-

as the Guru, began to

Idols reappeared in Sikh houses

receive divine honours.

even in Sikh shrines.

to press into the

Many

and

Sikhs drifted back to Hinduism.

formation of the Khalsa necessarily divided the Sikh

community

two parts and within these certain subdivisions have appeared.

Yet all worship together. The
following list shows the subdivisions
into

A.

Name.
I.

SahijdharIs.'

Approx. Date.

Founder.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
but the adoration of the sacred book

341

itself is

now

a very

prominent part of Sikh observance, as any one may see in the

Golden Temple of Amritsar. In one place at least it is
worshipped by fire-sacrifice.^ How great the fascination of
Hindu worship is may be realized from the fact that Sikh
ascetics frequently

go on pilgrimage and visit Hindu temples

The Prayer Book in common use is

to gaze on the idols.

the PanjgrantJii.

contains {a) the Jdpjl,

{b)

the

Ra/iras, {c) the Kirtan So/iila, {d) the SiikJidmani,

(e)

the

called

Asa-ki-wdr.
daily

The

by Khalsa

first

It

three of the five have to be recited

Sikhs.

The DddupantJiis.

4.

406. Dadu (1544-1603) was

Ahmadabad, but he spent most

there the bulk of his followers are

his teaching in

Bdni,

i.e.

still

in

life

found.

to

Rajputana, and

He

expressed

His work conchapters,

which
deal with
37

poetic utterances.

tains 5,000 verses, arranged in

Hymns

the leading religious questions.

He

Brahman who belonged

of his

also are included.

up at least one
Apart from Dadu's Bdfif,
the sect has a large literature in Hindi, produced by two of his
sons and a number of his followers.
Sundar Das the younger
is a famous Hindi poet.
Nischal Das was a Vedantist, and
through his influence some members of the sect have accepted
the advaita doctrine. Only twice-born Hindus are allowed to
read the BdnJ, but Sudras may learn the 24 gurumantra and
the 24 sabda.
The sect has no dealings with Outcastes.had

fifty-two disciples, each of

which

set

Dddu-dvdra', or place of worship.

407. The followers of Dadu are either householders or

Householders are called Sevaks, i.e. ser-

celibate ascetics.

vitors, while the title

Dddupantlil

latter are divided into five orders

a.

Khdlsds, the pure.

is

reserved for ascetics.

The

Their head-quarters are

In the .Sikh monastery at Conjeeveram.

These and other particulars I learned from DfidupanthTs
the Kumbh Mela in Feb. 1918.

in

Naraina,

at

Allahabad

at

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

343
forty miles

from Jaipur, where

Dadu

died.

Learned Khalsas

lead in worship, study, and teach.

Ndgds

b.

(a

corruption of the Sanskrit Nagna, naked) are

an order of celibate mercenaries founded by Sundar Das, the

In nine camps on the Jaipur border there are

elder.

some

20,000 of them, paid by the Jaipur government for the defence

of the state.
Utrddls, an order founded in the Punjab

c.

Many

Das.

of

by Banwari
them are learned men and teach ascetics.

Others are doctors.

may take up any profession.

These must not practise any
profession nor touch money.
They live a wandering life, and
devote themselves to study and literature.
e. Khakis,
ash-covered ascetics, who lay stress on ausMembers

of these three orders

Viraktas, the passionless.

d.

'

'

terities.

408.

The

cult,

which

carried on in the Dadu-dvaras,

is

consists in the worship of a manuscript

with

all

the operations of

Hindu

copy of Dadu's

of flowers, perfume, and food and the waving of lights.

are also recited and

by an

ascetic

hymns

Bdiii

idolatry, such as the offering

are sung.

The puja

so that wherever there

is

is

Bam

conducted

an ascetic and a

may be a Dadu-dvara.
Naraina Dadu's sandals and clothes are preserved and

manuscript of the sacred book, there

At

receive worship.
5.

The Ldl

Da sis.

409. Lai Das (died 1648), the chief saint of Alwar, came
His teaching and

of the Meos, originally a predatory tribe.

hymns

The Lai
are gathered in a collection called Bdnl.
The
DasT teachers, like their master, are married men.

worship of the sect consists of the repetition of Ram's name

and the singing of hymns to rude music.
6.

410.
lost

The

TJie

origin of the

Satndmls.

Satnaml

sect

seems to be altogether

so that the date suggested in the table (p. 334), A.D. 1600,

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
is

The name

quite conjectural.

means

that they worship the one

343

of the sect,

ReaHty

'

True-name
Haqq) and

',

(Sat, al

proves that they belong to the sphere of Kablr's influence.

They appear

in history for the first

time

1672, at Narnol,

in

75 miles south-west of Delhi, where a trivial quarrel led to

a wild rising of SatnamI ascetics against the government of

Aurungzebe.

It

was

crushed

finally

in

a battle fought in

March 1673, when thousands of Satnamis were killed. No

book of their own belonging to this date is extant, but a
contemporary Hindu historian, Iswar Das Nagar, tells us of
Clearly their original
their immorality and filthy habits.
doctrine had been seriously tainted by some outside influence.

The sect seems to have been reorganized, about A.D. 1750,

by Jagjivan Das, at Kotwa between Lucknow and Ayodhya.
Throughout its history, since this time, the members of the
been mostly Outcastes. Jagjivan was a poet and
One of his disciples Dulan
left his teaching in Hindi verse.
Das, who spent his life near Rai Bareilly, was also a poet.
The sect is said to be strictly vegetarian and to abstain from

sect have

liquor.

known

Bhattacharya avers that the sect practises the rite

mixture of human

as Gayatri Kriya, the drinking of a

excreta.

development

further

Chamar belonging
between

1820

Chamars^

occurred

and

He

1830.

of the district,

to Jagjivan

introduced

it

among

and

he did
his

not

He

the

people.

acknowledge

He

his

taught his

people to worship the one God, formless and eternal,

the sole Reality.

Das,

mainly with a view to the social

betterment of the race, and

indebtedness

under Ghazi

to Chattisgarh in the Central Provinces,

who

is

forbade the use of flesh and also of

like flesh or blood, and the

These Chamar Satnamis used to compel
young wives to undergo a rite of promiscuity, but it is
gradually passing out of use.
One group has reverted to

certain vegetables

worship of

which look

idols.

idols.

Outcastes

who work

in leather.

344

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

From

the condition of the Satnamis to-day one would be

inclined to infer that from the beginning their

propaganda has

chief success

among

Outcastes, and that the unclean

practices which have

dogged

their history are probably ancient

had

its

customs long practised

Outcaste

in

tribes,

which

it

has not

been possible to eradicate.

The Babd

7.

Ldlis.

411. Baba Lai, the founder of the petty sect, the Baba
Dara Shikoh, the son

LalTs, attracted the attention of Prince

Shah Jahan,

and had seven interviews with him.

written in Persian by two
Hindus belonging to the court under the title Nadirii^n-nikat}
The sect still possesses a religious house at Lai Baba Ka Saila
of

in 1649,

The teaching he then gave was

near Baroda.
8.

The Sddhs.

412. The Sadhs- are found chiefly between the two rivers
from Delhi southwards. The sect was founded in 1658 by
He expressed his teaching, like Kablr, in verses
Birbhan.
and couplets which are gathered in a volume called Adi

One element in the book is

commandments, which prove the sect to have
been more distinctly Puritan than any of the others, and show
Upadesa^ the Original Teaching.

a set of twelve

Christian influence in
injunction of

one point at

They hold

monogamy.

least,

viz.

in

the strict

a meeting at the

full

moon.
9.

The Char an Ddsis.

The Charan Dasis

are a sect founded at Delhi about

He
left a considerable literature in
Charan
Das.
1730 by
Hindi verse, and two women who were his disciples have also
left books.
The basis of his system is the same as Kablr's,
the name of the eternal God, the Word of God, the practice
of bhakti, the need of the guru, and the avoidance of idolatry
but the influx of Hinduism is plainly visible in the divine

413.

'

Wilson, Sects, 347

ERE.

II. 308.

Wilson, Sects, 352.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

345

use of the Bhdga-

claims he

makes

vata P.

Naturally the sect has gone farther.

images

for the

their temples,

in

Radha and

guru and

in his

and recognize God

in

They have
the form of

Krishna.^

The Siva Nardyanls.

ID.

was founded by a Rajput

in 1734, and
their four monasteries called Dhams are all in the Ghazlpur
district.
People of any religion or class are admitted. Most
of the members to-day are people of the lower classes including Outcastes, but in earlier times Brahmans and Rajputs
414. The Siva NarayanI sect

named

Siva Narayana at Bhelsari near Ghazlpur

joined in appreciable numbers.

Muhammad

Shah, Emperor

member of the sect and gave

They believe in the formless
his royal seal to the founder.
Brahman, and venerate Siva Narayana as an incarnation. The
of Delhi, 1719-48, became a

founder

left

sixteen volumes of Hindi verse.

The Garlh

IT,

Das (1717-82)"

415. Garib

Rohtak

district.

His

Gjirii

Da sis.
lived

at

Churani

in

the

Granth Sahib contains 24,000

The

sect still exists, but they have only one monastery,

Only twice-born men are accepted
no
lay followers.
and have
as Sadhus.
I met a few Garib Dasls at the Kumbh Mela at
Allahabad, in February 1918.
lines.

12..

The

Ram

Sauchls.

416. The Ram Sanehls, or Lovers of Ram, are a sect

founded by Ram Charan about the middle of the eighteenth

Ram

Charan left a body of Bant, and of hymns.

The third guru, Dulha Ram, left about 10,000 verses and

century.

ERE.

Grierson,

Wilson, ^Vt/j, 358; Gait, Census Reporl^ 1901,1. 115;

III. 365.

1918, 114.
^

Prasad,

SBS.

I.

18 1

II. 195.

Cx'itr son,

JRAS.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

346
4,000 couplets.^

Their prayer-houses are called Ramdvara,

and are found mostly in Rajputana and the worship consists

of singing and teaching.
Their head-quarters are at Shahpur,
but they are represented also at Jaipur, Udaipur, and elsewhere. They have no settled following among laymen, so that
the sect has decayed, and is now merely an order of sadhus.
417. Several other leaders founded schools and expressed
their teaching in Hindi verse, from the end of the seventeenth
to the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Their names and
literature will be found in Prasad's volumes.
418. The tragedy in the history of these sects which,
under the influence of Islam, gave up Hindu worship, is that
they have been unable to find a satisfactory substitute for it.
The mere reading of pieces of vernacular poetry and the
;

hymns does

singing of
sects

which

on the

restrict

laity,

common

not grip the

people.

Those

themselves to that tend to lose their hold

while the rest revert to Hindu guru-worship, as

the Kablrpanthis have done, or

fall

to bibliolatry, as

is

the

case with the Sikhs and the Dadupanthls.

Saiva Literature.

F.

a.

General.

good deal of unsectarian Saiva literature arose

419.
during the period, and some of it is well worthy of notice.

The
own

Saiva movement

Bengal produced a literature of its

in Bengali, which is described by Mr. Sen, the most
prominent book being Ramakrishna's. Sivdyana, which dates
in

from about 1750. In Gujarat, Sivanand, who lived towards

the middle of the eighteenth century, produced lyrics which
In the Telugu country we trace the activity
are much used.
of Saivas in

the

translation

three

of

Saiva

Puranas, the

Skanda (fifteenth century), the Kiirma [c. A.D. 1500), and

the Matsya {c. A.D. 1550); and also in the famous gnomic
verses of Vemana, a prince belonging to the family of the
>

Bhattacharya,

HCS.

447-8

Grierson,

LH.

87.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Vema

who

Reddis,

districts

for

347

ruled in the Kistna, Guntur, and Nellore

Vemana

century,

the

early in

flourished

In Travancore, in the seventeenth century,

fifteenth century.

the Siva P. and the

Brahmdnda were done

into Malayalim.

century Aruna-giri-nathar
wrote the Tini-puhal, a series of lyrics on the god SjibraJiSo,

in

Tamil,

in

the

fifteenth

The famous Lihgayat work

manya.

in

Kanarese, Prahhu-

was translated into Tamil verse by Siva Prakasa

SvamI in the seventeenth century, and is used by all Saivas.
Two translations from the Sanskrit may be mentioned the
Lihga P. was done in Tamil verse by Varatuiiga Pandya,
a fifteenth-century prince of the ancient house, and the
Kfinna P. by his brother, Ativlrarama Pandya. Two collihga-lila,

lections

of

local

legends,

religious

the

Tirii-vilaiy-ddat-

purdnam, composed by Paraiijoti early in the seventeenth

century, and the KdncJii-pW'dnain, by Kanchi Appar and
his teacher, Siva-jiiana-yogi the Siddhantist, in the latter half

of the eighteenth century, the former dealing with Madura,

the latter with Conjeeveram, are extremely popular,

Pdhipata Saivas.

b,

420.

The

ancient Pasupata sects have almost completely

disappeared.
old Kapalikas

A
;

may be met they are the

who are -Kapalikas
Kablr, may also be seen,

very few Aghoris

and a

few

reformed under the influence of

I,

Aughars,

The Gorakhndthis.

421. But there are plenty of GorakhnathTs to be found.

Their temples are Saiva temples, but Gorakhnath is worshipped

in

them

as a form of Siva,

and animals are

sacrificed.

In the temples of the sect in Nepal buffaloes as well as goats

In the monastery at Gorakhpur, where he is

have died, there is a shrine to his memory in which
done three times a day. It contains his charana, i.e.

are sacrificed.
said

to

puja

is

his footprints in stone, but

no image.

Outside the shrine, to

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

34^
the right,

is

a fence of trisul of various sizes, and behind

it

the

place where goats are sacrificed.^

422.

Kanphata Yogis have a great

hollow of each ear

slit

cut in the central

so as to admit a big circular ear-ring of

wood, or horn.-^ They usually wear several necklaces,
and from one of them there hangs a slender silver whistle
called Singinad, which they blow before worship and before
^

glass,

meals.

Amongst

the necklaces will

usually

be seen one

worn as a
badge indicating that the wearer has visited the famous
Vamacharl Sakta temple of Hinglaj in Baluchistan for they
are accustomed to visit Sakta as well as Saiva temples.
Their mantra is Siva Goraksha. They worship Gorakhnath
and claim a high antiquity for him. He and the other Nathas
are believed to live in the Himalayas.
They do not do very
much in the way of yoga-practice for modern ascetics tend
to degenerate to a common rudimentary type.
Yogis whom
I met at the Kumbh Mela at Allahabad and at Benares gave
me a long list of books which they say Gorakhnathls use.
423. On the HatJia-yoga and the Goraks/ia-Sataka, which
are mentioned above as works attributed to Gorakhnath,
atha-yoga-pradlpikd
three more modern works depend, the
consisting of small whitish stone beads, which

is

of Srinath, the
by Svatmarama Yoglndra,
Gheranda S., and the Stva S. The first is the earliest of
the three. The Pradipikd and the Gheranda S. deal with the
same subjects, but only part of the Siva S. is devoted to
Hatha Yoga; the rest of it is more like a treatise on Sakta
the

disciple

Yoga.
^
I owe this information tb Mr. D. W. P. Hill of Qenares, who visited
the monastery in December 191 7.
^ At the Kumbh Mela at Allahabad in
P'ebruary 1918 I saw a yogi
who had just been initiated. He was wearing a pair of huge ear-rings,
and his ears were very painful.
^ When
asked what the meaning of the wearing of ear-rings is, they
merely say that Gorakhnath ordered it.
may note that .4iva wears
large circular ear-rings in many of his images, and Ramanuja tells us that
SBE.
the ear-ring was one of the inudrds, seals, worn by Kapalikas

We

XLVni.

521.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
c.

I.

Agamic

349

c^aivas.

Sanskrit School of Saiva Siddhdnta.

424. In the Tamil country there are no sectarian distincThey are sacred to Siva they

tions in the Saiva temples.

open to

are

caste

all

Hindus, whether

Saivas, Siddhantists, or Lingayats,

Smartas, ordinary

and the ministrants are

all

Brahmans, except in the case of a few of the smaller temples

where Pandarams, i.e. non-Brahman Saivas, act as archakas.
These Brahman ministrants form the chief constituency of
the Sanskrit school of Saiva Siddhanta, but numerous Smartas
who are not archakas doubtless belong to it also. The
earliest surviving document representing the school is, as we
have already seen, the essay in Madhava's Sarvadarsana- y^y^^o
sahgraha called the Saiva Darsana. The literature of this
school

is

in

all

philosophical
clearly

marked

of the latter

of

its

Sanskrit;

standpoint
off

is all

it

is

from the Tamil school

in

Tamil,

Agamas, and

recognizes the
Visishtadvaita.

its

standpoint

It

its

thus very

for the literature

is

is

advaita, and

most

people are non-Brahmans.

The next noteworthy book belonging

to the

school

is

Srikantha Siviicharya's Saiva-bhasJiya on the Vedanta-sutras,

The

date of the work has never been settled.

that he

was a

friend of Govinda, the

Tradition runs
guru of the great Sankara,

he had a philosophical dispuSankara and defeated him but against this there

that, after writing the bJidshya^

tation with

stands the blank silence of several centuries in

all schools, and

dependence on Ramanuja. The great
success of the SrI-bhdshya, which vindicates the Vedantic
orthodoxy of the Vaishnava position, founded on the Narayanlya section of the Epic and the Vaishnava Samhitas, seems->..>-.j,
,,_
to have roused Srikantha to do a similar service for his own ^^A;'>d*^<i
Saiva school, which recognizes the Pasupata theology and

also

his

manifest

.,-,-.

the Saiva Agamas.

His philosophic position

Ramanuja's and he uses the same epithet

is

for

the
it,

same

as

Visisht-

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

350
advaita^

at manj^ points his reasoning follows the Sri-bhdshya

and I am told that sentences occur in the bJidshya

which are verbally the same as sentences in the Veddnta-sdra
attributed to Ramanuja. There need thus be no doubt that he
is later than Ramanuja.
But, if the bhdshya had been in
existence when Madhava wrote the Sarvadarsanasaiigraha^
he would have almost certainly referred to it so that his
implicitly

would lead us to think of a later date. Now, the

known
reference to the work is in the Saiikaravijaya
earliest
attributed to Madhava, which is clearly pseudonymous, and
Thus, if we suppose the
therefore subsequent to Madhava.
bhdsJiya was written about A. D. 1400, there would seem to be
no evidence in existence which conflicts with that date. Yet
it would be unwise to speak dogmatically until the work has
been carefully examined and the quotations contained in it
have been identified. The bhdshya is used by all Agamic
Saivas in South India.

silence

The

earliest existing

commentary on the bhdshya

is

Appaya

Dikshita's Sivdrkamanidipikd, dating from about A.D. 1600.

Sambhudeva's Saiva-siddhdnta-dipikd, which belongs to the

sixteenth century, is the most noteworthy dogmatic work
but Nilakantha's Kriydsdra, which conafter the bhdshya
tains a synopsis of the bhdshya, is also much used. There is an
account of the school and its theology in the Vayaviya S. of
;

the Siva P.
2.

425.

There

is,

Tamil Saivas.

strictly speaking,

no organized sect con-

nected with the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta.

A sort of incomplete

grown up around the

literature and
These are schools of theology and literature
The
in which monks are trained and priests learn a little.
Mahants keep touch also with their initiated disciples all over

sectarian organization has

the monasteries.

the country.

majority of the monasteries are under non-

Brahmans, the remainder under Brahmans.

'

On

II.

i.

22.

Indeed

com-

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Brahman

paratively few

families

are

351

connected with

movement, the mass of Tamil Bralimans being

or Vaishnavas.

Siddhantists

recognize

either

the Vedas,

the

Smartas
but

in

practice they usually restrict themselves to the Upanishads

and the Saiva portions of the Yajurveda, especially the eleven

Rudra Hymns.^ The Gltd they do not use at all": it is too
distinctively Vaishnava.
The books on which their religious
life is really nourished are their own Tamil literature
the
Agamas remain in the background, and even the Saiva
BhdsJiya is read by only a few.
No serious theological
change is visible in the theology during this period, but
:

number

of valuable pieces pf literature appeared.

daiya Vallalar

is

Kannu-

the author of Olivil-Odiikkavi, a theological

work in Tamil verse belonging to the fifteenth century, while

Kumaraguruparasvaml wrote many short religious poems in
the seventeenth. The most noted scholar of the time, Sivajfiana-yogi, who died in A. D. 1785, wrote two famous Tamil
commentaries, one lengthy, the Drdvida Bhdshya, the other
short, the Laghti Tlkd, on the foundation scripture of the
Siddhanta, Siva-jhdna-bodha^ and also produced the KdhcJiipiirdnam in collaboration with his disciple, as has been already
stated.^
But unquestionably the greatest Saiva production of
the period is Tayumanavar's volume of lyrics, which are
equally famous for religious feeling, beauty of language, and
sweetness of rhythm.

He

also

belongs to the eighteenth

century.

The

philosophic standpoint of the school

is

called Sivad-

and they are thus distinguished from the Sanskrit

Siddhanta school
but no attempt will be made here to
describe the theology, for it differs in important details from
the other schools, and thus requires to be expounded with
fuller knowledge than the writer possesses.
vaita,*

'

"

'

Taittiriya Samhitd, IV.

v.

Pope's dictum, Tirtivasagam, xxxvi, is erroneous.

* Others give Bhedabheda as the standpoint.
See 419.

ik

^'

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

S52

Sit tars.

3.

There was a Saiva school

426.

Tamil-land, which held

in

a monotheistic and Puritan creed, and roundly condemned

They

idolatry.

are usually called the Chittars, or Sittars,

Siddhas, Sages, but their history

to have been

most active

in

is

i.e.

They seem

not known.

and seventeenth

the sixteenth

centuries.

Ahappey and Pambatti

Many of

chief singers.

the

are believed to have been their

hymns

of the Sittars are collected

Siva-vdkyam, Siva's utterance, but orthodox lyrics

have also crept in beside the pure material. On the other
hand, a number of beautiful lyrics which show the Sittar
in

the

mistakenly attributed to Pattinattu

spirit are

Tattuva Rayar, who wrote

century poet.^
century

work

against

probably another leader.

come

of

Muslim

influence,

Pillai,

in the

Adahgan-Mnrai, was
This movement may be an outlike similar anti-idol movements in
idolatry,

the north, or Muslim and Christian teaching

had something to do with

4.

Kashmir

vitality.

clothed

in

Shaivism.

known

English,
Sir

as Lai

may

'

both

shows very

little

Saivds.

exists,

but

it

are not wanting

be seen

George Grierson

Ded who

may have

it.

Kashmir Saivism still

Yet scholarly pandits

427.

the tenth-

seventeenth

in

refers to

lived in

their work,

Chatterji's
'

Kashmir

a wise old

Kashmir

in

woman

the fourteenth

whose apophthegms in short verses are still freely

happy valley and he quotes and translates one
Mr. Chatterji names only a single writer
of her stanzas.
belonging to this period, Sivopadhyaya of the eighteenth
century, who wrote a commentary on the Vijndna Bhairava
century,

quoted

'

in the

',

Tantra.
'

See

305.

MUSLIM INFLUP:NCE
Vira Saivas.

5.

428.

It

is

c^53

not yet possible to sketch Lifigayat

All that can be done

during those centuries.

is

history

to give a brief

account of the literature produced by the sect

in Kanarese.
Puranas bulk most largely, the Basava, translated in 1369
from the Telugu by Bhima Chandra Kavi, the Padviardja,
stor}' of Kereya Padmarasa, written about
Padmananka, the MaJidbasava by Siiigi Raja

13H5

the

of

by

rather

uncertain date, and the Chaiina Basava,\s\\\c\\ tells of Basava's

nephew, written by Virupaksha Pandit

which is not called a Purana,

bhulihgallld,

in

The Pra-

1585.
at

is

once a legendary

book of dogmatics. It is founded on the life of

Allama Prabhu, an associate of Basava. It was written by
Chamarasa about 1460, and was translated into Tamil at the
end of the seventeenth century.^ About the middle of the
seventeenth century lived SivagunayogI, whose
Vivckachintmnani^ is a sort of cyclopaedia of Saiva lore in champ fi,
history and a

i.e.

in

mingled prose and verse.

manual

in Sanskrit

Chapters I-IV are a synopsis

The Srikara
to Srlpati

unknown

very doubtful.

in

Its

is

a Saiva

Karikas of the Saiva-bhdshya.

BJidsJiya on the Veddnta-sutras

Panditaradhya

to have been

The Ki'iyasdra

by Nilakantha," much used by Lingayats.

of the twelfth century

until quite recently

standpoint

is

is

attributed

but

so that

it

its

seems
date

is

called Sakti-visishtadvaita.

G. Sakta Literature.
TJic

a.

Left-hand School.

429. Our account of the large Sakta literature produced

during this period must be very fragmentary, partly because
our knowledge of the chronology

because we
1

See

know

419-

so

little

is still

slight,

but even more

about the sub-sects.

p-ice, /v'Z. 68.

'424-

"311-

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

354
430.

far

Bengal, including Assam, seems to have produced

more Sakta

literature than

Kamakhya

any other part of India during

The most famous Sakta temple

these centuries.

in

Bengal

is

BrahmaIt is noticeable that the ancient name for

putra in Assam.
Assam is Kamarupa. The temple of Kalighat close by
Human sacrifices were
Calcutta comes next in importance.
offered in these shrines until British authority put them down.
The Kalikd Purdna or Tantra, which has long been well
known, is clearly a manual of the Saktism of Bengal, and
probably comes from a date near the beginning of the period.
The Blood Chapter gives directions for the offering of animal
near Gauhati

and human
animals

is

to

sacrifices

in

the upper basin of the

Chandika.

most formidable

The

list

of sacrificial

birds, tortoises, alligators, fish,

nine species of wild animals, buffaloes, bulls, he-goats, ichneu-

mons, wild boars, rhinoceros, antelopes, iguanas, reindeer,

Human sacrifice is of more avail than anything
else.
Blood drawn from one's own body may also be offered.
The Yoginl T. probably belongs to the sixteenth century
for it refers to Vishnusinha, a king who ruled in Kooch Behar
It is in two parts, the first dealing
shortly after a.d. 1500.
with all the chief Tantrik subjects, the second being really
a Mahatmya of Kamakhya. It is one of the foulest Tantras.
lions, tigers.

The Visvasdra

T. probably belongs to the

same time

for

it

has a reference to the Bengal! Vaishnava leader, Chaitanya

In

(1485-1533).
contains a

list

found the Durgdsatandma Stotra.

of 64 Tantras, which appears also in

\}[iQ.

It

Againa

large number of the works mentioned are

modern, and several were produced in Bengal, but their

Tattva-vildsa}
clearly

it is

dates are not known.

431. There is another group of Tantras produced in

Bengal the dates of which are known, but they are much later.

The Mahdnirvdna, though

Left-hand Tantra,

work, but a mystery hangs over

in early literature,

and the
1

its

earliest

Dutta,

Mr.,

origin.

It is

is

a noble

not mentioned

attempt at a commentary
p. V.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
that exists

is

the set of notes

Mohan Ray's
in

1H33

by Hariharananda

Ram Mohan

pandit.

355

was born

Ram

Bharall,

in

1772 and died

so that the BharatI Hved at the very earh'est at the

Some scholars beHeve that

he was the author of the book, others doubt the conjecture.
close of the eighteenth century.

In any case the book

century.

It

is

is

probabl}' a product of the eighteenth

two parts but only the

in

The

published and translated.

first

translator writes

been

has

This Tantra is, further, one which is well known and esteemed,
though perhaps more highly so amongst that portion of the Indian

Hinduism than amongst some Tanhave been told, certain of its provisions appear
to display unnecessary timidity.
The former admire it on account of
its noble exposition of the worship of the Supreme Brahman, and in the
belief that certain of its passages absolutely discountenance the orthodox
ritual.
Nothing can be more mistaken than such a belief
This any one will discov-er who reads the

public which favours 'reformed'

trikas, to

whom,

as

The

text

whom

have referred

are,

section of Tantrikas to

believe, also in error.

For the design

of this Tantra appears to be, whilst conserving commonly-recognized

Tantrik principles, to secure that, as has sometimes proved to be the

case, they are not abused.

Lord

will,

The

that even that

ParvvatI says (Chap. I, verse 67)

I
which Thou hast ordained for the good of
'

through them, turn out

first a-nd

fear,

men

for evil '}

second chapters are introductory

a discourse on the worship of the

the third

Supreme Brahman.

is

The

manual not only of

and of
family and funeral rites and chakra-puja and the five Ms are
The Tantrasdra is a compilation which dates
not omitted.
from 1 81 2. There is very little of the Left-hand element
about it, and it contains several fine hymns. A number of
yantras, chakras, and mandalas are reproduced in its pages.
It is much used in Bengal.
It would be most interesting to
discover what the influence was which led to the production
in Bengal, where Tantrik literature had been so impure, of

remaining chapters form

worship and

its

very

full

accompaniments but

also of conduct,

Avalon,

TGL. XI

A a

ff.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

S56

two Left-hand works of such a character as the MaJiduirvdna

T. and the Tantrasdra are.
The Prdnatoshinl was written by Ramatoshini Sarma in
1821 ^ and the Mahdsiddhasdra seems to be still later. It
contains a catalogue of 192 names,^ distributed in three
of 64 each, and

Asvakrdnta

labelled

but the

list

lists

Vishmikrdnta, RatJiahrdnta, and

seems to be quite recent

for

it

Mahdnirvdna T., and of all the 192 names only

10 correspond with names in the Vdinakcsvara list.
A large number of odes to the goddess are scattered through

contains the

group of Tantras.
432. From the end of the fourteenth century, when the
great poet Chandi Das wrote his hymns, a stream of Sakta
this

Numerous
Mdrkandeya P.

poetry in Bengali flowed almost without a break.

translations of the episode of

Chandi

the

in

were made from the fifteenth century downward. An artistic

Bengali epic on the same subject was written by Mukundarama

Manasa, one of the

in 1589.

local

forms of the goddess, was

much worshipped, and many poems

produced.

Finally, in

the

greatest of Bengali poets,

Chnndra Rai, exerted

the goddess

their

eighteenth

Rama

in

her

honour were

century, two

of the

Prasad Sen and Bharata

powers to the utmost

in praising

in song.

Sakta feeling also expressed

Gujarat, in translations

itself

in

the vernacular in

of the Chandi episode

by Bhalan,

about A.D. 1500, and by Ranchhodji Diwan at the beginning

of the nineteenth century, and in numberless popular songs
called Garbas, which are sung by companies of men or of

women. Vallabha Bhatt, who flourished about 1700, is the

most notable of the writers of the Garbas. In the Maratha
country the Gondhal is a dance performed in honour of Amba
BhawanI,
country

connexion with which songs are sung in her

of the goddess took a great hold of the
the seventeenth century, when under Sivajl patriotic

in

The worship

honour.
in

Catalogus Catalogorum,
Avalon, TT. I. iiff.

s.v.

PranaiosJiini T.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

The Mdrkandeya P.

feeling stirred the people to the depths.

was translated
Devi

but

into

Telugu

Mahatmya from

its

date

is

and the

unknown.
15^9, and

in

the sixteenth century

in

the JSIdrkantfeya exists in Malayalim,

The MantramaJiodadhi
Mahldhara

^si

is

is

a manual of ritual prepared by

much used by both Saktas and

Saivas throughout Hindustan and the west.

Sakta sannyasis

whom

may

be met here and there.

small

one morning at Vindhyachal

Sankara's
Dasnamls.^ So Tota
belonged to the Purl order of
Purl, the guru of Ramakrishna Paramaharhsa of Dakshines-

group with

talked

vara, .Ramakrishna himself,

and also Vivekananda and the

other svamis of the mission, were Sakta sannyasis and belonged

to the Purl order.'-

b.

The Right-hand School.

433. In the ordinary Right-hand worship by Smartas in

houses the goddess is represented by a yantra or by

their

garlanded pot, and the

ritual

includes the throwing

of

Kunkuma powder on

the yantra and the

vegetarian

But the most important part of the

service

is

offerings.

the liturgy, which consists

presentation

of

the recitation of the

in

Chandl episode, preceded and followed by other sacred texts,

the Kilaka, the Kavacha, the Argaldstotra, &c., drawn from
In other circles in
the Mdrkandeya and VardJia Puranas.
Lalita,
beautiful
of
India,
a
goddess
dazzling appearSouth
ance, takes the place of Chandl.^

The

ritual is the

same, but

the texts recited are the Lalitopdkhydna, in which the goddess

kills

Bhandasura and other demons, with the

L alitdtrisatt

diud

the Lalitdsahasrand7na, litanies of three hundred and a thou-

sand names,
temple-cult

all

See above,

P. 191 of

three

drawn from the BraJnndnda P. The

same as the domestic worship,

practically the

is

198.

my Modem

Religious

corrected in this sense.

^

H. Krishna

Sastri, SII. 220.

Movements

in India requires to be

35^

MUSLIM INFLUENCE

only the goddess

may be

represented by an image with a large

metal yantra on the ground at the feet of the image.

434. The

man who

wishes to practice the famous Right-

hand Srividya and through

initiation {dikshd)

life

from

to seek release, has to receive

it

his guru, to take severe

vows and

live

of strictest purity, both physical and mental, for a period

of several days.
Starting from the ordinary cult, which we
have just described, he passes on to the meditations and
practices prescribed in the Srividya.-

435. Appaya, Dikshita (1552-1624) belonged to a Smarta

Saiva family of the Tanjore district. Three stages may be
in his religious life
he cultivated first the Karma
Mlmarhsa, then Sahkara's Vedanta, and lastly the Srividya.
When he was a Mimamsist, he did not merely study the
system, but received initiation (whence his title Dikshita) as
a Vedic priest and performed many sacrifices.
But he end^d

traced

his

life

as a devotee of the goddess, and individual

of his family to this day follow his example.

called Vira Saivas, stalwart Saivas,

who dare

They

members
are then

to undertake the

very trying discipline of the Srividya.

Three later scholars may be mentioned who belonged

to the same part of India and are famous for their devotion to
the goddess.
They form a short giirupararnpard of three
Nrisimhanandanatha, Bhaskaranandanatha, and Umanandanatha.
These names proclaim them initiates of the school
to which Lakshmldhara Vidyanatha belonged.
The second,
436.

who
three.

usually called Bhriskararaya,

is

He was

is

the greatest of the

court pandit at Tanjore in the early decades

of the eighteenth century.

He

the author of a learned

is

Arya metre, called Varivacommentary on the same. He

exposition of the Sakta system in

syarahasya, and of an elaborate

commentaries on the following Sakta works, the

Vdmakesvara T., the Tripiird, Kaula, and Bhdvand Upanishads, and the LalitdsaJiasrandma and on the MaJid and
Jahdla Upanishads and the Isvara Gltd. His disciple,
also wrote

Avalon,

TGL.

Ixxiii.

'^

See

31S.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Umanandanatha, wrote a

359

commentary

practical

on

the

Parahirdma-BJiargava-sutra.
c.

The BJiakti School.

437. We have seen in our previous chapter that the

Agastya-sutra and the Dev'i BJidgavata sprang from a special

who sought

school of Saktas

by

release

centred on the Devl.^

tional feeling,

bhakti, deep devo-

Bhatta Nliakantha

is

the author of a well-known commentary, the Tilaka, on the

which he urges the claim, already referred

real Parana, and that the Vaishnava
Bhdgavata is by Vopadeva. He calls himself a disciple of
Sridhara, the author of the chief commentary on the VaishAs Sridhara flourished about A.D. 1400,^
nava work.
Nilakantha may belong to the fifteenth or the sixteenth
Devi BJidgavata,
to,

that

this

is

in

the

century.
ii.

The spontaneous energy

Jainism.
of the

Jain

declines during this period, if literature

is

community

visibly

a trustworthy index.

A. Svetdmbara Literature.
century, at Ahmadabad, where
was very powerful, a few Svetambaras
became convinced of the folly of image-worship and noted
that there is no mention of idols in the earliest Jain books.
They therefore formed a new sect called the Lohka or
Lumpaka, which gave up the temple-cult altogether. ^
438.

In

the

Muhammadan

stricter

body

fifteenth

influence

called the Sthanakavasis arose in the seventeenth

century and absorbed the Loiikas.'*

They

are a fine people

but have produced no noteworthy literature.

439. Svetambara literature is in the main commentaries,

but a few dogmatic works were written, and several authors

produced charitas, prabandhas, and

tales.

The

following are/

the most interesting men.

'

See

319.

See 356.

Mrs. Stevenson, HJ. 19;

88.

MUSLIAl INFLUENCE

36o

Merutuiiga (b) who was born in 1347, wrote commentaries

and abstracts of older works, but dared also to compose
a kavya named Aleghadfita, thus challenging comparison with
the great Kalidasa. Jiianasagara (born 1349) and Somasundara (born 1384) were commentators, the former dealing
with canonical works, the latter writing simple expositions of
popular religious works for children. Gunaratna {c. 1400)
wrote a useful comment on Haribhadra's S/iaddarsanasainnchchhaya.

Jinamandana

{c.

436), Jinaklrti

Subhaslla

(1437),

(1464) produced tales and biographies, while Ratnasekhara

(1401-61) wrote commentaries. Dharmasagara, of the middle

of the sixteenth century, wrote an interesting polemic, the
Kitpakshakansikaditya,

against

ten

Jain

Samayasundara, one of whose books

heretical

dated

is

A.D.

sects.

1630,

published several anthologies of sacred verse, a catechism, and

a commentar)', called Kalpalatd, on the Kalpa-sutra.

popular literature

in

literature in Sanskrit, but

The

chief type

religion

is

Gujarat! accompanied the learned

it

has not been described

in detail.

the Rasas, interesting tales told to enforce

and morals.^
B. Diganibara Literat?tre.

440. The Digambara literature of this period consists in

the main of commentaries, Puranas, tales, and biographies.

The two most prominent

authors are Sakalaklrti and Subha-

chandra.
Sakalaklrti,

whose

JIor?tit is A.D. 1464,

wrote

many

books.

His chief work, the TattvdrtJiasaradipikd, which, despite

title,

its

seems to be an independent work, deals with the seven

categories of the

Digambara system, but

gives also the

the books of the original Digambara canon.

are a catechism, a Purana, and biographies.
at the end of the fifteenth century, a

list

of

His other works

Srutasagara wrote,

commentary on Kunda-

kunda's Shatprdhhrita^ the Tattvdrthadipikd on the Digambara categories, and the Jinasavihitd on Digambara worship.
'

Jhaveri,

MGL.

18, 139, 167.

MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Nemidatta, who flourished about

J,530,

Tirthakaras and saints, a volume of

361

wrote biographies of

and a manual of
Subhachandra, who lived in the sixteenth century, was a voluminous
writer.
He has six works on worship, biographies of three
of the Tirthakaras, several volumes of tales, and a Purana, the
Pdndava P. Ratnachandra {c. 1626) wrote lives of two of
the Tirthakaras, while BanarasI Dasa, who lived under Shah
Jahan (1628-58) wrote in Hindi verse on dogmatic subjects.
tales,

rules for the conduct of the laity, the Srdvakdchdra.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
HISTORIES OF THE LITERATURES

I.

A.Sanskrit: Macdonell; Winternitz;

Bloomfield,

'/v''. viii.

io6

ff.

M tiller,

yi^Z.; Weber, j/Z. ; Schroeder, /ZA'.

Macdonell, ERE. viii. 85 ff.
B. Pali
Winternitz, II.
No history has yet been written ; but see Pischel, GPS.
C. Prakrit
10 ; Konovv and Lanman, RixjasekJiara^ s Karpnra-7nanjari, 191, Harvard,

Also

1901

Guerinot.

Vernacular Literatures

D.

See the Introductions in Grierson's

Linguistic Suri/ey of India, Calcutta, 1904, &c.
also Art., Grierson,
:

BSOSL.

19 1 8, p. 47.

E. Assamese

lA. xxv.

57.

Bengali Sen, HBLL. VSP. VLMB. CC.

G. Gujarat! Jhaveri, MGL. Also, Tripathi, The Classical Poets of
Gujarat, Bombay, 1894; ^QO\X,Gujardti Poetry, ^\.\x2i\., 191 1; Dahyabhai
P. Derasari, Shathina Sdhityanun Digdarsanani, Ahmadabad, 191 1.
H. Hind!: Misra Bandhn Vinode Prasad, SBS. Grierson, LPf.;
Lyall, EB. xiii. 483 ff.
Tripathi, Kavitd Kaiivindi, Allahabad, 1918.
I. Kanarese: Rice, A'Z. Earlier sketches
British Musewn Catalogue
of Kannada Books, London, 1910; Kittel, N^dgavari/ia's Catuvese Prosody,
Mangalore, 1875
R. Narasiiiihachar, Karndtaka Kavi Chajite, vol.
F.

i,

Mysore
J.

City, 1907.

Malayalim

Sketch

Travancore State Manual,

ii,

Ch.

x,

Tri van-

drum, 1906.

Mar

ATM I Brief sketch in Acworth, BM.

K.
L. Oriya': Brief sketch, Chatterji,//i5^., vol.66, i. 317 ; vol. 67, i. 332.
Cf. IA. i. 79.
Hunter, Orissa, ii. 199 ff., London, 1872.
M, Singalese lA xii. 53. Geiger, Literatur iind Sprache der Singha:

Grundriss, 1900.
N. Tamil Brief sketches BMCTB. ; Rost, in EB. xxvi. 390 ff. Also
Aiyangar, TS.
Purnalingam Pillai, A Primer of Tamil Literature,
Madras, 1904 (uncritical).
Viresalingam Pantulu, Andra Kavula Charitra, RajaO. Telugu
mundry; British Museum Cat. of Telugu Books, London, 191 2. Early
sketch
Brown, Madras fourii a I of Literature and Science, x.

lesen,

II.

HINDU
i.

A.

LITERA'. URE.

The Vedas.

The Rigveda: Gen. Intro.: Macdonell, 40-170; Winternitz,!. 47-103;

Macdonell'and Keith, Ftv/zVZ<^/d';r, London, 1912. Religion: Oldenberg,

Kaegi, The
also in French, Henry, Paris, 1903; Bloomfield, Z'K

RV.\

::

BIBLIOGRAPHY

363

Mythology: Macdonell, Vaitc Mythology,

1898.
Grundriss, 1897; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, Breslau, 1891-1902
Keith, Indian Mythology, Boston, 1917. PhiloOldenberg, RV. 39-301
Ritual: Oldenberg,
sophy: Deussen,./t77^ I. i. 72-158; Bloomfield, /v
AT. 302 Hillebrandt, RL. i-iy. Translations: ETr. Griffith, AT.;
GTr. (verse) Grassmann, Leipzig, 1876-7; GTr. (prose) Ludwig, Prag,
1876-S8. Partial translations: SBE. xxxii, xlvi ; GTr. hymns illusDeussen, GTr. of
trating the religion, Hillebrandt, Gottingen, 1913.
philosophic hymns, AGP. I. i. 93-158; Ninth book: FTr. Regnaud,
Rigveda, Boston,

Paris, 1900.

TheSAmaveda: Gen.

Intro.: Macdonell; Winternitz; Oldenberg,

Caland, Die Jaiminiya S.,mit eiiiet- Eirileitung
iiber die Sdmavedalitcratiir, Breslau, 1907.
Translations Benfey, Text
and GTr., Leipzig, 184S Griffith. ETr., Benares, 1893. Ritual: Hillebrandt, A'Z. 99-105.
B.

ZDMG. x.xxviii. 439,

469

C. The Yajurveda
Gen. Intro. Macdonell; Winternitz; KeithjTlS".
Religion: Oldenberg, AT.; Schroeder, /ZA'. vii-xii. Ritual: HilleWhite Yajits Griffith, Benares,
brandt, RL. 97-166.
Translations
:

1899.

D.

Taittiriya S.

The Atharvaveda

Lanman,

A V.;

Keith, TS.

Bloomfield, AJ'. ; Whitney and

Winternitz. Religion, Magic, and Ritual
Hillebrandt, RL., 167-86. Philosophy: Deussen, AGP.

Macdonell

Gen. Intro.

Oldenberg, Rl'.
I. i. 209-336.
Translations ETr. Whitney and Lanman, A l\ ; ETr.
Griffith, Benares, 1S97.
Eng.
Bloomfield, SBE. xlii.
Partial Trs.
French Henry, Paris, 1891-6; German: Weher, Indische Studieti Grill,
Stuttgart, 1888; Deussen, yi 6^/". I. i. 210-83 (philosophic hymns).
;

The Brahmanas

Gen. Intro.: Miiller, ^.S'A. 313-455 Macdonell,

Winternitz, i. 171-96. Culture and Philosophy: Deussen,
AGP. 1. i. 159-336. Analyses of Aitartya, Kaushitald, Panchavimsa,
Shadvi7'nsa, Chhcmdogya, Taittiriya, Satapatha, Deussen, SUV. Translations, &c. Aitartya: Text, Intro., ETr., Haug, Bombay, 1863. Aitareya
and Kaushitaki ETr. Keith, vol. xxv, HOS., in the press. Shadvimsa
E.

202-18;

Text and GTr. Klemm, Giitersloh, 1894. Adbhuta Text and GTr. Weber,
Zwei vedische Texte iiber 0iina tind Portenta, Berlin, 1859. Tala^'akdra
Text and ETr. Oertel, JA OS. xiv, xv, xvi, xviii. Arsheya, Devatddhydya,
Vathsa, Sanihitopanishad, Brahmanas Texts with Intro. Burnell, Mangalore, 1873; 1876; 1S77.
Sdmavidhdna: Intro., Text, Comm., Burnell,
London, 1873; GTr. Konow, Halle, 1893. Satapatha: Intro, and ETr.
:

SBE.

Eggeling,

Bloomfield.

F. The
202, n. I.

xii,

xxvi,

xli,

Gopatha

xliii, xliv.

Intro,

and Analysis,

A V.

Aranyakas Gen. Intro. Macdonell, 34 Winternitz, 199

.ST. 8_; Oldenberg, Die Hymnen des
Deussen, PU. 2 ff.
:

i.

Translations, &c.
Rigveda, Berlin, 188S, 291
Keith, AA. 15, 257^
Aitareya
ETr.
Text, Intro., ETr., Comm., Keith, A A. Sdiikhdyajia
Keith, London, 1908
Taittiriya, Analysis,
see also JRAS. 1908, 363.
Deussen, SUV. 213. Brihat = Satapatha Br. xiv. 1-3. ETr., Eggeling,
SBE. .xliv. 441-510.
;

G.
berg,

The Upanishads Gen.

A 6^. Brief Introductions

SUV. ; OldenIntro. Deussen, PU.

Macdonell, 218-43 ; Winternitz, i. 196:

;;

BIBLIOGRAPHY

364

22 8; Barnett, Brahma- Knowledge, London, 191

the Principal UpanisJiads, Bombay, 1S91.

List
6.

Upanishads

of chief

Saman

Rik:

Jacob, Concordance to

Aitareya\ 2. Kaiishitaki.

\.

Chhdndogya
4. Kena.
BLACK Yajus 5.
Mahdndrdyana 7. Kdthaka or Katha 8. Sveidsvajara
:

3.

Taittiriya

9.

Maitrd-

White 'YajUS 10. Brihaddratiyaka, 11. Isd. Atharvan

12. Mtmdaka\ 13. P7-asna\ 14. Aldjulfi'kya; 15. Gai^bha; 16. Prdndgnihotra ; 17. Pincia 18. Atnia ; 19. Sarva- Upanishat-sdra ; 20. Gdriida ;
21. Bj-ahviavidyd \ 22. Kshurikd; 23. Chi'illkd ; 24. Nddadmdu; 25.
Brahmabindu ; 26. Amrltahindii ; 27. Dhydnabmdu ; 28. Tejobindii;
29. Yogaslkhd) 30. Yogatattva-^ S\, Hamsa ; Z'Z. Brahma; 33. Sannydsa ; 34. Arteneya 35. an fhasnttl or Kathasruli ; 36. ParamaJiamsa ;
31.Jdbdla 38. Asrama 39. AtJtarvasiras A.; 40. Atharvasikhd; 41.
Ntlarndra ;_ 42. Kdldgniriidra ; 43. Kaivalya 44. Mahd ; 45. Ndrdychia; ^Q. Atmabodha \ 4n Nrisimhaptirvatdpantya; 48. NnslmJiottaratdpaniya; ^Q. Rdmapnrvaidpaniya ; 50. Rd?nottaratdpaniya; bl, Katila;
52. Amrltandda 53. BrlhaJJdbdla ; 54. Maitreya ; 55. Subdld ; 56. ^T/;//r//'<T
57. Nirdlamba ; 58. Sukarahasya
59. Vajrasuchi ; 60. Ndradapa7-ivrdjaka\ Q\. Trisikliibrdlunana; Q2i, Slid
63. Yogachiiddmani \
64. Nin'dtia ; 65. Mandalabrdhmana 66. Dakshlndmurtl ; Ql. Sarabha
68. Skanda; 69. Trtpddvibhfiilmahdndrdyana; 70. Advayatdraka
71. Rdmarahasya
72. Wisiideva
74. Sdndllya ;
73. Micdgala ;
75. Paihgala 16. Bhikshnka
77. Sdriraka ; 78. Turiydtltdvadhuta ;
1Q. Paramahamsaparivrdjaka; QO. Akshamdlikd ; S\. Avyakta ; 82.
Ekdkshara 83. Annapurnd; 84. Silrya 85. Akslii 86. Adhydtma
87. Kiindikd; 8S. Sdvitri; 89. Pdsupatabrahma; 90. Parabrahma
91. Avadkfita ; 92. Tripurdtdpanlya
93. Devi; 94, Tripiird; 95.
Katharudra ; 96. Bhdvand ; 97. Rudrahrldaya ; 98. Yogaktindall
QQ. Bhasmajdbdla; \Q0. Rtidrdkshajdbdla; \0\. Gatiapati ; 102. Darsana
103. Tdrasdra ; 104. Mahdvdkya
106.
105. Panchabrahma
GopdlaidpanJya ; 107. Krishna
109. Vardha ;
108. Ydjnavalkya
110. Sdtydyana 111. Hayagriva ; 112. Dattdtreya 113. Kalisai'ntara?ia
114. Jdbdli 115. Saiibhdgyalakshmi 116. Sarasvatirahasya 117. i)/^vricha
118. Mnktikd ;
119. Gopicha7idana
120. Varadatdpaniya
121. Varadottaratdpaniya 122. Shatchakra 123. Atharvaslras B.
yana.

Groups Nos. 1-14 are the Classical Upanishads. Nos. 1-50 with the
addition of nine pieces from Dara Shikoh's Persian collection and the
PranavaU. (a portion of the Gopatha B.), form Deussen's sixty Upanishads
Sl/F. For the lists of Narayana, Dara Shikoh, and Cole(2nd ed.)
brooke, see Deussen, SUV. 535-7. The 108 Upanishads given in the list
in the Muktikd U- correspond to the above list, with the omission of Nos.
6, 17, 25, 34, 35, 38, 41, 51, 119-23, the Chillikd, No. 23 above, being the
Manlrikd, No. 32 in the Mnktikd list, and the pairs of Upanishads, Nos.
47-8 and 49-50 above, being each taken as one, Nos. 27 and 55 in the
Mnktikd list. Bare text of the Upanishads of this list
W. L. Sastri
Pansikar, Bombay, 191 7.
:

Commentaries
8th c. Gaudapada, Nos. 14, 47, 48.
Early 9th. Sankara, Nos. i, 3, 4, 5,
Deussen,

.i

T. 37.

7, 8, 10,

1,

12, 13, 14, 39, 40,

47

BIBLIOGRAPHY
13th

Madhva, Nos. i,
i and 5, SBH. i,

c.

except Nos.

3, 4,
iii,

5) 7> 1,

n,

365

KTrs. of

'2, 13, 14.

all,

xiv.

Sankarananda, Nos. 2, 4, 8, 9, 12, 15, 16, 17-19, 21-34, 36, 37,

c. 1350.
39-41, 43, 45, 49. 50, 106.
Narayana, Nos. 4-8, 12-20, 23, 25, 27-32, 34, 36, 37> 40-50, 72, 106,
Deussen, SUV. 538 Jacob, EAU., Preface.
107, 119-21, and others
:

16th

c.

Ramatlrtha, No.

18th

c.

Rangaramanuja, a SrI-Vaishnava Rajagopalacharya, V'RI. 34.

Bhfiskararaya, Nos. 4, 7, 12/37, 44, 94, 96, 122.

9.,
:

Translations and Introductions ETrs. of 1-5 and 7-13, Max Miiller,

ETrs. of 3, 4, 7, 10, II, 12, 13, 14, with Madhva's comms.,
I. XV
S. C.\?isn, SBH. I. III. xiv; ETrs. of the five Upanishads included in
Atharvasiras B., No. 123, Kennedy, HM. 346, 442, 443, 491, 493 ETrs.
Introductions and GTrs. of 1-50,
of 72, 119, Jacob, JA., 1887, 84, 89.
Deussen, SUV.; ETrs. of selections, Barnett, Brahma- Knowledge,
London, 191 1. Introductions to 20, 38, 42, 44, 45, 46, 68, 72, 107, 119,
:

SBE.

120, Jacob,

EAU.
The Kalpa

ii.

Gen. Intro.

ASL.

ch.

Sutras, &c.

Macdonell, 244-64; Winternitz,

i.

232-40: also Midler,

i.

A. Srauta SOtras Chief Texts (Rik) 1. Sahkhayana 2. Asvalayuma. (Saman) 3. Masaha 4. Ldtvayana; 5. Drahyayana 6. Jaimini.
(W. Yajus) 7. Kdfydvatia. (B. Yajus) 8. Apasiamba; 9. Hiratiyakesin;
(Atharvan) 13. Vai12. Mdnava.
10. Baudhdyana ;' li. Bhdradvdja
tana. Ritual Hillebrandt, 7?/,. 18-36 97-166. Translations GTrs.
Vaitdna, Garbe, Strassburg, 1878; Caland, Amsterdam, 1910.
:

B.

Grihva SOtras

Chief Texts

(Rik) 1.

Sdhkhdyana

2.

Sdm-

bavya 3. Asvaldyana, (Saman) 4. Gob'hija 5. K/iddi?'a 6. Jaimini.

(W. Yajus) 7. Pdraskara. (B. Yajus) 8. Apasiamba; 9. Hiranyakesin\
13. Vaikhdnasa.
12. Mdnava
11. Bhdradi'dja
10. Baudhdyana
Ritual: Hillebrandt, RL. 18-36; 41-97(Atharvan) 14. Katisika.
Translations: ETrs. of i, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, Oldenberg, SBE. xxix, xxx.
GTrs. of I (Oldenberg, ImUsche SUidien, xv), of 3 and 7 (Stenzler,
;

1864, 1876), of 6 (Caland, Amsterdam, 1906), of 4 (Knauer,

Dorpat, 1886). On 13, see Bloch, Ueber das Grihva und Dharmasietra
der Vaikhdnasa, Leipzig, 1896. On 14, see Bloomfield./^O^. xiv. i.
Leipzig,

C.

SBE.
2.

Dharma Sutras:
ii

and

xiv.

Hirafiyakesin

5. Vdsishtha.
xiv.
For later

Intro.:

Jolly,

RS. 1-13

Biihler,, intros.

Vedic school manuals (B. Yajus)

Manuals for all
3. Baudhdyana.

Translations:' ETrs. of i, 3, 4, 5,
Dharma-sutras, see Law Literature.

to

Apas/amba
4. Gautama

1.

Biihler,

SBE.

ii

and

D. SULVA SOtras: Intro.: Thibaut, //i55. xliv, Calcutta, 1875;

Baudhdyana^ Sulva Sutra, Text and ETr. Thibaut, Pandit, ix
2. Apasiamba Sulva Sutra, Text and GTr., Biirk, ZDMG. Iv and Ivi.

1.

E. The
264-75.

Vedangas

Intro.

Miiller,

ASL.

108

ff.

Macdonell,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

0,66

Intro.: Bloomfield, AV. 15-17, 57;

Henrj', La Magie dans Pltide antiqtie, Paris,
Q.2\?iVidi, Alti7idisches Zanbeniiual, Kvc\?,\.&x^2ivc\, 1900; Winternitz,
i.
1. Rigvidlidna:
Macdonell, 251, 274.
For the Sdjua147, 239.
vidhdna, Abdhiita, and Gopatlia Brahmanas, see above, under the

Texts on Magic: Gen.

F.

Rose,
1909;

ERE.

292

viii.

Brahmanas.

iii.

Gen. Intro.

Dharma-SCtras

A.

Law

Literature.

RS.

Jolly,

see above, p. 365.

B. Law in the Mahabharata: Jolly, RS. 29-31;

XXV, Intro.
Hopkins, GE. 17-23 Winternitz, i. 364.
;

Secondary Dharma-Sutras

C.

Intro.: Jolly, RS. 7-13.

Chief

RS.

/chdnasa, Leipzig, 1896; 3. Hdj-ifa, Jolly,

The Dharmasastras

D.

SBE.

and ETr. Jolly, Jj'^jE'. vii 2. Vaikhdnasa:

RS. 9-10; Bloch, UeUr das Grihya uiid Dharmasiifra dcr Vai-

texts: \.VisJinusmriti: Intro,

Jolly,

Biihler,

XXX, Intro.

Chief texts

1.

8-9.

Intro.: Jolly, T?^'. 13-29; Biihler, ^'i^^'.

Mdnava Dharinasdsira, or lawbook of Manu
:

ETr.

Intro. Jolly, /?5". 13-19; Intro, and

valkya: Intro. Jolly, RS. 19-21;

Max

SBE. xxv; 2. YdjhaASL. 3oin. Text and

Biihler,

Miiller,

GTr. Stenzler, Berlin, 1849; 3. Ndrada: Intro. Jolly, RS. 21-3; Intro,
and ETr. Jolly, SBE. xxxiii
4. Brihasfiati, Jolly, RS. 21
Intro, and
ETr. Jolly, SBE. xxxiii. There is a large number of later Dharmasastras
Intro. Jolly, RS. 23-9
text and ETrs. M. N, Dutt, Calcutta,
;

1908.

iv.

The Epics.

A. Mahabharata: Gen. Intro.:

GE. ERE. viii. 325 Macdonell, 281
;

Holtzmann,
;

Winternitz,

MBH.;
i.

259.

Hopkins,

Analysis

Monier Williams, hidian Epic Poetry., London, 1863

Jacobi, Das
Mahdbhdrat Bonn, igo^. Religion: Hopkins, /?/. chs. xiv-xv. Philosophy: Hopkins, GE. ch. iii; Deussen, AGP. I. iii. 8 Die Sdmkhya
Philosophie 7tach detn Mahdb/idrafa, Dahlmann, 1902.
;

Vernac. \rersions Kanarese (Jain), loth c. Telugu, nth to 13th c;

Tamil, 15th c
Kanarese, i6th c. Bengali, 17th c. (earlier versions from
Malayalim, 17th c. Hindi, 19th c.
14th c.)
:

Translations: ETrs. P. C. Roy, Calcutta, 1884-96; Dutt, Calcutta,

Partial FTrs. Fauche, Paris, 1863-70; Foucaux, Paris, 1862.
1895.
Partial ITr. Pavolini, 1902.
GTr. of the four philosophical sections,
Deussen und Strauss, Leipzig, 1906 ETr. of the Gitd, the Sanaisiijdtiya,
and the Aintgifd, Telang, SBE. viii.
Bhagavadgitd Gen. Intro.: Barnett, Bhagavadgitd, London, 1905;
;

Garbe, ERE. ii. 535

Winternitz, i. 365 ff.
Farquhar, Gitd a)id Gospel,
Madras, 1906; Jacob, Concordance to the Principal Upanishads and
Bhagavadgitd, Bombay, 1891. Origin and date: Garbe, Die Bhagavadgitd, Leipzig, r905
Hopkins, JRAS., 1905, 384; Keith, JRAS.,
Translations: ETrs. Davies, London, 1894; Telang, .S"^^'.
1915, 548.
Barnett, London, 1905; Annie Besant, Madras; GTrs. Garbe,
viii;
Leipzig, 1905
Deussen, Der Gesang des Heiligen, Leipzig, 1911.
;

1U15LTOGRAPMY

3^7

15.
Kamavana: Gen. Intro.: Macdonell, ERE. x. 574; Jacobi, R.\
Macdonell, 302; Winternitz, i. 423; Hopkins, GE. ch. ii. Analysis:
Monier Williams, Indian Epic Poetry^ London, 1863; Jacobi, R. 126.
Vernac. versions Kanarese (Jain), loth c. Tamil, iioo; Telugu, 1300;
Bengali, 14th c; Malayalim, 15th c; Hindi, 1584; Kanarese, 1590. Trs.
ETr. (prose), Diitt, Calcutta, 1892 ETr. (verse), Griffith, Benares, 1870-4
FTr. Fauche, Paris, 1858; ITr. Gorresio, Parigi, 1843-70.
;

Philosophical Literature.

V.

Deussen, AGP.
Also Colebrooke, Essays\
Garbe, Philosophy of Ancient India, Chicago, 1S97.

Gen. Intro.:
Mviller, 6'6'.

Hall;

KARMA MIMAMSA.

A.

Intro. Jha, PSPM.; Garbe, ERE. viii. 648. Also Colebrooke, Essays,
Miiller, SS. v; Madhava, SDS. xii
Covvell, 178.
295
4th or 5th. Jaimini 1. Pftrva-nnniavisd-siltras ETr. Jha, SBH. x.
:

i.

500. Sabara Svamin 2. Phdshya, on No. i.

7th c. Prabhakara; 3. Brihati, on No. 2 full intro., Jha, PSPM.
Salikanatha, disciple of Prabhakara
e, 700.
4. Rijuvi/nald, on I
Jha, PSPM. I, 2, 18; Hall, 195; 5. Prakarmiapanchika, a sketch of
c.

Prabhakara's system: Jha, PSPM. i, 4, 18. Text, Benares, 1904.

Early 8th. Kumarila; 6. Miindmsd-sioka-vdritika, on No. 2: ETr.
ETr. in BI. 8, Tuptikd, on No. 2.
in BI.
7. Tafitra-vdrttika, on No. 2
:

c.

850. Mandanamisra;

PSPM.

9. VidJiiviveka:

Woods,

Yoga,^\\\,'^^']

Jha,

8.

Vachaspatimisra
10. Nyayakatiikd, on 9
Woods, Yoga,
Nos. 9 and 10 published together, Benares, 1907.
Parthasarathimisra
11. Sdstradipikd, on i: Hall, 173;
c. 1300.
Colebrooke, ME. i. 299 12. Tanira-?-aina, on i 13. Nydya-raindkara,
on 6 Jha, PSPM. 18 14. Nydya-rat na-vidld on 7 Hall, 172.
Vedanta-desika 15. Sesvara-niimdmsd, on i Rajagopalac. 1350.
chariar, VRI. 107.
Madhava; \Q. JainiinTyanydyanididvzstara, on l Hall, 1 86;
c. 1380.
Covvell, 178.
17. Sarvadarsafiasahgraha, ch. xii
Somesvara ; 18. Nydya-sudha, or Rdnaka, on 7 Hall, 170
c. 1400.
c.

xxi

850.

357.

Jha,
c.
"

c.

c.
c.

PSPM.
1525.
1543.
1580.
1600.

8.

Vallabhacharya

\Q. Jainiiniya-stltra-bhdsJiya: Hall, 208.

Ramakrishna; "^0. Siddhdnia-chandrikd, on ll Hall, 173.

Narayana; 2i\. Sdsiradipikd-i'ydkhyd,on ii: Hall, 178.
lihatta Dinakara
22. Bhdtta-ditiakara, on II
Hall, 175.

Early 17th.
Early 17th.

Appaya Uikshita; 23. Vidhi-rasdyatia: Hall, 194.

Apadeva 24. Mlindmsd-nydya-prakdsa or Apadevi
;

ETr., Jha, Benares.

Early 17th, Laugakshi Bhaskara ; 2,5. Arthasajigraha: Macdonell,
451. Text, Intro., and ETr., Thibaut, Benares, 1882.
Khandadcva; 26. Bhdtta Dipikd, on I Hall, 179.
d. 1665.
Mid 17th. Anantadeva 2,1. Sinri/i Kausiubha: Hall, 185.
Sucharitamisra ; 28. Kasikd, on 6: Jha, PSPM. 18.
Hall, 185.

B.

Intro. Colebrooke, Essays,

Thibaut, Intro. SBE. xxxiv.
:

VEDANTA.
i.

325

Miiller,

SS. ch.

iv

Deussen,

>S'

V.

;:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S6S
4th or

SBE.

Badarayana

5tli.

Vedanta-sittras

1.

Intro,

and ETr. Thibaut,

xxxiv, xxxviii.

Mid
Intro,

8th.
Gaudapada 2. Mdtidukya-Kdrikd, on Mdndilkya U.
and GTr. Deussen, SUV. 573. ETr. Dvivedl, Bombay, 1909;
;

ETr. SBH. i.
788-e. 850. Sankara 3. Veddnta-siitra-b]idshya, on No. i
Intro.
and ETr. Thibaut, SBE. xxxiv, xxxviii. GTr. Deussen, Leipzig, 1887.
Life, works, and system, Deussen, SV.
Sketch of system, Deussen,
Outline of the Veddnta, London, 1907.
c. 850.
Mandanamisra, or Suresvaracharya; ^. Naishkarmya-siddhi,
;

a polemic against the Mliiiamsa

1-'

Padmapada;

850.

c.

Hall, 159.

Panchafddikd, on No. 3:

5.

ETr.

Hall, 88.

Venis, Benares.

850.

c.
xxiii

Vachaspatimisra

900.

c.

6.

Bhdmati, on No.

Woods, Yoga, xxi-

Hall, 87.

Bhaskaracharya

brooke. Essays,

i.

7.

Brahi/ia-sutra-bhdshya, on No.

Cole-

334.

Yadava Prakasa 8. Yddava-bkdshya, on No. i.

Amalananda; 9. Veddnta-kaIpatari/,on'Ho.6'. Colebrooke,
Essays,
Hall, 87
]Acdb,JRAS., 1916, 853.
333
c. 1350.
Bharatltirtha and Madhava 10. Panchadasf: Winternitz and
1050.
1250.

e.

c.

i.

Keith, Bodleian Catal.

15th

ii.

Advaitananda

e.

ETr. Nanda Lai Dhole, Calcutta, 1899.

Brah)navidydbha7-ana, on No. 3
Cole-

190.
11.

brooke, Essays, i. 333

Hall, 89.
End 15th. Sadananda 12. Veddnta-sd7-a Intro., ETr., and notes,
Jacob, Manual of Hifidu Pantheism, London, 1891 ; Intro, and GTr.,
Deussen, AGP. 1. iii. 615. See Keith, SS. 102.
;

Bhavadevamisra
Colebrooke, Essays,

i.

13.

Vcdd7tta-sfttr-a-vydkhyd-chandrikd,

on

334.

Before 1550.
Hall, 132;

Madhusiidana SarasvatI ; 14. Veddnta-kalpalatikd :

15. Advaita-siddhi, a refutation of the Nyaya
ETr., Jha,
:

Allahabad.
Mid leth. Vijfiana Bhikshu ; 16. Vijndndnirita, on l.
End 16th. Ramananda SarasvatI 17. Brahmdmrita-varshinl, on
No. I Colebrooke, Essays, i. 334 Hall, 89, 93.
c. 1600.
Appaya Dlkshita ; 18. Veddnta-kalpatarii-parimald, on No. 9
Hall, 88 ; 19. Siddhdnta-lesa criticism of other forms of the Vedanta, tic.
Hall, 153
ETr. Venis, Benares.
Prakasananda
20. Veddnta-siddhdnta-niuktdvali \ Macdonell,
451 .^.Hall, 99. ETr. Venis, Benares, 1S90.
;

\^"'

SAnKHYA.

C.

Gen. Intro.
Miiller,

..V^".

Ua.o^rx^^^y'^^k^

Earlier works, Colebrooke, Essays, i. 227

Garbe, Die Sdiikhya Philosophic, Leipzig, 1894 ;
Dahlmann, Die Sdmkhya Philosophic nach dem Mahdbhd:

Keith, SS.

ch. vi

Garbe, .S' V. ^
rata, Berlin, 1902.
1st or 2nd.

Schrader,

Varshaganya

ZDMG.

1914, loi

1.

Shashtitatitra

Keith,

.S'5'.

ch.

IP AS. no.

Keith, ^JT. ch. viii. ETr.

c. 300. Isvara Krishna
"H. Sditk/iya/\dtikd
ETr. Sinha,
Davies, London, 1881; ETr. Colebrooke, London, 1S37
;

SBH.

xi.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
7th

c.

Gaiulapada

Bhdshya, on

3.

Hall,

369

5.

ETr. Wilson, London,

1837-

Vachaspatimisra ; ^. SaJikhya-tattva-kiXU7nicdi,ov\. 2: Woods,

c. 850.
Yoga, xxi
Keith, SS. 70.
ETr. J ha, Bombay, 1896.
Early 14th. Bharati Yati; 5. Tattva-kaiimndl-'iiyakhyd, on \.
c. 1380. Madhava; 6. SarvadarsanasanQ^raha,y\\
ETr. Cowell, 221
;

Keith, .V5. 91.

ETr. Sinha. SBH. xi.

S. Sdnkhya-pra7'achaJia-S7ltra: Keith, 6'6'. 91.
ETr. Hall. BI,,
ETr. Ballantyne, London, 1885 ETr. Sinha, SBH. xi.
1865
c. 1500.
Aniruddha 9. SdiikJiya-siitra-vritii or A7ii7icddha-vritti, on
Keith, SS. 92.
8
ETr. Garbe, BI. 1892; ETr. Sinha, SBH. xi".
Mid 16th. Vijiiana Bhikshu 10. Sdhkliya-pravachaiia-bhdshya, on
No. 8: GTr. Garbe, Leipzig, 1889: ETr. Sinha, SBH. xi 11. Sdhkhyasdra, Intro, and Text, Hall, Bl. 1862.
Late 16th. Bhava Ganesa Dikshita ; 12. Sdhkhya-sdra. a summary of
Sankhya doctrine 13. Tattva-ydthdrtha-dlpana, on 7 Hall, 4.
Late 17th. Mahadeva Vedantin 14. Sdhkhya-vritti-sd7-a, on 9 ETr.
in Garbe, Anirtiddha^s Co77t7/ie7itary,
Calcutta. 1892;
ETr. Sinha,
7.

Tattva-samdsa

SS. 89-91.

Keith,

SBH.

xi.

Nagesa Bhatta

Early 18th.

15. Laglm-sd7'ikJiya-sut)a-vritti. on 10.

YOGA

D.

Gen. Intro. Garbe. SY. iMiiller, SS. ch. vii.

Early 4th. Patafijali 1. Yoga-siitras Intro, and ETr. \\'oods. Yoga.
ETr.. with No. 4, Mitra, BI. 1883 ETr. Rama Prasad, SBH. iv.
7th or 8th. Veda-vyasa 2. Yoga-hhdshya, oxi^o. i: Intro, and ETr.
W'oods, Yoga ETr. Rama Prasad, SBH. iv.
Vachaspatimisra 3. Taitiia-vaisdradi, on. No. 2
c. 850.
Intro, and
ETr. Woods, Yoga ETr. Rama Prasad, SBH. iv.
Hall, 10; Garbe, S Y.
Early 11th. Bhoja 4. Bdja-77idrla/jda, on I
ETr. Mitra, BI. 1883.
41 ; Woods, Yoga, xiii
Madhava; h.Sa7vada7sa7tasa7'ig7-aha,w: Cowell, 231.
c. 1380.
;

Mid

Vijnana Bhikshu

16th.

6.

Yoga-vdrttika, on No. 2

sdrasaiigralia: Hall, 12; ETr., Jha, Bombay, 1894.

End 16th. Ramananda Sarasvati^; 8. Ma7iip/ab/id, on No.
12.
ETr. Woodis.
OS. 19 14. i.

Yoga-

7.

Hall,

JA

E.

ERE.

VAISESHIKA

Chatterji, The Hi7idu Realis7/i, Allahabad,

199
Colebrooke, Essays, i. 261 ; Miiller, 6"6". ch. ix ; Suali, l7if7-odtizio7ie
H.Ui, The Vaiseshika Philosophy ace. to the Dasapadil7thasdst7-a, London,
1917; Faddegon, The Vaiseshika Syste77i, Amsterdam, 1918 Keith, Logic
atid Ato77iis7/t ; a Study of the Nydya a7id Vaiseshika Syste7/is of hidian
Philosophy, in the Press, Oxford.
4th or 5th. Kanada Kasyapa ; 1. Vaiseshika-siitra
ETr. Gough,
Benares, 1873
ETr. Sinha, SBH. vi GTr. Roer, ZDMG.yyix. 309-420
xxii. 383-422.

Gen. Intro.

191 2

ii.

ff.

Disciple of Govindananda Sarasvati

Sarasvati, wrote a work in 1592.

Narayana

Bb

Hall, 89.

Another

Woods, _/// 06". 1914,

disciple,
p.

i.

named

BIBLIOGRAPHY

370

Late 6th. Prasastapada; 2,. Paddrtha-dhar7iia-saftgraha, or\ i: Hall, 64.

ETr., with No. 6, Jha, Benares.
Jnanachandra ; 3. Da'sapaddrtha CTr. by Hiouen Tsang,
c. 600.
Nanjio, 1295. f^Tr. of this Chinese version, H. Ui, op. cit.
A. D. 648
4:.Kirandvah,on No. 2
Fl. 984. Udayana Yjt\\\-\,JRAS. 1908, 524
Chatterji, HR.'w; b. Lakshandva/i, definitions of Vaiseshika
Hall, 65
terms Chatterji, HR. ix.
Q. Nydya-Kanda/i on^o. 2.
Sridhara Chanda, /y^/?. 197
Fl. 991.
Kc\\h,JRAS. 1908, 523 Chatterji, HR. ix. ETr. see No. 2, above.
lithe. Sivaditya 1. Saptapaddrfhf Hall, 74.
12th c. Vallabha Nyayacharya; S. Nydya-lildvati: Hall, 71.
12th c. Vardhamana Upadhyaya^; 9. Ktrandva/i-prakdsa on 4:
:

Hall, 65.
c.

Madhava

1380.

10. Sarvadarsiwasaitgraha, ch. x

ETr. Cowell,

145-

Late 15th.
Chatterji,

Sankara Misra; 11. Vatseshtka-sutropaskara, on No. 1

Hall, 68.
ETr. Sinha, SBH. vi.
Annam Bhatta 12. Tarka Sahgraha Hall, 68. ETr.
:

HR.

End 16th.
Numerous comms. see Hall, 69-71.
Ballantyne, Allahabad, 1852.
13. Bhdshd-parichchheda:
Early 17th. Visvanatha Paiichanana
elementary, in verse Hall, 73. ETr. Roer, BI. 1850; 14. Siddhdntamukidvali Comm. on No. 13. ETr. Roer, BI. 1850.
Early 17th. Laugakshi Bhaskara ; \b. Tarka-kaumudl: Text, Intro.,
and notes, Dvivedl, Bombay, 1886.
:

NYAYA.

F.

Miiller, SS. viii ; Vidyai.

261
Jacobi, Coit. Nach. 1901, 460 ERE. ii. 198 ix. 422
M. Chakravarti, /.46'^. 1915,260; Suali, Introdusiotte ^\\.\\, JRAS.
Keith, Z<7^?V and Atomism, in the Pre?s, Oxford.
1914, 1089
4th or 5th. Akshapada Gotama ; 1. Nydya-siltras, ETr. with Nos. 2
and3, Jha, Allahabad, 191 5: sec Keith, /AM.?. 1916,613; ETr. Vidyabhu-

Gen. Intro.

bhushana,

Colebrooke, Essays,

MSIL.

shana,

SBH.

viii.

2. Nydya-bhdshya, on No. i: JASB. 1910,

Vatsyayana
ETr., see No. i.
307.
Uddyotakara 3. Nydya-vdrttika, on No. 2 VidyaFl. 630-50.
ETr., see
bhiishana, //?y^5. 1914, 603; Yi\\\-\, JRAS. 1914, 1091.
No. I.
A.D. 841. Vachaspatimisra 4. Nyaya-va7-ttika-tatparya-hka, on ^\
date Woods, Yoga, xxi.
5. Nydya-suchi-nibandha, appendix to 4
Jayanta 6. Nydya-manJarJ, an encyclopaedia of the system.
c. 900.
Udayana; 7. Nydya-x'dfttika-tdtparya-parisuddhi, on 4;
c. 980.
8. Kiisiandnjali: ETr. Cowell, BI. 1864.
Srikantha; 9. Nydydlamkdra Vidyabhushana, MSIL. xvii 53.
Bha-sarvajna 10. Nydya-sdra,\\\i\\ 18 commentaries VidyabhuMadhava, ^Z'^. Cowell, 165; 170.
shana, ^^6"//:. 53
Abhayatilaka 11. Nydya-vritti Vidyabhushana, MSIL. xvii 53.
Vidyabhushana,
12. Tattva-chintdmatii:
Early 12th. Gangesa
c.

500.

MSIL.
12th
'

xviii
c.

Hall,

2_8.

Vardhamana';

\Z. Nydya-?tibandha-prakdsa, on 7

Son of Gangesa, author of the

famous Nyaya work,

Hall, 21.

Tattva-chintdinani.

BIBLTOGRAPIIY
Early 13th. Jayadevamisra;

MSIL.
13th

371

14. Tath>a-dh)/:a,or\i2: Vidyabhushana,

xviii.

Kesava Misia 15. Tarka-bhdshd: Keith, //M6". 1914, I089

ETr. Jha, Allahabad.
1380. Madhava; \Q. Sarvadarsatias(mi^!-a/ia,yi\: ETr. Cowell, i6i.
1475. Vasudeva Sarvabhauma
17. Tattva-chintdiuaiii-vydkhyd,
c.

Hall, 22.
c.
c.

on

12

c.

1500.

End

16th.

Mathurfinatha

20. Tattva-dloka-rahasya or

on 12 Hall, 29.
1600. Jagadlsa Tarkalamkara

7idt/n,
c.

18. Sdr7>ahhauia-7tirukti, Sen, CC. 81.

Raghunatha Sironiani ; 19. Ta/lva-didhiti, on 12

Hail, 30

Hall, 31.
i'\fatlm7-d-

21. Tattva-didhiti-tiMafii, on 10:

Hall, 35.

Early 17th. Visvanatha Panchanana 2Z. Nydya-sfitra-i'rifii., on

ETr. Ballantyne, Calcutta.
Early 17th. Laugakshi Rhaskara 23. Paddrfha-indld Hall, 26.
;

i.

THE MATERIALISTIC SCHOOL.

G.

They

are called Lokayatikas, Charvakas or Barhaspatyas.

Gen. Intro, Poussin, ERE. viii. 493 Garbe, ERE. viii. 138 Pizza
galli, NdstikiX, Chdrvdka e Lokdyatika, Pisa, 1907
Miiller, SS. 86; 94
:

Hopkins,

GE. 86

Le Muscim,
H.

Haribhadra, Shaddaisanasamuchchhaya
ETr. Cowell, 2.
277 ; Madhava, SDS. ch. i

ix.

FTr. Suali,

COMPARATIVE AND CRITICAL PHILOSOPHICAL

LITERATURE.

600. Samantabhadra, a Dig. Jain; \. Aptamlmdmsd'. Guerinot, 63;

Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 23 contains a review of the various philosophic
c.

schools.
c.

Bhavaviveka, a Madhyamaka Buddhist ; 2. Tarkajvdld

Sankhya, Vaiseshika, and Vedanta. Walleser,

600.

criticism of the Mimaiiisa,

DAV.7; AMG.
c.

800.

ii.

367.

Vidyananda, a Dig. Jain;

criticizes the six

3.

Ashtasdhasri.

Hindu systems, except the Nyaya, and

Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 26.

Late 9th. Haribhadra, a Svet. Jain

In this work he
also Buddhism:

4. Skaddarsatiasainuchchhaya,

a review of six schools.

1065.

Krishnamisra, a Vedantist 5. Prabodhachandrodaya, a drama.

Sriharsha, a Vedantist
Macdonell, 330; Q. Kkandatmk/iatidakhddya, a criticism of the Nyaya and other schools. ETr. jlia,' Allahabad, 1913
see Keith, //?^6\ 1916, 377.
H. P. Sastrl, I. xlvi.

12th

e.

1304.

Merutunga, a Svet. Jain

7.

ShaddarLmavichdra

Ciuerinot,

393-

1380.

Madhava, a Vedantist

sixteen schools

8.

vi.

Sarvardarsanasahgralia, a review of

ETr. Cowell, London,

Macdonell, 406.

The

1908.

Piiranas.

Gen. Intro.: Origin and date:

Hopkins, GE. 47-54:

JRAS.

1912, 254; Y\&&\.,JRAS. 1912, 1046; Keith,

V. Smith, EHI. 21. The Dynastic Lists Pargiter,
:

B b 2

/AM

6',

PTDKA

Pargiter,

1914, 740;
;

V. Smith,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

^'^72

EHI.
1-155;

22; Keith, //?^ 6". 1914, 1021. Analyses: Wilson, Works, iii.
VP. I. i-cxvii Winternitz, i. 450. Contents: Pargiter, /?".
;

X. 447.

Intro, and analysis Winternitz, i. 378. Date Jackson,

1907, 408, 681; 1908, 529; Keith, JRAS. 1908, 173; Hopkins,
FTr. Langlois, Paris, 1834 ETr. Dutt, Calcutta, 1897.

Harivamsa

JRAS.
GE.

9.

Brahma
Padma:

Wilson, Works, iii. 8.

Wilson, Works, iii. 21. Telugu Tr., 1420. Analysis of
2.
the Kriydyogasdra (an Appendix), Fonseca, Jahrbericht, DMG. 1846, 153.
Works, iii,
3. Vishnu: Intro, and analysis: Wilson, VP. I. cxii
Kanarese, 12th and 17th cents.; Telugu,
120; Winternitz, i. 455. Trs.
1450; ETr. Wilson, VP.; ETr. Dutt, Calcutta, 1894.
Date:
4. Vdyu: Analysis: Wilson, VP. I. xxxv ; Works, iii. 140.
Hopkins, GE. 68 Bana, Harshacharita, Cowell's ETr. 72 Winternitz,
1.

i.

4035. Bhdgavata'. Wilson, VP.

Trs.: Telugu, 1435; Gujarati,

I. xxxix.
1484; Kanarese, 1600; Malayalim, 17th c. ; Gujarat!, 1725 ; Partial Trs.
Bengali. 1480; Braj, Sur Das, i6thc.; Marathi, Eknath, 1580; Kanarese,
1600; Gujarati, 1690. Intro, and FTr. Burnouf, Paris, 1840 ff.; ETr.
Dutt, Calcutta; ETr. (only 3 books) Krishnacharya, Madras, 1916. For
the Bhdgavata Mdhdtmya, see /PAS. 191 1, 800
1 91 2, 481.
6. Ndrada: Wilson, VP. I. ii.
7. Mdrkandeya: Intro, and ETr. Pargiter, Calcutta, 1904; ETr. Dutt,
;

ETr. of
Calcutta, 1897.
Telugu Tr., 13th c.
8. Agni: Wilson, VP.

Chandimdhdtmya, Wortham, JRAS.

I.

Iviii

Works,

iii.

82.

xiii.

355.

ETr. Dutt, Calcutta,

1903.
9.

Bhavishya: WMlson, VP.

I. Ixii.

10. Brahmavaivarta: Wilson, Works, m.

(^\.

Lihga: Wilson, VP. I. Ixvii. Tamil Tr., i6th c.

Telugu Tr., 1470.
12. Vardha: Wilson, VP. I. Ixx.
H. P. Sastrl, I. Iii.
13. Skanda: Wilson, VP. I. Ixxii
11.

Telugu

Partial

Tr., 1450-

Vainana

14.

Wilson, VP.

15. Knrma'.y<l\\'s,ox\,

VP.

Contains the Jsvara Gltd:

Kennedy, HM. 444.

16. Matsya: Wilson, VP.

I.
I.

Ixxiv.

Ixxiv.

Trs.: Telugu, 1500, Tamil, l6th

see Mitra, Notices,

I.

Ixxx.

Telugu

Tr.,

vi.

115,

i.

257.

c.

ETr.

1550; ETr. of chaps, i-

128, SBH. 1 916.

Wilson, VP. I. Ixxxiii.
ETr. Dutt, Calcutta, 1908.
17. Gariida
ETr. of Gariida P. Sdroddhdra, SBH. 191 1.
Malayalim Tr., 17th c. In18. Brahm'dnda: Wilson, VP. I. Ixxxiv.
cludes the Adhydtnia-Rd/ndyana and the Lalitopdkhydiia.
:

Siva: Wilson, VP.

Siddhdnta-Dtpikd.

Upapuranas
VP.

I.

I.lxxxviii.

Madhusudana

Trs.: Malayalim, 17th

c;

Partial ETr.,

Sarasvati, Prasthdna-bheda;

Ixxxvi.

1.

Kdlikd

2.

Narasimha a Vaishnava work.

Samba a Saura work.
Saura Intro, and full analysis, Jahn, Das Saurapurdnam.

3.

4.

a Sakta work.
:

:'

Wilson,

BIBLIOGRAPHY
5.

Devi Bhdgavata

a ^akta work.
Sachau, i. 130; quotations

6. Aditya: Alberuni,
on Veddiiia-sjltras.
7.

Bhdrgava:

373

l^eshagiri SastrT,

STMSS.

in

1896-7,

Madhva, Bhdshya

p. 151.

Smarta Literature.

vii.

The mass of books which are used by Smartas are Vedic literaand are dealt with elsewhere. Here only a few special works which
spring from the Smarta position are mentioned.
Books in Sanskrit,
Note.

ture,

unless otherwise described.

XXX

1.

BaitiiJidycuia

2.

The

C^-i/iyasiltra

Parisishtas

Biihler,

SBE. XIV.

fif.

Kennedy,

Atharvasiras

tivefold

U.

Weber, HIL.

ETr.

170.

HM.

346, 442, 443, 491, 493.

see 206.
3. Gariida 1'.
:

Krishnamisra Smith, EHI. 392 4. PrabodhacJiandrodaya

ETr. Taylor, Bombay, 1893; GTr. anon, (Th. Goldstiicker), Konigsberg,
1842; Hindi paraphrase, Kesava Dasa Misra, Vijndna Gitd: Grierson,
c.

1065.

LH.\%\ JRAS.
Frob. 13th

c.

90S,

136.

Yo^a-Vasishtha-Rdmdyana: ETr. Vihari Lai Mitra,

5.

Calcutta, 1891.

1300. Hemadri; Q.ChatiirvargaChintd7nani\ Bhandarkar,ir//Z>.88.

Late 14th. Viresvara 7. Virehmra Paddhati, a manual of conduct,
c.

Tirhut
c.

HBLL.

Sen.

140.

Raghunandana

1500.

duct, Bengal: Sen.

8.

Ashtdvinisati Tattva, a manual of con-

HBLL.

74; 421.
IMukundaraj
9. VivekasindJni (Marathl)
Acworth, BM. xxiii
Mackichan, Lndian Interpreter, Jan. 191 3, 166 f.
Before 1550. Madhusudana Sarasvati ; 10. Prasthdna-bheda GTr.
Deussen, AGP. I. i. 44.
c. 1600.
Alavantar I\Iadavappattar ; 11, Jndtia-Vasishthain, a Tamil
adaptation of No. 5.
e. 1660.
Ananta Deva ^ ; 12. Smrlti Kaiistubha, a manual of conduct,
North India Hall, 185.
:

viii.

Vaishnava Literature.

A.

General.

1.

Purusha

2.

Mahd7idrdyana Upanis/iad, No. 6, p. 364, above.

Mahdbhdrata, and vernacular versions.
Rd/ndyatia, and vernacular versions.
Bhagavadgitd.

3.

4.
5.

Siikta

liigveda, x. 90.

B.
I.

Bhagavata Literature,

THE BHAGAVATA SAMPRADAYA,

Note. Bhagavatas are interested in all the books used by Smartas and
general Vaishnava literature as well.
Here only works springing from
the community are mentioned.
All books in Sanskrit.
in

Son of Apadeva, author of the Apadevx, above,

p. 367.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

374
,

4th or

5tli.

See

Siva.

2.

Haiivamsa,

1.

or at least the passages

Vaikhanasa

Saiiihitas

Appaya Dikshita, quoted in Chanda,

Seshagiri Rao, STMSS. 1893-6, p. 6.

lAR. loo; Schrader, IP AS. 55;

7th or 8th,

Agiii P.

3.

Skanda U., No. 68,

900. 5. Bhdgavata P.
4.

c.

6.

Sturdy,

on Vishnu and

i6i.

see 206.
p. 364, above; Jacob,
see 272.

Narada-bhakti-sutra

London (Watkins),

EAU.

15.

Text and ETr. Sinha,

SBH.

ETr.

1904.

7. Sd7idilya-bhakti-snt7a
ETr. Cowell, Calcutta, 1878 Text and
ETr. with Svapnesvara's comm., Paul, SBH. 191 1. Comms. also by
Muralldasa, a Maratha Vallabha, and Narayanatlrtha of the 17th c;
;

Hall, 143.

and 9. Gopichandana Upanishads, Nos. 72 and 119,

above Jacob, EA U. 5-7 ETr. lA. 1887.
e. 1300.
Vopadeva ; 10. Muktdphala and 11. Harilfld, both on the
Bhdgavata P.-. Bhandarkar, ///?. 89 A^J/. 3542; 3533.
e. 1400.^ Sridhara ; 12. Bhagavata-thdiidi-tha-dipikd, comm. on 5.
Srl-Sukacharj'a 13. Siika-bhdshya on Veddnta-siitras ; text in
Telugu characters, T. Venkatacharya, Bangalore, 1892.
8. Vasttdeva,

p. 364,

2.

LITERATURE OF MARATHA BHAKTAS.

Gen. Intro. Bhandarkar, VS. 87 ff. Acworth, ^i^. Intro.; Macnicol,

'The Indian Poetiy of Devotion,' Hibbert Journal, 1917; Macnicol,
;

Psalms of Afafdihd Saints, an anthology

in ETrs., Calcutta, 1919.

All

literature in Marathl.
c. 1290.
Jiianesvara ; \. Jndnesvari ; 2. Svdti)id7iubhava; Z. Haripdth 4. Airitdnubhava 5. Chdhgdeva Pdsashti (possibly spurious).
ETrs. of a few hymns and a few selections from the Jndtiesvari in
;

Macnicol,
c.

PMS.

1300.
1425.

Muktabai

Namdev;

6.

Abhangs: ETrs. Macnicol, PMS.

Abhangs: ETrs. of Marathi Abhangs

BhanPatwardhan, Indian Interpreter,

April, 1913.
Hindi hymns, MBV. i. 254: ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 40.
Trilochan 8. Hindi hymns: ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 78.
c. 1425.
|t\v''^ c. 1540. Bhanu
Das; 9. Abhangs.
He was the grandfather of
Eknath.
Eknath; \0. Ekndthi Bhdgivat: ETrs. of passages Macd. 1608.
nicol, Indian Theism, 270; PMS.; 11. Chatusloki Bhdgwat; 12. Bhd7'drtha Rdmdyana 13. Haripdth.
1608-49. Tukaram; 14. Abhangs: complete ETr., Eraser and Marathe,
Madras, 1909, &c.; select ETrs. Bhandarkar, T^'. 94-9; Macnicol, /'i^/.S'.
Barnett, HI. 60; Rawlinson, Shivaji, Oxford, 1915, 114-16.
1608-81. Ram Das; 15. Dasabodha: RawHnson, op. cit., 116-22,
including a few translations.
1679-1728. Sridhara 16. Rama Vijaya, &c. ; ETrs. in Bell, Some
c.

darkar, VS. 90

7.

Macnicol,

ff.;

PMS.;

Translations frotn the Marathi Poets, Bombay, 1913, pp. 3-25, 167-209.
18th c. Mahlpati 17. Santa Lildfnrita (1757); 18. Bhakta Vijaya
(1762); 19. Kathd Sdrdmrita (1765); 20. Bhakta Lildmrita (1774);
21. Santa Vijaya
ETr. Bell, op. cit., 27-43.
;

BIBLIOGRAPHY

375

iMADHVA LITKRATURE.

3.

Gen. Intro. Padmanabhachar, Z7i1/; Krishnasvvami l^&r,Sri Madh7 'rt<r/r(j;j(Z, Madras

Grierson, ERE. viii. 232; Bhandarkar, VS. 57; Madhava, SDS. v Cowell, 87. Books in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described.
:

for his works, see Padinanabhachar, 196;

1199-1278. Madhva
Bhandarkar, R. 1882-3, 207; 1. Siitra-bhdshyci, on Veddnta-sfdras:
ETr. S. Subba Rau, Madras, 1904 2>.Anuvydkhydna (verse), on Veddnta5. MaJid4. Bhdgavata-tdiparya-iiirnaya
siitras
3. Gitd-bJiasliya
see above,
6. Bhashyas on ten Upanishads
bhdrata-tdtpa)ya-nirnaya
7. Ten Prakaranas, or special treatises, including Tantra-sdra
p. 365
on the ritual.
Late 13th. Trivikrama; 8. Tativa-pradipikd, on i.
Late 13th. Padmanabhatlrtha 9. Sanydya-ratndvali., on 2.
11. Nydya-sudhd,
10. Tattva-prakdsikd, on I
c. 1340.
Jayatirtha
on 2.
Narayana; 12. Manirnanjari and 13. J/rt(^//<!7/<?7'//r?yrt, polec. 1360.
mical works
summary, Krishnasvvami Iyer, op. cit. Grierson, ERE.
:

viii.

c.
c.

232.

Madhava

1380.
1400.
16.

Cowell, 87.
14. Sa)"i>adarsanasangraha, ch. v
;
15. Bhatinxtndvalt : Text and ETr., SBH. vii.
Rdnidyiuui, in Kan. contains a Madhva interpola:

Vishnu Purl

Adhydhna

Padmanabhachar, LTM. 133.

16th c. Vyasa-raja-svaml 17. Chatidrikd, on No. 10; 18. Nydydmrita,
a criticism of Safikara's Vedanta ; 19. Tarka-tdndava, a criticism of the
Nyaya.
16th c. Puraiiidara Das, Kanaka Das, Vitthala Das, Venkata Das,
Rice, KL. 59. ETrs.
Vijaya Das, Krishna Das writers of Kan. hymns

tion

Gover, /^56Y.

I7ff'

writers of Kan. hymns

ETrs. Gover, ESS/.
20. Harikathdmritasdra popular Kan. book on doctrine.
18th c. Chidananda 21. Hari-bhakti-rasdyana Kan. work on devo-

18th

Rice,

Varaha Timmappa Das, Madhva Das

c.

KL.

59.

tion

Rice,

KL.

60.

EARLY RADHA LITERATURE.

4.

Gopdlatdpanlya and KrisJina Upanishads, above,

1.

p. 364,

Nos. 106,

107.
2. Gopdlasa]iasrand)>ia

the thousand

names

of

Krishna.

lOM.

No. 2536.
an old Vaishnava Samhita, seemingly used
3. Ndrada Paiichardtra
and interpolated by VishnusvaniTs and Vallabhacharyas; Schrader, IRAS.
No. 71, p. 8 Bhandarkar, VS. 40, 86.
:

VISHNUSVAMI LITERATURE.

5.

13th c. Vishnusvaml 1. Gltd-bhdshya 2. Veddnta-sutra-bhdshya

5. Tattvatraya.
3. Bhdgavata-bhdshya
4. Vishnu-rahasya
Cowell,
^x\\i'A.\\X.dimiix&-, Q. Sdkdra-siddhi-. Madhava, 6"/^
c. 1300.
;

Ji'.

141
c.

142.

Bilvamangala or Lllasuka 7. Krishnakarndmrita.

Varadaraja 8. Bhdgavata-laghii-tjkd MS. in Library of Sanskrit

1400.

College, Benares.

::
;

BIBLIOGRAPHY

376

NIMBARKA LITERATURE.

6.

Bhandarkar, VS. 62; Growse, Mai/mrd, 147, 148, 189,

Wilson, Sects, 150. All books in Sansk. unless otherwise

Gen. Intro.
194,

200;

described.
1.

Gauiamtya

Schrader, IPAS. 7

S.

early work
iv. 865.

10M.

used by Nimbarkas for ritual

13tli c.
Nimbarka; 2. Veddnta-parijdta-saurabha, a vritti on the
Vedanta-sfttras
3. Dasasloki, or Veddnta-fatna, or Siddhdnta-ratna
Hall, 114.
ETr. Bhandarkar, VS. 63.
:

ISth

c.

Srlnivasa

4. Veddnta-Katistubha, a

bhashya on the Veddnia-

sfitras.

Purushottama; 5. Veddnta-ratna-manjushd, on 2,'- Hall, 1 1 4.

Devacharya 6. Siddhdnta-jdhnavi.
Sundara Bhatta 7. Dvaitddx'aiia-siddhdtita-setuka, on 6.
Early 16th. Kesava Kashmiri 8. Vedd7ita-katistnbha-prabhd, on 4
9. Gfid-lativa-prakdsikd'. Hall, 118; 10. Krainadipikd, selections from
No. I.
Early 16th.. Harivyasa Deva 11. Dasaslokt-bhdshya, on 3 Hall, 115.
Early 16th. Harivyasa Deva and Sri Bhatt 12. Pada, Hindi hymns
;

for sanklrtan.

13. Krishna-jaiujia-khmida of Brahina-vaivarta P.

7.

CHAITANYA LITERATURE.

Gen. Intro.:

Wilson, Sects,
Bhandarkar, VS.

HBLL.; CC; VLMB.;

Sen,

152;

For the temples in Brindaban, see

Growse, AI., and Sen, VLMB. 51. Estimates of the movement, Kennedy,
Young Mc7i of India, July, 191 8; Underwood, Calcutta Review, 1919,
Sarkar,

p. 37.'

CPT.

Lit. in Bengali, unless

Govinda Das

1509-11.

82.

otherwise described.
Kadchd, i. e. note-book, of very dubious

1.

Bhagavata Kumara GosvamI Sastri, art.,

Sen, CC. 232
Vaishnava Dharma o SrI-Chaitanya Yuga,' in Sdliitya Samhitd, 1309

authenticity
'

(i.e. A.i). 1903).

1514. Murari Gupta 2. Kadcha (Sansk.) Sen, CC. 109.

Sarvabhauma 3. G aurdhgdshtaka (Sansk.) Sen, CC. 88.
c. 1518.
Early 16th. Narahari Sarkar; 4. Hymns: Sen, CC. 100.
Early 16th. Vamslvadana 5. Hymns Sen, CC. 104.
Vasudeva Ghosh 6. Hymns Sen, CC. 107.
c. 1540.
Riipa (works in Sansk.) Sen, VLMB. 26 7. Vidagdha-mdd. 1591.
dhava; Q. Lalita-?nddhaini; and9. Dduakeli-kau/nudl, dramas; 10. Padvidvali; and YV. Stavaindld,\iymxi's,; 12. Ganadvesadtpikd'. Chaitanya's
companions are gopis incarnate 13. Bhaktiratndmritasindliu and 14.
15. Mathurd-mdhdtinya of the
Ujjvalafiilamani, on bhakti and love
Vardha P.: Growse, M. 78, 89, 1 42, 1 98; Sen, VLMB. 36.
Sanatana (works in Sansk.) Sen, VLMB. 36, 38 16. Harid. 1591.
bhaktivildsa, a ritual code ; 17. Vaislmavatoshim, comm. on Bhagavata P.
Murari Gupta 18. Chai'tanyacharita {Sansk.): Sen, VLMB.
d. 1572.
:

'

d. 1572.

Sen,

Kavikarnapura; 19. Chaitanyachandrodaya {Sansk. drama)

VLMB.

71.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Vrindavana Dus

1570.

c.

VLMB.

74

ilBLL. 464

377

20. Chaitanyabhagavata,

A. D.

573, Sen,

VLMB.

21. Nitydnanda-vaihsa'Vistara, Sen,

164.

Lochana Das 22. Ch aitatty amangal Sen, VLMB.

Jayananda; 23. Chaitanyaniahgal, Sen, VLMB. 80

1575.
1575.

c.
c.

80.

HBLL.

471.

Krishna Das Kaviraj 24. ChattaiiyacharitcDiirita, Sen, HBLL.

ETr. of middle section, Sarkar, C/"/'.
58.
Fl. 1580-1610. jTva (works in Sansk.) 25. Satsandarbha, Theology
26. Kr isluutrchanadlpikd
Ritual
27. Kraniasandarbha, comm. on
Bhdgavata P. 28. Comm. on BraJuna S. and many other works
1581.

477

VLMB.

VLMB.

Sen,

40.

Fl. 1610-40.
Govinda Das, Jnana Das, Balarama Das, and other
hymn-writers: Sen, VLMB. 183
197.
c. 1625. Nityananda Das; 29. Preinavildsa, history of sect in verse:
;

Sen,

VLMB.

1704.

169.

Visvanatha Chakravarti

VLMB.

30.

Comm. on Bhdgavata

P.

Sen,

177.

Early 18 til.
sect: Sen,

Narahari Chakravarti; 31. Bhaktiratndkara, history

VLMB.

of

177.

Early 18tli. Vaishnava Das 32. Padakalpatat'u, anthology of the

hymns Sen, HBLL. 563.
Early 18th. Baladeva 33. Govinda-bhdshya (Sansk.), on Veddnta;

siitras:

ETr.

S. C.

SBH.

v.

VALLABHACHARYA LITERATURE.

8.

Gen. Intro.

Vasu,

Wilson, .SV^/i-, 119; Bhandarkar, VS.'jd; History of t/ie

Sect of Ma/idrdjas, or Vallabhdchdiyas in JVestern Itidia, London, 1865
For Vallabha lit. in Braj, see
Growse, M. 283; 295; Hall, 145-6.
Growse, M. 295; Grierson, LH., pp. 2ofr. Lit. in Sansk., unless otherwise described.
1479-1531. Vallabha 1. Brahina-sfitra-aniibkdshya, on the Veddnta3. Prakdsa,
sftiras ; 2. Tattva-dtpa->iiba/id/ia, a nianual of his system
comm. on 2, by Vallabha, with 4. Avarana-bhangavydkkyd, a supercomm. on 3, by Pltambara. Nos. 2, 3, and 4 together form the Vidyd:

vaijayanti ; 5. Sit-subodhzfiJ,
1. Jainiinlya-siltra-bhdsJiya:
and ETr. Growse, M. 285
Vitthalnath.
Vitthalnath 10.
c. 1540.
;

son,

LH.

on the Bhdgavata P. 6. Gdyat?l-bhdshya

Hall, 208; 8. Siddlidnta Rahasya: Text
9. Krishna-prana-a/nrita, with gloss by
;

Batfia-i'h/aiana

Growse,

M.

295

Grier-

20.

Krishna Das; 11. Pretn-ras-ras (Braj) Grierson, LH. 21.

c. 1550.
1551. Gokulnath 12. Chaurdst Bdrtd (Braj): Lyall, EB. xiii. 487;
Wilson, Sects, 132; Growse, M. 296.
Late 16th. Sur Das: Grierson, LH. 21 Prasad, SBS. ii. 55 MBV.
14. Si'irsdrdi. 269.
13. Si'ir Sdgar, Trs. in Braj from Bhdgavata P.
valt, an anthology from the Sii?- Sdgar.
:

1600.

Giridharajl
15. Stcddhddvaita-tndrtatida.
Balakrishna Bhatta ; 16. Praineyaratndrtiava.
e. 1743.
Braj BasI Das
17. Braj Bilds, Braj poem on
Grierson, LH. 97
Growse, M. 75 n.
c.

Radha

:
;

BIBLIOGRAPHY

378
Dayaram

1767-1852.

MGL.

18.

Many works

in Bnij, GujaratI, &c.: Jhaveri,

2i6.
9.

rAdha-vallabhi literature.

Gen. Intro.: Growse, M. 159; Grierson, LH. 28; ERE.

in

Hindi, unless otherwise

c.

x.

559.

Lit.

descrilDecl.

1580.

Hari Vaiiisa; 1. Radha-sudha-nidhi (Sansk.) Text and ETr.

Growse, M. 204
2. Chaurdsi Pada
or Hit Chaurdsl
Text and ETr. of 12 stanzas, Growse, M. 208 3. Sphitt Pada,
:

of 26 stanzas,

Dhdm:

hymns.

Early 17th.
Growse,

Dhruva Das

and many other works

4. Jlv-dasd,

AI. 216.

Damodar Das

5. Sevak-bdnl,

and other works, Growse, M.

100,

216; Wilson, Sects, 177.

10.

HARI DAS! LITERATURE.

Gen. Intro. Growse, M. 217; Grierson, LH. 59. Lit. in Hindi.

c. 1600. Hari Das. Life and Selections, Prasad, SBS. ii. 67
1. Sddhdran Siddhdnt Text and ETr. Growse, M. 223
2. Ras ke pada, hymns
:

fif.

Bharathari-vairdgya.
1650. BiharinI Das 4. Pada, hymns one hymn
Growse, M. 222. There were several other writers.

3.

c.

II.

Text and ETr.

in

SVAmI NARAYANI LITERATURE.

Gen. Intro Monier Williams, BH. 148; Russell and Hira Lai, i. 326
The Svdmt-Ndrdyam Sect, Education Society's Press, Bombay, 1887.
Early 19th. Svaml Narayana \. Sikshd-pdtrl'. a Sanskrit code of
212 precepts, accompanied by a long commentary: Monier Williams,
fif.

BH. 148.
Much Gujarat!

verse by Premanand, Brahmanand, Muktanand, NiskulJhaveri, MGL. 181 ; 199 ft'.

anand, and other ascetics

12.

RADHA-KRISHNA POETRY, LITERARY AND

UNSECTARIAN.

Late 12th. Jayadeva; 1. Gitdgovinda (Sansk.) Macdonell, 344. ETr.

Arnold, London, 1881
GTr. Riickert, Leipzig; FTr. Gourtillier, Paris,
1904 ; 2. Radha-Krishna songs in Bengali attributed to him : Sen, HBLL.
c. 1400. Chandl' Das; 3. Songs in Bengali
Sen, HBLL. 115. ETr.
:

of two songs, Beames, lA. 1873, 187.

15th c. Vidyapati; 4. Songs in Maithih Sen, HBLL. 135 ff. Text
and ETr. Grierson, Introduction to the Maithih Latiguage, Calcutta,
1882 ; LH. 9. ETr. of over loo songs from the Bengali text, Coomaraswamy, Vidydpati, Bahgiya Paddbalt, London, 19x5.
15th c. Umapati ; 5. Songs in Bengah and in Maithih Sen, VLMB.
1-9,' where the text of three of the songs is given.
Grierson, LH. Ii.
:

^ Mr. Sen identifies this Umapati with the Sanskrit poet

Umapati Dhara referred
to by Jayadeva at the beginning of the Gitdgovinda, but the evidence tends to the
conclusion that the author of the Bengali poems was a contemporary of Vidyapati.

See Miira

Bandhu

Vhiode,

i.

250.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Late 15th. Narsingh Mehtii

MGL.

35 ff.
erroneous).

text of

6.

Songs in Gujaratland Hindi

two Hindi songs

Late 15th. Mlra Bfil

Prasad, SBS. ii. 68.

379

Prasad,

in

SBS.

Songs

ii.

Jhaveri,
78 (date

in Braj and GujaratI

a few Braj songs
Braj song in ETr., Macauliffe, vi. 342.
Gujarat! songs
see Jhaveri, MGL. 29.
Date erroneous in all three
works.
See also A/BV. i. 297.
16th and 17th. Numerous Maithill poets. Sen, VLMB. 7,
1650. Biharl Lai Chaube 8. Sat Sai 700 couplets in Hindi in praise
of Krishna : Grierson, LH. 75.
Gover, /^S^/. 248 255.
9. ISIalayalim songs
7.

in

One

Pancharatra Literature.

C.

GENERAL.
MBH. see above,

I.

Paiicharatra sections in
2. Vishnu and other Puranas.
1.

3.

Mahd, Ndrdya?ia, Atmabodha, and

46, and 55, p. 364, above.

4. The Saiiihitas: Schrader,
Iyengar, Outlines, 174.
2.

IPAS

105.

Stibdld Upanishads, Nos. 44, 45,

Govindacharya,yy?^.S\ 191

unless otherwise described.

7th to 9th. The Alvars 1. Hymns in Tamil

Holy Lives of the Azhvais, Mysore (uncritical but
;

chs.

BMCTB.

935;

SRI-VAISHNAVA LITERATURE.

Lit. in Sanskrit,

AL

1,

xix

xv,

vi.

Xammalvar's works are held

S.

useful)

Aiyangar, TS. chs.

vii,

xviii,

Govindacharya, T/ie
;
K. Aiyangar,

xi

viii,

to represent

the

Barnett,

Vedas (K.

Aiyangar, AL. 398J, thus:

Tinmiruttani Rik.
Tiruvoytnoli Saman.
-j
\r a
t-> -',..
...
hUravida
Veda.
^.
c. Ftruvasiriyam'. Yajusd. PeriyatirtivcDidddi: Atharvan. J
e. 1000. Nathamuni
Govindacharya, R. ch.
Rajagopalachariar,
VRL l-i I 26 2, Ndldyira Praband/uiin, the hymns of the Alvars (Tarn.)
edited for study and singing; 3. Nydya-tattva; 4. Yoga-rahasya: Hall, 17.
c. 1050.
Yamuna, or Ajavandar
Govindacharya, R. ch. iii ;_ Rajagopalachariar, VR[. 26-49 5. Siddhi-traya
Text, Benares ; 6. Againapramdnya Text, Benares ; 7. Gitdrtha-saiigraha 8. Alamanddra stotra ;
9. RaiTiastotra
a few verses in ETr. Barnett,
42.
c. 1080.
Yadava Prakasa or Govinda-jlya (Ramanuja's former guru)
10. Yati-d/ia?]iia-sa}niicIicJihaya, a work on SrI-Vaishnava sannyasis see
Govindacharya, R. 74.
c. 1050-1137.
Ramanuja: Keith, ERE. x. 572. Life Tamil life by
Pinbalagla-Perumal-Jiya
ETr. Govindacharya, Madras, 1906; brief
life, Rajagopalachariar,
VRL 50-77 a life called Achdryaparicharya,
Rama Misra Sastrl, Benares. System: Thibaut, SBE. xxxiv, Intro.;
Sukhtankar, TVR.; Bhandarkar, KS". 50 ff.; 11. Veddrtha-saiigraha'.
Hall, 116; \^.Sn-hhdshya,Qn\.\v& Veddnta-sutras
ETr. Thibaut, SBE.
xlviii
ETr. Rangacharya and Aiyangar, Madras, 1899; 13. Gitdbhdshya: ETr. Govindacharya, Madras, 1898; 14. Veddntii-sdra
see
a.

b.

HL

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SSo

Thibaut, SBE. XXXIV. xvi.

Two other works, Veddnta-dipa and
Veddnta-tattva-sdra, are attributed to him, but are of doubtful authenticity
Sukhtankar, op. cit., 3.
:

15. Bhagavad-vishayain, anonymous Tam.comm.on Nammajvar's

Tu-uvoymoli: Partial ETr., A. Govindacharya, Divine Wisdom of Drdvida
Saifits, Madras, 1902.
13th c. Pinbalagla-Perumal-Jlya
ETr.
16. Tamil life of Ramanuja
A. Govindacharya, Madras, 1906.
End 13th. Pillai Lokacharya; 17. A?-iha-panchaka (Tam.) ETr.
A. Govindacharya, y/vM 6". 1910, 565; 18. Tattva-traya (Tam.): ETr.
Parthasarathi Yog! ; 19. Sri-vachmia-blifishana (Tam.) ETr. Parthasa:

rathi Yogi.
c.

1350.

Sudarsana Bhatta

20. Sukapakshiya, comm. on Bhdgavata

P., Rajagopalachariar, VRI. 99 f.

c. 1380.
Madhava 21. Sarvadarsanasahgraha, ch. iv. Cowell, 64.
c. 1380. Vedanta Desika, or Venkata-natha
Rajagopalachariar, VRI.
9ifif. ; Rahga.chari,Bra/tmavddin, Oc't.-Nov.' 1912, 597; Govindacharya,
;

YMD. 171; "2.2,. Satadfisham against Saiikara's Vedanta 23. Nydyasiddhdnjana Visishtadvaita philosophy ; 24. Sesvara--i)iii>idmsd on the
Mimamsa ; 25. Rahasya-traya-sdra a manual of the system in Tamil
26. Sankalpa-sil7yodaya, an allegorical drama
Text and ETr. by
K. Narayanacharya, Madras, 1 91 7; 27. Pdnchardh-arakshd, on the
Vaishnava Sarrihitas Schrader, JPAS. 4, iS.
Early 15th. Ramya-jamatri-muni Rajagopalachariar, VRI. 132 fif.;
GopalasvamI \yenga.r, Brahmavddin, Oct.-Nov. 1912, 610; Govinda:

charya, K/l/Z?. 171

c.

1600.

28. Tattva-ninlpatia; 29. Upadcsa7'atnaindld

Appaya-dlkshita

many comms.

Govindacharya,

{T2XQ.?).

YMD.,

Preface.
c. 1600,
Chanda-maruta Mahacharya 30. Chanda-Jiidruia, a comm.
on No. 22 Govindacharya, YMD. iv 172.
c. 1650.
Srlnivasa; 31. Yatindra-mata-dlpikd
Intro, and ETr.
Govindacharya, Madras, 1912 Schrader, IPAS. 176.
;

3.

MANBHAU LITERATURE.

Gen. Intro.: Boibay Gazetteer, xviii. 181 xix. 120; Crooke, ERE.
504 Monograph 131, Bombay Ethnog7-aphic Survey Chandorkar and
Rajvvade in Proceedings of Bhdrata Itihdsika Sainsodhaka Mafidala, 191 5,
;

ii.

1916; Yadavagiri Mahatmya of the Ndrada Purdna.

1. Dattdtreya U.
No. 112, p. 364.
'2. Dattdtreya S.: Schrader, //"yi 6". 7.
3. Manbhau books in Marathi
Lild Sathvdd, Lild Charit, Sutrapdth, Darsan Prakds, Chakradhar C/iarit, Chdhgdcv Charitra, Tuthdvali.
:

4.

Kaivadya Dipikd
4.

(Sansk.).

LITERATURE OF NARASIMHA SECT.

Deussen, SUV. 752 Krishna Sastrl, SII, 24.

Nrisimha-pfirva-tdpatifya U. and 2. NrisimJia-tittara-tdphitfya U.
Intro, and GTr. Deussen, SUV. 752. Cf. also ^A'^eber, HIL. 167; Schrader,

Gen. Intro.

1.

IPAS.

143.

Nrisiihha Upapurdna : Alberuni, Sachau, i. 130.

4. Nrisimha Sathhitd: Schrader, IPAS. 8, i8.
3.

Tel. Tr., A, D. 1300.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
RAMAITE LITERATURE.

5.

A.
1.

381

Early Sanskrit Works.

Rdmdydjja,

vi.

119.

100 slokas from the first book of the Rduidyuna, for children.
3. Rdimi-prirva-ldpamya U.
and 4. Rdtna-uttara-tdpanlya U. Intro,
and GTr. Deussen, SUV. 802. Cf. also Weber, HIL. 168 Schrader,
2. SaiJikshepa

Rdimiyatia

IPAS.
b.

121.

TH.
c.

IPAS.6\

Agastya-Sjitikshna-samvdda'. Schrader,
IV. iv. 30-1
ii. 26;

Adhydtnia-Rdmdymia. III.
11th c. Damodaramisra

6.

referred to in

VI. v. 9.
Haiiitmdn Ndtaka, a drama, ETr. Wilson,
;

363.

ii.

1300.

7.

Adhydtma Rdmdyana

Adhhicta Rd))idyana

ETr. Lala Baij Nath, SBH. 1913.

Bombay.

Text, Srivenkatesvara Press,

Q. Bhiisiauii Rdjndyana: Grierson, /A'y^.S'. 1 912, 797.
8.

B. Early Hindi Hymns.

Sadana
1. Hymns
Early 15th.
;

Macauliffe,

Early 15th.
c.

c.

C
e.

Beni

1425. Namdeva

Prasad,

SBS.

1425.

SBS.

Prasad,

ii.

ETr.

36.

vi. 84.

2.

Hymns

ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 88.

Maratha Bhaktas

see above, under

ETr. Macauliflfe, vi. 17 40.

28
Trilochana 4. Hymns ETr. Macauliffe,
ii.

3.

Hymns:

vi.

76; 78.

The RamAnandis.
?iX\..JRAS., Jan. 1920; 1. Hymns; Wilson,
Macauliffe, vi. 105.
ETr. Macauliffe,
ii. 28.

1400-70. Ramananda:

Sects, 46

Cirierson,

Born 1425. Plpa

LH.
;

2.

ERE. x. 569. ETr.

Hymns Prasad, SBS.
7

VI. III.

Late 15th. Rai Das 3. Hymns Prasad, SBS. i. 35 ; ii. 32 ; BhanETr. Macauliffe, vi. 316.
darkar, VS. 74 ; Grierson, ERE. x. 560.
Late 15th. Sena; 4. Hymns: Bhandarkar, VS. 74. ETr. Macauliffe,
:

120.

vi.

Grierson, LN. 42
Tulsl Das
JRAS. 1903, 447 ff.
Theology, Thibaut, SBE. xxxiv, p. cxxvii ; Carpenter, Theology of Tulsl
Grierson, JRAS. 191 2,
Dds, Madras, 1918; 5. Rd)na-charit-mdtias
794; 1913, 133; 1914, 416. ETr. Growse, Allahabad, 1897; 6. Gitdbali: the story of Ram in songs y/?^ ^'. 1903, 452; 7. Kabittdbali
the story of Ram in songs: JRAS. 1903, 453; 8. Blnay Pattrikd:
hymns to 'Rmw: JRAS. 1903, 454. Other works: Grierson, LH. 45 f.
Selections: Prasad, SBS. i. 71
239: ii. 79. ETr. of extracts: Bhandarkar, VS. 75 f
Grierson, JRAS. 1909, 607 1910,
c. 1600. Nabhaji, 9. Bhakta-indld

1532-1623.

87

269.

1574-1682.^ Maluk Das 10. Poems Growse, JL 230 Prasad, SBS.

Wilson, Seels, 100: Grierson, ERE. viii. 374.
99; ii. 102
Grierson, LH. 86 ;
1712. Priya Das. 11. Gloss on Bhakta Mdld
MBV. i. 390 ii. 607.
12. Agaslya S.. including Ramananda's life: text and Hindi Tr.,
Rama Narayana Das, 1904 Bhandarkar, VS. 67x1.2 this is the AgaslyaSuttkskna-savivdda, No. 5, above.
;

i,

'

These dates come from

his living descendants

Prasad,

SBS.

i.

99.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

383

Reformed Literature.

D.
A.

Kabir and the Kabirpanth.

Kablr; 1. Poems: Westcott,

Kabir'. Burn, ERE. vii.

632; Shah, Bijak of Kabir, Hamirpur, U. P., 1917 Wilson, Sects, 68.
His mysticism: Evelyn Underhill in Tagore, One Hundred Poetns of
Kabir, London, 1913. ETr. of Bljak, Shah, op. cit. ETrs. of selections
Wilson, op. cit. 79 Westcott, op. cit. Bhandarkar,
Tagore, op. cit.
VS. 70; Macauliffe, vi. 122.
Powlett, Ulwttr,
2. Gutkd, the Prayer Book of the Kabirpanth
60-9, including fragments in ETr.
Westcott,
3. Puno Grant/!, the Service Book of the Kabirpanth

1440-1518.

128.

DhanlDharm Das;
iMBV.

i.

4.

Poems:

Prasad,6"i56'.

ii.

37; ?)\\dih,BiJnk,lJ

256; 356.

1729. 5. Sukh Nidhan: analysis, Westcott, 141.

6. Amar Mill: analysis, Westcott, 148.
B.

The

Sikhs.

Gen. Intro.: Macauliffe; Trumpp, Adi Grantli, London, 1870:

Dorothy Field, T/ie Religion of the Sikhs, London, 1914.
1469-1538. Nanak; 1. Hymns ^. Nij-dkara Mtmmhsd; S. Adbkuta
;

Gltd.
d.
d.

1574.
1581.
1606.

Amar Das

Ram Das

Hymns.
Hymns.

4.

5.

d.
Arjan 6. Hymns 7. Adi Granth ETr. Macaulifife
ETr. Trumpp; a few pieces in ETr. Dorothy Field.
;

Late 16th.

Gur Das;

Bhai Gur Das ki War:

8.

partial

partial

ETr.

Macaulifife, IV. 241.

d.

1708.

Gobind Singh

C.

9.

Granth of the Tenth Guru

10.

Panf

Book.

grantlii, the Prayer

The DadOpanth.

Gen. Intro.: Traill, ERE. iv. 385.

1544-1603. Dadil 1. BanI Prasad, SBS.

ETr. of
ii.
i. 235
90.
two chapters, Siddons,/^.S'j5'. vi. 484 reproduced, Wilson, Sects, 106.
Fl. 1600.
Rajjab Das 2. Bdni.
1598-1689. Sundar Das; 3. Bant; 4. Gydn-Saniudra; 5. Sundar
Vilds.
Selections: Purohita Harinarayana, Sundarsdr, Benares, 1918
;

Prasad, SBS. i. 106; ii. 107.

Nischal Das 6. Vichdrasdgara
;

Prabhdkara.
c. 1740.
Giridhar Kabraya

Text,

Bombay, 1900

7.

Vr/t/i

8. Kuijdaliyd.

D. Lal Dasis.
Gen. Intro. Powlett, Ukvur,
:

53, including a

few pieces in ETr.

E. Satnamis.
Gen. Intro. Sarkar, Mod. Rev. 1916, 383 Wilson, Sects, 356 Bhattacharya, HCS. 491
Russell and Hira Lal, 307.
2. Mahdpralay; Q.Pratham
e. 1750. JagjivanDas; \. Gydn Prakds
Granth: Prasad, SBS.
117; ii. 130; Grierson, LH. 87.
c. 1770.
DulanDas; 4. Poems: Prasad, 6'Z)'5. 133; ii. 157.
:

i.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chakan

F.

383

Dasis.

Gen. Intro. Grierson, ERE. iii. 365.

1703-82. Charan Das; 1. Works: Grierson,
:

SBS.
c.
c.

AYv''. iii. 36S ; Prasad,

179; Wilson, Sects, 178.
Sahajo Bai; 2. Poems: Prasad, SBS. i. 154; ii. igi.
Daya Bai; 3. Poems: Prasad, SBS. i, 167; ii. 194.

142, 247;

i.

1750.
1750.

ii.

ix.

General Saiva Literature.

A.
I.

Saiva Literature.

Sanskrit: used everywhere.

hymn in the Black Yajiirt'cda, Taittiriya S., IV. v

Griffith, 140.
Recited in
also IV/iite Vajus, xvi
353
Saiva temples every morning.
No. 8, p. 364, above.
2. Svetdsvaiara U.
See log.
3. Saiva sections in MHB., especially Sivasahasrandma.
see 1 12.
4. Saiva Upanishads
5 Saiva Puranic documents see 159; 206; 226.
6. Mahimnastava: Text and ETr. Arthur Avalon, Calcutta, 191 7.
1.

Satarudrlya, a

Keith, TS.

ii.

7.
II.

Sivdnandalahart, a poem for children.

Vernacular, and therefore Local, but not Sectarian.

Tamil:
5th or 6th.
a.

BMCTB.
15th
16th
16th
17th

Nakkira Deva;

ERE.

Fraser,

Tmunm-uhattuppadai

1.

Harnett,

v. 23.

e.

Aruna-giri

c.

Varatunga Pandya

2. Tirti-ptihal

Lin^a Pnrdna.

3.

Ativlrarama Pandya 4. Kiirma Piirdna.

Paranjoti; 5. Tirii-Vilaiy-ddaf-purdnam: Pope, TV., pp.

c.

c.

BMCTB.

xxxvii;

Mid

iii

Siva-guna-yogI

17th.

Viveka-chintdmani, a

6.

Saiva

paedia.

17th

Siva Prakasa Svami

c.

7.

Tamil Tr. of Prabhu

lihga

cyclo-

Rice, KL. 49; 8. Tam. Tr. of Siddhdnta

khdmatii, No. 6, p. 3S7, below.
17th e. Kumaraguruparasvaml 9. Religious poems.
1785. vSiva-jiiana-yogl 10. Kdnc/n-purdna.

(No.

l6, p. 387,

xvii,

vi.

below)

lild

si-

b.

Telugu

I'etnana,
Ramakrishna Rau, Madras.
Vemana
Life,
Padyainuht, Verses ETr. Brown, TJie Verses of Vo/iana, republished,
Madras, 191 1 Partial ETr. Cover, ESS/. 2691?. ETr. of a few verses,
c.

1400.

1.

Barnett, ///. 109.

Srinath
c. 1420.
c.
c.
c.

1500.
1550.

Bengali

Not a
c.

and others 2. portions of Skatida P.

Rajalinga; 3. Kurina P.
Haribhadra ; 4. Matsya P.

large literature

Sen,

Ramesvara

1.

1750.

HBLL.

Sivdyatia

235 fif.
Sen, HBLL. 249.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

384
d.

GujaratI

Mid

Sivanand;

18th.

Malayan m:
17tli c.
1. Siva P.

Lyrics: Jhaveri,

1.

MGL.

161.

e.

and

2.

BraJvmmda P.

Marathi:

f.

13th e. Jnanadeva 1. Amritdnubhava.

Mukundaraj 2. Mrdasthanibha.
g. Kanarese
17th c. Sahajananda ; 1. Bhaktirasayana'. Rice, KL. 60
;

lakulIsa-pAsupatas.
JBBRAS. 1908,

I.

D. V,\\?indi-&x\.zx,
1906-7, 179; Bhandarkar, VS. Ii6ff.
1.

ch.

Vdyu

liii

2.

Vayavlya

P.,

S., pt.

Lihga

P., ch. vii

ARAB.

151;

Kiirma

P., pt.

chs. ix-x.
sutras, bhashyas,

1380.

vi

i,

ii,

texts,
karikas, now lost
Cowell, 103; Bhandarkar, VS. 120-1.
Madhava 3. Lakulisa-Pdsupata, SDS. vi Cowell, 103.

Early philosophical

Madhava, SDS.
c.

R.

P., chs. xi, xiv, xv, xxiii

Siva

I.

Literature of Pasupata Saivas.

B,

Gen. Intro.:

n.

KAPALIKAS.

2.

Intro.: Bhandarkar, VS. 118, 127.

GORAKSHANATHlS.

3.

Secfs, 213; Grierson, ERE. vi. 328; Garbe,

Books
42: Richard Schmidt, Fakire tmd Fakirhtjn, Berlin, 1908.
in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described.
Gorakshanatha 1. Hatha-yoga: Hall, 15; 2. Go?-aksJiac. 1200.
sataka Hall, 18 3. Jndndnirita Hall, 1 5 ; 4. Goraksha-kalpa Wilson,
Sect<;, 216; 5. Goraksha-sahcisrandifia
Wilson, ib. G.Hindi works in
verse attributed to him: JlfBV. I. 241.

Gen. Intro.: Wilson,

6'K

Svatmarama
ETr.

in

Hatha-yoga-pradipikd, on

7.

Text and

Hall, 15.

SBH.
Gkeranda Simihitd

8.

Schmidt, op.

Text and ETr.

in

SBH.

GTr.

in

Richard

cit.

Siva Sathhitd Hall, 14 17. Text and ETr., S. C. Vasu in SBH.

10. Hatha-sahketa-chaiidrikd: Hall, 17.
Madldhara 11. Goraksha-paddhnti: a Hindi Tr. of No. 4, with
a bhdshya.
The following works are used by Kanphata Yogis to-day, and some
of them are attributed to Goraksha: Visvdnanda T. ; Siddha-siddhdntapaddhati (see Hall, 15); Nii-anjana P.; Yoga-inanjari ; Goraksha9.

kaumudi

Goraksha-gitd

C.

GoraksJia-panchaya.

I.

The

Agamic
GENERAL.

Literature of

Saivas.

Saiva Agamas See Ramana Sastrl's ETr. of Appaya Dikshita's

Sivdrkamanidipikd, No. 7, p. 385; Chatterji, A'S.y; Schomerus, SS. 7-23
(chronology erroneous). _ ETr. of parts of the Mrigendra A. (the first
section of the Kdmikd A.) in the Siddhdnta Dipikd, iv
,

fif.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
2.

385

SANSKRIT SCHOOL OF SAIVA SIDDHANTA.

All books in Sanskrit.

Early writers, otherwise unknown, mentioned by Madhava,

1.

SDS,

vii.

1380. Madhava; 2. Saiva Darsana, SDS. vii: ETr, Cowell, 112.

c. 1400. Srlkantha Sivacharya 3. Saiva Bhdshya on Veddnta-sutras
Partial ETr. in the Siddhdtita Dlpikd, ff.
16th c, Sambhudeva 4. Saiva-siddhdnta-dtpikd Bhandarkar, VS.
126-7. Tamil Tr., No. 31, p.386, below, 5. Sajnbhu-padd/iaii <logmdXic
and ritual.,
6. Siva P., VayavTya S.
Bhandarkar, VS. 127, 160.
c. 1600.
Appaya Dikshita 7. S ivdrka>na?udJpikd a comm. on 3.
Partial ETr. V. V. Ramana SastrT, Madras.
c. 1650. Nilakantha
8. Kriydsdra, containing a synopsis of 3.
9. So/na-Sajnbhu-paddhati-vritti
comm. on No. 5.
c.

3.

TAMIL SCHOOL OF SAIVA SIDDHANTA.

Intro.: No history exists but see, Frazer, "/?". v. 23 ff. ; Schomerus,

6"^. ; Nallasvaml Pillai, SSS. the file of the Siddhdtita Dipikd, where
numerous Trs. from the Tamil may be read ; and Sundaram, Pillai, Some
Mile-stones in Tamil Lit. The System Hoisington's Tr. oiSiva-prakdsa,
No. 18, below, is the best exposition in English ; the work of Schomerus
All books in Tamil.
in German is more recent.
7th c. Nana-sambandhar ; 1. Hymns. ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips.
Appar
Nallasvaml Pillai, Saint Appar, Madras, 1910,
7th c.
ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips.
2. Hymns
8th or 9th. Sundara-murti 3. Hymns. ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips.
For the chronology of the three, see BMCTB. v ; art., in Tamilian
Frazer, ERE. v. 23.
A7itiqi4ary, 1909
c. 800.
Tirumular 4. Tirumantrani: 'EJTrs. Siddhdnta Dtpikd,iii.
c. 900.
Manikka Vachaka. Date BMCTB. v ; S. Aiyangar, TS. 401
5. Tiru-vdchakam
Text, Intro., ETr., and Comm.,
Frazer, ERE. v. 23
ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips ; two
Pope, Tiriivdsagam, Oxford, 1900
ETrs. Arunachalam, STT. 7 ; ETr. of one hymn, Barnett, HI. 83
6. Tirukkovaiyar.
10th c. Pattinattu Pillai ; 7. Hymns Frazer, ERE. v. 23 BMCTB. vi.
e. 1000. Nambiy-andar-nambi
S. Aiyangar, TS. 220; 8. Totidartiruvantddi and other poems.
Early 12th. Sekkirar 9. Periya Pui'dnam
F>azer, ERE. v. 23
Pope, TV. xciv BMCTB. vi.
12th e. KanchI Appar; 10. Kaftda Purdnam, Tr. of the Skanda Purdtia.
12th c. Uyyavandan ; 11. Tiruvuntiydr 45 triplets. ETr. Siddhdnta
;

Dipikd., xiv.

12th

c.
Uyyavandan; 12. Tirukkalirruppadiydr 100 quatrains.
1223. Meykanda; \'i. Siva-jndna-bodha: I2sutras: ETr. Barnett,
///. -]-].
ETr. Nallasvaml PiUai, SJB.
c. 1250.
Arulnandi Sivacharya
14. Siva-Jndna-siddhi on No. 1 3.
ETr. Nallasvaml Piljai, Madras, 1913; partial GTr. in Schomerus, SS.;
15. Irupdvirupatku (mainly on Pdsa)
20 stanzas. ETr. Siddhdnta
:

c.

Dipikd,

xiii.

C C

BIBLIOGRAPHY

386
c,

Manavachakam Kadandan;

1250.

Reality

16. [/fjmat'-vilakka, the Light oi

ETr. Nallasvami PiUai, SSS. 5.

Marai Jfiana-sambandha ; 17. Saiva-samaya-neri.

54 quatrains

ETr.
c. 1280.
Siddhdnta Dipikd, vi.^
Umapati Sivacharya: Pope, 7"F. xciii; \S.Siva-prakdsa: 100
c. 1313.
quatrains: ETr. Hoisington, y^C'^'. 1854; 19. Tiric-arul-payan: 100
couplets on divine grace: ETr. Pope, TV. xxxix ff.
20. Vind-venba'.
13 quatrains; YJYx. Siddhdnta Dtpikd,y\v. ^\. Porripakrodai: 190 lines;
^^.Kodt-Kavi: 4 quatrains: Y-Tx. Siddhdnta Dtpikd,yi\M. ^^. Nehchicvidu-tutu
258 lines; 24. Unniai-neri-vilakka: 6 quatrains; 25. Sahkalpa-nirakarana 20 stanzas 26. Koyil Purdnam.
15th c. Kannudaiya Vallalar; 27. Olivil-odukkam: theological treatise
,

in verse.

Tayumanavar; 28. Hymns: a few ETrs. in Siddhdnta

Arunachalam, STT. 28 in Prabiiddha Bhdrata during
191 3 and one ETr. Barnett, HI. 85.
Died 1785. .Siva-jnana-yogI BMCTB.\\; 2Q.Drdvida-mahd-bhdshya,
on No. 13 ETr. Nallasvami Pijjai, S/B.;^ 30. Laj{hu Ttkd on No. 13;
Si.. Siddhdnta-dipatn'. Tamil Tr. of the Saiva-siddhdnta-dlpikd, No. 4,
p. 385; 32. Tattiiva Pirakdsa {\..Q..Tz.t\.v2L-^xd^iz.i^)\ 33. Tattuva Kattalei,
a summary of No. 32: ETr. by Hoisington,/v406'. 1854.

Early 18th,

Dtpikd,

iff.; in

4.

Intro.

KASHMIR SAIVISM.
Literature in Sanskrit.

Chatterji, A'^*.

Early 9th. Vasugupta 1. Siva-sutras KS. 8, 2>7Late 9th. Kallata 2. Spanda-kdrikds A'S. i 5, 37.
End 9th. Somananda 3. Siva-drishti A^S. 17, 37.
Early 10th. Utpalacharya 4. Pratyabhijnd-kdrikds, w'lih a comm.
a summary of the teaching of 3 A'S. 19, 38.
Mid 10th. Ramakantha 5. Spanda-viiiriii, on 2 KS. 16, 28, 38.
Late 10th. Utpala Vaishnava; 6. Spanda-pradtpikd, on 2 KS. 16, 38.
c. 1000.
Abhinava Gupta ; 7. Pratyabhijhd-vimarsini, on 4 8. Pratj/abhijhd-vivriti-vimarsitn, on 4
KS. 20, 38 9. Tantrdloka deals with
:

KS. 21 ; 10. Paramdrthasdra'. a sketch of

Text and ETr. Barnett, JRAS. 1910,
105 verses.
Based on the Adhdra-kdrikds, about which there is a dis1^1', 1338.
pute JRAS. 1912, 257, 474; Chatterji, A'^". 11, n. 3.
Saivism

in all its aspects:

Kashmir Saivism

in

11th c. Bhaskara 11. Siva-siitra-vdrttika, on I KS. 9, 39.

lithe. Kshemaraja; 12. Siva-sutra-vimarsini, on i
A'.V. g, 35, 39.
ETr. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, Allahabad, 1912 see Barnett, y/?^^. 1912,
1 107;
\3. Spanda-sandoha
is on the first sutra of 2, but explains the
teaching of the whole work A'^". 16.
lithe. Yogaraja 14. Comm. on ID. ETr. Barnett, /A^^". 1910, 718.
Late 12th. Jayaratha ; 15. Comm. on 9 KS. 39.
14th c. Lai Ded 16. Kashmiri verses Grierson,yA^.S'. 1918, 157.
1380. Madhava; 17. Essay in SDS. viii Cowell, 128.
18th c. Sivopadhyaya
18. Comm. on Vijndna Bhairava Tantra
;

Chatterji,

KS.

5.

chs. iv

ViRA SAIVISM.

Enthoven, ERE. vii. 71

Bhandarkar, VS. 131; Rice,
and v. Books in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described.

Gen. Intro.

KL.

39.

::

BIBLIOGRAPHY

387

in the Agamas.
Somanathaof Palakfirki 2. Bastwa P., Tel 3. Lt/e 0/ Pauditdradhya in mixed Sansk. and Tel. verse.
ETr. of
Rice, KL. 38
4. Vachatias, sermons in Kan.
40.
those attributed to Basava in MS. by Rao Sahib P. G. Halkatti, Bijapur.
Rice, KL. 43.
Raghavaiika 5. Siddharama P., Kan.
c. 1350.
1.

c.

Vira Saiva documents

1200.

14tli

c.

Siva-yogT; 6. Siddhdnta-sikhdinani.

Tarn. Tr., no.

383,

8, p.

above.

1369. Bhima Kavi ; 7. Basava P., Kan., based on No. 2 Rice, A'A. 44
abridged ETr. ^'mthJBBRAS. 1865 6 ETr. of one piece. Rice, k'L. 47.
Mallanaiya 8. Virasaivdmrita., Kan. Rice, KL. 49.
c. 1370.
Padmanahka 9. Padmardja P., Kan.: Rice, KL. 48.
c. 1385.
Singi-raja; 10. Mahd Basai'a Chariira, Kan. Rice, KL. 49.
c. 1400.
For Tel. Tr., see No. 17, below, and for Tam. Tr. see No. 24, below.
Maritontadarya 11. Comm. on No. 6 ; 12. Kaivalya-sdra.
c. 1400.
:

15th

e.

Channa \'rishabhendra SvamT

13. Vira-Saiva-sarvotka7-sha-

pradipilcd.

Gurudeva 14. Vha-Saiva-dchdra-pradipikd.

Tontad Siddhesvara 15. Vira-Saiva-pradipikd.
Rice, KL. 49
Chamarasa 16. Prabhji-lihga-llld, Kan.
c. 1460.
Tam. Tr., no. 7, p. 383, above. 17. Tel. Tr. of No. 10.
Virupaksha 18. Chafina Basava P., Kan. Rice, KL. 49.
e. 1585.
Abridged ETr. \Vuxih,JBBRAS. 1805-6.
17th c. Channa Sadasiva YogTsvara 19. Siva-yoga-pradipikd.
17th e. Siva-guna-yogl, or Nijarguna-Siva-yogI; 20. Viveka-cJiintdRice, KL. 68.
21. Kan. Tr. of No. 20
iani, Saiva encyclopaedia
1657. Shadakshara Deva Rice, A'Z. 62, 67; 22. Rdjasekhara Vi/dsa,
15th

c.

15th.

c.

famous Kan. literary work 23. Sabara-Sahkara-r'ildsa (Kan.)

ETr. Barnet;, BSOSL. 191 8, p. 4.
17th c. Siva Prakasa 24. Tamil Tr. of No. 10.
;

Partial

Monappa

25. Vira-Saiva-dchdra-kaustubha.
dates of the following works seem to be uncertain

18th. c.

The

26. Stikara Bhdshya on Veddiiia-siitras.

Sripati Panditaradhya
First half published in Telugu character at Secunderabad, 1893.
;

Svaprabhananda Sivacharya; 27. Sivddvaita-manjari'.

Dlpikd,

xi. 128.

Siddlidiita

Nanjanacharya 28. Vedasdra- Vtra-Saiva-Chiiitdmani.

Nandikesvara 29. Lihga-dhdrand-chandrikd (Semi-Lingilyat).
30. Anddi- Vlra-Saiva-sdra-sahgraha.
Siddhavlrana
Both authors and dates of the following seem to be unknown.
32. Vira-Saiva-chandrikd 33.
31. Vira-Saiva-mata-sang7-aha
Vira-Saiva-dho.rma-siromani 34. Vira-Saiva-niata-prakdsikd.
;

6.

THE

1.
Patirakiriyar
Pattinattu Pillai(?); 2.

c. 16tli.

c.

17th.

17th

c.

3.

Siva-vdkyam

Tattuva Rayar

A..

SITTARS.

Hymns: ETr. Gover, /''.SVS/. 158.

Hymns: ETrs. Qo\ex,FSSL 160.
ETrs. Cover,

FSSL

Adahgan-murai.
c c a

170; Barnett, ///. 88.

388

BIBLIOGRAPHY

X. Literature of the Sect of

Mdrkandeya P.

Padma

P.

27-35;

xlv.

see Wilson, Works^

iii.

Brahma.

MP.

ETr. Pargiter,

14-21.

xlvi.

24.

Sakta Literature.
intro. exists.
The best intro. on the
Avalon's Intro., TGL. See also his art. in Mod.

xi.

Gen. Intro.
No
teaching and the cult
j'i'^t/., Aug. and Sept.,

historical

in

is

SJM. iii. 1897.

Early Documents
3rd or 4th.

ERE. V.
HG. 115
4th

Muir,
3.

article

MBH.

OST.

an anonymous

the literature, see

IV. vi

]\Iazumdar,//?^.S". 1906, 355

ETr. Avalon, HG. 69

117.

c.

1,

On

1917.

iv.

Harivamsa,

2.

MBH. VI. xxiii

Jacobi,

ETrs. Avalon,

432.
ch. lix

ETr. Avalon,

HG.

82

4.

Harivamsa,

ch. clxvi.

5th or 6th

Chimdi-mdhdtniya

5.

c.

versions: Bengali, i6th

c.

MP.; Worthamj/AM^.

Pargiter,

Early 7th.

Bana

6.

in

xiii.

Mdrkandeya P.

c; Malayalim,

Punjabi, 17th

17th

Vernac.
c.

ETr.

355.

Chandlsataka

Text, ETr., &c., Ouackenbos,

SPM.
Tantrik Works

Gen. Intro.j Lists of 64 Tantras in Vdmakesvara T., Kiilachiiddmani 'P., and Agama-tattva-vildsa, with an extra list of 83 in the lastand a list in three sections, each containing 64, in
mentioned work
iv. 4
Dutt, MT. v.
For
Mahdsiddhasdra T.\ Avalon, TT. I. ii
For Sakta Yoga, see Avalon, The
early MSS., see H. P. Sastrl, and ii.
;

Serpent Power, London, 1919.

7th c. 7. Ktibjikdmata T.: H. P. Sastrl, I. Ixxxvii.
H. P. Sastrl, I. Hi, Ixxvii
8. Pdramesvaraiiiata T.
Early 8th. Bhavabhuti; 9. Mdlatl-Mddhava Rapson,
ETr. Wilson, TH. II. i.
:

10. Nih'dsatatt7'a S.: H. P. Sastrl,

I.

II. xxi.

EPE. iv.

886

Ixxvii.

Mahdkaidajhdna-vi7iirnaya: H. P. Sastrl, Il.xviii.

12. Riidra-ydmala T.
H. P. Sastrl, II. xxii Wilson, Secis, 258 n.
13. Vdmakesvara T.
said to be a part of the Bhairava-ydmala T.
Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 87 Iyengar, Outlines, 142 H. P. .Sastrl, I. Ixxiii;
II. xxiii; Avalon, TT. iv. 4.
14. Kulachilddmaiii T.
Text, intro., analysis, and ETrs. of two
hymns, Avalon, TT. iv.
15. Kdlajndna T.: Analysis: H. P. Sastrl, II. xx.
16. Bhutaddmara T.
on magic: H. P. Sastrl, II. .xxvi.
17. Kuldrnava
Text and Intro., Avalon, TT. v.
18. Prapaiichasdra T.: Text, intro., analysis, and ETrs. of three
hymns, Avalon, TT. iii.
19. Parahirdma-Bhdrgava-sfitras
a text-book of the Kaula
11.

Marga

SJM.

iii,

1897.

'ZO. ^Subhagodaya: ode in 52 stanzas attributed to Gaudapada

see R. A. Sastrl, Afiandalahart, 14; Iyengar, Outlines, 143, 173.
21. Saiitidaryalahari
Partial ETr. Avalon, Wave 0/ Bliss, London, 1917; Partial ETr. R. A. Sastrl, Anandalaharl.
:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

389

llth e. Lakshmana Desika; 22. Sdradd-tilaka

Ewingj/zJO^. xxiii. i. 65.

T.

Intro,

and

analysis,

Sakta Upanishads 23. Tripurdtdpaniya 24. Devi 25. Tripurd

Bhdvand 27. Kaula 28. Shatchakra: see above, p. 364, Nos. 92, 93,
and Saktaic Literature, SJM. iii, 1897.
94, 96, 51, 122
Later Tantras written in Bengal:
29. Kdltkd T. ETr. of the Blood Chapter by Blaquicre, AR. v.
:

26.

See ERE. ii. 134, 491.

1499. Purnfinanda Svami QO.Srttatfvackifitd)na>ii: of this work part
ETr., Intro, and comm.,
of Patala vi is called Shatchakra Nirupana
Avalon, The Serpent Power, London, 1919.
31. Yogini T.
MS. ETr. Munro, in Macdonald MSB.
c. 16th.
32. Visvasdra T.
c. 16th.
33. Vdrdhi T.
34. Kdmadhemt T. MS. ETr. Munro, in Macdonald MSS.
Late 18th. 35. J/ahdnirvdna T. ETr. of pt. i, Dutt, Calcutta, 1900
ETr. of pt. i, with valuable Intro, and Comm., Avalon, TGL.
ahdsiddhasdra T.
36.
Dutt,
2n. Agajna-tattva-vildsa'. contains two lists of Tantras
;

MT.,

p. V.

38. Mantrakosa: MS. ETr. Munro, in Macdonald MSS.

1812. Krishnananda Vaglsa ; 39. Tantrasdra
Partial ETr.
:

1821.

Mac

Macdonald MSS.

Culloch, in

40. Prdnatoshinl

T.

Brahmananda Giri 41, Sdktdnanda-tarahgitii MS.

Anderson, in Macdonald MSS.
Right-hand Literature
42. Dei'l Bhdgavata Upapurdria SJM. iii, 1897.
;

analysis,

43.
44.
45.
46.

SJM. iii, 1897.

in Brahmdnda P.
Lalitdtrisati in Brahmdnda P.
Lalitdsahasrand7na in Brahmdnda
Agastya-sutra:
Lalitopdkhydfta

P.

ETr. R. A.

Sastrl,

Lalitd.

47. Siita S. in Skanda P.

48. Kavacha, 50 couplets; 49. Ktlaka, 14 couplets; both from
the

Vardha

P.

The five Sariihitas 50. Vasishtha

Sanandana; b^. Sanathimdra: Iyengar,
;

51.

Sanaka

Outlines,

139;

52. Suka-, 53.

R. A. Sastri,

Anandalahari, 5, 61.
Laicshmldhara ^; 55. Comm. on No. 21.
c. 1300.
15th or 16th. Bhatta Nilakantha 56. Tilaka, Comm. on No. 42.
1589. 't^\3h\dh2ixa.;"bl. Manirainahodadhi: lOA/. SSSc. 1600.
Appaya Dlkshita 58. Comm. on No. 21.
Early 18th. Bhaskararaya 59. Varivasyd-rahasya Bhandarkar, R.
60. Bhdsya on No. 46, written, A. D. 1729 ETr. R. A. Sastrl,
1883-4, 88
Lalitd; 61. Setiibandha, Comm. on No. 13, written, A.D. 1733; 62.
Comms. on Upanishads see p. 365.
Mid 18th. Umanandanatha 63. Comm. on No. 19.
;

art.,

Vidyabhushana says he flourished under Prataparudra

Calcutta Revietv, July 1915.

oi Orissa,

1504-32

see

BIBLIOGRAPHY

390

Sakta Lit. in the Vernaculars

Bengali: Sen, HBLL. 119, 225, 252, .335, 342, 656, 662, 712, 1003.
ETr. of a large part of Mukundariima's Ckanih-mangal, CoweW, /ASB.
Dec. 1902.
Gujarati: Jhaveri, MGL. 46, 149, 192.
Marathl Acworth, BM. xxxiii.
:

Saura Literature.

xii.

Cren. Intro.: Bhandarkar, VS. 151

Chanda, lAR.

Gayatrl: Rik. III. Ixii. 10.

2. Many hymns to the Sun in the Vedas.
III. iii. 15-79; VI.
or 4th. 3.

MBH.

3rd

160, 223.

The

1.

xi.

35-8;

VII.

Ixxxii.

14-16.
called the Aditya-hridaya.
4. Rdmdyana, vi. 106
A.D. 473-4. 5. Inscription at Mandasor Cl'l. iii. 80.
6. Mdrkandeya P., chs. cii-cx.
Wilson, VP.
7. Bhavis'hya P., Brahma Parvan, chs. 139-41
:

382; Bhandarkar, VS. 153.

Varaha Mihira
c. A.D. 550.

JRAS.

8.

Brihat S.

Iviii

Ix.

19.

v.

ETr. Kern,

1870, 430.

Early 7th. Mayura 9. Sftrya-sataka Ouackenbos, SPM.

10. Saura S.: H. P. Sastrl, I. Ixxvi. Cf. Schrader, IPAS.
:

11,

No. 203.

Samba Upapufima:

11.
Ixiv.

733

Vasu,

12.

Mayilrabhan

Surya U.

Alberuni, Sachau,

ja^

i.

130

Bloch,

ZDA/G.

iii.

HM.

ETr. Kennedy,

346.

Gangiidhara; 13. Inscription at Gaya, EI. ii. 338,

14. Bj-ahma P. xxi-xxviii.
Sen, VSP. i. 23-4; 164-71.
15. Song to the Sun in Bengali

A.D. 1137.

Ganapatya Literature.

xiii.

Gen. Intro.: Bhandarkar, VS. 147; Grierson, "/?. vi. 175.

Varadaidpatiiya U. Jacob, EAL/. 12 see No. 120, p. 364, above.
ETr. Kennedy, HM. 493. See
2. Ganapa/i U.: Weber, ///Z. 170.

1.

No, loi,

p. 364,

above.

3.

Agni

5.

Ganesa Upnpimuia

P., chs. Ixxi, cccxiii.

4. Garuda P., ch. xxiv.

Eggeling,

1846, 319; Grierson, ERE.

6. Ahidgala Upapii7-d7ia

vi.

III.

lOM.

3349;

Stevenson,

JRAS.

176.

Krishna

Sastrl,

677. 173; IOM..,nQ.

357oft'-

BUDDHIST LITERATURE.
i.

Buddhism

as a

Whole.

as a Religion, London, 1910; Saunders, The

Story of Buddhism, London, 1916 ; 'Macdonell, ERE. vii. 209 Madhava,
SDS. ii: ETr. Cowell, 12.

Hackmann, Buddhism

1.

2.

Assam
Burma

Scott,
Scott,

ERE.
ERE.

iii.

iii.

37.

37

Bigandet, Life or Legend of Gaiidaina,

London, 1914.
3.

Cambodia: Cabaton,

iiVi'i^.

iii.

156.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

391

4. Ceylon: Rhys Davids, ERE. iii. 331; Copplestone, Buddhism

Primitive and Present, in Magadlia and Ceylo7i, London, 1908.
5. China
The Canon Nanjio, Oxford,
de Groot, ERE. iii, 552.
1883 JRAS. 191 1, 562.
6. Corea
Courant, ERE. vii. 757
Starr, Korean Buddhism, Boston,
:

91 8.
7.

New

Ashida, ERE. vii. 482

Griffis, The Religions 0/ Japan,
York, 1904 Reischauer, Studies in Japanese Buddhism, New York,

Japan

1917.
8.
9.
vii.

Java Kern, ERE.

Mongolia Parker,
:

vii.

495.

ERE.

807.

viii.

The Canon

Waddell,

ERE.

786.

10. Orissa

Vasu, The Archaeological Survey of MayUrabhanj, i,

The Modern Buddhism and its Followers in

Vasu,
Calcutta, 191 1
Orissa, Calcutta, 191 1.
;

Sumatra Kern, ERE. vii. 495.

Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet, London, 1895 ;
Analysis of the Canon, Feer, Afinales du Musee Guimet,
784.
from the Canon, Feer, Annates du Mtcsee Guimet, v.
11.

12. Tibet

ERE. vii.
FTrs.

ii.

Early Buddhism and the Pali Canon.

ii.

Kern, MIB.
Rhys
Sketch of Early Buddhism
OX^&wh&xg, Buddha; Saint-Hilaire, 77^.?
Buddha and his Religion, London, 1914; Kern, MIB.; Warren, BT.;
Geden, ERE. ii. 881. Connexions with Hinduism Oldenberg, Z i/.
WN.; Warren, BT.;
Poussin, Opiniotis, ch. v. System: Poussin
Seidenstiicker, PBU.
Ascetic orders Oldenberg, Buddha, 332 Kern,
MIB. Councils Poussin, ERE. iv. 179.
MacPah Canon History and Chronology Winternitz, IL
donell, ERE. viii. 85
Poussin, Opinions, ch.
Kt\ih,JRAS. 1909, 577
Waddell, yV?^^'. 1914, 661. Anthologies in E Tr. Saunders, The Heart
of Buddhism, London, 191 5; Thomas, Buddhist Scriptures, London,
1913; in GTr. Neumann, Buddhistische Anthologie, Leiden, 1892.

Gen. Intro.
Davids, ///i>.

The Founder

I.

ViNAYA

P.

Winternitz,

ii.

I-1 7.

l.Suttavibhuiij^a; 2.

Mahdvagga

Chullavagga Intro, and ETr. Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, .V^'. xiii.
xvii, XX.
ETr. of sections, Warren, BT. 4. Parivdra .Winternitz, II. i.
26 ; SBE. xiii. xxiv. Kern, MIB. 1 1 1
3.

II.

SBE.

SuiTA

P.

xi, Intro.

Tibetan,

AMG.

Winternitz,

The bulk

in

II.

26; Rhys Davids, SBB. ii, Intro.;

Nanjio, cols. 127-80; afewsuttasin

i.

CTr.

288.

ii.

Dighanikdya 34 long sermons Nos. 1-23 in ETr. with intros., Rhys

Davids and Oldenberg, SBB. ii, iii; Nos. 1-13 in GTr. Neumann, MiinNo. 22 in
chen, 1907; Nos. 13, 16, 17 in ETr. Rhys Davids, SBE. xi.
ETr. Warren, BT. 353 fragments of other suttas, ib.
b. Majjhiinanikdya
152 sermons and dialogues of medium length.
Complete GTr. Neumann, 3 Bde., Leipzig, 1896-1902. Nos. 26, 63, 72
in ETr. Warren, BI'. 331, 117, 123 ; also portions of 38, 44, pp. 183, 187,
Several suttas in ETr. Rhys Davids, SBE. xi. Suttas 1-50 in ETr.
303.
by the Bhikku Silachara, London.
a.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

392

c. Samyuttanikaya
Partial ETr. Mrs. Rhys
56 groups of discourses.
Davids, The Book of the Kindred Sayin^s^s, Oxford, 1917 ; Nos. iv and v
in GTr. Windisch, Mara und Buddha ; No. v in ETr. Mrs. Rhys Davids,
FEB. i. 180-91 numerous portions in ETr. in Warren, BT.) No. LVI.ii
in ETr. Rhys Davids, SBE. xi. 133 and in YTr.Y&e.r, Journal Asiatiqtie,
:

1870.
d. Ahguttaranikdya
2,008 discourses in GTr. Bhikkhu Nanatiloka,
Leipzig und Breslau, 191 1. Three sections in ETr. Gooneratne, Galle,
Ceylon, 191 3. Many portions in ETr. Warren, BT.
e. Khuddakanikdya
1 5 miscellaneous works.
1. Khuddakapatha
Intro.
Winter9 short texts for neophyte monks
nitz,
II. i. 61.
Text and ETr. Childers, JRAS. 1870, 309.
GTr.
Seidenstiicker, Breslau, 1910.
2. Dhaviniapada
423 stanzas on the ethical and religious life. Intro.
Winternitz, II.i.63
yiv\\&x,SBE.y.. ETr. Miiller, 6"^". x; ETr. Wagiswara and Saunders (The Buddha' s Way of FzV/z/i?), London, 1912. GTr.
Neumann {Der WaJirheitspfad), Leipzig, 1893 GTr. Schultze, Leipzig,
ITr. Pavolini, Milan, 1908.
1906; FTr. Fernando Hu, Paris, 187S
80 lofty verses, each preceded by
3. Uddna, i. e. inspired utterances
a narrative as to how it came to be uttered. Intro. Winternitz, II. i. 66.
ETr; Strong, London, 1902. No. iv. 4 in ETr. Warren, BT. 313. ETr.
of Tibetan Uddnavarga, Rockhill, London, 1892.
4. Itivuttaka, i.e. utterances of the Buddha
Winternitz, II. i.
Intro,
68 ETr. Moore, New York, 1908.
5. Suttantpdta
verse. Contains some remnants of primitive Buddhism,
Fausboll.
Intro.: Winternitz, II. i. 71
Fausboll, 6"j5'i^. x, pt. 2; Oldenberg, Aus dem Alien Indien, Berlin, 1910, 25
Ke.\[.h.,JRAS. 1910, 932
Hoernle, y7i'^6". 1917, 134. ETr. Fausboll, op. cit.
GTr. Neumann,
Leipzig, 191 1
GTr. Pfungst, Strassburg, 1889.
6. Vhndttavatihu^ i. e. stories of the palaces of the gods.
7. Petavatthu, i. e. ghost stories.
These two are collections of late
narratives, illustrating the working of karma.
8. Theragdthd
Hymns of the Monks and 9. Therigdthd: Hymns of
the Nuns: Intro. Winternitz, II. i. 79- Oldenberg, Literatur des Alien
:

Intro, and ETr. Mrs. Rhys Davids, FEB. i and ii.

\0. fdiaka: 547 previous lives of the Buddha. Intro.: Winternitz, II.
i. 89;
Cowell, 7'he Jdtaka, 6 vols., Cambridge, 1895-1907 ; Rhys Davids,
BI. 189; &t.r, Jour?ial Asiattque, 1875, 1895, 1897. ETr. Cowell, op.
cit.; ETrs. Rhys Davids, BuddJiisi Birth Stories, London, 1S80; Select
Jatakas in ETr. Francis and 'Yhovcvd^s, fdtaka Tales, Cambridge, 1916.
GTr. Dutoit, Leipzig. Nos. 68, 82, 189, 244, 316, in ETr. Warren, BT.,
pp. 267, 269, 262, 153, i.74.
Iftdien, 100.

11. Niddesa
comm. to second part of No. 5.
12. Fatisaiiibhiddinagga
of the same character as the Abhidhamma
see below.
13. Apaddna
590 legends of Buddhist saints Intro. Rhys Davids,
ERE. i. 603 \ Winternitz, II. i. 128.
14. Buddhavamsa: Legends of the 24 Buddhas
W^internitz, II. i. 129.
15. Chariydpiiaka
35 previous lives of the Buddha, meant to illustrate
the virtues of the Buddhas.
:

III.

Abhidhamma

Winternitz,

II.

i.

134.

P.:

Character:

Age and

origin

Mrs. Rhys Davids, ERE.'x. 19

Poussin, Opinions, 30-44; 166.

;
:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

393

ETr.
classifies ethical and psychological facts.
1. Dhai))ia-sahga7u
Mrs. Rhys Davids, A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics, London.
:

1900.
2. Vibhaiiga

a continuation of No. i.
Kathinuxtthu a manual of controversy for Buddhist monks, attributed to Tissa Moggaliputta of the 3rd cent. B.C.: Oldenberg, ZDMG.
lii. 633
Poussin, ERE. iv. 184
JRAS. 1910, 413. Analysis, Rhys
Davids, JRAS. 1892. ETr. Shwe Zan Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids,
Points of Cotttroversy, London, 1915.
GTr. Nyanatiloka,
Winternitz, II. i. 135.
4. Puggalapaiinatti:
:

3.

Breslau, 191 o.
6.

Dhatu-kathd catechism of psychology.

Yamaka book of double questions.

7.

Patthdna.

5.

iii.

Later Sthavira Literature in Pali.

Gen. Intro. Winternitz,

of Burma, London, 1909.
:

II.

i.

146; Mahe\ Bode, The Pali Literature

ERE.\\\\.
1. Milinda-fanha: Intro.: Rhys Davids, 6'i?". xxxv
Garbe, Beitrdge (Berlin, 1903), p. 95 ; Schrader, Die Fragen des
Konigs Menandros, Berlin, 1905; Winternitz, II. i. 139. ETr. Rhys
sections in ETr.
Partial GTr. Schrader, op. cit.
Davids, SBE. xxxv-vi
;

631

Warren, BT.
first part of the comm. on the Jdtaka of the
2, Nidd7iakathd
Canon. Intro.: Winternitz, II. i. 149. ETrs. Rhys Davids, i^^.V. 5 two
out of three sections in ETr. in Warren, BT. ^.
Iste. A.D. 3. Neiti: dogmatic: Winternitz, II. i. 163; Poussin,
:

Opinions, 178, n. 2.
4th c. 4. Dipaiiamsa.
Leipzig, 1905 ; Winternitz,

Intro.
Geiger, Dipavaihsa und Mahdvamsa,
Intro, and ETr. Oldenberg, Dipai. 168.
:

II.

vaihsa, London, 1879.

Winternitz, II. i. 152: 5. Visuddhimagga

5th. c. Buddhaghosha
719. 1891-3.
Full analysis, Warren,
Intro.: Winternitz, II. i. 164.
Many passages in ETr. in Warren, BT. ; 6. Saniantapdsddikd comm. on
:

/P

comm. on the Dighanikdya Wintercomm. on the Majjhimanikdya;

nitz, 11.
157; Q. Papanchasudant
comm. on the Samyzittatiikdya 10. Manoratha9. Sdratthapakdsini
puranl comm. on the Aiiguttaranikdya Winternitz, II. i. 158.
W. Jdtakatthavaftnand comm. on the Jdtaka-hook, and 12. Comm.
Winternitz,
on the Dhanimapada, both ascribed to Buddhaghosha
the Vinaya

7.

Sutnahgalavildsifii

i.

II.

i.

154.

Late 5th. Mahanama; \S. Mahdvamsa:

und Mahdvamsa, Leipzig, 1905 Winternitz,
;

Intro.: Ge\gtr, Dtpavathsa

ETr. Geiger and
i. 170.

II.

Mabel Bode, London, 1912.

Late 10th.
Winternitz,

II.

Upatissa
i.

14. Bodhivathsa, history of the Bodhi tree

175.

12th c. Anuruddha, a Burmese monk ; 15. Abhidhanwiatihasamgaha

a most important work on Buddhist psychology and ethics. Winternitz,
II. i. 177.
ETr. Shwe Zan Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids, London, 1910.
:

13th
tooth.

c.

Dhammakitti

Winternitz,

II.

i.

16.

175.

Ddthdvamsa,

history

of

the

Buddha's

394

BIBLIOGRAPHY

13th
nitz, II.

15th

Vachissara

c.

17. Thilpavathsa, history of the Stupa.

Winter-

176.

i.

\%. Buddhdlanikara
founded on the story of
the Niddnakathd: Winternitz, II. i. 181.
18th c. 19. Yogdvdchdra ETr. Woodward, London, 1916.
1770. 20. Mahdhvhkdravatthu, a biography of the Buddha. There is
a Burmese Tr. of this work, of which Bigandet's Life or Legetidof Gaudatna,
London, 1914, is an ETr.
c.

Sllavarhsa;

Sumedha (Warren, BT.

5) in

iv.

Hinayana Literature in Sanskrit or Mixed

BUDDHIST SANSKRIT.

A.
Intro.

Sanskrit.

Franke, Pali

nnd

Sanskrit, Strassburg, 1902

Review, Rhys

TiaxiAs^JRAS. 1903,398; Rapson,/AVi6'. 1904, 435 discussion, //v'yi^'.

1904,457. Senart, Intro, to Alahdvastu; Oldenberg, Gott. Nach., 1912,
;

Heft 2; Ldvi,//^. 1912; Winternitz,

II.

i.

181.

mahasAnghikas.

B.

Winternitz, II. i. 187; Anesaki, ERE. iv. Z-^S.

a. Vinaya P.: Nanjio, col. 386; Nos. 11 19, 11 50.
b. Sutta P., Ekottardgama
Nanjio, 543
Anesaki, ERE.

Intro.

836.

Vinaya P.: Nanjio, 1122.

D.

Intro.
a.

iv.

MAHlSASAKAS.

C.
a.

Winternitz,

Vinaya

LOKOTTARAVADINS.

II.

183, 187

i.

Poussin,

ERE.

ii.

1st c. Mahdvastit: Winternitz, II. i. 187; Poussin,

326 n.; Opinions, 265, 308; Mitra, 115.

ERE.

viii.

328,

II.

186.

sarvAstivAdins,

E.
Intro.

740.

P.

Poussin, V. et V.

Opinions, 30, 166, 177

Winternitz,

i.

Vinaya

P.: Nanjio, 1115, 1127, 1132, 1135, 1136, 1160, 1161, 1162.
Nanjio, 1 160 Sansk. text /A. 19x3, ii. 465 ; Hoernle, MRBL. 357, 358.
Many Avadana works are dependent on this Vinaya: Winternitz, II. i.
217, 222.
f
a.

b.

Sutta

c.

Abhidharma

P.: Hoernle,

MRBL.

166.

Takakusu, //'TIS'. 1905, 67.

KatyayanTputra; \.Jhdnaprasthdna-sdstra: Nanjio, 1273; comms.,
p.

Nanjio, 1263, 1264.

Sariputra ; ^l. AbJiidharma-sahgitiparydyapdda, Nanjio, 1276.
Vasumitra; 3. Abhidharma-prakaranapdda, Nanjio, 1277.
Devasarman 4. Abhidharma-vijndnakdyapdda, Nanjio, 1 281.
Vasumitra; 5. Abhidharnia-dhdtickdyapdda, Nanjio, 1282.
Mahamaudgalyayana 6. Abhidharma-ska7idhapd da Nanjio, 1296.
Mahamaudgalyayana 7. Prajtiaptipdda-sdsira, Nanjio, 1 3 17.
;

BIBLIOGRAPHY
On

the

section of no. 7 are based three

first

395

famous dependent works,

namely
Early 4th.

Vasubandhu ; 8. Abhidharma-kosa a set of verses, KdriPoussin,

kds, Nanjio, 1270, with a commentary, Nanjio, 1267, 1269.
ERE. iv. 131 Levi, ERE. i. 20 Winternitz, II. i. 257.
V. et
;
4th c. Sanghabhadra; 9. Nydydnusdra-sdsira, a criticism of 8 Nanjio,
,

1265.

Yasomitra; \O.Al>!d/iar7na-kosa-7iydkhyd,s.coT[im.ond,: Nanjio, 1267;

Poussin, V. et Y. ; ERE. iv. 131
Mitra, 3
Levi, ERE. i. 20; Jacobi,
ERE. ii. 201 Winternitz, II. i. 257.
;

MULASARVASTIVADINS.

F.

VinayaP.

Nanjio,

col. 441.

Prdtimoksha-sutra

JASB.

191

ETr.

from

the

Tibetan,

Vidyabhushana,

5.

DHARMAGUPTAS.

G.

1117, 1128; Hoernle, ^/i^^Z.4,9. AbhinishkraNanjio, 680; Winternitz, II. i. 194. ETr. of the Chinese

VinayaP.: Nanjio,
mana-sutra

Text, Beal, The Romantic

Legend of Sakya Buddha, London,

SAMMITlYAS.

H.

ViNAYA

P.: Nanjio, 1139.

Literary Works, partly Hinayana, partly Mahayana.

V.
e.

1875.

100.

Matricheta

Thomas, ERE.

viii.

495

Vidyabhushana, //i..S'^.

1910, 425; Winternitz, II. i. 211; 1. Varnand?-hava7-nana, a hymn in

400 stanzas Intro, and ETr. Thomas, /yi. xxxiv. 145; 2. SatapanchdNanjio, 1456
Hoernle,
sika-stotra, a hymn in i 50 stanzas
58
3. Mahdrdjakaiiika-lekha, a letter to King Kanishka.
Other works see
:

MRBL.

ERE.

viii.

495.

Asvaghosha: Anesaki, ERE. ii. 159 ; JRAS. 1914, 747

Nanjio, col. 369; 4. Buddhacharita
Winternitz, II. i. 201
Intro, and
5. Satoidardnanda-Kdvya:
ETr. Cowell, SBE. xlix; Nanjio, 1351
H. P. Sastri, JASB. 1904, 47 Winternitz, II. i. 206; 6. Sutrdlanikdra:
FTr. Hiiber, Paris, 1908; Winternitz, II. i. 208; 7. Vajrasuchi and
8. Mahdydnasraddhotpdda: of doubtful authenticity, Winternitz, II. i. 209.
2nd c. Nandlsvara 9. Avaddnasataka: Full summary, Milra, 17:
Winternitz, II. i. 216; Nanjio, 12,2^; JRAS. 1915, 505;
ii.
284.

Early 2nd.

AMG.

AMG.

FTr.

xviii.

10. Karmasataka: W'intemitz, II. i. 221 AMG. ii. 282.

W. Asokdvaddna: Mitra, 6; Winternitz, II. i. 224; Nanjio,
;

c.

200.

1344-

3rd

4th

c.
c.

12.

Dnyavadana

Arya-sura

13.

Winternitz, II. i. 221.

Winternitz,

Jdtaka-mdld

Speyer, London, 1895.

11th c
Kshemendra 14. Avaddnakalpalatd
A number of the tales
57: Winternitz, II. i. 229.
;

Full
in

II.

i.

212.

ETr.

summary, Mitra,

KTr.JBJS.

i-v.

;.

39^

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Mahayana.

vi.

Gen. Intro. Poussin, ERE. viii. 330 Suzuki, OutlUtes of Mahayana

Buddhism, London, 1907 but see Poussin's Review, JRAS. 1908, 885.
:

Avalokitesvara

Poussin,

ERE.

ii.

256.

A. Mahayana-sCtras.
1. Saddharma-puttdatika: Poussin,
Intro, and ETr. Kern, SBE. xxi
230.

ERE.

145; Winternitz, II. i.

iv. 839
Nanjio,

viii.

Anesaki,

ERE.

134, 139; AMG.\\. 242.

2. Lalitavistara: Winternitz, II. i. 194; partial ETr. Mitra, Calcutta,
1881; FTr. Foucaux, Paris, 1892; Nanjio, 159, 160;
ii. 223.
3. Kdrandavyuha (prose)
Poussin, ERE. i. 95 ; ii. 259 Winternitz,

AMG.

Nanjio, 168, 782; AMG. ii. 246.

238; Mitra, loi
4. Gandavyiiha, or Buddhdvatantsaka-siltra: Winternitz,
Mitra, 90
Nanjio, 87 AMG. ii. 208 Griffis, 232, 242.
II.

i.

5.

FTr.

KarunapundajJka: Mitra, 285

AMG.

II.

i.

242;

Nanjio, 142

^i1/G^

ii.

242.

Partial

v. 78", 153.

6. Megha-siitra (a rain-charm with many dhdrams)

Winternitz, II. i.
269; Bendall,//?^5. 1880, 386; Nanjio, 244; AlilG. ii. 265.
7. Lahkdvatdra-suifa: Analysis: Vidyabhushana, y.^^^"^. 1905, 159;
Winternitz, II. i. 243
Poussin, Opiniotis, 392
Mitra, 113
Nanjio, 175
:

AMG.

8. Samddhirdja'. Winternitz, II.

AMG.

237.

ii.

i.

244;

summary

full

in Mitra,

207;

249.

ii.

9. Suiiartiaprabhdsa: Winternitz, II. i. 245

Anesaki, ERE. iv. 839,
840; Mitra, '241 Nanjio, 126; AMG. ii. 315; Hoernle, MRBL. 108.
10. Rdshtrapdlapariprichchhd Winternitz, II. i. 246
Nanjio, 23 (18)
;

AMG.

254.

ii.

MRBL.

11. Mahdsannipdta-sTlira'. Nanjio, 61

MiotxrAt,
100.
12. Bhadracharyd, propitious practice
Poussin, ERE. ii. 749 n.
Nanjio, 11 42;
ii. 212.
13. Updli-pariprichchhd-sfttra
Vinaya of the Mahayana
Poussin,
Opinions, 334n. Nanjio, 1 109
ii. 197-8.
Parts in FTr.
v. 81
;

AMG.

B.

AMG.

AMG.

Books on the Ten Stages of the Bodhisattva Career.

See Poussin, ERE.

1. Dasabhfifnaka
ii.

ii.
:

743.

Mahdvastu

a chap, of the

Poussin,

ERE.

viii.

329

744.

DasabhUmaka-siitra (Madhyamaka)

2.

Nanjio, no, 105,

Poussin,

ERE.

ii.

745

n.

%'j.

3. DasabhUtmsvara
an enlarged edition of No. 2, foimd in Nepal,
Mitra, 81
Winternitz, II. i. 244
Poussin, ERE. ii. 745 n.
4. Bodhisati7'abhiimi (Yogachara)
Poussin, ERE. ii. 745 n., 746, 747,
viii. 256.
It is a portion of Asanga's YogdchdrabhUmi-sdsh-a
750
Nanjio, 1170; Winternitz, II. i. 255.
Summarized in English in Le
Mus^ofi, N.S. vi. 38; vii. 213.
:

C.

The Paradise Mahayana.

SickhdvativyUha: Winternitz,
Intro, and ETr. Midler, SBE. xlix

i. 240
Poussin, (9/z'zV;j, 266-73
Nanjio, 23 (5) AMG. ii. 214.
2. Sukhdvatlvyiiiia (the shorter text)
Intro, and ETr. Midler, SBE.
xlix
Nanjio, 200.
3. Amitdynrdhydna-sHti-a
Intro. Midler, SBE. xlix
ETr. from

1.

II.

:
;

BIBLIOGRAPHY

397

Chinese, Takakusu, SEE. xlix. See also Poussin, ERE.

Nanjio, 198.
4. \'siS\ib.inAh\i, Apara7nitdyus-sutra-sastra: Nanjio, 1204.

ii.

25711.;

D. MiVDHYAMAKA LITERATURE.
For the Prajna-paramita
Gen. Intro.
Poussin, ERE. viii. 235.
works, see Winternitz, II. i. 247, and for other works of the same class,
:

see Nanjio, 1-22.

The five-hundred Prajna-Pdraniitd-sutra: Nanjio, 16.

The ten-thousand PP.: Nanjio, 5.
3. The iiueniy-five-thousand PP.: Nanjio, 4.
Nanjio, 10.
Intro,
4. The Vajrachchhedikd PP. (diamond-cutter)
and ETr. Miiller, SEE. xlix; Hoernle, MREL. 176, 178, "214. <*
5. The Shorter, and 6. The Longer PP. Hridaya: Nanjio, 19, 935.
Intro, and ETrs. Miiller, SEE. XLIX
Anecdota Oxon.,
Winternitz,
1.

2.

II.

i.

272.

Nagarjuna Anesaki, ERE. iv. 838 Winternitz, II. i. 250

viii. 336
Poussin, ERE.
7. Mulaniadhyamaka-kdrikd
8. Akutodhayd, a comm. on 7 by the author
Winternitz, II. i.
viii. 235
251. GTr. from the Tibetan, Walleser, Die tnittlere Lehre des Ndgdrjuna,
Heidelberg, 191 1
9. Yogdvatdra: H. P. Sastrl, II. xii.
Other works:
Nanjio, col. 370; Winternitz, II. i. 252; Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 70.
Aryadeva Winternitz, II. i. 254; Nanjio, col. 370; 10. Eoc. 300.
dhisattvayogdchdra Chatithsataka H. P. Sastrl, y^.i'/)'. July, 1911; text,
11. Svddhiedited by H. P. Sastrl, Calcutta, 1914: see ESOSL. 1918
shthdna-prabheda, H. P. Sastrl, ii. xiii.
Bhavaviveka Yii. Prajhd-pradipa,covciva..ox\'iio.'] Nanjio,
c. 600.
Feer, Tandjour, Mdo. xviii. 44-299; Poussin, ERE. viii. 235;
1 185;
Walleser,
13. Tarkajidld, a criticism of the schools of philosophy

Mid

2nd.

ERE.

Poussin,

DAV.-j;

AMG.

ii.

367.

14. Prasannapddd, comm. on No. 7

Chandraklrti
ddhyamakdvatdra (gen. work on the
viii. 235
15.
Mitra, i;
Poussin,
Mahayana system): Winternitz, II. i. 251
Opinions, 134; ERE. ii. 745, 748; viii. 332. FTr. from the Tibetan,
16. Comm. on No. 10: text, H. P. Sastrl,
Poussin, Le Muse'on, viii ff.

Early 7th.

Poussin,

ERE.

Calcutta, 19,14.

Winternitz, II. i. 260

Santideva
17. Sikshdsaniuchchhaya
Opinions, 321
ERE. viii. 405, n. 2; \^. Bodhicharydvatdra
Intro, and ETr. Barnett, I'Jie Path of Light, London, 1909. FTr. Poussin,
Paris, 1907.
An old Bengali version: Sen, HELL. 5. See also Tawney,
JRAS. 1908, 583; Winternitz, II. i. 263; Poussin, iiA'^'. i. 97; ii. 184,
7th. c.

Poussin,

749-

8th

c.

Santarakshita; 19. Madhyatnakalahkara: Walleser,

20. Tattvasaiigraha, Vidyabhushana,

E.

MSIL.

DAV.

18.

125.

VlJNANAVADA LITERATURE.

Gen. Intro.

Poussin, Opinions, 186, 200; Levi, Intro, to FTr. of

Mahdydna-sutrdlaihkdra; Winternitz, II. i, 255.
c. 300.
Asanga Anesaki, ERE. ii. 62 Winternitz, II. i. 255 1. Yogdchdrabhiimisdstra: Nanjio, 1170, 1085; AMG. ii. 257. For the section
called Eodhisatt7>abhumi, see No. 4, p. 396
2. Mahdydna-sutrdlaihkdra
Nanjio, 1190. Intro, and FTr. Levi, Paris, 1907, 191 1
3. Uttaratantra:
:

Nanjio, 1236

see Levi, op.

cit.

i.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

398

Early 4th. Vasubandhu Winternitz, II. i. 256. Life in Chinese by

Paramartha, Nanjio, 1463
FTr. Takakusu in T'oting Pao, v, 1904
4. Vithsakdrikdprakarana
20 verses on the Vijnanavada FTr. from the
Tibetan, Poussin, Le Mitse'on, 1912, 53
see No. 8,
5. Abhidharma kosa
Winp. 395, above Q.Paramdrthasaptati, a polemic against the Sankhya
ternitz, II. i. 258; Takakusu,//?y46'. 1905, 16; Keith, SS. 87
7. Gdthdsahgraha: Winternitz, II. i. 257; ETr. Rockhill, Uddnavarga (London,
1892), 213. Other works: Nanjio, cols. 371-2 Vidyabhushana, yl/6"/Z. 76.
Winternitz, II.
8. Mahdydna-sraddhotpdda-sdstra: Nanjio, 1 249
i. 210; ETr. Suzuki, Chicago, 1900.^
Early 7th. Chandragomin 9. Sishyalekhadharma-kdvya Winternitz,
II. i. 259
10. Nydydlokasiddhi'. Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 123.
Early 7th. Dharmakirti Keith, y/?.<4^\ 1916, 380.
:

Sakta Buddhist Literature.

vii.

Gen. Intro. Poussin, Opinions, 343, 378 Anesaki, ERE. iv. 840.
Literature: Winternitz, 11. i. 266
Mitra; H. P. Sastrl, II. ii-xv ; Nanjio,
:

443-55 ; AMG. ii. 291-349; Waddell, ERE. vii. 785.

A. Tantras.
Early 7th. 1. Tathdgata-guhyaka or Guhya-saindja Winternitz, II. i.
274, 262 ; Mitra, 261 ; AMG. ii. 299.
7th e. 2. Suvarnaprabhdsottamardja
Catalogue of Hodgson MSS.

cols.

i.

10,

iii.

Winternitz,

7th

c.

59;

3.

vii.

73; Mitra, 241

ERE.

Nanjio, 126;

See no. 9, p. 396.

Ma/idvairochandbhisambodhi
Anesaki,

II.

Nanjio, 530;

8;
245 ;

vi.

i.

iv.

ERE.

AMG.

ii.

AMG.

ii.

315

840

839.

iv.

307.

7th c. 4. Susiddhikdraniahd T. Nanjio, 533; AMG. ii. 341.

7th and 8th cc. 5. Tantras translated into Chinese by Amoghavajra
:

Nanjio,

446, esp. Nos. 1020, 1023, 1044, 1054, 1064.

Early 8th. 6. Vajra-manifa-dhiritsanti-iiidta T.
ii. 348.
7. Giina-kdrandavyi'/ha {verse)
Mitra, 95 ; Winternitz, II. i. 238;
Poussin, ERE. i. 95 ; ii. 259-60.
See Kdrandavyuha, above, p. 396.
8. MahdkdlaT.: Winternitz, II. i.' "274 ;
Mitra, 172;
ii. 298.
Prob. 9th c. 9. Panchakrama Winternitz, II. i. 275 ; Poussin, Etudes
et Textes Tantriqiies.
col.

AMG.

AMG.

A.D. 965. 10. STikdlachakra T. Poussin, ERE. 95 Waddell, ERE.

Winternitz, II. i. 275
AMG. ii. 292.
572; H.P. SastrT, II.
10th c. 11. He-7Hijra T. H. P. Siistrl, II. xii Nanjio, 1060 AMG.
i.

iv.

ii

ii.

293

Getty, GNB. 125.

12. Chandaniahdroshana T.\

H.P.

SastrT, II. ix;

AMG.

ii.

298.

AMG.

13. Heru'ka T. : H.P. Sastrl, II. vii;

ii. 347.
10th c. 14. Vajra-b/iazrava T. : Nanjio, 1062; Getty, GA'B. 146.

H.

15. Ddkini-jdla-sainbara:
16. Manjiisrimiila T.
c.

10th

AMG.
10th
B.

c.

313.
17.

Bhutaddmara

T.

P. SastrT, II. xiii

Winternitz, II.

Nanjio, 1031

i.

AMG.

ii.

292.

275; Nanjio, 1056;

AMG.

ii.

334.

Other Sakta Works.

10th
Sen,

ii.

c.

Kanu

HBLL.

38.

Bhatta;

1.

Charydcharya-vinischaya, Bengali love-songs:

BIBLIOGRAPHY
lOth or 11th.

HBLL.

2.

lyakdrnava,

399

Bengali

aphoristic:

work

Sen,

16.

Jnanddi-sddhana , a Sahajiya polemical work in Bengali Sen,

26 ff.
12th or 13th. 4. Svayambhii P. Winternitz II. i. 267; Mitra, 249 ;
Poussin, ERE. i. 94.
3.

VSP.

i.

C.

DharanTs.
Thetwo Prajna-paramita-hridayasutras

above, Nos. 5 and 6, p. 397.

Ushfusha-vijaya Dh. H oernle, /PA S. 1 9 1 1 460; M it ra, 267 N anj io,
348, 1467 ; AMG. ii. 306.
3. Apardjita-Diahdpratyahgird Dh.:
H oernle, JPAS. 191 1, 46 1 ;
MRBL. 52 Mitra, 227 ; Na'njio, 1016.
4. Aparimitdyur Dh., for long life
Mitra, 41 ; Hoernle, MRBL.
289 Getty, GNB. 9.
5. Pancharakshd: Mitra, 164; Winternitz, II. i. 271.
6. Dm-gati-'parisodhana Dh.
Mitra, 84; AAIG. ii. 306.
Mitra, 173; Winternitz, II.
7. yl/^r/M;;Mi7?^J Z>/i. against snake-poison
Nanjio, 306 AMG. ii. 316.
i. 271 ;
8. Parnasavarlndma Dh.: Mitra, 176; Nanjio, 973.
9. Chundl-devt Dh.
Nanjio, 344, 345, 346.
10. Eleven Tibetan Dharanls FTr. AMG. v. 421.
1.

2.

D. Stotra.

Odes.
Wilson, IVor/rs,

Intro.
II. ii
Winternitz, II. i. 267; Vidyabhushana,
Bauddhastotrasamgraha {BI. 1 908), Intro.
Early 6th. Chandragomin ; 1. Tdrdsddhanasataka: Winternitz, II. i.
:

269.

Mid 8th. Sarvajfiamitra

Winternitz, II. i. 268.
3,

2i.

Mitra,
Paramdrthandma-sahgiti, or Manjusrindma-sahgiti
AMG. ii. 291-; Poussin, Opinions.^ 399; ERE.
;

405.
4. Suprabhdta-stava 49 odes
,

Gen. Intro.
5

Mitra, 239.

JAIN LITERATURE.

IV.

191

Nanjio, 1370;

175;
viii.

Mitra, 22S

Aryatdrdsragdhardstotra:

Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism, Oxford,

Jacobi, ifA'".

vii.

The system: Madhava,

465.

.SZ?5.

iii

Cowell,

36 Mrs. Stevenson, op. cit. Jacobi, Third Or. Cong. ii. 59 ERE, ii.
Cosmography: Jacobi, ERE. iv. 160. Biography:
199; vii. 467.
Tank, A Dictionary of Jaina Biography {A only), Arrah, 191 7. Technical terms The Jaina Gem Dictionary, Jaini, Arrah, 1918.
;

Literature

No

history exists, but Guerinot's Essai de Bibliographie

full lists and indices of the books.

Jaina, Paris, 1906, contains

i.

Svetambara Literature.

The Canon: Weber, lA. xvii-xxi

XLV. xl ERE. vii. 467. Names
;

Jacobi,

in

equivalents in brackets. The Canon is

Sanskrit, unless otherwise described._
1. Achara
(Ayara)
A. Eleven Anga
:

3.

Sthana (Thana)

4.

Samavaya

5.

SBE. XXII.

xxxv-xlvii

given in Sanskrit, Prakrit

in Prakrit.
Later literature in
list

2. Sutrakrita

BhagavatI

6.

(Suyagada)

Jnatadharmakatha

;;

BIBLIOGRAPHY

400
(Nayadhammakaha)

7. Upasakadasa (Uvasagadasao)
8. Antakritadasa
(Antagadadasao)
9. Anuttaraupapatikadasa (Anuttarovavaiyadasao)
10. Prasnavyakarana (Paiiihavagarana); 11. Vipaka (Vivaga)
[l2.
Drishtivada lost].
B. Twelve UpAnga
12. Aupapatika (Ovaiya)
13. Rajaprasniya
(Rayapasenaiyya)
14. jTvabhigama
15. Prajnapana
(Pannavana)
16. JambudvTpaprajnapti (Jambuddlvapannatti)
17. Chandraprajnapti
(Chandapannatti)
18. Suryaprajiiapti (Suriyapannatti)
19. Nirayavall
(Nirayavaliyao) or Kalpika (Kappiyao)
20. Kalpavatamsika (Kappavadimsiao)
21. Pushpika (Pupphiyao)
22. Pushpachuda (Pupphaculaoj
23. Vrishnidasa (Vanhidasao).
C. Ten Prakirna (Painna or Payanna): 24. Chatuhsarana (Chausarana) 25. Sariistara (Santhara); 26. Aturapratyakhyana (Aurapachchakhana)
27. Bhaktaparijna
28. Tandulavaitalika (Tandulaveyaliya)
29. Chandaviyyaya 30. Devendrastava(Devindatthaa) M. Ganitavidya
(Ganiviyya); 32. Mahapratyakhyana 33. Virastava (Vlratthaa).
D. Six ChhedasOtra or Chhedagrantha 34. Nisltha 35. Mahanisltha
36. Vyavahara
37. Dasasrutaskandha, including 37 a. Kalpasutra
38. Brihatkalpa 39. Paiichakalpa.
E. Two sutras without a common name
40. Nandl 41. Anuyogadvara.
F.Four MOlasutra or MOlagrantha
42. Uttaradhyayana
43. Avasyaka 44. Dasavaikalika 45. Pindaniryukti.
Note: For some variation in the canonical list, see Mrs. Stevenson,
;

HJ. 13.
Translations: ETrs. of Nos. i, 3, 37a, and 42,
and xlv of No. 7, Hoernle, Calcutta, 18S8 of Nos.
;

OTF. London,
Writers

Jacobi, SBE.xxn
8 and 9, Barnett,

1907.

Prajnapana^ 15, is attributed to Ajjasama (Weber, lA. xvii. 282) and

Kdlakacharya (Guerinot, 176).
Chatuhsarana, 24, is attributed to Virabhadra.
Vyavahara, 36, Dasdsriitaskhandha, 37, including Kalpa-sutra, 37 a,
and Brihatkalpa, 38, are attributed to Bhadrabahu, about 300 B.C.
Nandi-sutra, 40, and part of the Kalpa-sutra, 37 a, may possibly be by
Devarddhi, who arranged the Canon Weber, IA. xxi. 212.
also to

Dasavaikalika, 44,

is

attributed to Sijjambhava.

Extra-Canonical Literature.

300 B.C.

Bhadrabahu; 46. Niryuktis, i.e. brief comms. in Prakrit

verse, on Nos. i, 2, 18, 36, 37, 42, 43, 44; 47. Upasat-gahara-stotra
(Prak.), an ode to Parsvanatha
text and ETr. Jacobi, Kalpasut?-a
(Leipzig, 1879), p. 12 n.
Kalakacharya 48. An old Jain astronomy Guerinot, 22. Some
say there were five Kalakacharyas Guerinot, 176.
3rd or 4th. Vimala Suri 49. Paiimachariya (Pnlk.) a Jain Rama:

yana.

Jacobi,

Mod. Rev.

1914, 574

ERE.

vii.

467.

4th. or 5tli.
Umasvati
analysis in
50. TattvarthddJiigama-sutra
English, Mitra, Notices, vii. 187
Text, GTr., and notes, Jacobi,
Ix. 287 and 512
Text, Intro. ETr. and Comm., J. L. JainT, Arrah, 1919.
4th or 5th. Siddhasena Divakara 51. Kalydnajiiandira-stotra, ode
to Parsvanatha: Text and GTr. Jacobi, /. St. xiv. 375
52. Nydyavatdra
(Logic): Text and ETr. Vidyabhushana, Arrah, 1915.
:

ZDMG.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

401

A.D. 514. The Canon. Devarddhi presided, possibly author of the

Xaiidi-sutra, No. 40, and of part of the Kalpa-sutra^ No. 37 a.
Early 6th. Siddhasena Gani; 53. Tattvdrtha-tikd^ a comm. on No. 50
54. A number of Prak. bhashyas, i. e. prose comms., on the canonica
texts: see Leumann,
xlvi. 5S1
Ix. 289: VidyaJacobi,
bhfisharia, MSIL, 22
Guerinot, 1 56.
Early 7th. Manatunga, Guerinot, 392
55. Bhaktdviara-stotra
Text and GTr. Jacobi, /. St, xiv. 359 Guerinot, 204
56. Bhayaharastotra: Guerinot, 74, 372
Peterson, i. 52.
Happabhatti 57. Sarasvaii-stolra: Bhandarkar, 7?. 1883-4,
c. 800.
15; Duff, C/. 65.
8th or 9th. Jayavallabha 58. Vajjdlai^gd (Prak.) Bhandarkar, R.
Konow and Lanman's Karpura-inahjari {HOS.), 193
1883-4, 16
Mod. Rev. 1914, 573 Guerinot, 67, 80, 84.
Jacobi, ERE. vii. 467
Early 9th. Mallavadin Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 34 Peterson, iv. 4.
Late 9th. Haribhadra: Life and date, Pulle, GSAI. i. 47 viii. 159
ix. I
xii. 225
59. Comms. on nos. 15, 16, 43, 44
Leumann,
xlvi.
581; Guerinot, 56, 69, 144, 369, 433; 60. Shaddarsa7iasa}nuchchhaya:
Text and Intro. Pulle, loc. cit. FTr. of last chapter, Suali, Le Museon,
61. SiviiardichcJihakahd
Prak. tales
Jacobi, ERE. vii.
1908, ix. 277
467 Mod. Rei'. 1914, 576; Guerinot, 67.
Late 9th. Silahka
Leumann,
xlvi. 581
62. Comm. on
No. i: A.D. 863: Guerinot, 79, 132; Peterson, iii. 36; 63. Comm. on
No. 2 Guerinot, 65, 133 64. Comm. on part of No. 43.
A.D. 906. Siddharshi Life and date Guerinot, 417 Qh. Upainitibhava-prapanchdkathd Prak. allegory Intro, and partial ITr. Ballini,
GSAI. xvii and xviii Guerinot, 150; Jacobi, Mod. Rev. 1914, 576;

ZDMG.

ZDMG.

ZDMG.

ZDMG.

ERE.

vii.

467.

ZDMG.

66. KdhikdcJidryakathdnaka (Prak,); Jacobi,

xxxiv. 247;
Guerinot, 176, 467.
Late 10th. Sobhana Life, with text and GTr. of 67. Chaturvimsatijinasfitti
Jacobi, ZDMG. xxxii. 509.
Late 10th. Dhanapala: Life, with text and GTr. of 68. Rishabhapanchdsikd Klatt,
xxxiii. 445
Guerinot, 56, 205
69. Tilakainanjart: Jacobi, ERE. vii. 467; 10. Pdiyalachchht, A.D. 972, a Prak.
vocabulary Text, Biihler, Gottingen, 1879.
10th e. 71. Jlvaka Chiyitdinani. romantic poem in Tam.
iv.
Died. 1040. .Santisuri 72. Prak. comm. on No. 42 Jacobi, AEM.,
Preface 73. Jnuwiydra, Prak. dogmatic work text and FTr. Guerinot,
JA. 1902, 231 Guerinot, 158.
Fl. 1069. Jinachandra (guru of Abhayadeva) 74. Samvegarahgasdld,
a work on worship in i8,coo couplets Duff, CI. 128 Peterson, R. V. xx.
Died 1078. Abhayadeva Peterson, A". IV. iv Leumann,
xlvi. 582
75. Comms. on Nos. 3-12: Guerinot, 55, 66, 68, 69, 133, 134,
1Q. Jayatihuyanastflira
Peterson, R. iii. 25
Guerinot, 79.
135) 138
Fl. 1082. Gunachandra 77. MahdviracJiarita (Prak.)
Duff, CI. 132.
1086-1169.
bevabhadra: Peterson, A'. IV. liv; Guerinot, 82;
78. Pdrh'andthachariira, A.D. 11 12; 79. Vlrachariira
80. Samvegarahgasd/d, on worship.
1089-1173. Hemachandra, Life: Biihler, Ueber das Leben dcs Jai)iaMofuhcs He7nachandra,Y\&nv.a., 1889: Jacobi, iTA'Zf. vi. 591; Guerinot,
410; 81. Comm. on No. 41; 82. Vogasasira, or Adhydtmopanishad:
:

ZDMG.

BMCTB.

ZDMG.

Dd

BIBLIOGRAPHY

402

and GTr. Windisch,

ZDMG.

xxviii. 185, 628; cf. also

Guerinot, 157, 410; 84:. Pra83. Vitardgastiiti
mdnachintmnani J acobi, "/?". vi. 591 85. Trishashtisaldkdptirushacharita: Analysis, Mitra, Notices, viii. 122; 86, Parisishtaparvan
(appendix to 85): Intro., Text, and Analysis, Jacobi, Calcutta, 1891.
GTr. of the fables in this work, Hertel, Ajisgewcihlte Erzdhlungen aus
Hemachandra^ s Parisishfapanuin 87. Mahd7>iracharita (last chapter of
88. Vasudeva-Hinda (Prak.), Jacobi, Mod. Rev.
85): Guerinot, 49, 82
Guerinot, 75.
1914, 576; Peterson, A", i. 58
Fl. 1150. Malayagiri Leumann, ZDMG. xlvi. 582
89. Comms. on
Nos. 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 36, 40: Guerinot, 69, 55, 65, 115, 69, 79.
Late 12th. Chandrasuri Peterson, R. IV. xxvii 90. Prak. comms.
on Nos. 19, 43_: Guerinot, 69, 398.
Fl. 1191. Asada; 91. Vivekamanjarl: Duff, CI. 167; Peterson, R.
IV. xii
92. Upadesakcifidali Guerinot, 84.
n. 1220. Jinadattasuri: Duff, C/. 179; 93. Vivekavildsa: Bhandarkar,
R. 1883-4, 156; Guerinot, 393.
Fl. 1230. Amarachandra: Duff, C/. 182
94^. Bdlabhdra/a: Guerinot,
184 95. Padmandbhakdvya Guerinot, 75.
Fl. 1239. Tilakacharya Peterson, R. IV. xlviii 96. Comm. on No. 43.
c. 1250.
Prabhachandra(B) 97. Prabhdvakacharita Duff, IC. 202
Guerinot, 410.
Fl. 1271.
Devendrasuri 98. Six Karmagranthas and comms. on the
first five
Peterson, R. IV. Ivii.
Fl. 1304.
Merutunga 9Q. Prabandhachinfdmani: Intro, and ETr.
Tawney, Calcutta, 1901 Duff, C/. 211; Guerinot, 77, 123, 391 \00.'Mahdpurushachari/ra, or Upadesasata: Guerinot, 72, 85 101. Shaddarsnnavichdra (a criticism of systems) Max Miiller, India, W/iai ? 362 Guerinot,

Intro., Analysis,

Garbe, SY. 39-40;

102. Munjaprabandha (Prak.) Jhaveri, MGL. 19.

Fl. 1349.
103. Prabandhakosa
Rajasekharasuri
Guerinot, 109
\04. Antarakathdsaiigraha: Guerinot, 1 8 5.
Late 14th. Jiianasagara 105. Comms. on Nos. 43, 45, the latter in
1383: Peterson. R. IV. xlvi; Duff, CI. 111.
c. 1372. Ratnasekhara (A)
106. Srlpdhuharitra Peterson,/?. IV. ciii
107. Laghukshetrasajndsa (Mythical Geography) Guerinot, 432.
c. 1400.
Gunaratna; \0Q. Shaddarsanasamuchchhayaiikd: comm. on
No. 60: Guerinot, 68, 151.
109. Navatattva (date and author unknown) a popular statement,
in varying recensions, of the nine Svetambara categories ETr. Stevenson,
393

London, 1848.
1384-1443. Somasundara Peterson, R. IV. cxxxvi 110. Comms.
on Nos. 24, 43; 111. Comm. on No. 36; 112. on the Upadesamdld;
113. on the Navatattva.
1380-1447. Munisundara; 114. Upadesaratndkara W.h. Mitrachatushkakathd
116. Ad/iydt>?!akalpadrutna
117. Sahas7-andi)iasmriti
:

Peterson, R. IV. xcvii

Duff, CI. 230, 248.
Fl. 1436. Jinamandana 118. Kutndrapdlaprabandha
Duff, CI. 253
Guerinot, 410, 423.
Fl. 1438. Jinaklrti
119. Chanipakasreshthikathd7taka (A.D. 1400)
;

Text and GTr. Weber, Ueber das Champakasreshthikathdnakam, Berlin,

1883; 120. DhanyasdlicJiaritra; \^\. Ddnakalpadfuma 122. Srtpdlagopdlakathd: Peterson, R. IV. xxxiii Duff, CI. 254; Guerinot, 177.
:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

40.^

1401-61. Ratnasekhara (B)

123. Comms.
Peterson, A\ IV. cii
Guerinot, 45, 71, 85, 376, 432.
Intro,
124. Panchasatlprabodhasambandha
Subhaslla
Fl. 1464.
and analysis in Italian, Ballini, IOC. xiii, Lcyden, 1904; Guerinot, 183;
125. Bhat-aiddikatha^ or Kathdkosa Guerinot, 65, 188 126. Comm. on
No. 66: Bhau DTiy, JBBRAS. ix. 139; Guerinot, 407.
Peterson, B. i.
W7ix\shc\\2L.\'\2n. Jdi^ahtttidartyogaindld
Fl. 1526.
Duff, CI. 273.
Guerinot, 74, 401
52, 91
Dharmasagara
128. Kupakshakausikdd/'iya, or PrnvaFl. 1573.
Bhandarkar, A'. 1883-4, 150;
chanapartkshd Weber,
1887
Guerinot, 89, 175, 368.
Samayasundara Peterson, iii. 3 129. Kalpalatd, comm. on 37 a
Guerinot, 65, 66; 130. Gdtlidsahasrt: 1,000 verse quotations: Peterson,
131. Visanivddasataka
Guerinot, 78 132. SdmdGuerinot, 78
iii. 3
chdrisataka IA. xxxiii. 169 Guerinot, 382, 83, 92.
1652. Vinayavijaya \ZS. Lokapjakdsa an encyclopaedia of Jainism:
Jacobi, ERE. vii. 467.
:

SKPAW.

Digambara Literature.

B.
Lit. in

Sanskrit, unless otherwise described.

The Lost Canon:

see Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, where an analysis of

Sakalaklrti's Taitvdrthasdradtpikd, No. 204, below, is
given also Jaini, Outlines 0/ Jaifiisvi (Cambridge, 1916), p. 135, where
a fuller description may be read.
and 135. Chandra134. Siiryapj-ajnapf!, Guerinot, 20, 139, 467
prajnapfi, Guerinot, 65, 69 both Prakrit.
Peterson, ii. 74 ; Guerinot
136. Mtlldchdra, Prak.
Vattakera

the account

in

137. Trh'arndchdra, Prak. Biihler, lA. vii. 28 ; Guerinot, 20,

Cf. also
Pathak, lA. xiv. 14; Guerinot, 272.
Kundakunda
Peterson, ii. f
Guerinot, 380. All works in Prak. 138. Shatprdbhrita
Guerinot, 99
140. Samayasdra139. Ashtaprdbhrita
Guerinot, 'j']
prdbhrita; Analysis: Vi\\.x^i, Notices .,W\. 183; Bhandarkar, Ti. 1882-3
Pathak
Guerinot, 64, 86, 100, 140, 272"; 141. Prdbhritasd7-a
42
full
analysis
IA. xiv. 15; Guerinot, 272; 142. Pravachanasdra
brief
Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 91; Guerinot, 87; Y'^Z. Niyamasdra
Guerinot, 87 144. Panchdstikdya,
analysis, Bhandarkar, loc. cit. 102
or Panchatihiyasnmgahasjctta Text, intro., and analysis in Italian Pavo145. RayaijasdJ-a; and 146. Dvddalini, GSAI. xiv. I ; Guerinot, 157
sdniiprekshd, Guerinot, 272.
Pfithak, lOC.'xx. 186 JBBRAS. 1894, 218;
c. 600. Samantabhadra
Guerinot, 415, 416; Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 22; \^. Gandhahastiviahdbhdshya comm. on No. 50 Vidyabhijshana, MSIL. 22 148, Aptamundthsdox Devdgamastotra'. brief analysis, VidyabhQshana, 24; Sansk.
Pathak, loc.
Guerinot, 63
its comms.
analysis, Mitra, Notices, vi. 105
cit.; Guerinot, 415; \^Q. Ratnakaraiidasrdvakdchdra: text and ETr.
C. K.Jain, The Householder s Dharvia, Arrah, 191 7; Guerinot, 85, 476;
150. Yuktynnusdsnfia Guerinot, 476; 151. SvayanibhUstotra and 152.
Other works
\'idyabhrishana, MSIL. 23.
ChatU7-vimsati-ji7ta-stuti
Rice, /yi^.S". 1883, 395
Guerinot, 403.
Guerinot, 96, 227, 483 ;
Raviklrti
Fl. 643.
\bQ. Jinakathe (Kan.)
'Rxce.. JRAS. 1890, 245
Guerinot, 405.
20,

"j^.,

99

D d

BIBLIOGRAPHY

404

154. Padma Purdna Bhandarkar,

Fl. 660. Ravishena Duff, CI. 55
IOC. vii. 30 Guerinot, 394.
Pujyapada; 155. Sari'drthasiddhi: comm. on No. 50: Rice,
c, 700.
:

JRAS.

1883, 397

Guerinot, 403.

700-70. Akalanka

Pathak, IOC. ix. I, 186; Guerinot, 270, 298,

comm. on
415; \hQ. Akalahkastotra ; Guerinot, 19; 151. Ashtasatt
No. 148: Pathak, loc, cit. Guerinot, 416; \bS. Jainavarhdsratna (on
Guerinot, 96 159. Tattvdrthafikdvydkhydlathkdra comm. on
conduct)
No. 50 Peterson, ii. 78 Guerinot, T"]. For these and other works, see
Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 25.
8th c. 160. Rdjavdrttika comm. on No. 50 Guerinot, 35.
8th e. 161. Ndladiydr (Tamil verse) Harnett, BMCTB. iv.
full analysis, Mitra,
Fl. 783. Jinasena
162. Hariva7'nsapurd?ia
Notices, vi. 74; Guerinot, 63.
Vidyananda; \Q^. 3lokavdrtika or Jainaslokavdrtika, comm.
c. 800.
on No. 50 Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 27 Guerinot, 416; 164. Ashtasahasrt,
or AptaiHi/Hdmsdlaiikdra a super-comm. on No. 148, following up No. 1 57
Vidyabhusana, MSIL. 27; 165. Aptaparikshd, Guerinot, 63, 415 166.
Pt'aindnapaftkskd Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 27.
Rice, KL. 24.
Srivarddhadeva 167. Chuddinatii (Kan.)
Vidyalahushana,
Manikyanandin
168. Parikshdmukha
c. 800.
c.

MSIL.

28.

169. Prameyakamalamdrtanda on No.

825. Prabhachandra (A)
Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 33.
A.D. 837. YlO.'jayadhavald: Bhandarkar, '//Z^. 68; Guerinot, 394
c.

168

VA\h3k,JEBRAS.

1894, 226.
9th c. Jinasena 171. Adipurdna or Trishashijlakshanamahdpurdna
Guerinot, 88 Yl^.Pdrshvdbrief analysis, Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 118
bhudaya: Fa.thak, JBBRAS. 1894, 224; Guerinot, 99.
9th c. Gunabhadra 173. completed Jinasena's Adipurdm Pathak,
JBBRAS. 1894, 225_; 174. Utturapurdna Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 119;
Guerinot, 476.
Guerinot, 88, 175. Atmdmtsdsana
:

9th c. Amoghavarshal

YJQ.Prahiottaramdld: Bhandarkar, Z:j^Z>. 68.

Fl. 905. Amritachandra
Duff, CI. 83; 177. Comm. on No. 140:
Peterson, IV. ix 179. Comm. on
Guerinot, jy 178. Comm. on No. 142
No. 144: Guerinot, 157; 180. Tattvdrthasdra: Guerinot, 476; 181.
Purushdrthasiddhyupdya Bodleian Catal. ii. 226; Guerinot, 45, 476.
Fl. 941. Pampa; 182. Adipurdm, Kan.: Guerinot, 414; Rice KL.
183. Pampa BJidrata or Vikranidt-jiinaviyaja, Kan. Rice, KL. 26.
27
Fl. 950. Ponna 184. Sdnti Purdna, Kan., on the i6th Tirthakara
Rice, KL. 28 185. Jiiidksharamdle, Kan., an acrostic in praise of the
Tirthakaras Rice, KL. 28.
full analysis, Peterson, ii. 33
Fl. 960. Somadeva 186. Yasastilaka
Ciuerinot, 108.
Guerinot, 76
187. Ntiivdkydi/irita
Fl. 980. Ranna; 188. AJi/a Purdna, Kan., on the^nd Tirthakara
;

189. Sd/iasa Bhima Vijaya, Kan., Rice, KL. 28.

Prob. 10th e. \Q0. Jlvaka-chintdmani, a Tamil artistic romance:

Rice,

KL.

Frazer,

28

ERE.

viii.

91.

191. Clidvuiidardya980. Chamundaraya' (Kan. Chavundaraya)

purdna, Kan. Rice A'Z. 28 Ghoshal, Davva Samgaha (see next entry),
c.

Intro., XX.
c.

ETr.

980. Nemichandra 192. Dravya-samgraha (Prak.) Text, Intro.,

and comm., Ghoshal, Davva Samgaha, Arrah, 191 7; 193.
;

BIBLIOGRAPHY

405

Trilokasara: Ghoshal, op. cit. xlii

analysis, Mitra, Notices, vi. 97;
Gu^rinot, 20
194. Gomtnatasdra {wuitenior C\\M-i-\nnAi\xa.ya.)
Ghoshal,
xl ; 195. Labdhisdfa (on attainment)
(Jhoshal, xii
196. Kshapanasdra :
Ghoshal, xlii.
c, 1100. Abhinava Pampa; 197. Mallindikapurana, Kan.
Rice, xl. 30;
198. Pai/ipa Rdmdyam, Kan., Rice, KL. 30.
Brdachandra (A); 199. Comm. on No. 141
c. 1120.
Guerinot, 272,
404 200. Tajtvarainadipikd Guerinot, 404.
;

1200-50. Asadhara; ^0\. Dharmd?nrita

many

other works. Life, analysis of

Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 103.
Sri

Yogindra

1915.
Fl.

i\\e

IQ^.TrishashtJsmriti and
Dharmdiiirita and list of works
;

203. Paramdtmaprakdsa

ETr. R. U. Jain, Arrah,

1464. Sakalakirti
204. TattvarthasdnuRpikd 205. Prahiottaropdsakdchdra Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, "6 206. Sdntindthncharita
and 207. Pdysvandthacharita: analysis, Bhandarkar, 106, 116, 122;
208. VardJinntdnapurdna Guerinot, 1 00.
End 15th. Srutasagara Peterson, IV. cxxiii 209. Jitiasathhitd (on
the building of temples, making images, and worship)
Bhandarkar, R.
1883-4, 117 210. Comm. on No. 138; Guerinot, ^T, 211. Tattvdrthadipikd: Bhandarkar, 117.
Fl. 1528.
Nemidatta 212. Srtpdlacharitra 213. Neinijinapurdna
214. Dhanvaktaiidracha?itra ; 2,\5. Arddhandkaihdkosa: Guerinot,'83,
216. Srdvakdchdra
Peterson, V. xl.
83, 88
16th c. Subhachandra 217. Pdfidava P., and many other works
;

Peterson, V.

Ixxiii.

e. 1626.
Ratnachandra
218. Siibhaumacharitra
Bhandarkar, R.
1883-4,^124; 219. PradyufHitacharitra
Guerinot, 73.
1630-50. BanarasT Das works in Hindi verse 220. Sadhubandand
221. Moks/uufidrifiipdtdi ; 222. Sainayasd)-anatikd: Guerinot, loi, 148,
:

208.

;;

INDEX
Abhang, MarathI word

for

hymn,

235,

Adi

Abhasa, t. t of Kaslimir Saivism, 19S.

Abhayadeva, 278, 279, 401.
Abhayatilaka, 370.
Abhidhamma Pitaka, of Buddhist
Canon, 67, 392
probably a late
work, not belonging to original
Canon, 68
only two schools possessed an Abhidhamma P., 68, 106.
A bh idh a >n >ii atthasamgaha, 393.
;

Abhidharma, Sanskrit for Abhidhamma. See Abhidharma Pitaka.

Abhidharma-dhdtukdyapdda, 394.
Abhidhariita-kosa of Vasubandhu, 161,
39.V
,

Abhidharma
dins, 107;

for

the

Adi P.
Adi P.

(Jain), 217, 404.

(Jain, Kanarese), 2S3, 404.
Aditi, 10.

Adity a Upapurdna, ^J2.

Adi Upadesa,

344.

Adoration Mantras, 202.

Advaita, monism, a form of the Vedanta, 128.

Advailacharya, 307.
Advaitananda, 251, 2S6, 368.
Advaita-siddhi, 368.
Advayatd)-aka 6^., 364.
Afghanistan, 103.

Aganiapramdnya 241.
Agamas, Saiva manuals, 190, 193, 197,
384, 387 which sects used Agamas ?

Pitaka, of the Sarvastivacomm. on it, 108.

date, 194;
190, 197, 198, 255, 257
belong to various
contents, 194 f.
;

Abhidhariiia-prakaranapdda, 394.
Abhidharyna-sangitiparydyapdda, 394.

A bhidhanna-skandhapdda

sects,

394.

Abhidharma-vijndnakdyapdda, 394.
Abhinava Gupta, 259, 265, 386.
Abhinava Pampa, 283, 405.
Abhinishkramana-sfdra, 156, 207.

to in Adkydima Rdmayana,
250.
Agastya-sutras, 269, 359, 3S9.
ferred

Aghoraghanta,
19, 20.

250, 329, 381

contains the Rdma-hridaya and the
Rdma-gltd, 250 a Kanarese version,
;

375U., 364.
Adhydtiiiopaiiishad, 40 1
Adi-Buddha, 273, 274.

Kapalika

ascetic,

T92.

Adhydtma Ndrdyaiia, 250.

Adhydtma Rdindyana, a mediaeval
190,

259

Adhydtma-Kalpadruma, 402.

epic,

commentaries,

Agamas, 264.

Agastya, 9 n.
Agastya S. 183, 381
see AgastyaSutlkshna Saihvdda.
Samvdda,
Agastya-Sutikshna
190,
a Ramaite work, 190; called
381
Agastya S., 183; date, 190; re-

Adahgan-Murai, 352, 387.

Adbhuta Brdhmana., 42, 363, 366.
Adbhuta Gltd, 336, 382.
Adbhuta Rdmdya>ia, 250, 329, 381.
Adhdra-kdrikds, 386.
Adhvara, 6.
Adhvaryu, 6, 7, 14, 17,

195

Lifigayat

Agama-tqttva-vildsa, i^^, 389.

Agamic Saivas, i. e. Saivas who use the
Agamas, 191, 193 ff., 255, 349, 384.

Aborigines of India, 4 f., 16.

Achdrdhga-sfttra, 166, 215, 399.
Achdryaparicharya, 379.
Achintya-bhedabheda, 287, 311.

Adhydtma

name

Abhidharma-kosa-vydkhyd 161, 394.

Ramaite

Granth, another

Granth of the Sikhs, 339.

302, 374.

Aghoris, 347.
Agneyaka A., 193.
Agni, 10, II, 15, 49.

Agnichayana, 22.

Agni

P., 139, 179, 372; probably a

Bhagavata work, 179, 181, 206, 374;
contains a passage on Surya, 206
a passage on Gane&a, 206, 390

recognizes the five gods, 179.

Agra, 316.
Agra Das, 317.

INDEX

4o8
Ahamkara,

t.t.

Samkhya

of the

system,

Das, 337, 382.

Aniar Mftl, 382.

Ahappey, 352.
Ahiihsa, non-injury, 71
injury to animal

Ahmedabad,

Amarachandra, 280, 402.

Amar

98, 130.

especially non-

life,

72.

Amba

Bhawani, 356.
Amida, Japanese contraction of Amitabha, 275.

318.

Ahobila Monastery, 320.

Aikya, 261.

Amitabha, 117, 273.

Aing, 201.
Aisvarika, theistic (from iSvara), 274.
Aitareya Aranyaka, 30, 295, 363.

Amoghasiddha, 273.
Amoghavajra, 210, 212, 398.
Amoghavarslia I, 217, 404.

Aitareya Brdhmana, 27, 28, 363 commentary, 295.

Aitareya U., 54, 55, 235, 364.
Aitareyins, a school of the Rigveda, 27,

AmritabindH U., 95, 364.

Amritachandra, 281, 404.
Amritandda U., 364.
Amritdnubhava, 235, 253, 374, 384.

Amitdyur-dhydna-sfitra, 158, 396.

Avirite'sa T., 265.

54-

Ajitd, name of an
Ajivikas, 77 n. i.

Agama,

193.

Ajjasama, 120, 399.

Ajna, name of one of the occult
ace. to Sakta Yoga, 269.

circles,

Akalanka, 216, 219, 404.

Akalahka-stotra, 216, 404.
Akalis, 340.
Akasa, ether; t. t. of Vaiseshika system,

Amritsar, 337, 341.

_
Amsuid7!, name of an Agama, 193.
Ajiddi' Vira-saiva-sdra-sahgraha, 387.
Atiandalahari, 266, 38S.
Ananta Deva, 285 n. 2, 295, 367, 373.
Anas, 5.
Anatta, 64.
Anava, one element in Pa^a, 195.
Ancestor-worship, i, 16, 22.

AndaU

133-

Akbar, 284, 291, 310, 337.

Akshamdlikd U., 364.
Akshapada Gautama, 370.
Akshi U., 364.
Akshobya, 273.
Akutobhayd, 397.

188.

Anga, a limb, or section of the Jain

Canon, 75, 120, 163 eleven Ahga in
the
Canon, 76
the Svetambara
critical problem they involve, 76, 120;
the twelfth Ahga, 163
comms. on
the Ahga, 279 list, .^99.
Ahgabahyas, 1 20.
Ahgad, a Sikh guru, 337 invented the
;

Alandi, 301.
Alavantar Madavappattar, 296, 373.
Alayavijnana, 160, 273.
Alberuni, 205, 223.

Gurumukhi

alphabet, 337.

Al Haqq, 331, 343.

Ahga-mantras, mantras auxiliary to the

royal mantra of Narasiriiha. 1S9.
of
Ahguttaranikaya, fourth
section

Allahabad, 174, 304, 327.

AUama Prabhu, 353.

Sutta Pitaka, 109, 391, 392.

Anhilvara-patan, 279, 280.

Alexander the Great, 33, 36, 42, 46.

Allegory, 28.
Alvars, Vaishnava
the

Tamil

Anichchha, 64.
poet-musicians

of
232,

182, 187,
379; date, 188; they taught ^udras
and outcastes as well as Caste people,
244; they are leaders and teachers of
the Sri- Vaishnava sect, 187
their
images worshipped in the temples,
countrj',

187; their names, 1 88 their influence,

220; their hymns collected and arranged, 241
called A^dldyira Prahaftdhani, 241
set to Dravidian
music, 241 ; introduced into the
;

temples, 240, 241.

Alwar, 334, 342.

Ama,

214.

Amalananda, 222, 36S.

Animal-sacrifice,

3,

14,

41,

48,

268,

354-

Animism,

i,

2.

Aniruddha, a Vaishnava divinity, one of

the zyuhas, 98, 1 84,
Aniruddha, 369.
Aniruddha-vritti, 369.

Annam

Bhatta, 289, 370.

U., 364.

Atmapurtm

Anquetil Duperron, 287.

An Shi-kao, 118.
Antakritadasd, one of the Jain Angas,
400.

Antarakathdsahgraha, 281, 402.

Anu, t. t. of Kashmir Saivism, 198.
Awibhdshya, 287, 377.

INDEX
Antigitd, 97, 98.
^
Anujjraba, the grace of Siva, in

Arthasahgraha, 367.

Agamic

Arthaidstra, 43, 73, 96.

Artha\ada, 25.
Arulnandi Deva, 257, 258, 385.
Aruna-giri-Nalhar, 347, 382.

Saivism, 195.

Anuniddha, 393.
Anushtuhh, a form of

409

verse, 188.

Aiiutlaraiipapdtikadahi, 400.

Aruncya

Atiiivydk/tyaiia, 236, 375.

Aryadeva, 159, 397.

Anuyogadvdra, 400.

Aryaman,

Apaddiia, a work

in the

Buddhist Sutta

Pitaka, 71, loS, 392.

285, 367.
ApadevT, 2S5, 296, 367.

Apa Deva,
Apardjita

2, 10.

Aryans, 4 ff., 10, 15.

Aryasura, 156, 395.
Aryatdrdsragdhardstotra 399
Asada, 278, 280, 402.
Asadhara, 282, 405,
Asa-ki-wdr, 341.
,

dkdram,

iitahdpratyangird

399-

Aparavntdytis-sutra-idstra, 158, 390.

AJiarimitdyur dhdrani, 399.
AJ>astainba Dharma Sutra, 365.
AJ>astamba Grihya Sutra, 365.
Apastmiiha Srauta Sutra, 365.
Apastaiiiba Sulva Sutra, 365.
Appar, 196, 384.
Appaya DIkshita, 286, 295, 320, 380,
389; his works, 320, 367, 368, 380
on the Vaishnava Saiiihitas, 181
his title DTi<shita, 35S; his SivdrkaDianidipikd, 350, 385
his religious
;

life,"

U., 95, 364.

358.

Aptamividmsd, 216, 219, 371, 403.

Asana, 253, 253 n. 2.

Asanga, 123, 160; his works, 160

f.,

397-

Asceticism, 13, 22, 40, 47, 52 f., 57, 60.

Ascetics, 22 ; used for sannyasis, 40.

Ash a,

3.

Ashes, used by Pasupatas, 103, 196;

used by all Saivas for the sect-mark,
196.

Ashta Chhap, 316.

Asktddkydyt, 42.
Ashtap7-dbhrita, 403.
Ashtasdhasri, 219, 371, 404.

Ashtasdhasrikd Prajndpdramitd, 273.

Aptaparikshd, 219, 404.

Apurva, 125.

Ashtasatt, 216, 219, 404.

Arddhandkathdkola, 405.
Aradhya Brahmans, 263.
Aradhyas, 263 n. i.
Aranya, one of the ten orders of San-

Ashtdvimsati Tattva, 295, 373.

Asmarathya, 128, 221.
ASoka, emperor of India, 66 his conversion, 66 edicts, 44, 67, 72 propaganda, 67, 72; missionaries, 67, 72
favourite Buddhist texts, 72
buildings, 67, 72; laws against slaughter
of animals and animal sacrifice, 72
;

kara's sannyasTs,

Aranyagdna,

74.

19, 30.

Aranyakas, 23,

the name, 28
363
character and contents, 28, 41
pur;

pose

of,

29

Archaka, a

f,;

religion, 30 ff.
for temple-

word used

ministrant in S. India, 182, 349.

Archika, 18.

Ardha-Magadhi, a Jain

literary dialect,

162.
Argaldsiotra, 357.
Arhat, the early Buddhist ideal, 105,
113-

Arikesari, 283.
Arjan, a Sikh guru, 337, 382

built the

golden temple at Amritsar, 337

compiled the Granth, 337 ; put to
death by Jahangir, 338.
;

Armenian peoples, i.
Arsheya Brdhmana, 27, 363.
Arta, 3.
Artha-panchaka, 246, 380.

vegetarianism, 72 ; religious tours, 72.

Asokdvaddna, 395.
Asrama, one of the four forms of Hindu
life, 29, 40; these later form a series,

_8i.
Asrama, one of the ten orders of Sahkara's sannyasis, 174.
U-, 95, 364.
Assam, 390.
Astronomy, 42.
Asvaghosha, a Brahman, who became
a Sarvastivadin Buddhist, 95, 108,
115; then a Mahayanist, 115 ; genius

Asrama

and works, 115

Asvakranta, 356.

f,,

395.

Asvaldyana Grihya Sutra, 365.

Ah)aldyana Sraiita Sutra, 365.
Asvamedha, 22.
Asvins,

2, 3 n. I, ID.

INDEX

410
Atharvan = Atharvaveda.

Awadhi, a dialect of Hindi, 333.

Ayodhya, 327, 329, 330,

Atharvasikhd U., 103, 364.

Atharvasiras U. (A), 103, 14611., 196,
364-

Atharvasiras U. (B), iSo, 206, 266,

364, 365. 373-

Atharvaveda, 23 ff., 363; relation to

Rik, 24 age of, 25 canonical position, 25;
religion of, 30 ff., 363;
philosophy in, 51, 363; many new
Upanishads appended, 80 its mantras, 201
magic and ritual, 363.
Atheism, meaning of the term, 37
examples of, 44, 47, 49, 60, 61.
Ativlrarama Pandya, 347, 383.
Atinabodha U., i88, 364, 379.
;

Atman, the

self, a name for the Abso32; philosophy of, 27, 32, 41,
51 ; identification of a divine and
human self, 52, 59; the Atman unknowable, 56 ; a subject without an
object, 56, 59 ; impersonal, 56
per-

lute,

sonal, 56; the A.

else is sorrow, 57 ;

bliss,

57; all
1. 1. in Vaiseshika
system, 133; and in Nyaya system,
135; ill both the conception of the
atman is richer than elsewhere, 135.
is

Atmdnnsasana, 218.

At ma

U., 364.

Atreya Sakha of the Taittiriya school,

226.

334, 344.

BadamI, 216.
Badarayana, author of Veddnia-sfitias,
126, 128, 368.

Bahurupa Tantras, 265.

Bahvrkha U., 364.

Bdlablidrata, 280, 402.
Balachandra, 405.
Bdlacharita, 144.
Baladeva, 287, 311, 377.
Balakrishna Bhatta, 316, 377.
Balarama, or Sariikarshana, a brother
of Krishna, 98.
Balat^ma Das, 311, 377.
Balehalli, 260.

Bana, 200, 205, 388.

Banarasi Dasa, 361, 405.
Bdnl of Dadu, 341 ; read only by the
twice-born, 341.
Bdni of Lai Das, 342.
Bdni of Ram Charan, 345.
Ban-jatra, 310.

Banwari Das, 342.

Bappabhatti, 214, 401.
Barhaspatyas, 371.

Bdrhaspatya T., 268.

Barsom, twigs used in Zoroastrian worBasava, a Lingayat leader, 260, 262,
386.

Audulomi, 128.
Aughars, 347.
Aupapdtika, 399.
Aurungzebe, 291, 343.
Austerities, 16, 59;
Buddhism, 63.

Basava

P., 264, 353, 387.

Baudhdyana

D hay ma Sutra,

365.

Baiidhdyana

given up in early

Avadana, a form of Buddhist

Pali Apadana, 108.

tale, in

Avaddna-kalpalatd, 395.
Avaddna-sataka, 108, 395.
Avadhutas, 327.

Avarana-bhahgavydkhyd 376.
,

Avalyaka-sutra, 215, 399.

Avatara, lit. descent, the Hindu word
for a divine incarnation, 85 n. i.
Avesta, 2, 3.
U., 364.
Avyaiiga, the Zoroastrian girdle, 152.

Grihya-sutra, 141, 365;

the Parisishtas to it, 141, 373.
Baudhdyana Srauta Stitra, 365.
Baudhdyana Sulva Sutra, 365.
Bauls, 312.
Beef, eaten by all in Mahdbhdrata, 49.
Benares, 260, 327, 329, 330, 334.
Benevolence, in Mahayana Buddhism,
113.

U., 364.

Avalokite^vara, a Bodhisattva, 158

his mantra, 212; transformed into
a goddess in China and Japan, 158
a Dhyani -Bodhisattva, 273.

Avyakta

l.al,

Lalis, 334, 344.

ship, 152.

Atri, 8.

Aturapratyakhyana, 400.

Avadhuta

Baba
Baba

Bengal, 274.
Bengali literature, 271, 296, 297, 303,
306, 310, 356, 378, 382, 389.
Beni, 323, 381.
Bemier, 291.
Bhadra A., 193.
Bhadrabahu, a Jain leader, 75 author
of canonical books and niryuktis,
76, 400.
;

Bhadracharyd, 396.
Bhagavadgitd, the Lord's Song, a Vaishnava episode in the Mahdbhdrata,

INDEX
86-92, 97, 366, 373 central significreates the first Hindu
cance, 86, 97
brings release within
theism, 87
i. e. to
reach of all Vaishnavas, 97
all
men and women of the four
three paths to release,
castes, 87
88; theology of the Gltd, 89; its
bhakti, 220, 243 secret of its power,
upholds the dharma, 89
90 f.
now orthooriginally heterodox, 91
dox, 128; theories of its origin, 50,
Is there
91, 366 date, 78, 86, 366.
;

held
Christian influence in it ? 92
to be revelation of second grade
{smriti), 173
forms part of the
Canon of the Vedanta, 1 73 influence
of the Giid, 114, 128, 144, 145, 153;
commentaries, 171, 241, 242,
Bhagavadvishayam, 380.
Bhagavan, Blessed Lord, 87.
Bhagavata (from Bhagavan), a devotee
;

of the Lord. Used of ^aivas, 82 n. i

used of Vaishnavas generally, 142;
used of a special group of Vaishused of a
navas, see Bhagavatas
singer-preacher in South India, 302.

Bhdgavata-bhdshya,

VishnusvamI,

by

238, 305, 375'

Bhdgavata-bhdvdrthadipikd, 297, 374.

Blidgavala-laghii-tikd, 375.
Bhdgavata Mdhdtmya, 232, 372.

Bhagavata

Upanishad, 143, 181

their literature,

179, 181, 233, 297, 373; the

Bhdgavata P. their chief scripture,
t^^y ^^^ followers of
233) 374
they acknow6ahkara, 175, 181
many are
ledge the five gods, 181
temple-ministrants, 181, 233; hold
theSamuchchhaya doctrine, 221 ; their
temples, 298 ; their monasteries, 297 f.
a bhashya on the Veddnta-sutras
which claims to be a Bhagavata

142

f.,

work, 297 f.
Bhdgavata ^., 181, 236 n. i.
Bhagavata Sampradaya, 327.
Bhdgavata-idtpiirya-nintaya, 236, 375.
Bhagavata temples, 233.
Bhagavati, one of the Jain Ahgas, 399.
Bhagavat-sastra, 142.
Bhai Gur Das, 338, 382.
Bhai Gur Dds Ki War, 338, 382.
Bhai Mani Singh, 339.
Bhairava Tantras, 265.

Bhairava-ydmala

T., 388.
Bhaishajyaraja, 158.
Bhakta Ltldturita, 374.

Bhakta-mdld, 234, 239, 299, 317.

Bhaktdniara-stotra, 205, 214,401.
Bhaktaparijiid, 400.
Bhakta Vijaya, 374.
in Svetdvatara U., 59
Bhakti, 220
in Bhdgavata P.,
in the Gltd,
;

^;

/", 139, 372

characteristics,
deals with Krishna's youth,
229 f.
229; a late work, 17S; erroneously
;

attributed to Vopadeva, 231, 269,

359; the latest of the Puranas, 231 ;
date, 232; place of origin, 232; its
bhakti, 220, 229, 242
its eroticism,
230; the love of the gopis a symbol
of spiritual devotion, 230 ; sprang
;

from the Bhagavata community, and

is their chief scripture, 229, 233
its
;

immense

411

influence,

220, 235, 269,

tends towards
301, 302, 308, 345
Vedanta,
Sanikara's
advaita
231.
;

Commentaries, 246, 304, 305, 316;

Kanarese
Braj
translations,
317
MarathI translatranslations, 303
tions, 300
an anthology of its utterances on bhakti, 302.
Bhagavatas, Smarta Vaishnavas, who
hold the equality of Vishnu and Siva,
;

229; in Rd?ndnuja, 230; in Bhdgavata Mdhdtmya, 232 ; in the Vira

6aiva system, 261 n.3, 264.
Bhakti-marga, the way to release by
devotion, 88.

Bhaktirasdyana, 384.
Bhaktiratridkara. 377.
Bhaktiratndmritasindhti, 376.
Bhaktiratndvali, 302, 375.
Bhakti school of the 6akta sect, 269,
359-

Bhalan, 356.
Bhdviatt, 176, 222, 368.
Bhandarkar, Sir R. G., his theory of
Vasudeva, 50.

Bhanu Das, 374.

Bharadvaja, 8.
Bharadvaja, a

title

of Uddyotakara.

Bharadvaja Grihya siitra, 365.

Bhdradvdja Srauta siitra, 365.
Bharata Chandra Rai, 356.

their
142, 175, 181, 233, 298,' 301
unstable position between Smartas
and*^ectarians, 298
their mantra,

Bharatharl-vairdgya, 378.
Bharati, one of the ten orders of
Sahkara's sannyasis, 174, 304, 307.

143, 179, 186, 235, 298; their sectmark, 29S ; Sampradaya, 327; their

Bharatitlrtha, 286, 368.

Bharati Yati, 369.

INDEX

412
Bhargava Upapurdna,

372.

Bhasa, 144.
Bha-sarvajna, 370.
Bhdshd-parichchheda, 370.
Bhaskara, said to have been Nimbarka's
original name, 239 n. 6.
Bhaskara, 3S6.
BhaskaraBhdskara-bhdshya,
see
charya.
Bhaskaracharya, author of a bheda-

bheda bhashya on the

Vedntita-siltras,

221, 239n. 6, 368; attacks Sahkara

and the Pancharatras, 2 2of.

Bhaskaranandanatha, initiate name of

Bhaskararaya, 358.
Bhaskararaya, a Right-hand Sakta
seemingly
scholar, 192, 35S, 389
lived at Tanjore,
a Natha, 192
^

192.

Bhasmajdbdla U., 364.

i.e. Kumarila, 168.
Bhatta Bhaskara Mi&ra, 226.
Bhatta Dinakara, 367.

Bhatta,

Bhutavalya, 121.
Bhuti, one of the two aspects of the
Sakti of Vishnu, 184, 185.

Bhuvanesvari

T., 268.

Bibliolatry, 341, 342, 346.

Bihar! Lai Chaube, 379.

Biharini Das, 378.
Bija, 201.

Kjak, 333, 337.

Bijjala, 260,

Bilva, bael, 294.

Bilvamangala, 304, 375.

Binay Pattrikd,

381.

Bindu, 201.
Bindusara, a Maurya emperor, 75.
Birbal, 296.

Birbhan, 334

Adi Upadesa, 344

his

Christian influence recognizable, 344.

Bird-worship, 43.
Bir Singh, 340.
Black Yajus, origin of the name, 26

and Brahmanas of, 27;

Aranyaka of, 30 Upanishads of, 54,
Samhitas

Bhatta Dinakara, 367.

Bhatta Dipikd, 286, 367.

the

Sutras of, 81, 141;

79;
Satarudriya, 383.
Blood Chapter of Kdlikd P., 354.
58,

Bhatta Nilakantha, 359, 389.

Bhava, 149.

Blood-sacrifice, 354.

Bhavadevami^ra, 368.

Bhava Ganesa DIkshita,

369.
Bhdvand U., 266, 358, 364, 389.
Rdmdyana,
Bhdvdrtha
374.
Bhavaviveka, 371, 397.
Bhavishya P., 139, 372 referred to in
;

Apastamba Dharinasidra, 136; its

contains Saura
Brahma
Parvan
material, 140, 152, 390.

Bhayahara-stotra, 214, 400.

Bodhayana, author of a Visishtadvaita

vritti on
the Veddnia-sutras, 171,
242.

Bodhi, the wisdom of the Buddhas, 160.

Bodhicharydvatdra, 208, 397.
Bodhisattva, one whose nature is wis-

dom, destined

to

become

a Buddha,

105, 112, 160, 20S; advanced Bodhisattvas conceived like divinities, declining nirvana, 113; great Bodhi-

Bhelsari, 345.

married celestial Bodhi210; the Bodhisattva life in

the Mahayana, 113; advanced conthe ten bhumis, or
ceptions, 209

Bhikshu, 52.

stages, in the career, 113, 115, 160,

Bhedabheda, dualistic monism, a form

of the Vedanta, 128, 221, 233, 255,
287, 326 n. 2, 332, 351 n. 4.

sattvas, 158

sattvas,

Bhima Chandra Kavi,

Bodhisattvabhumi, Vijnanavadin work

on the bhumis, 160, 395, 396.
Chattih^dtaka,
Bodhisattvayogdchdra

Bhojaka = Maga, q.v.

Bhumi, t. t. in Mahayana Buddhism;
there were 10 b/i funis, or stages in

Bodhivathsa, 392.
Bodies of the Buddha, 159, 273.
Boons, asked at the Vedic sacrifices,

Bhikshuka U., 364.

Bhilmal, 280.
353, 387.
Bhoja, king of Uhara, 223, 279, 369.

the Bodhisattva
160.

career,

113,

115,

15-

Brahma, the Creator, 41

Bhusundi Rdtndyana, 250, 329, 381.

Bhutaddmara T., 272, 388, 398.
Bhutani, the elements of the
world, 98.
Bhfitapiin Mdhdtmya, 246.
Bhutattu, 188.

396.

visible

in
49, 208
second stage of the Epics, 83 in the
third stage, 92, 98 in the doctrine of
;

Vyuha, 98, 185

the Brahma sect
and its literature, 148, 387 in the
;

Trimurti, 148

Brahinabindu

f.;

his decline, 179.

U., 95, 364.

;;

INDEX
BrahmacharT, the celibate student
place in the Asramas, Si.
Ih-ahmanirita-varshim, 36S.

his

Brahman,

(i) religious truth, 25; (2)

the
of the Absolute, 32, 51
God of the Vedanta, 126; relation
to the world, 56, 127; inactive, 127;
identified with Vishnu, 86, 97.

name

Brahmanand, 378.
Brahmanas, the word, 25; rise of the
Brahmanas, 25 ff.; list, 27, 28; their
character, 27; their religion, 30 ff.;
philosophy in, 32, 51, 363.
philosophy of,
Brahman-Atnian, 51
;

52

spread slowly at

first,

60.

Brahnianda

its
P., 139, 372, 389;
royal genealogies of historical value,
137; Malayalim Tr., 347, 384; contains Sakta material, 357.
contains a
Brahma P., 139, 371
;

Saura section, 226, 270, 389,

Brahmans, 20, 21, 36; education

of,

in transmigration, 34 duties, 40
their
Epic become warriors, 49
share in creating the Upanishad

31

in

philosophy, 53.

Brahma

327.

377-

Brahma

U., 95, 364.

P., 139, 179, 372
the Krishna section is jirobably a
Nimbarkite interpolation, 240, 271,

Brahmavaivarta

376.

Brahmavidyahharana,

the

251, 286, 368.

36:).

T., 265.

district

Brindaban, 316;

Buddha-images, no, in.

Buddhacharita, 115, 394.
Buddhaghosha, 154, 393.

Buddhdlamkdra, 394.
Buddhas, many, no; become almost
112

gods,

like

and

their

perfections,

113;

omniscience
the previous,

70, no.
Buddhavamsa, 70 n., 391.

Buddhdvatamsaka-siitra, 158, 160.

Buddh-Gaya,
Buddhi,

62.

of Sankhya system, 130.

Buddhism, rise of, 62 earliest teaching,
ff.
spreads to Persia, Turkestan
63
and China, 79, 103 Hinayana and
Mahayana, no, 112, 206; the Triratna, 271; killed by Islam, 271;
literature, 272, 390.
Buddhist art, no, in.
Buddhist bhakti, iio-in, 112.
t.

t.

Brahma-sidra-bhashya, 222, 287, 368.

Brahma -sj'ttras, the fundamental document of the Vedanta, 126; written
by Badarayana, 126; a forerunner of
this work, 179.

Braj,

Brahma-sfitra-anulihdshya of Val labha,

Brahmayatnala

of Prabhakara, 168, 367.

Brihatkalpa, 400.
Brihat S., 236 n. i, 390.
Brindaban, 305, 308, 309, 310.
Buddha, the, 55
life,
teaching,
62
63 ff. his doctrine of the soul, of
transmigration and of release, 65
avoidance of metaphysical questions,
biographical material, 70 ; his
65
supposed previous births, 70 reverence for the Buddha, 71 he becomes
a semi-divine being, 78, 155
almost
becomes an eternal god, 78, 114;
Zi'/'i'/zd/i"

S., 30S, 376.

Brahma Sampradaya,

I'rahmavidya U., 95,

413

of Mathura and
the dialect of the

district, 316.

Braj Basi Das, 317, 377.

Braj-hhakti-vilasa, 310.
Braj literature, 297, 377, 379.
Braj vildsa, 317, 377.
Branding, i.e. of the symbols of Vishnu
on the body, 186, 246, 321.
rihaddraiiyaka, 30, 363.
Brihaddranyaka U., 54, 55, 364.
Brihad Brahma S., 183, 246.
Brihajjdbdla U., 364.

Brihaspati Smriti, iSo, 366.

Buddhist Canon, 64, 65-6 the Canon

as found in Ceylon, 68; in Pali, 68;
reduced to writing in first cent. B.C.,
68; the Sanskrit canons, 106, 107,
;

109.
I^uddhist Councils, 65, 66, 67, 72, 108.
Buddhist devotion, see Buddhist bhakti.

Buddhist laity, 71.

Buddhist logic, 17S, 225.
Buddhist monks, 67, 69, 71, 113;

Mahayana, become

priests,

in

113.

Buddhist nuns, 67, 69, 71.

Buddhist pantheism, 274, 279.
Buddhist Patriarch, moves to China,
162.

Buddhist Sakta system, origin, 209 f.

exposition, 210; cult, 210; literature,
21 1 ff., 272, 397
aim of the system,
its theistic or pantheistic theo211
logy, 273
its doctrine that every
Buddha and every I'.odliisattva has a
;

274; many Sakta monks and

nuns absorbed by the Chaitanya sect,

wife,

311-

;;

INDEX

414
Buddhist
Buddhist
Buddhist
Buddhist
Buddhist
Buddhist

no,

Sanskrit, 105, 107,

centre of occult force in the body,

195, 201, 210, 213, 269.
Chakradhar, 248.
Chakradhar Charit, 380.

394.

no.

stiipas,

symbols, 72, no.

tantras, 210, 26'), 272.

theism, 273

Chakra-puja,

279.

f.,

no;

worship, 71,

Maha-

in

yana, 113.
Burial, 263.

circle- worship,

of

86,

the

Saktas, 203, 204, 210, 315, 355.

Chalukyas, 215.

Charaarasa, 353, 387.

Chamars, Outcaste workers in leather,

Burmn, 103, 275, 390.

.^43-

Champakasi-eshtkikatkanaka, 401

Cambodia, 168, 207, 390.

the four chief castes,
Caste, 5, 17, 31
21
sub-castes find mixed castes, 31
education of three highest castes, 31
in
influence of in law and life, 40
the Epics, 49.
Celtic people, i.
Central Asia, 103.
Ceylon, 153; extra-canonical Buddhist
^
lit,, written in Ceylon, 154 f., 275.
;

Ceylonese Canon, see Buddhist Canon.

Chaitanya, founder of the Chaitanya
won by a Madhva
sect,
307 ff.
accepts Radha,
sannyasi, 303, 307
307 his preaching and singing, 307
his journeys,
his converts, 307, 308
his influence,
his death, 308
307
and perpowers
his
.^03) ?>4, 305
inhis reading, 308
sonality, 308
fluence of his death in Bengal, 309
mentioned in Visvasara 71, 354.
Chaitanya Bhagavata, 310, 377.
;

and Vairaginis, 311

monks and nuns

many Buddhist

absorbed, 309, 311; their impurity,

311 temples and images, 312 Chaitanya, Advaita, and Nityananda worshipped, 312; sahkirtan and nagarsanklrtan in the temples,
klrtan, 307
312; in houses, 312 influence of the
;

sect, 318.

Chaitya,

Buddhist hall, 71, 72

becomes a temple, 113.
Chakra, circle, (i) a Sakta circle for
worship, 203, 355
(2) a supposed
a

Chamundaraya, 282, 404.

ChS'mmdai'dya P., 282, 404.
Chanakya, 43.
Chaiidamahdroshana T., 272, 272

n. 3,

39 iS.

Chanda-nidrn/a, 379.

Chanda-maruta Mahacharya, 380.

Chanddviyyaya, 400.
Chandl, a name of the goddess, 150;
used also as = Chandl-mdhdtmya,
356.
Chaytdl, a Bengali epic, 257, 356.

Chandl Das, 273, 305, 307, 308, 356,

378.

Chandika, 354.
Chaudi-mdhdtmya^ a section of the
Mdi-kandeya P. basis of Sakta sect,
150 f., '388; Gobind Singh had it
;

translated, 339
other Trs., 356, 357
use of the passage as a liturgy, 3.^7.

ChandT-mahgal, 390.

Chaitanyamahgal, 377.
Chaitanya sect, accepts Radha, 307
its philosophic position Bhedabheda,
hymns and Gaur Chandrika,
308
308 the six Gosvamis at Brindaban,
309 f.; literature, 309(1., 375; the
temples at Brindaban, 310 modificaGosvamis, 3n:
tions of caste, 311

of the

goddess, 203.

Chaitanyachandrodaya^ 310, 377.

Chai/anyachan'ta, 376.
Chaitanya-charitdmrita, 310, 377-

the Vairagis

Champu, 353.
Chamunda, one of the names

Ckaiicit-sataka, 150, 200, 388.

Chandragomin, 209, 398, 399.

Chandragupta, 43, 49, 66 said
;

to

have

been a Jain, 75.

Chandrahdsa A.,

193.

ChandrajJidna

A., 193.
Chandrakald T., 268.
Chandraklrti, 208, 209, 397.

Chandraprajnaptii 166, 219, 400, 403.

Chandrasiiii, 402.

Chandrika, yj^.
Chdiigdeva Charitra, 380.

C hdrigdeva

Pdsashii, 374.

Channa Basava P., 353, 387.

Channa Sadasiva Yoglsvara, 3S7.
Channa Vrishabhendra SvamT, 387.
Charaka, 95.
Charana, a Vedic school, 294.
Charananuyoga, fourth section of Digambara Secondary Canon, 219.
Charan Das, 334, 344, 383.

;
,

INDEX
Charan Dasis, 334, 344, 382

Hindu

influence in the sect, 345.

Chdrdyaniya- Kdthaka Dharma-siltra,

141.
Charitas, 27S.
Chai-iydpitaka, a book of previous lines
of the Buddha, 70, 392.
Charvakas, 371.
Charydcharya-vinischaya, 398.
Charya-pada, one division of the contents of the Sarhhitas,
tras, 184.
Chatterji, J.

C,

291

Agamas, Tan-

his

Kashmir

Shaivism, 302.

Cow-worship, 43.
Creation in the Pancharatra Sarhhitas,
i84f.
Criminal law, 40.
his BdnT, 34T
3S2
382 his disciples, 341, 382.
Dadu-dvara, 341.
Dadupanth, 334. 341, 381; literature,
ascetics
rejects Outcastcs, 341
341
called Dddupaiithls, laymen Sevaks,
of
orders
ascetics,
five
341 f.
341 ;
restrictions on reading the Bam, 341 ;
the guriimaiiira and the iabda, 341 ;

Dadij, 334, 341,

Bhaqwat, 374.

Chaurdsl Bdrtd, 317, 377.

Chatirdsi Pada, 318, 377.
Chdvuttdardya P., 404.
Chhandas, 42.
Chhdndogya Brdhmana, 27, 28, 363.
Chhdudogya U., 54., 55, 364.
Chhedasutras of Jain Canon, 400.

Chidambaram, 257.
Chidananda, 303, 375.
Child-marriage, 263.
China, 103, 118, 153 f., 207, 275, 391.
Chinese Buddhist Canon, 162, 275.
Chintya, name of an Agama, 193.
Chitrasikhandin rishis, 98.
Chittars = Sittars.
Chittore, 306.

Chokamela, a Mahar, a Marathi poet,

Gild,

92

Chronicles of Ceylon, found

varhsa and Mahavamsa, 72.

in

Ddkd)-nava, 399.
Ddkini-jdla-sambara T., 272, 39S.
Dakshinacharl, the right-hand section
of the Sakta sect, 268.

Daks hindmurfi U.,

Damodar Das, 378.

the

Dipa-

Chuddmani,

217, 219, 404.

Chulikd U., 93 ff., 364.
C/utllaTagga, a section of the Buddhist

Vinaya, 69, 391.

Chundl-devi-dhdraui, 399.
Churani, 345.

Ch'Yao, ii8\
Civil law, 40.

Colebrooke, 364.
Conjeeveram, 181, 268, 320, 347.
Contests of wit, held at close of sacrifices, 22.

Corea, 390.
Councils, l^uddhist, see Buddhist Councils
Jain, see Jain Councils.
;

Cow-pens, holy, 41.

364.

Damodaramisra, 381.

Ddnakalpadruma

402.

Ddnakdi-kaiiviudi, 376
Dancing in worship, 312.
Dandl, a Brahman sannyasT who carries
a danda, a bamboo rod of a symbolical and ceremonial character,
174 n. I.
Dara Shikoh, 285, 287, 344, 364.
Darbesh, 312.
Darsana, 124.

Darsana U., 364.

Darsan Prakds, 380.
slave, 5.

Dasahhumaka,
vastu,

in

Dasa,
Christianity, in the
didactic Epic, 99.

the cult, 342.

DadiipanthTs, the ascetics of the Dadiipanth are so called, 341.

Chattisgarh, 343.
Ckattilisaraiia, 400.
Chaturvargachinfd))iani, 226, 373.
Chaturvithiatijinastnti, 400, 402.
Chatiisloki

415

a chap, in

the i\Iahd-

10, 115, 396.

DaSabhumaka-sfitra, 160, i6i, 275, 396.

DasahhiiDiisvara, 275, 396.
Dasahodha, 301, 374.
Dasapadd-rtha, 177.
Dasas, 4, 5.

Dasasdhasrika Prajfidpdramitd sulra,

115.

Dasasloki, 240, 376.

Dasasloki-bhdshya, 376.
Dasdsriitaskandha, 400.

DasavaikdlikasH'ra, 215, 399.

Dasiiamis, sannyasis of ten orders, 174.

Dasyus,

4.

Ddthdvamsa, 393.
Dattatreya, 183, 190, 247
usually
represented as a sannyasT with three
24S
heads,
the Manbhaus do not
i-ecognize this figure, but call Datta;

INDEX

4i6
treya
248.

an

Krishna,

of

incarnation

Dattdtreya S., 183, 249, 380.

Dattatreya Sampradaj'a, 248, 327.
Dattatreya sect, 190; literature, 190.
Dattdtreya U., 249, 364, 380.
Davva Sathgaha, 404.

Daya Bal, 383.

Dayaram, 317.

Dharani, a Buddhist word for spell,

equivalent to the Hindu mantra, 158,

how to use a dharani, 212.

160, 212
definition of, 38, 39 f.
begin;

Dharma,

27; expounded in Karma

MTmamsa, 125; name of a god, 41,
49, 100 n.6.
Dharma, worshipped in Bengal, 271
literature of the cult, 271.

nings

of,

378-

Death, repeated death

world, 32, 35, 52.

the

in

other

Dharma Das,

335.

of
Hinayana
school
Buddhism, 156, 395; 'Cntvc Abhinishkramana-sutra, 156, 395; translated
their
into Chinese and Tibetan, 207
Vinaya in Sanskrit, ic,6 in Chinese,

Dharmagupta

Dehu, 301.
Devabhadra, 278, 279, 401.
Devacharya, 375.

Devadasis, women of bad repute who

sing and dance in the temple-cult,

156.

Dharmakaya, one

322.

Dharmaklrti, 398.

Devdrdm, Canon of the hymns of the

Tamil Saiva poets called The Three,
256; set to Dravidian music, 256;
sung in the temples, 256.
Devarddhi, 163; works, 164, 401.
Devasarman, 394.
Devasuri, 225.

Devatadhyaya Brahmana, 363.

Dharma-mangal poems, 271 f.

Dharmdmrita, 283, 405.
Dharmapada, Sansk. for Dhaniinapada

Dharmas, the Nine, of Nepal, 275.

Dharmasagara, 360, 403.
Dharma-Sastras, 40.
date, 38
Dharma-sutras, 38 ff., 365
contents, 39 f. ; modification of, 80.

Dhdtu-kathd, 393.
Dhruva Das, 378.

Dhyana,

meditation

contemplative

power, 274.

Dhydnabindu

269.

in Chinese, 155.

Devendragani, 278.
Devendrastava, 400.
Devendrasuri, 281, 402.
Devi, goddess the goddess of the Sakta
sect, 150; symbols used in her worship, 293 n. 2 sometimes represented
by a snake coiled round the liiiga,
294 n. I.
Devi Bhdgavata Upapurdna, a Sakta
work, 226, 269, 359, 373, 389; date,

U., 95, 364.

Dhyani-Bodhisattva, 273, 274.

Dhyani-Buddha, 273, 27^.

Diagrams, representing divinities, 293.
Dialogues, 22.
Didactic Epic, 85 ff., 92 arose in N.E.
compass, 85 ; contents,
India, 85
86 ff., 95.
Digambara, a Jain sect, 75, 119, 162,
Digambaras and the original
259
;

DevJ-mdhdtmya, an episode in Rldrkandeya P., 150

see Chandi-Mahdt:

niya.

Devi

of the bodies of a

Buddha, 159.

DevSgamastotra, 216, 403.

Devaki, mother of Krishna, 100.

267, 364.
T., 265.
Dhamma, Pali for dharma, 40.
U.-i

Devi-ydmala

Canon,

Dhammachakkappavattana

Digambara Secondary Canon, 218,

282
Digambara literature, 120,
165 f., 215, 281, 360; the Digambara

Dhammakitti, 393.
Dhaiiimapada, a book
verse,

71, 393;

comm.

Sii/ta,

of Buddhist
ascribed to

Buddhaghosha, 393.

Dhammapala,

70 n.

155.

76,

121,

120,

21 8,

360;

categories, 360.

Digha Nikaya,

division of the
first
Buddhist Sutta Pitaka, 70, 71, 391,

393-

Dhamma-sahgatii, 393.
Dhanapala, 278, 279,401.
DhanT Dharm Das, 382.
Dhanna, 328.
Dhanyakumdracharitra, 405.

Dignaga, a Buddhist logician, 1 35.

Dik, t. t. of Vaiseshika system, 133.
DIksha, initiation, 167, 204; among

Dhanyasdlicharitra, 402.
Dhara, 283.

Din

Vira

Saivas,

358Ilahl, 291.
Dioskouroi, 2.

282

among

Saktas,

INDEX
Dipankara, 273.
Dipavaihsa, 155, 393.

Dlpta yi., 193.

Dirghagama, Saiisk.

then

literary,

education of the

19;

three castes, 31.

Ego Buddhism teaches that all things
:

for

Dighanikaya,

are lackintj in an ego, 64.

109; in Chinese, 155.

Ekadandls, Sankara's Daridls (174 n. i)

are so called in contrast with SrTVaishnava SannyasTs, who carry a
triple rod, 243 n. i.

Dlrghatamas, 9.
Divine incarnation, first among Vaishnavas, S4 f. later among Saivas, 147.
Divyavaddua, 108, 395.
Dnyandev, 234; vernacular for Jnana;

Ekdkshara

['.,

364.

Ekangas, Srl-Vaishnava ascetics who are

not Brahmans.
Ekantada Ramayya, 260.

deva, q. v.

Dnyanoba,

234, 302 ; vernacular for

Jnanesvara, q. v.
Domestic ceremonies, 23.
Drahydyana Srauta Sutra, 365.
Dramida, author of a Visishtadvaita
Bhashya on the Veddiita-sutras, 171.

DraupadT, 49, 100

417

Eklihgjl, 146.

Eknath, a Alarathl poet, 250, 300, 302,

?<22,

374.

Ekndlhi Bhdg'uai, 374.

Ekorama, one of the five original
Lihgayat ascetics, 260.
Ekottaragama, Sansk. for Anguttarani-

n. 6.

Drdvida Bhashya^ 351, 3S6.

Dravida land, i.e. the Tamil country,

kaya, 109 in Chinese, 155.

Elephanta, 149 n. 8.
Epics, 44 ff. ; 83 ff.
;

232. 246.

Dravida Veda, 379.

Dravidian music, 241.

Eroticism, 203, 204, 210.

Dravya, t. t. of Vaiseshika system, 133.

Dravyanuyoga, third section of Digambara Secondary Canon, 219.

Eschatology, 15, 23, 33 ff., 41, 44, 48.

Eternity of sound, 290 n. 2.
Etherealized body, a result of austerities,

Dravyasamgraha,
Drishtivdda, a

Duhla Ram,
Dukha, 64.
Dukhanta,

282, 404.

lost Jain

59-

book, 400.

Etymology, 42.
Excommunication, 40.

345.

t.

t.

of PaSupata

system,

Fa Hien,

Dulan Das, 343,

382.
Durga, a goddess, celebrated in the
the
of
called
sister
Epic,
149
called Uma, the wife
Krishna, 149

Fathers

Uma;

also called

one of
see Sakta sect
1 50
the five gods, 179.
Durgd'satandma Stotra, 354.
Durgati-parisodhana-dlidraiiT, 399.

Chandi,

Durvdsasa

T., 2 68.

Dvddasdniiprekshd, 403.
Dvaita, dualism, a form of the Vedanta,
128, 2S7.
Dvaitddvaita-siddhdiita-sctuka, 376.
Dvarika, Dwarka, in Kathiawar, 100,
302.
Dwarf, Vamana, 84 n. 2 one of Vishnu's
;

incarnations, 85 n.

Dyanuka,

t.

Earthenware

t.

i.

Ancestors, 23.

one of Vishnu's incarnations,

85 n. I.
Five Buddhas, 273.
Five gods, worshipped by Smartas, 179,
293 rise of the custom, 179 f. time,
206; significance, 180; author, 176,
179; worship of, 178, 179.
Five MS., i.e. inadya (wine^, mdmsa
(meat), matsya {^'^'^,?niidrd (parched
Fish,

grain), niaithuita (coition), 210, 355.

63.

Four Sampradayas, 327.

.Sastras, 258.
Full Lihgayats, 262.
Full Moon sacrifice, 22.
Funeral ceremonies, 16, 39, 40.

representing divini-

Ganadvesadipikd, 376.

ties, 293.

Education, the beginnings were priestly,

8, 18, 27; at first oral, 8, iS, 25;

Former Buddhas, see Previous Buddhas.

Four Noble Truths, the, of Buddhism,

Fourteen Siddhanta

of Vaiseshika system,

pots,

i.

Fire-cult, 41, 43.

of Siva, 150: see

154.

Family, patriarchal,
Fana, 331.

251.

Ganapati = Ganesa
Ganapati-tdpamya U., 189, 206.

E C

INDEX

4i8

Ganapati U., 206, 364, 390.

Ganapatya, the sect which worships
the subGanapati or Ganesa, 206
sects,
270; their TrimQrti, 149;
their
their literature, 206, 270, 390
theology, 206; their sect-mark, 270;
their mantra, 270; their worship,
;

270.

Ganas,

19.

Gandavyuha, 158, 275, 396.

Gandhahastimahabhdshya, 216,

219,

403-

Gandharan

Ghuman, 299.
Giri, name of one

of the ten orders of

Sankara's sannyasis, 174.
Giridhar, 322.
GiridhnrajT, 316, 317, 377.
Giridhar Kabraya, 382.
Gifd, i.e. Bhagavadgitd, q.v.
Gitdbali, 381.

art, iii.

Ganesa, the centre of the Ganapatya

sect, 149, 206; one of the five gods,
symbols used in his
179, 206, 301
worship, 293 n. 2.
;

Ganesa-Khanda of Brahmavaivarta
Ganesa S., 183, 206.
Ganesa Upapurana, 226, 270, 390.
Ganesa-ydmala T., 265.
Ganga, 47.
Gahgadhara, 270, 390.
Ganges, 16, 47 Ganges water used
;

P.,

Madhva, 242, 375

of Ramanuja, 379
of Vishnusvami,
375Glta Govtnda, 238, 378.
Gitdrtha-sahgraha, 241.
Gitd-bhashya of

Gobhila Grihya Sutra, 365.

Gobind Singh, the last Sikh guru, 338,

382; creates the Khalsa, 339, 340;

Granth, 339 his Jap Saheb, 339

his

n. 4.

God,
in

worship, 294.
Gafigesa, 224, 370, 370 n. i.
Ganinath, 235.
Ganitavidyd, 400.
Garbas, songs in praise of the Devi,
356-

in
in early Upanishads, 55 f.
verse Upanishads, 58.
Gods, of Rik, 10 ff. position of Vedic
;

gods weakening, 21,

Gokul, 100.
Gokulnath, 317, 377.

Golden Temple

at

32.

Amritsar, the central

Sikh shrine, 337 the worship, 340 f.

Goloka, cow-place the highest heaven,
the heaven of Krishna, ace. to Nim;

Garbha U., 364.

Gargya, 146.
Garib Das, 334, 345 his Guru Granth
Sahib, 345.
Garib Dasis, 334, 345 only the twiceborn received as ascetics, 345.
Garuda, 48.
Garuda P., 139, 178, 372; a Smarta
manual, 178 f., 206, 372; contains a
passage on Surya, 206 a passage on
Gnnesa, 206, 390.
;

Garuda

U., 364.
Gdthdsahasrl, 403.
Gdthdsahgraha, 398.
Gaudapada, author of Sdhkhya-kdrikdbhdshya, 176, 369.
Gaudapada, the advaita Vedantist,
17'of.,

Gayatri, 151, 390.

Gdyatrl-bhdshya, 378,
Ghata, pot, used in Sakta worship, 202.
GhazI Das, 343.
Gheraitda S., 348, 384.

364.

GaudI, 205.
Gaurdhgdshtaka, 376.
Gaur Chandra, 308.
Gaur Chandrika, 308, 312.
Gautama Dharma-siitra, 80, 365.
Gautama, the Buddha, 55, 62, 273, 274
see the Buddha.
Gaula III tya S., 240, 305, 376.

baika, 240.

Gommatasdra, 282, 405.

.
Gommatesvara, 282.
Gondhal, a dance in honour of the goddess, 356.

Gopala, an epithet of Krishna, 50.

Gopala Bhatta, 309.

Gopdla-sahasrandma, 239, 375.
Gopdla-tdpamya U., 189, 237, 239, 364,
37.^-

Gopatha Brahmaiia, 42, 363, 364, 365.

Goplchandana, a white clay used for
making the sect-mark of the Bhagavatas, 234, 29S.
C\, 234, 36^, 373.
GopTs, milkmaids, of Brindaban,

Goptchandana

panions of Krishna

in

com-

dance, song,

and sport, 229, 230, 314.

Gorakhnath il^Gorakshanatha), 223, 235,
384 a Yogi, founder of the Kanphata
;

Yogis, 253; date, 254; believed still

worto live in the Himalayas, 348
shipped in many temples in N. India,
;

253;

his

Sanskrit works,

254; his

INDEX
Yoga, 223, 253 f.; worshipped in
in the
Gorakhnathi temples, 347
temple of Gorakhpur a shrine to his
memory, 347.
;

Gorakhnathls (Gorakshanathis), a sect

of Pasupata Saivas, 190, 384; probably derived from the Nathas, 192;
closely allied to the Kapalikas, 253
date of foundation, 253 their temples,

Gorakhnath worshipped and

347
Kanphata
animals sacrificed, 347
Yogis, 348 their mantra, 348 their
their lack of
literature, 254, 348
;

Gunabhadra, 2 7, 404.
Guna-body, 185.
Gunachandra, 278, 401.
Gunakdrandavyiiha, 274, 275, 397.
Gunaratna, 360, 401.
1

Gupta empire,

Gur Das,

261.

Goraksha-gild, 384.
Goi'hksha-kalpa, 384.
Goraksha-launnidT, 384.
Goraksha-paddhati^ 384.
Goraksha-paiichaya, 384.
Goraksha-sahasrandma, 384.
Goraksha-sataka, 254, 348, 384.
Gosvami,^309, 311.
GosvamI Sri Purushottamaji, 316.

Gotama, 9n.
Govardhana, name of a
of

Furl, founded

122, 123, 136.

382.

Guru, i.e. Prabhakara, 168.

held to be
Guru, religious teacher
God, first among ascetics, then
among laymen. 167, 186; among
held to be the
Buddhists, 210;
Buddha, 210; among Vira Saivas,

interest in yoga, 348.

Goraksha, a name of Siva, 253; also

Sanskrit name of Gorakhnath, 254.

name

419

in

hill

298.

Gurusthala Jangamas, 262.

Guru-worship, 262, 336, 338, 346.
Gntkd, 382.
Gydn Prakds, 382.
Gydn Sainudra, 382.
Braj

monastery,

inatha,

Gnrudeva, 387.
Gurudvaras, 340.
Gum Granth Sahib, 345.
Gurumukhi, an alphabet invented for
Nanak's hymns, 337.
Guruparampara, succession of gurus,

in

Hala, 165, 215..

by Sahkara, 174, 297.

Govinda-bhdshya, 287, 311, 377.

Govinda Das, 311, 376.
Govindananda SarasvatI, 369 n. i.

Haihsa U., 95, 364.

Handal, 340.

Graha-ydmala T., 265.

Grdmageyagdna, 19.

Hanuman, 48; temples

Grammar, 42

Hallisa, 144.

HandalTs, 340.

schools of, 80.

Granth or Granth Sahib, the sacred
book of the Sikhs, 299, 300, 338
called also the Adi Granth, 339,

382

contents,

Guru Arjan, 337

338
;

compiled

uses, 338.

Gobind

Singh bids the Sikhs take the Granth

for their guru, 339
the worship of
the Granth is part of the Sikh cult,
;

340, 341Graitth of the Tenth Guru, 339, 382;

used for worldly ends, 339.

Greeks, 78.
Grihastha, householder, q.
Gfihya-siitras, 38 f., 365;

v.

date,

38;

contents, 39, 140.

Gritsamada,

8.

GujaratI literature, 297, 306, 317, 319,

356, 360, 378, 390.
Guna, (i) t. t. of Sankhya system,
1S5
(2) of Vaiseshika, 134; (3) of
the theology of the Sakti of Vishnu,

Hanuman,

of

321.

Hanumdn

Ndtaka, 329, 381.

Haoma, 3.
Har Gobind,

a Sikh guru, 338.

Haribhadra, 214, 278, 280, 360, 371,
383,401Haribhakli-rasdyana, a Mudhva work
on devotion, 303, 375.
Haribhakti-vildsa, 309, 376.
Hari Das, 378.
flaridasls, 302, 318;
Haridasi literature, 37 8.

Haridra Ganapati, 270.

Harihara, 143, 264.
Hariharananda Bharati, 355.
Hariharananda SvamI, 289.
Harikatha, 302.
HaHkathdmritasdra, oxHarikathdsdra,
303, 375Harilild, va. abstract of the

Bhdgavata

P;_ 234, 374.

Haripdth,

Jnanesvara's,
Eknath's, 300, 374.

184.

e %

235,

374;

INDEX

420
Harishena, 403.

Hdrita

S., 246.

Ilarivamsa, a Pnrana, 139, 371,372;

recognized as last section of the
MBH., 100; date, 140, 143; life of
Krishna appended to royal genealogies,
138; gives much space to
Krishna legend, 143 contains hymns
teaches the
to Durga, 140, 387
equality of Vishnu and Siva, 142, 181;
possibly a Bhagavata P., 143
conbecame attached to the
tents, 143 f.
Alahabhdrata, 144
contains Sakta
;

material, 150.
Harivamsa P. (Jain), 217, 217 n.
218, 219, 404.

2;

Hari Vamsa, 318, 378.

Harivyasa Muni, 305, 376.

Har

Hiraiiyakesl Grihya Sutra, 365.

HiranyakesI Sraiita Sutra, 365.
Hit-chanrdsJ-dham, 37S.
Hit-jT, 318.

Horse-sacrifice, 14, 22.

Hotri,

6, 7, 14, 17, 19, 20.

Householder, one of the four asramas,

29, 40, 81.
Hriiig, 201.

Hurh, 201.

Human
Hung,

sacrifice, 203, 354.

201.

Huvishka, a Kushan king, 103.

Hymns, of Rigveda, see Rigveda.
Hypnotic trances, in Buddhism,

Hypnotism,

Rai, 340.

61.

Idolatry renounced, 326, 359.

later,
first mention of,
41
common, 48 images of divinities in
sexual union, 265 images in Smarta
worship, 293.
Image- worship, 50, 51 n. ; unorthodox,

Harsha, 205.
Hatha-sahketa-chandrikd, 384.
Hatha-yoga, the name of a new Yoga,
taught by Gorakhnath, 253, 348.
Hatha-yoga, 254, 348, 384.
Hatha-yoga-pradTptka 348, 384.

Images,

Hayagriva [/,, 364.

Heavenly gods, i, 2.

Immortality, 1,15.

Hellenic peoples,

i.

Hemachandra, 277,
Hemadri, 226, 373.
Henotheism,

f.,

401.

5-

Incantations, 16, 43.

Incarnation, divine, 41, 47
incarnations of Vishnu, 84, 85, 87, 09, 100.
India, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 15, 47, 49.

Indo-European, race,

15.

of Gnnesa, used by
Buddhists as well as Hindus, 270.

Heramba-Ganapati, 270.
Hermits, 29, 31;
Vaikhanasa,

see

religion,

culture,

Indo-Iranian people, 2;

language,
;

i,

literature, 6.

relifjion, 2, 3.

Inheritance, 40.

Vanaprastha,

Heruka, 272.
Hertiha T., 272, 398.
He-vajra 71, 272, 398.
Himalayas, 103.
Hinayana Buddhism, 103,

Initiation, 31.

Irupdvirupathu, 258, 385.

Isa, Lord, 58.
Jjd
55, 58, 364.
t.
Isvara, Lord, God, 58

110,

in,

118.
64, 67-72, 104161, 207, 393.
Hindi literature, 296, 297, 299, 305,
316, 317, 333, 336,339, 341. 343 ff-,
361, 381, 382.
Hindu nuns, 129.
Hindu people to-day, 292.
Hindu philosophies, 122 ff. the foundation texts, 123; date, 123.
Hindu sects, 122.
Hihglaj, 348.
just
Hiouen Tsang, 177, 207, 20S
escaped being sacrificed to Durga,
literature,

10, 118, 154

278, 279

Heramba, a name

Hinayana

64,

211.

ff.,

Yoga

system, 132;
_ system, 134.
Ihara Gita, 358.

t.

Hiranyahesl Dhaiina Sutra, 365.

t.

of the

of

Nyaya

Isvara Krishna, also called Vindhyavasin, author of the Sdhkhya-kdrika

129, 368; his date, 129.
Isvara-pratyalihijiia-kdrikds, 259.

Isvara Purl, 303, 307.

Isvara S., 183, 246.
Isvar

Das Nagar,

343.

Italic peoples, i.

Itivuttaka, 393.
I Tsing, 207, 208, 212.

203.

I.

Jdbala U., 95, 358, 364.

Jabali U., 364.
Jadunandana Das, 311.

INDEX
Jagadlsa,

421

Jdtaka, a book of previous lines of the

89, 371.

Jagannalh, 307.
Jagatsmidariyogamahl, 403.
Jayjivan Das, 343, 382.

buddha, 70, 71, 392,

influence, 108, 110, 113.

393;

their

Jdtakamdld, of Aryasura, 156, 395,

Jagmohana, 312.

JdiakattJiavaiinand, 393.
Jatayus, 48.
Java, 168, 391.

Jahangir, 338.
Jaimini, 367.

Jaimini Bharata, 304.

Jaimini Grihya Sutra, 365.
Jaimini Srauta Siltra, 365.

Jayadeva, 238, 305, 307, 308, 37S

his

date, 238.

Jaiininiya Brdhmana, 27, 2^.

Jaiminiya - nyiiya - miiUi- vistara,

285,

367.

Jayadevamisra, 371.
Jayadhavald, 217, 219, 404;
217 n. 2.
Jayananda, 377.

Jaiminiya-sulra-bhashya, 367, 377.

Jaiininiya Upanishad Brdhmana, 27,

Jayanta, 370,
Jayaratha, 386.

Jain art, 119.

Jain asceticism, 74-

Jayatihuyanastotra, 279, 401.

its

tjkd,

Jayasiiiiha, 279.

Jaina, the word, 74.

Jaindslckavdrtika, 404.
Jainavarndsrama, 4O4,
Jain bhai^ti, 120.
Jain canon, see Svetambara Jain Canon.
Jain councils, 75.
older than Buddhism,
Jainism, 73 ff.
73; the early system, 74; atheism,
74; asceticism, 74; souls in elements,
;

74

ties,

ahiiiisa,
1

75,

74

19

the

two communi-

expansion

in

north

and south, 119;^ little influenced by

Saktism, 213; Sakta yoga present
but not prominent, 213 decline, 359.
Juin laity, 74.
Jaiu literary dialecis, 162.
Jain literature, 75 ff., 119, 120 f., 162,
213, 277, 398; popular literature in
Prakrit, 165; in vernaculars, 228.
Jain logic, 178, 213, 225.
Jain MaharashtiT, 162.
Jain monks, 74, 75, 119.
Jain nuns, 74, 119.
Jain suicide, 74.
a work written
Jain theism, 27S
against it, 2S2.
Jain Tirthakaras, 71, 120 n. i, 216.
;

Jain woi ship, 75, i2o._

Jain Yoga, 213.

Asokan

Jains, in an

Jambavan,

edict, 77.

48.

JamliudvJpaprajnapii, 215, 400.

Jaiiamsakhls, 336.
Jangama, 260, 261, 262, 263;

two
Jangama, 262.
Japan, Buddhism carried to Japan, i68,
classes of

207. 391JapJ', 33^ 338. 34'Jap Saheb, 339 n. 4.

Jayatirtha, 237, 375.

Jayavallabha, 215, 401.
Jejakabhukti, 226.

Jenghiz Khan, 277.

Jetalpur, 318.
Jina, 74.

Jinachandra, 401.
Jinadatta, 280, 402.
Jinakdthe, 217, 403.
Jiiiaklrti, 360, 402.
Jindksharamdle, 404.
Jinamandana, 360, 402.
Jinasaihhitd, 360, 405.
Jinasena (a), author of Ilayivamsa P.,
217, 404.
Jinasena (b), pupil of Virasena, author

of part of

Adi

P. (Jain), 217, 404.

Jiva, 309, 377.

Jivdb/ngama, 400.
JJvaka-Chintdmaiii, 2S0, 401, 404.
Jivaviydra, 401.
jTv^ Dasd, 3 78.
Jnanachandra, 177, 370.
Jfiana Das, 311, 37 7.

Jnanadeva

Jnanesvara.

J hdnddi-sddhana,

399.

JhdndmriLa, 3S4.
Jnana-pada, one of the four divisions of
the contents of Agamas,
and Tantras, 1S4.

Saurhitas,

Jndiiaprasthdnasdsira, 107, loS, 394.

jFianasagara, 360, 402.
Jiidna-Vasishtjiam , 296, 373.
Jnanesvara,

234, 239, 248, 253, 29S,

a true Bhagavata,
374, 384
235 a monist, 234, 300.
Jiidncsvarl, a Marathi commentary on
the Giid, 234, 24S, 296, 374; teaches
the advaita system and yoga, 234.
299,

INDEX

423
Jndtadliarmakatha, one
Angas, 399.
Jot Prasad,

of

the

Jain

3.',6.

Junagadh, 306.
Jyolisvati T., 26S.

Kablr, 284, 291, 323, 326, 327, 330,

Islam and Hinduism both
347, 381
influence
contributed to Kabir, 331
of Sufiism, 331
Ramananda his
banished from Benares,
teacher, 332
332 relation of Hindu and Muhammadan elements in his mind, 332
;

Kalisat'ntarana U., 364.

Kallata, 386.'

Kdlottara T., 265.

Kalpalatd, 360, 403.
Kalpas, 146.
Kalpasiitra (of the Jains), 163, 360,
400.
Kalpa-sutras, 38, 50, 365.
Kalpdvataihsikd, 400.
Kalpika, 400.

denounces idolatry, 333; condemns

divine incarnation and asceticism,
Is there Christian influence in

333.

poems? 333 a strict theist, 333;

conception of God, 333
character
of his poetry, 333
critical research
needed to distinguish his genuine
poems from later work, 333
the
Btjak, 333; poems in the Granth,
his

Kalydnamandira-stotra 165, 400.

,

Kama, the god of love, 41, 47, 49.

Kamachiamma, 268.
Kdinadhenu T., 389.
Kamakhya, a famous Sakta temple

A'ainika,

name

of an

Agama,

193, 194,

333, 338

sects

which arose from his

influence, 334, 347

common

features

of these sects, 334.

Kabiipanth, 334, 335, 381
monks and
nuns, 335 two sub-sects, each under
a Mahant, at Benares and at Chattisgarh, 335
many monasteries, 335
cult, 336
special ceremonies, 336
worship of the Mahant, 336 Kabir
called an incarnation of the Supreme,
sect-mark, mantra, rosary, 336.
336
Kabittabalt, 381.
;

in

Assam, 354.
Kamarupa, 354.
264.

Kamsa, 100, loon. 4.

Kanada Kasyapa, 369.
Kanaiya, 340.

Kanaka Das,

375.

Kanakamuni,

one of the previous

*
Buddhas, 72, 273.
Kanarak, 269 n. 5, 270.
Kanarese Literature, 216, 228, 260,

264, 281, 282,

353> 385-

Kanchl-Appar

283,

296, 303, 347,

cent.),

(xii

256

(xviii

cent.), 347, 385.

Kdiichi-ptirdiiam, 347, 351, 383.

Kaiida Piirdiiaiii, 256, 385,

Kach, 339 n. i.
Kadchd, note-book, of Govinda Das,
376; of Murari Gupta, 376.
section of the Tibetan
Buddhist Canon, also called Kanjur,

Ka-gyjtr, the

first

267.

Kaivadya Dxpikd, 380.

Kaivalya, t. t. of Sahkhya system, 131,
132.

Kaivalya-sdra, 38 7.

Kaivalya U., 103, 364.

Kakshivan, 9n.
Kala, t. t. of Vaiseshika system, 133;
t. t. of Pancharatra system, 185.

Kdldgnirudra U., 196, 364.

Kdlajfidna T., 388.
Kalakacharya, 120, 400.

Kdlakdchdryakathdnaka, 40 1
Kalakshepam, 302.
Kdlanidhi T., 268.
Kalidasa, 217.
Kalighat, 203 n. i, 354.
Kdlikd P. or 71, 354, 372, 3S9.

Kahga, 339 n, i.
Kanishka, a Kushan king, 95,

no,

loS,

III.

Kaiijnr, see Ka-gynr.

Kannudaiya Vallalar, 351, 386.

Kanphata Yogis, followers of Gorakhnath, 347 ; their mantra, 348
their worship
their ornaments, 348
of Gorakhnath, 348 their yoga, 348.
;

Kmithasruti U., 95, 364.

Kanva, 8, 10.
Kapala-Kundala, a Kapalika nun, 192.
Kapalesvara, skuU-^od, an epithet of
Siva, used in Kapalika sect, 192.
Kapalikas, skull-men, a group or sect
of Pasupata ^aivas,

190, 192, 384;

probably merely an order
their mudrds, 348
of ascetics, 192
there were nuns as well as
n. 3
closely allied to
monks, 192, 252
left-hand ^aktas, 192, 252
riactise
^akta worship, 252 have foul rites
of their own, 211, 252; practise
Saktayoga, 192, 252; show eroticism
date, 192

INDEX
the modern Aghoris are
;
the old Kapalikas, 347.
Kapilavastu, birthplace of the Buddha,

423

also, 252

Kasikd, 367.

62.

Kasyapa, 273.
Kasyapa Matahga, 118.
Katha, 282.

Kapishthala-Katha?,

school of the

Black Vajus, 27.

Kapishthala-Katha Satiihita, 27, 28.
Karana, name of an Agama, 193.
Karananuyoga, second section of Digambara Secondary Canon, 219.

Kdrandavyuha,
Karikas,

Karma,

def.,

and

Karma

34

t.

Transmigration
of Vaiseshika

t.

system, 134; 1. 1. of Agamic Saivism,

one element in PaSa, 195.
Karmagranthas, 28 1, 402.

Karma-marga, the way

release

to

by

works, 88.
Karma Mimaiiisa, exegesis of the sacri-

Veda,

ficial

,27,58-

Kdthaka Samhttd, 27, 28.

Kdthaka C'pamskad, 58, 60,

125, 220, 367

37,
37, 60, 61, 125 j earliest
of,
37 ; early use, 39, 79
;

form

in
Jaimini's Sutras,
an earlier document, now
lost, probably served as model for
earliest Bra/una-sfdra, 79
is
the
special system of the ortliodox twiceborn, 37, 126; its teaching, 44,
125 ff. does not teach a philosophy,
125 yet metaphysical ideas implied,
125 f. no doctrine of release in the
Stitras, 126; but it appears in Prabhakara and Kumarila, 169; has no
order of ascetics, 1 26
literature,
125, 135, 168 f., 220, 285; sacrilice
decays but the Mimarhsa survives,
170; the Samuchchhaya doctrine,
221
prakarana-g)a7ithas an offshoot from the Mimarhsa. 295.
Kanna-sataka, 108, 395.
Karma-yoga, restraint of works, 88.
Karnataka, the country where Kanarese
is spoken, 259.

classic

i25ff.

U-, 364.

Katliasruti U., 364.

Katha Upanishad = Kdthaka Lpanishad.

Kathdvatthu, 393.
Kathiawar, 162.

Kdtydyana

266.

Kaulas, a sect of Saktas, 266.

Kaula

U., 266, 358, 364, 389.

Kaurashya, one of the

earliest

LakullLa

ascetics, 146.

KaushXtaki Aranyaka, 30.

Kaushltaki Brdhmana, 27,
Kaushxtaki U., 54.

28, 363.

Kaushitakins, a school of the Rigveda,

27-,.

Sraiita Siitra, 365.

Katyayaniputra, author of the Sarvastivadin philosophy, 107.

Kaula-marga, the system of tlie Kaulas,

atheistic,

form

364.

Kaihdkosa, 403.

Kathdsdrdmritd, 374.
see

27, 28.

Kathakas, a school of the Black Yajus,

Katharudra

158, 274, 396.

16, 124.

Kdthaka Brdhmana,

Katihka-sntra, 38, 41, 365.

Kauthuma school of the Sdinaveda,
18.

Kautilya, 43.
Kavacha, 357, 389.

Kavikarnapura, 310, 376.

Kayarohana, 146.
Kedarnath, 260.

Karohana, 146.
Kartabhajas, 312.
Kartha, 339 u. i.
Karttikeya, 47.

Kena

U., 54, 364.

Kereya Padmarasa, 353.

Kes, 339 n. I.
Kesava, 224.

Kesava Dasa Misra, 373.

Kesava Kashmiri, 305, 376.
Kesava Misra, 371.
Khadira Grihya Siitra, 365.
Khajuraho, 227.
Khakis, an order of Dadupanthl ascetics,

Karundpundarika 395.
,

Karwar, 146.
Kasakritsna, 128.

Khalsa, the warrior-community of the

Kashmir, 103, 108, 193.

Kashmir Saivas, 191, 193, 198, 258,
.^52,
385; ^Agamic Saivas, 198;

Khalsas,

followers of Saiikara,
has declined, i~,i.

75

the school

S^ikhs, 339, 340.

an

order

of

Dadupanthl

ascetics, 341.

Khandadeva, 2S5, 367.

Khanda-di-Pahul, the Sikh baptismal
service, 339.

INDEX

424

Khandakds, second part of the Buddhist

Vinaya, 69.

Khandandkhandakhadya,
37'"

225,

223,

Khotaii, 104, 153.

Khiiddakanikdya,

fifth

section of Sutta

Khnddakapdiha, book of the Buddhist

U., 364.

Kfiydsdra, 350, 353, 385.

Krum,

Pit.ika, 109, 392.

Sutta Pitaka, 71, 392.

Kilaka, 357, 389.
King, the, in law, 40.
Kit-ana A., 193, 194, I95
KirandvalJ, 223, 370.
Kirandvalt-p7-akdsa, 370.
Kirpan, 339 n. i.

Krishna

Kriya, one of the two aspects of the

.'^akti of Vishnu, 184.
Kriya-pada, one_division of the contents
of Sariihitas, Agamas, Tantras, 184.
212.

Kshana, a member of the Sautrantika

series, samtdna, to6.
Kshapanasdra, 282, 405.
Kshatriyas, 21, 36; education of, 31
in transmigration, 34
duties, 40
relation to philosophy of the Upanishads, 53.
;

n. i,

Kshemaraja, 194, 259, 265, 386.

Kshemendra, 395.

Ktrtan Sohila, 341.

Kiitanlya, 312.
Kiilivaiman, 226.
Kishoribhajas, 312.
Knowledge in the Upanishads, 55.
Kodi-kavi, 258, 386.
Korea, 154.
Kotwa, 343.
Koyil P., 386.
Kra>7iadipikd, 305, 376.
Kramasandarbha , 377.
Krirh, 212.
Krishna, in Mahdbhdrata, 49 a man,
or
or a vegetation spirit, 49
49
a sun-god, 49 his character, 89 in
;

Megasthenes, 49; at Mathura, 50;

in second stage of Epic a partial
incarnation of Vishnu, 78, 83 ; in
in third
early inscriptions, 84 n. 3
;

stage of Epic, a full incarnation, 87,

100 the cult of Krishna in the Gxtd,
88 f.
the god transformed in the
in
Gltd, 89
in didactic Epic, 97
the
the doctrine of Vyiiha, 99
childthe
100;
Krishna-legend,
Krishna, 100 K. and the cowherds,
;

ace. to Nimbarka Krishna is

the eternal God, 240.
Krishna III, a Rashtrakuta king, 282.

ICO;

Krishna Chaitanya, 307.

Krishna Das, a Madhva, 375.
Krishna Das, a Vallabha, 377.
Krishnadasa Kaviraj, 310, 377.
Krishnadeva, 312.

Krishna-janma-Khamla, 376.
Krish)iakarndmrita, 304, 308, 375.

Krishna Llldbhyiidaya, 303.

Krishnamisra, 227, 371, 373.
Krishnananda VagTsa, 389.
Krishnapi-cmdnirita, 377.
Krishnapur, 49.
KrishitdrchanadlJ'ikd, 377,

Kshudrakagama, Sansk.

for

Khudda-

kanikaya, 109.

Kshurikd

U., 95, 364.

Kubera, the god of wealth, 41, 47.

Knbjikd T., 205 n. 3.

Kubjikdnmta 7'., 199, 211, 388.
Kublai Khan, 277.
Kuchar, 104, 153.
Kulachuddviani T., 265, 3S7, 38S.

Kuldrnavo T., 268, 3S8.

Kulasdra T., 265.
Kula&ekhar, 188.
Ktildsvart T., 268.

Kulljama Saheb, 292.

Kulottunga, a Chold king, 245,
KumaraguruparasvamI, 351, 383.
Kumaralabdha, a Sautrantika scholar,
107.

Kumarapala, 280.
Knindrapdlaprabandha, 40 2

Kumara Valmiki,
Kumarila, of the
168

303.

Karma Mimamsa,

221, 286, 367; called

Bhatta, 168; system, 168 ff.
Kumbha Rana, 306.
Kunibh Mela, a gathering of ascetics
held once in twelve years at the
confluence of the Jumna and the
f.,

216,

Ganges, 174, 304, 327.

Kumudachandra, 279.
Knndaliyd, 382.
Kundakundacharya, 166, 219, 28 1, 360,
403-

KundalinI, the coiled one, name of the

goddess coiled up in Mrdiidhara, 202,

294 n. I.
Kjtndikd U., 364.
Kuiikuma, 357.
KipakshakauHkdditya, 360, 403.
Kitral, 121.

Kilnna

P., 139, 372, 383, 384; i^aiva,

; ;

INDEX

425

Vistara, a life of the Buddha,

originally Sarvastivadin, 107, 156,
157, 275, 396; teaching, 157.

contains Lakulisa material, 1 79

1 79
contains ^iikta material, 195, 196;
Tam. Tr., 347.
Tel. Tr., S46
Kurukshetra, 9.

Lalita

Knrus,

389L.ahkdvatdya-SHtra,^Y\]x\din3L\d,Q\n text,

9.

the Kushan empire, 7S.

Kushaiis, 78
KuSika, 146.
Kusiiiiidnjali, 221, 222, 224, 370.
Kutastha Piuusha, 185.

Brahmdnda

J alitopdkhydna, in

P., 357,

Kiitsa, 9 n.

161, 275, 396.

Lata country, 146.

Ldtydyana Srauta Sutra, 365.
Laugakshi Bhaskara, 289, 367, 370,
371-

Lau

Lag/ill Tikd, 351, 386.

Lake-worship, 48.

Lila, sport, 115, 332.

LaksJiandvalJ, 224, 370.

Lild Charit, 249, 380,

Ltld Sarhvdd, 249, 380.

389.

Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnii, 47,

also the Sakti of Vasudeva, the
301
;

first

vyiiha, 1S4.

Lakshmldhara, 265, 266, 268, 358, 389.

Lakshmi S., 183 n. i.

Lakshmlsa Devapura, 304.
Lakshmt-ydmala T., 265.
Lakula, the rod, or club, carried by
Lakuli, 146.
Lakuli, the club-bearer, probably the
name of an ascetic, i46f.
Lakulisa, i. e. the club-bearing god,

a name of Siva, 103, 146; images

of Lakulisa, 146, 192.
Lakulisa-PaSupatas, a sub-section of
the Pasupata Saivas, also called
Lakylisas, q.v.
Lakulisas, a Pasupata Saiva sect, also
called Lakulisa-Pasupatas, 103, 146,
190, 191, 251, 383; name does not
occur in Epic, 103; but in Vdyu P.,
146 ; for the name, see Lakulisa
produced a
arose in Gujarat, 191
did
theology at an early date, 191
;

not accept the

Sen, 271.

Law, schools of, So method of schools,

80 law in the didactic Epic, 95 f.
Laymen, rise of cultured, 79.

3(1 9

Lakshmana Desika, 267,

Lakshmana Sena, 238 n.

Lauriya Krishna Das, 303.

Labdhisara, 282, 405.

Laghukshetrasanidsa, 402.
/ agh a sahkhya-sfitfa-vr itti,

Agamas, 191

spread

Rajputana, and south to

literature, 146,
Mysore, 192
252, 383; Lakulisa images, 146,
Lai Das, 334, 342 his Bam, 342.
Lai Dasis, 334, 342, 382 the cult,
Lai Ded, 352, 3S6.
to

the
192,

192.

342.

Lilasuka, 375.
Lildvati, 282.
Lihga, the phallus of Siva, 102

among

Vira Saivas, 261.

Lihga-dhdrand-chandrikd, 387.
Lihga P., 139, 371, 383, 384; a Saiva
work, 179; contains Lakulisa mate1

95

contains S^akta material,

contains a passage on Om, 1 96

179;

rial,
:

Tam. Tr., 347.

Lingayats, 191, 259, 353- meaning ot
see Vira Saivas.
the term, 261
:

Lochana Das, 377.

Logic, 135, 177:
logic,

Jtri?

Nyaya; Buddhist

178,225; Jain

logic,

178,213,

225.

Lokaprakdsa, 403.
Lokaraksha, 118.
Lokayata philosophy, 44,
Charvaka, 290
called

manual now

61

an

also
early

lost, 80.

Lokayatikas, 371.
Lokottara, transcendental, 109.
Lokottaravadins, branch of the Mahasahghika Buddhist school, 109, 394;
system, 109; Vinaya, 109, 394;
Mahdvastu, a Buddha- biography,

109; person of the Buddha, 109.

Lohkas, 359.
Lord of Vraja, epithet of Krishna, 100.
L.otus, the, i.e. the

Saddharma Punda-

rika, q.v.

Lalita, 357,
Lalita A., 193.

Lumpakas,

359.

Lalitamddhava, 376.
Lalitdsahasrandvta, in Brahmditda P.,
357, 3?8, 389.
Lalitdtriiatt, in

389-

Brahmdnda

P.,

357,

Madhava, 221

n. i, 225, 228, 251, 254,

255, 2S5, 286, 287, 289, 290, 294,
319 n. 1, 349, 350j 367,5368, 369.
370, 371, 375, 3S0, 384, 385, 3S6.

INDEX

426
Madho Rao

Madhva,

Peshvva, 322.

Madhurakavi, 188.

Madhusudana

kara's

Sarasvatl, 286, 290, 295,

368, 373.

Madhva, founder of the Madhva

sect,

235; a TIrtha sannyasT, 304 believed

himself to be an incarnation of Vayu,
237; a dualist, 236; author of the
Sutra-bhdshya, 222, 250, 287, 374
author of dvaita commentaries on ten
Upanishads, 223, 364, 365, 374.
;

Madhva Das, 303.

Madhva sect, 183, 235,

their

influence,

307. 318.

Aladhva-vijaya, 237 n. i, 374.

Madhyamagama, Sansk. for Majjhimanikaya, IC9; in Chinese, 155.
Madhyamaka, name of the philosophy
of vacuity of Nagarjuna, ii6f, 136
influence,
literature of tlie
158;
;

Mddhyamaka-kdrikds^

397.
1 1

6.

Mddhyaiiiakdvatdra, 20S, 397.

Madura, 347.
Maga, i. e. Magus, Magian, a Persian
153; priests of the Saura
recognized as Brahmaiis in

priest, 152,

205

India, 152, 205.

Magadha, early religion and

43 the kingdom, 66.

ethics of,

Saktism, 204.

P., 353, 386.

iMahdbhdrala, 44, 366, 373, 382 date,
first stage of, 45, 46 ; its re45, 46
ligion, 48 f., 366; second stage, 78,
religion of second stage, 83
a
83
polemic against Buddhism, 84 third
;

Sakta material, 387 ; Saura

material, 152, 389
law in the Epic,
vernacular
philosophy, 366
366
;

f^an-

369.

Maha-Ganapati, 270.

Mahdkd/a

T., 397.

Mahdkalajndna-viniyuaya^ 199, 387.

Mahdkarundpundarika^ 207.
Mahdlamkdravatthti, 394.

Mahamaudgalyayana, 394.

Mahdmayuri Dhdrant,
Mahanama,

213, 399.

392.

Mahdiidrdyana U., 49, 58, 364, 373.

Alahdnirvdna T., 199 n. I, 354, 356.
Mahdiiisitha, 400.

Mahanubhavas, 247

see

Manbhaus.

Mahdpaddna

Sutta, 70 n.
Mahdparinibbdna Sutta, 70 n.
JMahdpralay, 382.
Mahdpratydkhydna, 400.
I\IahdpH>iishacharitra, 402.
Mahar, name of a large Outcaste race
found in the M;y:atha country, 302
n. I.

Mahdrdjakanika-lekha, 395.

Malta S., 236 n. i,

Mahasahghikas, a Hinayana Buddhist
school,
109,
393; system, 109;
Ekottardgaina, 109,
Canon, 109
393; in Chinese, 156; the Vinaya
;

also in Chinese, 156, 393.

Malidsamiipata-sittra, 159, 396.

Mahasepho nagno, 103.

Malidsiddhasdra T., 356, 387, 389.
t.

I.

of Sankhya system, 130.

Mahd

U., 145, 358, 364, 379.

Mahdvagga, a section of the Buddhist

Vinaya, 69, 70

n., 71.

Mahdvairochandbhisambodhi^ 211, 398.

Mahdvdkya U., 364.

Mahdvamsa, 155, 393.
Mahdvastu, 109, 115, 394.
Mahavihara of Anuradhapura, Ceylon,
154. 155-

Mahdbasava

stage, 85

Mahdbhdshya, 49.
Mahadeva Vedantin,

Mahat,

Magadhi, the vernacular of Magadha,

68, 76 Magadhi Canon, the original
Buddhist Canon, now lost, 68.
Maghar, 332,
Magian, see Maga.
Magic, I, 16, 21, 22, 23, 32,41 Hindu
books on, 38, 41, 365; magic rites,
41, 43; Buddhist magic books, 71
in

mentions

Maharashtii, 162.

school, 208, 396.

MadliyamakdlaJTikdra

sect,

374

origin, 287 n. i.

Mahdmegha-si'ttra, 212.

298, 302 teaching reflected in the Sariihitas, 183;

does not recognize Radha, 236; literature, 175 n.4, 236, 237 n. I, 374,
holds the Samuch251 n. I, 302
chhaya doctrine, 221 sannyasis, 304;

Sampradaya, 327;

236,

demon

versions, 228, 296, 301, 303, 366.

Mahdbhdrata - idlparya - niniaya,

by

Mahavira,

founder of Jainism, 73;

163; his system, 74; his
date, 73 ; his utterances expressed in
the twelfth Afiga, 75 in the Svetambara Canon, 74, 76.
date,

73,

MahdvTracharita, 278, 2S0, 401, 402.

Mahayana, a form of Buddhism, 78,
no, III; its essential character,

in; date, in; the eating of flesh

its theory of the
forbidden, 113;
three bodies of the Buddhas, 273.

,;

INDEX
Mahayaiia

112,

literature,

117, 118, 157

ff.,

yana worship, 113

207
;

ft".,

116,

114,

396

Mahayana

M(hiava Grihya Sutra, 365.

Maha-

Mdnava

philo-

Manavala-mahamuni, 319.
Manavans, a sutra-school of the Black

sophy, 114; two forms of the Mahayana, 1 1 2 ff.

Mahayana texts in

Sraitta Siitra, 365.

Yajjis, 81.

Manbhau Panth,

Sanskrit, 275.

Maladydnasraddhotpadasastra, 116,

Manbhaus,

248.

M.ahanubhavas, a Vaishnava sect, 190, 247, 322 points in

common with Vira Saivas, 247
social organization, 247, 263; organized in the thirteenth century, 247
hated, convery heterodox, 247
demned and persecuted by Maratha
and by Smartas, 322;
bhaktas
recharged with gross crimes, 322
use a
cognize Krishna alone, 247
symbol, not an image, 247
vegetheir dress and ornatarians, 247
founders
have
five
ments, 322
they
five
their
or propagators,
249
mantras, 249; Sampradaya, 248, 327;

395, 398.

i.e.

Mahdydna-sutrdlamkdray 161, 397.

Mnhesa, 261 n. 3.
Mahesvara, a title of Siva, 145.
Mahesvaras, ^a title used by certain

groups of Saivas, 191.

Mahidhara, 357, 384, 3S9.
Jilahimnastava, 383.
Mahipati, 296, 301, 374.
Mahisasaka school of Hinayana Buddhism, 156,394; Vinaya in Chinese,

156, 394-

Mahisha, a demon-buffalo, 149.

Maina, a kingdom in Bengal, 271.
Maithill literature, 306, 378.
U., 79, 364; date, 92, 94,
reflected in didactic Epic, 92
95
significance of the U., i, 93 contains
the earliest mention of the Trimurti,

Maitrdyaim
;

148.

Maitrdyam Samhitd,

427

27, 28.

their chief scripture

is

the Bhagavad-

249; their own literature, 249,

322, 380 their secret alphabet, 249 ;
their monks and nuns, 249; their
chief monastery, 322.
Mandala, a circle; used of a diagram
held to possess occult power, 202,

gitd,

Maitrayaniyas, a school of the Black

Yajus, 27.
Maitreya, a disciple of Lakull, 146; a

Mandalabrdhmana

Manushi-Ruddha, 273.
Maitreya C, 364.
Majjhima Nikaya, second division of the
Buddhist Su'tta Pitaka, 70, 71, 39 r,

368 ; the
surviving exposition of the
advaita Vedanta, 171.
JSIdndukya U., 79, 170, 364, 368; date,

393-

of an eighthcentury drama, 192, 200, 202, 203,

388.
Malayagiri, 2 78, 402.
Malayalim literature, 251, 296, 297,

earliest

Manichaeism, 153.
Manikka Vachakar, 193, 197, 220, 385
pcems, 197, 256, 385.
date, 197
Manikyanandin, 217, 219, 404.
Alanwtanjari, a Madhva work, 175
n. 4, 237"- ', 375-

Manimat, 237.

357, 379, 384-

Maiiimckhalai, 121.

Mdlini-viiaya T., 265.

Mallanarya, 386.
Mallavadin, 214, 401.
Alallindtha P., 405.
Maluk Das, 328, 381.

Maniprabhd, 289, 369.

Manjusri, 15S, 272.

ManjusrVvmla

Maluk

Dasis, 328.
t.
of Sankhya system, 98,
t.
130 also in Vaiseshika, 133 also in
Nyaya, 135.
Manasa, 356.
Manatuhga, 205, 214, 401,
Manavachakam Kadandan, 257, 25S,

Manas,

386.

Mdnava

U., 364.

Mandanamisra, 169, 367.

Mdndtikya Kdrikd, 1 70,

92.

Makuta A., 193.

Md/atiMdJhava, name

355-

T., 272, 398.

Alanjuhl-nd/iia-sahgtli, 272, 399.
Manorathapuranl 393.
Man Singh, 340.
Mantra, religious thought or prayer, 25
adoration
supernatural
text,
25;
mantra, a phrase expressing adoration
to the god of the sect, 167, 186;
doctrine of mantras in Agamas, 195
in Tantras, 201, 202
the whole body
of Sakta mantras identical with the
,

Dhariiiasdstra, 81, 366.

INDEX

428
Sakti,
261.

20:

among

Viia

Saivas,

Alantrakoia, 388.

Megasthenes, 49.
Meghadiita, 217, 360.

MantratnaJiodadhi , 357, 389.

Mantraraja of Narasiihha, 188, 1S9.

Mantrikd U., 364.

Manu, code of, 81

Mayura Bhalta, 272.

Meditation, 28.

Meghasiitra, 396.

Melkote,
see

Mdnava

Dha?--

}iiaidstra.

Manushi-Buddha, 273, 274; each has

a world, 274.

i.e.

Yadavagiri in tho Mysore,

182, 245, 246, 248.

Menander = Milinda, 105.
Mercury system, 254.
Merutunga (A), 281.

Manyakheta, 216.
Marai-jnana-sambandha, 257, 386.

Merutunga

Marasimha II, 282,

Maratha bhaktas, 234, 298, 374; rise
of the movement, 234; they nse the

Middle path,

vernacular, 234; their mantra, 235;

their hatred of the Manbhaus, 322.
Marathl, 162
MarathI literature, 234,

Milinda = Menander, 104.

Milinda-panha, 104, 393.

296, 297, 298

Mardana, 336.

ff.,

374,381, 384, 390.

387; contains the Chandi-7ndhdttnya, 140,

contains
other Sakta docu150, 356
ments, 357
contains Brahma material, 140, 148, 388; contains Saura
P.,

371,

139,

material,

140, 152, 390; Tel. Trs.,

267, 357 ; l^eng. Trs., 356.
Marriage, 2, 40; age of marriage of
girls, 40.

Marriage ceremonies, 16.

Marula, one of the five original Lingayat ascetics, 260.

Maruts, ip.

Masaka Sratita Sutra, 365.

Matahga Updgaiita, 194.
Materialism, 44, 60.

Matha, the Hindu

vi'ord for

a monastery,

298.

Mathura, 49, 50, 100, icon. 6, 310.

Mathurd-mdhdtinya, 310, 376.
Mathuranatha, 371.
Matlmrdndtht, 371.
Matricheta,

P.,

Buddhist

writer,

no,

139, 372;

Tel. Tr., 346,

.^83.

Maurya empire, 36, 78, 83, 84.

Maya, (i) magic power, 115;

(2) Illu-

(3) t. t. in Agamic Saivism, an element of Pasa,

sion, ^59, 172, 282

152.

Mimamsa,

of

the

used

124;

exegesis,

i.e.

specially

Karma Mimamsa,

Mimamsaka, one learned

Mimamsa, 39.

Maya,

the

illusion, 274, 293.

Mdydvaihliai'a S., 263 n. i.

Mayura, 205, 390.

doctrine

Karma

own, 340 n. 4.
Mira BaT, 306, 379.
Misery, in Buddhism, 63.
Misra, i.e. mixed, Tantras, 26S'.
Mithra, Avestan form of Mitra,

the
Persian sun-god, 152.
Mitra, 2, 3 n., 10 ; a disciple of Lakiill,
146; a Calcutta scholar, 275.
Mitrachatushkakathd, 402.
Mokshadharma, a section of the didactic
Epic, filled with Vaishnavism, 96, 97.
Moksliarndrgapaidi, 405

Mongolia, 277; Mongolian Buddhist

Canon, 277, 391.
Monism, in Upanishads, 56; in Gttd,
90 in didactic Epic, 97 in Sanatsn;

jdtiya, 97.
Monk = sannyasT,

see also
29, 129;
Buddhist NIonks, Jain Monks.
Mountain worship, 41, 43.
Rlrigcndra A., 94, 3S4.

Mudgala

P., 270, 271, 364, 390.

Mudra, a
202

Sakti, 185.

Mayavadin, holding

in the

I\Itmdmsd-7iydya-prakdsa, 285, 367.

Miiiidmsd-floka-vdrttika, 367.
Miindthsd-sfifra-bhdshya, 135.
Minas, a sect of Sikhs, 340 they have
a Granth and a JanamsdkJn of their

seal,

ritual gesture

195-

Maya

Mihira, vSansk.

Monappa, 387.

395-

Matsya

257, 258, 385.

Buddhism, 63.
form of Persian Mithra,

in

125.

Maritontadarya, 387.

Mdrkandeya

(B), 360, 371, 402.

Meykanda Deva,

of

t. t.

a symbol,

made with

348

n.

the fingers,

of GorakhnathI yoga, 254.

Muhammad Shah, 345.

Muhammadan conquest of Nortli India,
220, 277; Muhammadan influence,
2S4, 299.

INDEX

Ajvars edited as the Sri-Vaishnava

Mitkhahimba ./., 193.

Miikhayugbimha A.
93.
Muktabai, 374.
Muktanand, 378.
Muktaphala, 234, 374.
,

429

hymn-book,

hymns

246,
379 ; the
the temples and
schools, 241, 320,

241,

used

in

the

Miiktikd U.y 287, 364.

studied in
321.
Nama, 186.

Mukundaraj, 296, 300, 373, 3S4.

Nambi-andar-nambi,

Mukundarama,

390.
I\Iulaihdra, 166, 219, 403.
of
the
occult circles in
Muladhara, one
the bod}', ace. to Sakta yoga, 201,
268.
Mulagranthas of Jain Canon, 400.
3.56,

Mulainadhyamaka-kdrikd, 397.
Mulaprakriti, 185, 201.
Mulasarvastivadin sect
Buddhism, 207
its

241

n.

Nambutiri Brahmans, 268.

Namdeva, 298

f.

date, 299, 301, 323,

374. 381.

Nammalvar, 188, 241, 246, 379.

lives, 336
Nanak, 334, 336, 382
hymns and other poems, 336 the
Japji, 336 theology, 337 Hinduism
and Islam both acknowledged, 337
the whole
advaita influence, 337
Hindu pantheon retained, 337.
;

of Ilinayana
Vinaya, 207,

395-

256,

2,

385-

Aliilasthamba, 3S4.
Mulasiitras of Jain Canon, 400.

NanakpanthTs, 340.

Multan, i.e. Mulasthana, root-station,

of Saura worship, 152.
Mulubazil, 29S.

Nandapandita, 142.
Nandi, 48.
Nandikesvara, 387.

MiDh/aka I'., 58, 364.

Muni Marg, 248.
Munisundara, 402.
Munja, 279.
Mtinjaprabondha, 281, 402.

A'aiidtsutra, 163, 400.

Muralldasa, 374.

371. 380.
A'diada-bhakti-sutra, 233, 269, 374.
Narada Panchardtra, 289 n. 2, 316,

Murari Gupta, 376.

Muruha, 148.
Music, 18; magic power of the tunes of
the Sdinaveda, 21.

Muslim,

see

Muhammadan.

NabhajT, 317.

Nada, 201.
Nadahindii

C,

Nadi, 201, 213

95, 364.
cf. 186, 195, 210.

Nadiriin->iikat, 344.
Naga, a naked sannyasT,
Nagadeva Bhatta, 248.

Nagarjuna, 95, 116, 397

74.

chief authority

of the Mahayana, 116, 117, 275; his

kdrikd, 116, 20S, 397.
Nagarklrtana, 307.
Nagas, a military order of Dadupanthi
ascetics, 342.

Nagasena, 105.

Nagcsa Bhatta, 369.

A^aishkarmya-siddhi, 367

Nanasambandhar,

196, 385.
/

Nandisvara, 395.
Nanjanacharya, 38 7.
Narada, a Vaishnava rishi, 99, 152.
A'drada, ox A'dradiya P., 139, 179, 190,

375-

A'dradaparivrojaka L ., 304.
A^dradasmrtti, 180, 366.
Narahari, 329.
Narahari Sarkar, 308, 376.
Naraina, 341^
A^arasimha A., 193.
A^ai-asirhha S., 249, 3S0.
Narasirhha sect, 249, 380.
Aarasimha Upapurdna, see A^risimha

Upapnrdna, 372, 3 So.

Narayana, a divine name, 50 used of
Vishnu, 99, 145; the Narayana
mantra, 186, 188.
Narayana, a Madhva pandit, 237 n. i,
;

'

375-

Narayana, a Maratha bhakta, 300.

Narayana, a Mimamsist, 367.
Narayana, an Upanishad commentator,
234, 287, 364, 365-

Nakkira Deva, 147, 3S3.

A'drdyana ^.,2360.

Nala, 48.

Narayana Sarasvati, 369

A'dladiydr, 218, 404.

Nalanda, a Bhuddhist University, 206,
208.
Ndldyira Prabandham, hymns of the

Narayanatirtha, 373.
A^drdyana U., 188, 364, 379.
Narayana-Vishnu, the God of the Sri-

Vaishnava

i.

sect, 248.

n. I.

;;

INDEX

43

Vaishnava section of
the didactic Epic, 97, 98, 99, 184.
Narnol, 343.
Narsingh Mehta, 306, 379.
Nasik, 216.

Ndrdyaniya, a

Niryuktis, 76, 400.

Nischal Das, a Dadupanthl and
vaitin, 341, 382.
Nishkalankavatara, 292.
AHsttha, 400.
Nisvdsa A., 193.

Nathamuni, 241, 256, 379.

Nathas, a gvonp or sect of PaSupata

Nisvdsatattva S., 200, 388.

Nitivdkydnirita^ 404.
Nitydhnikalilaka T., 265.
Nilyananda, 307, 308, 309, 311.
Nityananda Das, 377.

Saivas, 190, 192, 348.

Navanlta-Ganapati, 270.

Navatattva, 402.

Nayanar, religious leader, \()(iNemichandra Siddhanta- chakravarti,

Niyamasdra, 219, 403.

Niyata, 185.

281, 282, 404.

Nemidatta, 361, 405.
Nemijina P., 405.

Nenchu

vicfu-tutu,

Noble Path, the,

Nodhas, 9 n.

by Umapati Siva-

charya, 258, 386.

Nepalese Buddhism, 103, 274, 275

nine Buddhist books, 275.
Nepalese Buddhist Literature, 275.

its

63.

Nriga, 176.

Nrisimhanandanatha, 358.
NrisirhhapiiTvatdpaniya U., 188, 189,

380.
Nrisimhottaratdpaniya

sacrifice, 22.

U.,

189,

266,

"364, 380.

Nuddea,

Nija-guna-Siva-yogi, 387.
Nilakantha = Srikantha.
Nllakantha, author of the Kriydsdra,

289, 306.

Nuns, see Buddhist Nuns, Hindu Nuns,

Jain Nuns.
Nyasa, ritual movements made with
the hands, 202.

350, '3?3, 385-

Ntlarudra U., 103, 364.

Nimbarka, 238, 239; his original name
said to have been Bhaskara, 239 n. 6
his philosophy bhedabheda, 239
his theology, 240
his literature,
;

Nydya-bhdshya, 370.
Nydya-chintdmani, 224, 370
Nydya-kandali, 224, 370.

n. 2.

Nydyakanikd oi Vachaspatimisra, 169,

367-

Nydya-histimdnjali, 224.

376.

Nimbarkas, a Vaishnava sect, founded

by Nimbarka, 237, 239, 305; Sampradaya, 327; literature, 240, 270,
305! 376 their Trimurti, 149 their
influence, 307, 308, 318; the sect
weakened by Vallabhacharya and
Chaitanya competition, 304, 305
their two pontiffs, 305
their sankir;

tan, 305.

Nine Dharmas, The, of Nepal, 275.

Nirdkdra Mtmdmsd, 336, 38 2.
Nirdlamba 6'., 364.
Niranjana P., 384.
Niraydvall, 400.
Nirmalas, 340.
Nirmanakaya, one of the bodies of a
Buddha, 159.
Nirukta, 42.
Nirvana, original meaning of word, 63,
113; final nirvana, 63, 65, 274;
altered

Buddhism,

206, 266, 364, 380.

Niddnakathd, 70 n., 154, 392, 393.

Niddesa, 392.
Nihangs, 340 n. 9.

Niivdiia

in

Nrisimha S. or Narasimha S., 380.

Nrisimha Upapurdna, 189, 226, 249,

Netii, 393.

New Moon

ad-

meaning, 112.
[/.,

364.

Aydydlamkdra, 370.
Alydya-lildvatt, 370.
Nyaydlokasiddhi, 398.

Nydyamdldvistara, 221

n. i, 294.

Nydya- vtanjart, 3 70.

Nydydmrita, 375.
Nydya-nibandha-prakdsa, 370,
Nydydnusdra-sdstra, 156, 395.

Nydyaratndkara, 367.
Nydyaratnamdld, 367.
Nydya-sdra, 370.
Aydyasiddhanjatta, 380.
Nydyastichtnibandha, 176, 370.
Nydya-sudhd, of Somesvara, 367.

Nvdya-sudhd of Jayatlrtha,
Nydya- sUtra, 370.

375.

Nydya

n.

sutra-bhdshya,

123

2,

135,

370

Nydya
Nyaya

sutra vritti, 371.

an early
system, 95, 134;
manual now lost, 80; chief document
the

Nydya- sutra, 134;

relation

to

INDEX
Vaiseshika, 134; system, 134 ihcis134; meant for householders,
connected, from about 600 A. D.,
1 35 ;
with the Pa&upata sect, 178; other
manuals, 1 78, 224 does it owe vyapti
to Greece?, 178; the Nyaya combined with the Vai&eshika, 224, 289;
influence of its theism, 273.
;

tic,

Nydya-tattva, 379.
Aydya-vdrtika, 178, 370.
Ay aya - vartika - tatparya- parisuddhi,

43'

Paippalada, 24.
Paiyalachchhi, 401.
Palakurki, 264.
Pali, the literary language of Ceylonesc
Buddhism, 68; Pali Canon, theCeylonese Buddhist Canon, 68, 391
reduced to writing, 104; relation of
;

Pali Canon to earlier texts, 68

extra-canonical texts in Pali, 154.
Pali literature, 275.

Pambatti, 352,

Pampa,

224, 370.

Nydya-vdrtika-tatparya-tlkd, 178, 370.

Nydyavatdra, 165, 400.
Nydyavritti, 370.

282, 283, 404.

Painpa-Bhdrata, 282, 283, 404.

Pampa-Rdmdyatia, a Jain work

Oblations,

Pafichadasl,

3, 14.

Old Western Hindi, 317.

290 n.

295,

3,

296,

PaiichakaJpa, 400.
Panchakraina, 212, 398.
Panchakrishna, the five founders of the

Manbhaus, 249.

literature, 296.

Orthodox

364.

[/.,

286,

368.

Olivil Odtikkam, 351, 386.

Om, 93, 103, 132, 201.
Orissa, 205, 274, 391.

Oriya

in

Kanarese, 250, 283, 405.

Pancliabrahma

Twice-born,

36,

292

see

Smartas; their literature, 36 ff., 79 ff.,

140 ff., 179, 226, 293.
Outcaste Lihgayats, 263.
Outcastes, 16, 34, 40; permitted to
become Yogis, 61 Outcaste names
among the Sri-Vaishnava saints, 247.
;

Paiichaladeva, 282.
Panchapddikd, 368.

Pancharakshd, 399.
Pancharatra, name of a Vaislinava theological system, 98 Panchasikha said
to be its author, 94, 99 ; meaning of
word uncertain, 98 a Pancharatra
scripture, 98
Pancliaratra Vaishnavas, 142; Paiichaiatra literature,
182, 240, 319, 379.
Pdncharcitrarakshd, 380.
Pancharatra Sarhhitas, Vaishnava manuals of belief and practice, 98, 142,
179, 182 ff., 379; date, 182; were
probably late in penetrating the
South, 183, 187 ;_ parallel to the
Tantras and the Agamas, 182 ff.
contain a Sakta element, 183; number, 182
lists, 182 f. ; history, 183 ;
sectarian character, 183
contents
fall into four categories, 184; have
suffered
from interpolation, 183;
were long kept secret, 1 84 system,
184 ff.; relation of the soul to God,
Sakta Yoga, 186 doctrines of
185
Mantra and Yantra, 1S6; worship
and sacrifice, l86; unorthodox, 186;
open to the four castes, 186; Ramanuja sought to substitute Pancharatra for Vaikhanasa Saihhitas in
the temples, 182, 244, 320; used today in most Vaishnava temples in
the South, 18 r, 320; some are of
;

Padakalpatarii, 377.
Padartha, t. t. of Vaiseshika system,
134-

Paddriha-mdld, 371.

Padmadhatu, 159.
Padmanabha, 281.
Padmandbhakdvya, 402.
Padmanabhatirtha, 375,
Padmanafika, 353, 387.
Padma P., 139, 371, 388; a Brahma
Purana, 140, 148, 388 the Pushkara
;

in first Khanda, 148;

passage copied in Mahdbhdrata, 1 36
contains Vaishnava sections, 226;
the Uttara Khanda probably a 6ri-

Mdhdtniya

Vaishnava document, 320.

Padma P. (Jain), 217, 219, 404.

Padmapada, 368.
Padmardja P., 353, 387.

Padma

S.,

183

n. i, 184.

Padmasambhava, 213.
Padmdvalt, 376.
Padmottara, 158.
Padodaka, 261.

Padyamulu,

382.

Pahlavas, Parthians, 83.

Paihgala U., 364.

Madhva

origin, 183.

Panchasattprabodhasambandha, 403.

INDEX

432

Panchasikha, a teaclierof theistic Yoga,

94, 99 probably author of a manual
in Sutras, 94; snid to be the author
of the Pancharatra system, 94, 99.
Panchdstikdya, 403.
Panchatthiyasamgahasutta, 219, 281,
;

Partiasavaruidina-dhdrain, 399.
Parsees, 168.
ParSva, or Par&vanatha, q.v.

Pd>svdbhyudaya,

21'j,

404.

Parsvanatha, a Jain leader before

Maha-

vlra, 73, 279.

Pdrsvandthacharitra, 400, 405.

403-

Panchavimsa Brahmana,

27, 28, 363.

puja, five-shrines worship

Panchayatana
of the Smartas, 179, 206, 293.

Paruchchhepa, 9n.
Parvata, name of one of

Panel arams, 349.

Pilndava P., 361, 405.

Pandharpur, a town in the Maratha

country, 301, 302; Manbhaus forbidden to enter it, 322.
see Sripati
Panditaradhya, 260, 387
;

Panditaradhya.
Pandus, 83.
Panini, 42, 290 n. 2.
Panjgranthi, 341, 382.
Panna, 292.
Pauth, path, sect, 335.
Pantheism,
in Upanishads,
56 ; in
Vedanta-sntras, 127, 128; in Gaudapada, 170; in Sankara, 172; in

Buddhism, 273, 274.

Papatichasfidatit, 393.
Para A., 193.
Parabrahma U., 364.

Paradise Mahayana,

117,

158;

litera-

Parama

S., 236 n. i.
Paramahotfisa U., 95, 364.
Paramahamsaparivi'djaka U., 364.
Paramanu, t. t. of Vaiseshika system,

133-

Paramdrthandma-sahgiti, 272, 399.

Paramdrthasaptati of Vasubandhu, 161,
398-

Paramdrthasdra, 259, 386.

Madhyamaka

real truth
system, 116.
'

'

in

the

n. i,

264.

Paraniesvara T., 199, 388.

Paranjoti, 347, 383.

102, 103, 195, 198.

in the

Pasupata and

theology, 102, 103, 195, 198,

251.

PaSupata, a

new Saiva

theology, found

in the didactic Epic,

349

in

Vdyu

P., 145

loi, 145, 251,

numbers, 31 ;

102; heterodox, 102; the

ordinance is the use of
ashes, 103; PaSupata Yoga, 145, 146,
Pasupata literature, 251, 384.
251
Pdsupatabrahnia U., 364.
Pasupata Saivas, those who follow the
Pasupata theology name applied to
various Saiva sects, 190, 191, 251,
principle,

Pasupata
;

347Pdsupata-sdstra, 251.

Pasupati, lord of flocks, an epithet of

6iva, 102, 195.
Pasupati-sutra, 251.
Patanjali, a grammarian, 49.
Patanjali, author of Yoga-siitra, 132,
369-

Pati, lord, a title of Siva, 102, 103, 198,

251.
Patiniokkha, a confession, part of the

Buddhist Vinaya, 69.

Patisainbhiddmagga, 392.
Patthdna, 393.

352, 385. 387-

Pdraskara Grihya Silfra, 365.

Paramrdma-Bhdrgava-sutra, 266, 359,

Parikshdmiikha, 219, 404.

2 So,

Parivdra, last section

Vinaya, 69, 391.

402.
of

Paihnachariya, 165, 400.

Paushkata S., 183 n. i.
Pavitrn, a low-caste sacred thread, 245.
Penance, 40.
Periya Purdnain, 256, 385.

388.

Paribhashas, 39.

Parjanya, 10, 21.

Agamic

man

Pattinattu Pillai, 255, 385, 387; Sittar

lyrics mistakenly attributed to him,

Parasara,-9n.

Parivrajaka, 53,

Agamic theology,
Pasu, used of

Patirakiriyar, 387.

Paramdtt/iaprakdsa, 282, 405.

Paramesvara A., 193, 194

Parisishtaparvati,

tlie ten orders

of Sankara's sannyasTs, 174.
Pasa, fetter, a term in the Pasupata and

ture, 117, 158.

Paramarthasatya,

Parthasarathimisra, 220, 367.

Parthians, 78.

Periyar, 18S.

Buddhist

Periyatirttvandddi , 379.
Persia, 104.

Persian literature, 297, 339, 344.

Persians, i.

INDEX
Prajndparam ita - hridaya - suira

Pessimism, in Upanisbads, 57.

Petavatthu, 392.
Peyar, 1S8.
Phallic worship, 5, 48.
Phallus of !5iva, praised in Epic, 102.
Phat, 201, 212.
Philosophical schools, 60.
Philosophical systems, harmony of, 287,

hymns

in

159,

397. 399-

Prajud-pradipa, 397.
Prajiiaptipada-sastra, 394.
Prakarana-granthas, 295.

Piakaranapahchikd, 367.
Prakdsa, 316, 376.
Prakasananda, 368.
Prakirnas of Jain Canon, 400.

289.

Philosophic

433

Prakrit literature, 75, 120, 162, 163 ff.,

213, 214, 215, 275, 277, 280, 281,
Prakriti, t. t. of the Sahkhya system,

Vedas, 16, 22,

3^, 57-

Philosophy, 367 beginnings in India,

16; philosophic hymns, 22, 32;
philosophic ideas in Brahmanas, 32,
of the
earliest system, 37
35, 49
early Upanishads, 54 ff.; many schools
some atheistic, 60 ;
in 6th cent., 60
;

98, 130, 148.

Praiiianachihtainani, 402.
Pi-amdnaparikshd, 404.

Prameya-kamala-mdrtanda, 219, 404.

Prameyaraindrnava, 316, 377.

others materialistic, 60.

Phonetics, 42.
Pillai Lokacharya, 246, 380,

PrdndgniJiotra i'., 364.

Pranalinga, 261.
Pratiaioshini T., 356, 389.

Pinbalagia-Perumal-Jiya, 246, 380.

Pranava

Pinda

Pranayama, breath-restraint, 254.

U., 364.

U., 364.

Prannath, 291.

Pindaniryukti, 400.
Pipa, 323, 328, 381..

Prapanchasdra
Prasad, grace

name for a division of

Pitaka, basket
the Buddhist Canon, 67.
Politics, 43
schools of, 80 politics in
didactic Epic, 95.
;

T., 266, 388.

grace-gift

among Vira

^aivas, 261, 261 n. 3.

Prasannapddd, 208, 397.

Prasastapada, author of Vaiseskikawas a

sutra-bhdshya,
177, 370;

Polyandry, 49.
Polytheism oi Rigveda, 12.
Ponna, 283, 404.
Pool-worship, 41.

Pasupata Saiva, 191.

Prasna U., 79; date, 92.

Prahiavydkarana, 400.

402,

Prasnottaramdld, 2 7, 404.
P/ahiottaropdsakdchdra, 405
Prasthdnabheda, 290 n. 6, 295, 373.
Prasthanatraya, the triple canon of the
Vedanta, 128, 173.
Prataparudra, of Warangal, 264; of

Prabhakara, of the Karma Mimamsa,

168,367; called Guru, 168; system,
168 ff.

Prathamanuyoga, first section of Digambara Secondary Canon, 219.

Pratham Granth, 382.

Prabhasa-mahatmya of the Skanda P.,

Prdtimoksha-suira

Porripakrodai,l2c^9', 386.
Poygaiar, 1S8.

PrabanJhachintdinani, 281, 402.

Prabandhakosa, 281, 402.
Prabandhas, 278.
Prabhachandra, 217, 219, 281,

Orissa, 307.

404.

Prabhdvakackarita, 281, 402.

Prdbhritasdra, 403.
Prabhti-liiiga-lila, 347, 353, 382, 387.
Prabodhachandrodaya, 221, 222, 227,

Pratyabhijna, 198.
Pratyabhijnd-kdrikds, 386.
Pratyabhijnd-vimai-sim, 386.
Pratyabhijiid-vivriti-vimarsini, 386,

Pratyahgird Dhdrani, 212.

272, 290, 310, 371, 373.

Pradyumna, a ^'aishnava

divinity,

one

of the vyuhas, 98, 185.

Pradyumjtacharitra 405.
,

Prajapati, 32.

Prajnapattd-sutra, 215, 400.

Prajfia-paramita, wisdom-perfection, i. e.
of the Buddhas ; expressed in siitras,
ii5 397-

of Mulasarvastiva-

dins, 395.

271.

Pra vach anapa riksh d, 403.

Pravachanasdra, 219, 281, 403.
Pravartaka, a propagator, 249.
Predestination in Pancharatra system,
185.

Premanand, 378.
Prcmavildsa, 377.
PreiH-ms-ras, 377.

Ff

;;;

INDEX

434

Previous Buddhas, mythical Buddhas

before Gautama, 70, no, 273.
Priests, Vedic, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 16, 17 ff.
three orders of, 20 called Brahmans,
20; their supernatural power, 31;

Piishpachu4&, 400.

Pushpadanta, 121.
Pushpikd,- 400.
Putana, 100 n. 6.
Putra-varga monasteries, 262 n.

many

magic

practise

supremacy of

priests,

mana

31

period,

rites,

in

called

i.

21

Brahgods on

the

Questions of King Milinda, 104

Chinese, 155, 393.

in

earth, 32.

Primal Sages,
PrithI

t. t.

of

Yoga

system, 132.

Priya Das,_3i7.

Prodgitd A 193.
Prosody, 42.
Pseudo-epic, 85 n. 4.
Pnggalapanuatti 393.

294
See

Archaka.
Pujyapada, 216, 219, 404.

Punjabi literature, 336.

Ptino Granth, 3S2.
Puramdar Das, 303, 375.
early references,
Puranas, 136 ff., 371
136; original character, 137; marks,
137 a Purana was a book of origins,
137; captured by the sects, 137 ff.;
age of existing Puranas, 136, 137,
138; earliest from Gupta period,
138; importance, 136; the eighteen,
i3Sf.,
178; the lists, 139, 178;
probable list of ninth century, 225
twenty Puranas are recognized, 139;
cause of the confusion in the lists,
225; contents, 139; inspiration of
the Puranas, 173; sectarian documents, 140, 179, 226; vernacular
;

versions, 296, 297.

name

by

Bhagavatas, Madhvas, or Maratha

bhaktas, 229, 235, 236; but see 301
her origin, 237; date other worship,
accepted by Vishnusvamis,
238
Nimbarkas, Chaitanyas, Vallabhas,
and later sects, 237, 307 regarded
as Krishna's eternal consort in Nimbarkite and other sects, 240 ; in
Nepalese Buddhism, 275 n. 2 ; elsewhere, 335, 345.
Radha-Krishna literary poetry, 30^ f.,
;

Pulike^in 11, 217.

Pundarikaksha, 241.
Pundra, painting of the sect-mark, 186.

Purl,

in latest

bhakti-sjitra^ 233; not recognized

Pujari, a temple-ministrant, 293,

in the main a northern word.

Radha, favourite of Krishna,

cycle of Krishna-myth, 100; does

not appear in Bhdgavata P., nor in
Ndrada-bhakti-sfttra, nor in Satjdilya-

Chand, 340.

of a famous town in Orissa,

307.
Purl, name of one of the ten orders of

Sankara's sannyasTs, 174, 304, 357.

Purusha, t. t. of Sankhya system, spirit,
130.

rtirusharthasiddhyupdya, 281, 404.

Pnritsha Sukta, 373.
Purusha viksha, 1. 1. of Yoga system, 132.
Purushottama, 376.
Ptirushottama S., 236 n. i
Purva Mimarhsa = Karma MTmaiiisa,
i24f., 125.
Ptirva-viirndmsd-sutras, 125, 367.
PCirvas, a lost section of the Jain canon,
120, 163.

378.

Pad/id-sttdhd-mdhi, 318, 378.

Radha- Vallabhis, 318; their theology,
318; their literature, 378.
Rag, t. t. of Indian music, 338.

Raghavanka, 264, 387.

Raghunandana Bhattacharya, 295,
Raghunatha Bhatta, 309.
Raghunatha Das, 309.
Raghunatha biromani, 280, 371.

373.

Rahasya-traya-sdra, 380.

Ruhras,

341.

Rai Das, 306, 328, 332, 381

a Chamar,

332.
Rai Dasis, 328.
Rajagriha, story of Buddhist Council
held there, 65.
Rajalinga, 383.

Rdjamartanda, 223, 369.

Rajaprasmya, 400.
Rajaraja, 241 n.
Rajas, t. t. of

2,

256.

Sankhya system,

130,

148.

Rajakkhara, 281, 402,

Rdjaekhara-vildsa, 386.
Rdjavdrttika, 216, 219, 404.
Raja VTra Hamvira, 311.
Raja-yoga, 254.
Rajjab Das, 382.

Rakmabal, 301.
Ral-pa-Chan, 213.
Ram,vernacularpronunciationof Rama.

INDEX
Kama, 47

a man, 47
a partial incarnation of Vishnu, 78, S3, 98
a full incarnation of Vishnu
the
eternal Brahman, 99, 100; in the
Adhydtma Rdmdyana and other
literature, 190, 250; among Ramanandrs, 323, 328.
Rama-bhaktas, devotees of Rama, 251.
Ramachandra, 248.
;

sought to substitute Pancharatra, for

Vaikhanasa Sarhhitas, wherever ^he
went, 182, 244; his flight from Srirangam, 245
his stay at Melkote
in Mysore, 183, 245; his return to
Sri-rangam, 245
is worshipped as
an incarnation, 245
biographical
material, 246, 380; influence, 264,
;

Rama Charan, 334, 345.

Rdtnacharita, 280.

Rdma-charii-mdnas,2,2(),2,'S>i
relation
to Valmiki's Kdindyaiia, the Adhydtma and other Ramayanas, 329.
Ramai Pandita, 271.
;

349-

also of the

Rama

Vishnu-

249;

f.,

Rdma-uttai-a-tdpantya

U., 189, 190,

364. 381Ra>na-z>ijaya, 374.
Rdmdyana, 44, 366, 373, 381 date,
first stage of, 46 ;
religion of
45
first stage, 47; second stage of, 78,
religion of second stage, 83 f.
83
third stage of, 85
interpolations
from didactic Epic, 99
Saura material, 152, 390; a passage in which
Rama is called the Supreme, 1S9
vernacular versions, 228, 296, 301,
303. 367Ram Das, a Sikh guru, 337, 340.
Ram Das, a Maratha bhakta, who influenced SivajT, 300, 374.
Kam-dasis, Ram Das's sect, found to-day
in the Maratha country, 301
have
their own mantra and sect-mark, 301
a Ram-dasI monastery, 301.
Ram-dvara, a Ram Sanehl prayer-house,
;

Sarasvati, '289, 368, 369.

ascetics,

ff.

direct

Ramanandl

327
their large numbers, 327
laity, 32S
mantra, 324; sect-mark, 323; sampradaya, 327
use the Adhydtma
Rdmdyana, 324 and the AgastyaStitikshtui Samvdda, 324; occasional
use of the Sri-bhdshya, 325
caste
relations, 325
use of the vernacular,
Hindu worship retained, 326
326
of

Rdmatirtha U., 364.

RamatoshinI Sarma, 356.

Ramanandls, 300, 327

f.,

opposed to
75
Samuchchhaya doctrine, 250; their
mantra, 190, 250; a yantra, 190;
a secret alphabet, 190; literature,
iSgf., 250, 380;
the Adhydtma
Rdmdyana, 250.

of the SrI-Vaislinava sect,

323 f. regarded Rama as the Supreme,
323; his influence, 327, 328; probably did not found a sect, 328.
Ramananda Rai, 308.

sects

U., 364.
sect in South India, 189

followed Sankara,

member

Ramananda

189

189,

Rdmarahasya

svaml sect, 235.

Ramakrishna Paramahaiiisa, 357.
Ramamisra, 241.
Ramananda, 299, 311, 323 ff., 380;
date, 323; his dependence on a
Ramaite sect of the South, 324; not
a

C,

Rdma-pui~va-tdpaniya
364, 38 1.

Ramakantha, 385.
Ramakrishna, a Mimamsist, 367.
Ramakrishna, a Saiva, 346.
KdviakyisJnia Hari, mantra of Maratha
bhaktas, 235

435

Satanis, 321; yet never broke casterules, 244; used the pavitra, 244;
his controversial journeys, 245 ; he

origin,

32S.

Ramanuja, author of the Sri-bhashya,

127, 242, 244, 287, 379 ; other books,
379 ; his system Visishtadvaita, 1 70,

242

346;

his teaching in relation to the

128; his influence, 220; won

Ramesvara, 3S3.

siJtras,

Ram Mohan Ray, 355.

Ram Rai, 340.
Ram Rafijas, 340.
Ram Sanehis, 334, 345

Yadava

I'rakasa to Vaishnavism,
222 succeeded Yamuna at Srirangam,
242; his position, 242, 379; attacks
Sankara and Bhaskaracharya in his
Srl-bhdshya, 242
his bhakti, 220,
holds the Samuchchhaya doc243
trine, 243 ; his punctilious observance
of caste-rules, 244
taught Sudras
and Outcastes, 244; his influence on
;

their prayer;

Rdnaka, 367.
Ranchodji Diwan, 356.

houses called Ram-dvaras, 346

no
following of laymen, 346.
Ramya-jamatri-muni, 319, 3S0.
Ranachor Rai, a title of Krishnn, 30J.

;; .

INDEX

436

Atharvan, 24 Brahmanas
commentary, 295.

of, 25

Rahgaramaniija, 320, 365.

Ranna, 283, 403.
Rasas, 360.
Rasesvaras, a sect of Pasupata Saivas,

Rigvidhdjia, 42, 366.

RiJuviiJiald, 367.

190, 254.
Rashtrakutas, 216.

Rishabha, one of the Jain Tlrthakaras,

Rtk = Rigveda.

Rdshtrapala-paripruhchhd, 207, 396.

Kaske Fada, 318, 378.

279.

Risliahhapanchdhka, 279, 401.

Rishi, 8.
Rita, 3, 12.
River-worship, 41, 43, 48.
Rohinl, mother of Balarama, 98

Ras-lila, 310, 315.

Rathakranta, 356.
Ratnachandra, 361, 405.

Ratnakarauda-Srdvakdchdra^ 216, 219,

Ratnapani, 273.

Ratnasambhava, 273.
Ratnasekhara, 360, 402.
Ralna-vivarana, 377.
Raurava A., 193, 2^,7.
Kavana, 161.
Ravikirti, 217, 403.

Rayanasdra, 403.
Reconciliation of philosophies and religions, 287, 289, 290 ff.
Reformed Literature, 382.
Release, from repeated death in other
release from transmigraworld, 35

Sabara-Sahkara-vildsa, 387.
Sabara-svamin, 123 n. 2 ; 135, 136, 168,
,

rise of philosophy
37
52; in Veddnta'Sutr as, 12']; release
of,

Buddhism, annihilation ace. to

some texts, 64; not annihilation, ace.
in

five original

I>inga-

yat ascetics, 260.

Ribhns, 10.

nas, 31,61; supernatural powers of, 3 1

Sacrificer, uf Vedic times, 13, 14.

hymn, hymns,of praise, 6, 10.

Riddles, 22.
Ridhpur, 322.

Sacrificial worship, gradually,

Right-hand Sakta movement, 267, 357;

possibly the outcome of a Mediaeval
possibly created by
reformation, 268
6ankara, 175; a Smarta movement,
;

the
^rlvridya, 269, 358
268, 357
bhakli school, 269, 359.
Rigveda, Chap. I. esp. 4, 6ff., i.sff.,
362 The name, 10 composition of
teaching of hymns, 8
hymns, 7
family groups
literary dialect of, 7
collection of groups, 8,
of hymns, 8
9, 10, 16; arrangement of the hymns,
9 ; magical effects of recitation of,
religion of books
42 religion, 362
gods, 12, 15; mythi-ix, 10 ff.;
ology, 363 worship, 13; philosophy,
;

363; date,
religion of

to

367-

Sabda, sound, the Word, 201.

Sacraments, 39.
Sacred thread, worn by twice-born
not worn by any full
Hindus, 31
Lihgayat, 261 n. i.
Indo-IraSacrifice, Indo-European, i
nian, 3; Vedic, 6, 7. 11, 14, 22;
given up by som.e Vanaprastha, 29
supremacy of, in times of Brahma-

A'?V/i,r?V/ias,

17; interpretation,

book

Sdiiian, 18;

q.v.

RukminI, 301.
Rupa, 308, 309, 376.

Ravishena, 217,403.

to most, 64.
Revana, one of the

n. 11.

Rudra, 10, 21, 22 called .Siva, 32,

in verse Upanishads, 59.
Riidrahridaya U., 364.
Rudraksha, 261.
Rudrdkshajdhdla U., 364.
Rudra-Pasupati, i.e. Siva, 103.
Rudra-sampradaya, 315, 327.
Riidra-ydmala T., 265, 388.

403-

tion, 36,

ff.

x,

to

20,

Yajiis,

17;

relation

20;

to

by the temple-cult, 51
1 40, 170.
Sadan.a, 323, 38

weakened

steady decay,

1.

Sadananda, 286, 368.

Saddkarma Pundarika, 92, 112, Ii4f.,
396; two editions, 114, 157; new
edition, 157, 275; influence, 115.
Sadhana, 203.

Sddhdran Siddhdnt,

318, 378.
Sadhs, 334, 344.
Sadhu, 327, 335.
."^adhubandana, 405.
.Saduktikarnamrita, 238 n.
Sagara, name of one of the ten orders of
Sahkara's sannyasTs, 1 74.
Sahaja, an erotic form of Buddhism,
273

.Sahajananda, 318, 3S4.

Sahajo BaJ, 383.

INDEX
Sahasranamasmriti, 402.
Sahasrara, name of one of the occult
circles in the body, ace. to Sakta
Sahijdharls, 340.

Saiva Agamas, see Agamas.

Saiva Bhdshya, 287, 295, 3S5 ] date,

349, used by all groups of Agamic
Saivas in South India, 350, 351; a
synopsis, 353.

Saiva Darsana, 255.

6aiva literature, loi, 145, 190, 251, 346,
,

^alikanatha, 169, 367.

Salimabad, 305.

Sam,

153.

Sdmdc/idfJsataka, 403.
Samadhi, t. t. of the Yoga system,
Sainddhird/a, 159, 275, 396.

Yoga, 269.

437

Sdinan = Sdmaveda.
Samantabhadra, a Jain, 216, 219, 371,
403; Dhyani-Bodhisattva, 273.
Samantapdsddikd, 393.
Samanya, 1. 1. of Vaiseshika system, 1 34.
Samardichchhakahd, 215, 280, 401.
Samavay.a,

383.

Saiva Puranas, 383.

Saiva-samaya-neri, 257, 3S6.
6aiva Siddhanta, the Sanskrit school,
255 the Tamil school, 255, 257.
Saiva-Siddhdnta-dlpikd, 350, 384, 385.
^aiva temples in Tamil land, 349. ,
^aiva theists, 82 heterodox, 82 ; Saiva
theology, loi.
Saiva Upanishads, 80, 383.

2.^3.

t.

t.

of Vaiseshika system,

134.

Saniavdydhga, of the Jain canon, 399.

Sdmaveda, 10, 15, 19, 20, 363; the

hymn-book of the

singer-priests, 18

Sajjangarh, 301.
Sakadvipa, Scythia, 152.

SakadvIpTya Brahmans,
'

Maoians,

i.e.

205.

Sakala, name of one of the Sakhas, or

recensions of the Kigvcda, 267.
Sakalaklrti, 120, 360, 402, 404.

Sahara- siddhi, 239, 375.

Sakas, Scythians, 83.
.Sakta saimyasTs, 357.
Sakta sect: see.Saktas; 150 f., 199, 209;
accepts people of all classes, 204

system, 167

literature,

150, 199,
209, 265, 353,; Tantras, 199, 265,
354 ff.;, 3S8 Sakta Upanishadsj 266,
389; Sakta poetry in the vernaculars,
ff.

formation

of,

f.

relation to J\ik,

magic power of metres, 21 ritual

Brahmanas of, 25.
Sdmavidhdna Brdhinana, 42, 363, 365.
18

363

Sainayasdranattkd, 405.

Samayasdraprdbhrita, 219, 28
Samayasundara, 360, 403.

r,

403.

Samaya Tantras, 268.

Samba, 153, 205.

Samba

P., 205, 372, 390.

Sambara, 265.
Sdmbavya Grihya Sutra, 365.
Sambhar Lake, 283.
Sambhogakaya, one of the bodies of a
Buddha, 159.

Sambhudeva, 356, 385.

Sambhu-paddhdti, 385.
Saihhitas, see Vaishnava .Samhitas.
Samhitas, of the Yajmvcda, 26
'

list,

27.

356 magic, 200 cult, 151, 200, 202,

sacrifice,
the offerings, 203
204
animal and human, 203, 354 Sakta
;

ideas among Vaishnavas, 183; among

among Buddhists, 209
Saivas, 194
;

among

Jains, 213; Sakta yoga,

]86, 195, 200, 201 f., 204, 210, 213;
Right-hand
Movement, 267, 295,
the
357 ; the Bhakti movement, 269, 359.

ff.

Sdktdnaiuia-tayahgini, 389.
Saktas, worshippers of a goddess as the
/a/J//of herlord, 150; their Trimurti,
149. See Sakta sect.
divine energy the godSakii, energy
dess in all sects, 150, 184, 194; the
Sakti as sound, 201.
;

Jains, 77.

Samsara, the process of transmigration,

is eternal, 35.
35
Samskrita, 42.
Saiitstdra, 400.
Saiiitana, a series, a t.
;

t.

of the Sautran-

tikas, 106.

Samuchchhaya

6akti-visishtadvaita, 287, 353.

ijakya clan, clan of the Buddha, 62.

Salagrama, 293.

Sathhitopanishad, 363.
Saihkarshana, a Vaishnava divinity, one
of the vyi'ihas, 98, 184.
Samkshepa Kdmdyana, 38 1.
Sammitlya school of Buddhism, 395.
Samprati, said to have been a grandson
of Asoka and to have favoured the

doctrine, 239, 243.

Samvegarahgasdld 401.
,

apparent truth in the

Madhyamaka system, 116.
Sariryuktagama, Sansk. for Saihynttanikaya, 109; in Chinese, 155.

Sariivritisatya,

F f3

INDEX

438

Saihyuttanikaya, third section of tlie

Buddhist Sutta Pitaka, 71, 109, 392,

Sdhkhya-stltras, 288, 369.

Sdhkhya-siltra vritti, 369.
Sankhya system, 368 ; germ of, 60, 131.
rise of, 61 ; an early document, now
in Maitrdin Gitd, 90
lost, 44, So
yaiia U., 93; in Chulikd U., 93; in
in doctrine of
didactic Epic, 93, 97
fundamental authority is
Vyuha, 98
Sdiikhya-kdrikd,(\.\.; atheistic, 130;
rationalistic, 129 sysdualistic, 130
tem, i3off. attacked in Lahkdvatdra-siitra, 161
by Vasubandhu, 176;
398 an order of Sankhya sannyasis,
131, 289; open to all four castes, 131
literature, 129, 176, 223, 288; described by Alberuni, 223; influenced
by the Vedantic conception of God,

393-

Sanaka

S., 268, 389.

Sanakadi Sampradaya, 327.

Sanandana

S., 268, 389.

Sanatnna, 30S, 309, 376.

Saiiatkunim-a S., 268, 389.

Sandhya, 293.
Sandilya U., 364.

Sdndilya-bhakti-sutra,

233,

240, 269,

374-

author of the earliest surviving bhash-

ya on the Veddnta-siltras, 127, 170,

his teacliing in
286, 367; date, 171
relation to the sutras, 128; system,
;

171

similarity

ff.;

to

Madhyamaka

Vijnanavadin Buddhism, 172;

works, 171, 364; his splendid
capacity, 174; his sannyasTs and sanhis monasteries
nyasinis, 174, 327 f.

and

his

174; his influence, I74ff. 198, 274,

293 legendary lives, 175 n. 4 ; some
think he originated the Smarta worship of the five gods, 176; attacked
by Bhaskara, 221 called a reincarna;

tion of the

demon Manimat by Madh-

connected with the Sakta

237
system in mediaeval tradition, 266; a
remarkable image of S., 268.
va,

Sankara Mika, 224, 370.

Sahkarananda, the Bi;ddhist, 225,
Safikarananda, the Vedantist, 223, 287,

two

documents

on
Sankara's controversial triumphs, one
:

Anandagiri, the other

to Madhava, 1750. 4, 237 n. i, 252,

ascribed

288.

Sdhkhya-taftva-kaumndt, 177, 288,368.

Sdhkhya-vritti-sdra, 369.
Sankhya-yoga, an early theistic form of
the Sankhya philosophy, expressed in
the Shashtilafitra, 289.
Sahklrtana, 300, 301, 302, 303.
Sannydsa U., 95, 364.
Sannyasa Upanishads, 80, 94 f.
SannyasinTs, 174.
Sannyasis, monks, of various systems,
of the Vedan29, 40, 41, 47, 52, 60
gave up the old worship, 53
ta, 5a
place in the Asramas, 81 ; re-organ;

by sahkara in ten orders, 174;

nuns also, 1 74 see Nuns see also
Dandis and Nagas these orders exist
to-day, 129, 174; the strictness of
ized

their discipline, 327

bers, 327.

their large

num-

Paninean Sanskrit, 42,

;
105; mixed Sanskrit, 105; Buddhist

Sanskrit, 6, 42

365.

Sahkara vijaya

Sanghahhadra, 395.
Sahkalpa-nirdkarana, 258, 386.
Sahkalpasnryodaya, 319, 380.
Sahkara, name of a famous sannyasi,

to

350.

Sdhkhdyana Aranyaka, 363.

Sdhkhdyaiia Brdhinana,

27.

Sdiikhayaiia Grihya Si'iira, 365.

Sdiikhdyana Sraiila Sutra, 365.

349> 385.

Santa Lilajnnia, 374.

Santdna ^i., 193Santana Acharyas, of Tamil Saiva Sid-

dhanta, 258.
Santana-Ganapati, 270.

Sdhkhya-kdrikd, 93, 123, 368; fundamental text of Sankhya system, 129

source of the Kdrikd, 129; author,
129; date, 129; analysis, 130 f.
criticized by Vasubandhu, 161.
Sdhkhya-kdrikd-bhdshya, 1 76, 369.
Sdhkhya-pravachana-bhdshya, 289, 369.
Sdhkkya-pravachana-sutra^ see Sdhkhya-sutras.
Sdiikhya-sdra, 369.

Sanskrit, 105.
Sanskrit SaivaSiddhanta,_255, 258, 349,
recognizes the Agamas, 349
385
mainly a school of Brahmans, 255,
its philosophy Visishtadvaita,
349
255, 349; literature in Sanskrit, 255,

Silntarakshita, 397.

Santa Vijaya, 374.

Sdntidcva, 208, 210, 397.
Sdntindthacharita, 405.

Sdnti P., 404.

Santisuri, 278.

INDEX

Satapatha Brdhmana, tlie Brahmana of

the Vajasancyins of the lV/ii(c Yajus,

Satiydyaratndvalt, .^75.
Sapta-paJdrtha-nirhpaua, or Saptapadilrthl. 224, 369.
Saptapaddrtlit, 369.
SaplalaiJ = Chandt-Mdhatviya, 151.
Sarab/ia
., 364.
Sarada, a name of SarasvatI, as goddess
of speech and letters, 174, " 2. name
of a iiiatjia, monastery, in Dvvarka,
i 74.
^ founded by Safikara,
Sdraddtilaka T., 267, 271 n. 2, 389.
Sarana, 261.
SarasvatI, wife of Brahma, goddess of

speech and letters, 267, 214, 227;

name of one of the ten orders of
Sahkara's sannyasis, 174, 286.
Sarasvatira/iasya U., 364.
Sarasvattstotra, 401.

Brahman,

Sariraka- sutras, 126.

Sdriraka U., 364.
Sarvabhauma, 289 n. 2, 30S, 371, 376.
SdJ-vabhaiana-nirnkti 371.
Sarvadarsanasahgraha, 225, 239, 255,
,

^288,

289, 290, 295, 349, 350, 367,

369. 370, 37i 375, 38o> 385, 386,
390Sarvajiia-mitra, 212, 398.
Sai-vdrthasiddhi, 216, 219, 403.
Sarvastivadin Council, 108.
Sarvastivadin school, a Buddhist school

used
393
possessed an Abhid-

Kashmir,

Sanskrit, 68
harma Pitaka,
;

68,

68,

107,

207,

Vinaya Pitaka, 108, 393; Sutra

394;
Pita-

commentaries, 108;
394; Chinese
Tibetan Trs. 207
Trs., 156, 207
philosophy called Vaibhashika, 107,
108, 156; combated in Hindu philoconverts, 160.
sophies, 136
Sarva- Upanishat-sdia, 364.
Sarvokta A.,_ig^.
Sarvotiara A., 193.
ka,

loS,

394;

literature, 107, 156, 207,

;

Sastra-dtpjkd, 221, 367.

Sdstra-dlpikd-vyc Ikhyd , 2>^'].
Sastras, 81.
Sat, i.e. the Real, 33i. 343Safadiis/iam, 319, 380.
Satanis, a group of Sudras taught by
Ramanuja, 245, 321 ; they exercise
priestly functions in certain temples,

,321.
Satapaiic/idsika-slolra, 395.

honour of Siva,

Sathakopa, 246.
Satnamls, 334, 342
organized

382;

ff.

probably

among

a
Outcastes, 344
reorganized
rising and a battle, 343
by Jagjlvan Das, 343 vegetarian ab;

343; filthy practices, 343;

advance by Gliazi Das, 343.
Sat Sat, 379.
Satsandarbha, 309, 377.
stainers,

Sattadaval, 321.
Satlasal, 165, 215.
Sattvata, or Satvata, an ancient tribe,
50, 98-

126.

in

in

22, 383.

Satyabhama, 301.
Satyabheda, dualism, a form of the

Sdratthapakdsim, 393,

found

^7. 28, 363.

Saianidnya,a. liymn

Sariputra, 394.
Sariraka, the embodied one,

439

V'edanta, 128,

Sdtydyana U., 364.

Sanbhdgyalakshml U., 364.
Saunakiya, 24.
Sauiidardnanda-Kdvya, 116, 395.
Saiutdaryalaliai'i,

265

n. 5,

266,

268,

388-

Saura P., contains

Madhvism, 237 n.
Saura S., 183, 205.

a polemic against
i,

372.

Sauras, the sect of Sun-worshippers,

151 ff.; 205, 269, 294; their form of
the Trimurti, 149, 152; their literature,

151

ff.,

205,

270,

their

390;

theology 205
Saura worship, 152
Saura images and temples, 152 f.,
269 their priests were Magians, 205.
Sautrantikas, a Buddhist school, 106 ;
their philosophy, 106, 114, 136.
;

Savitri, 10.
Savitrl, 48.

Sdvittt U., 364.

Savya, 9n.
Sayana, 29, 285, 294, 295.
Scepticism, 21.
Schools, of the Kigvedn, 8, 9, 10, 19;
of the Yaof the Sdmaveda, i8f.
jiirveda, \^i.\ of the Atha>~vaveda^
23 f. ; branching of the schools, 31 ;
used
progress of the schools, 25, 31
for the education of^ the three castes,
women and Sudras excluded,
31
31 Brahmans alone allowed to teach,
;

literature of the schools, 37

31
the Upanishads in the schools, 55.
Scythians, 78.
Sea of Milk, 99.
;

INDEX

440

Sectarians, 82, 292.

Sectarian bhashyas on the Vcddntasutras, 222, 287,
all have
Sect-mark, Tilaka, 168, 202
a phallic significance, 202.
Sect of the Mahdrdjahs, 315.
Sects, rise of, 82
characteristics of,
122, 167, 220, 292; decay of, 292.
Sekkirar, 256, 385.

Sikhs, 334, 336

Silappadhikdram ,121,

Sesvara Mtmdmsd, 286, 367, 380.

Setubandha, 389.
Sevak-bdni, 378.
Sewapanthls, 340,

Shadakshara Deva, 387.

Shaddarhnasamnchchhaya, 214, 360,
371,401.
Shaddarsanasanntchchliayatika, 402.
Shaddarsanavichdra, 371, 402.
Shaifvithsa Brdhmana, 27, 28, 363.
Shains, 312.
Shashtitantra, a manual of theistic

Yoga by Varshaganya, now

lost, 94,

Sdiikhya-kdrikd
contents sketched in AJiv'bu-

relation

to

dhnya Samhiid, 1 29.

Shatchakra U., 266, 364, 3S9.
Shatprdbhrjta, 360, 403.
Shatsthala, the six sthalas or stages of
spiritual progress among the Vlra
i^aivas, 261, 262.
Shodasa tipachdra, the sixteen operations ' of image-worship, 51 n. i, 294.
Siddha A., 193.
Siddhdnta-chaitdrikd, 367.
'

Siddhdnta-dipam, 385.
Siddhdnta-jdhnavl, 376.

Siddliilraya, 241, 379.

Sllavaihsa, 394.
Siihhalese, 154.

Singh, 339Singhs, 340.

Singinad, a whistle, 348.
Smgi Raja, 353, 387.

Sisiiyalekhadharma-kdvya, 209, 398.

Sishya-varga monasteries, 262 n. 1.
Sisna-devah, phallus-worshippers,

5,

102.
Sitd U., 364.
Sittars, a sect of non-idolatrous Puritans, 352, 387 ; their hymns in the

Siva-vdkyavi, 352, 387.

new name

Rudra, 32, 47, 48

59.; in second
in Trimiirti,
stage of Epics, 83;
148 f.; rise of sect of Siva, 82; in
third stage of Epics, 92 j identified

Siva, a

for

Siva in Upanishads, 58,

with Brahman, 10 1 his theophanies,

10 1 has eight forms, 102 Lakulisas
teach that he becomes incarnate, 146
adored by Bhagavatas as qual with
Vishnu, 142, 175, 181, 182; one of
the Five Gods, 179; Siva in the
Agamas, I94f. symbols used in his
worworship in the house, 293 n. 2
ship in his temples, 294.
Sivabhagavatas, devotees of Siva, early
sectarians, 82 n.
;

Siddhdnta-lehi, 368.
Siddhdiiia-vmktdvalt, 370.
Siddhdnta-rahasya, 316, 377.
Siddhdnta-ratna, 376.
Siddhanta ^astras, 258.
Siddhdnta-siklidtnani, 382, 387.
Siddhardnia J\, 264, 387.
Siddharshi, 215, 401.
Siddhasena Divakara, 164, 400.
Siddhasena Gani, 164, 401 date, 165;
his bhashyas, 165.
Siddha-siddhdnta-paddhati, 384.
Siddhavirana, 387.

Sijjambhava, 400.
Sikandar Lodi, %\i.

34Sikshd, 42.
Sikshd-pdtrt, 378.
,

Sikshdsamuchchhaya, 208, 397.

J^Uahka, 214, 278, 279, 401.

Semi-Liiigayats, 263.
Sena, 328, 381.
Sena Panthis, 328.
Sesha, 48, 98.

literature,

of the martyr-spirit, 338

the cult,
340 f. ; the Sikhs divided into two
communities, 340
sub-divisions,

368
129;

382; the

Self-sacrifice, 209.

ff.,

Hinduism finds access to the

community, 338, 339, 340, 341
the
guru worshipped as God, 338 ; rise
382

Sivaditya, 224, 370.

Siva-drishti, 198, 259, 386.
Sivadvaita, 255 n. 3, 351.

Sivddvaita-viahjari 387.
$ivagunayogI, 353, 383, 3S7.
Sivajl, 300, 301, 339 n. 4, 356.
Siva-jnana-bodha, 257, 258, 351, 385.
Siva-jtidna-siddhi, 257, 258, 385.
Siva-jnana-yogT, 347, 351, 386.
Sivanaud, 346, 384.
Sivdnandalahart, 383.
Siva Narayana, 334, 345.
mostly lowSiva Narayauls, 334, 345
class people, 345 ; monasteries called
,

INDEX
Dhams, 345
^

hold Siva Narayana an

incarnation, 345.

Saiva Siddhanta, 226, 350, 3S5.

Siva-prakaia, 25S, 384, 3S6.
,

Sivasahasranatnc^, 383.
Siva Sakti, 194.
^iva-suiras, 193, 198, 3S6.
Siva-siitra-vdrttika, 386.

139, 179, 27*1, 372, 385,

Tr., 256 Tel. Tr., 346,
;

3S3.

11,

14,

15;

Soma

10.

Soina-Sainbhn-paddhati-vritti, 385.
Somasundara, 360, 402.
Somesvara, 367.
Sorcery, taught in Saktism, 203.
in
Soul, in Hinduism, eternal, 35
early Buddhism, declared non-exis;

Sound, eternity, 125.

South India, Hinduized, 36.
Spanda-kdrikds, 198, 386.
Spanda-pradipikd 3S6.
,

Spauda-saitdo/ia, 386.
Spanda-vivriti, 386.
Sphatika, 293 n. 2.

SpJmt-pada, 318, 378.

Sraddha, 39.
Sragdhara metre, 205.
Sragd/iard-stotra, 212.
Srauta, 38
used of a man who keeps
up the Srauta sacrifices, 141, 293.
Srauta-sutras, 38 f., 365
date,
38
^ contents, 39, 140.
;

Skaitda ['., 143, 181, 364, 374.

Skaiida-ydrnala T., 265.
Slavonic people, r.
Slokavdrtika, of Kumarila, 168, 367; of
Vidyananda, 216, 219, 404.
Smarta Brahman, his worship, 293,
294.

used of
Smartas, from Smriti, 141
orthodox men who do ;iot keep up
most are
the Srauta sacrifices, 141
followers of Sankara, 175, 180; and
worship the five gods, 179, 206, 293.
;

initiated

time of

its

the

custom?

origin, i79f.

179;

178,

Smdrta-sutra, 141.
Smriti, lit. remembrance;
velation of the second

t.

t.

for re-

grade,

43,

141.

Smriti Kaustubha, 285

Srdvakdchdra 361, 405.

Sravana Belgola, 75, 282.
SrI = Lakshmi, 246.
Sribhdshya, Ramanuja's commentary
on the Vedanta siitras, 220, 242, 244,
287, 379; its powerful influence, 220,
,

as taught in Sakta Yoga, 267.

Chand, 340.
Srichandrasuri, 278.
Sri-Datta sampradaya, 24S.
J^ridhara, the Vaiseshikn writer,
Sri

n. 2, 295, 367,

Snake-worship, 41, 43, 48.

Sobhana, 278, 279, 401,

224,

37Sridhara, the Marathi poet, 301, 374.

,

Sridhara Dasa, 238 n.

Sridhara Svami, 231,

239, 269,
301, 308, 359. 373Sn-harsha, 223, 225, 371.
Srtkdlachakra T., 272, 274, 398.
Srikanta Misra, 239, 375.
Srikanthn, 370.
,

373-

222, 325, 349, 350,

Sri Bhatt, 305, 376.

vSri-chakra, one of the six chakras, or
centres of occult influence in the body,

literature,

179, iSo, 226, 293,^373;

their interest in the Right-hand Sakta
movement, 228, 268 ; the domestic
chapel of a Smarta, 293 n. 3.
Smarta temples, 293.

141,

10,

14,

system, 185.

51 n. I, a6i, 294.
Sixty-three Saiva saints, 256.

Who

6,

10,

64 in Vedanta, identical with

Brahman, 127; in the Pancharatra

^iv^-yogl, 3S7.

/*.,

3,

Soma-sacrifice.
18
3, 14, 18, 22, 41.
Somadeva, 279, 282, 404.
Somananda, 194, 198, 259, 386.
Somanatha of Palakurki, 264, 387.

tent,

Sivopadhyaya, 352, 386.

Sijf systems of Hindu philosophy, 124;
theory of their harmony, 228.
Sixteen operations of Hindu worship,

Tamil

2,

hymns,

Siva-sut7-avimarHnt, 259, 386.

Sivdyana, 346, 383.
Siva-yoga-pradipikd, 387,

Soma,

Soma Pavamana,

Prakasa Svaml, 347, 383, 387.

Sivdrkamaitidipika a comm. on the
, Saiva Bhashya, 295, 350, 385.
Siva S., 348, 384.
!5iva

389

So-Darn, 338,
.'^odhana, purification, 253.

Siva P., 139, 372', 383, 384; originally

a Saiva work, 179; contains Lakullsa
material, 179; Malayalim Tr., 347,
3S4
the Vayaviya S. contains an
account of the Sanskrit School of

Skafida

441

297,

;;

INDEX

442

brikantha Sivacliiirya, 287, 295, 349,

385 ; his Saiva Bhdshya, 349, 385
,

Srutasagara, 360, 405.

Sruti, revealed scripture, 38, 43, 60
comes from Brahman, 127 ; is eternal,

his date, 349.

Srxkara-bhashya, 264, 287, 387.

127.

Srinath, 383.
Srlngeri, name of a matha, monastery,
in the Mysore, founded by Sankara,
i74> 285.
Srinivasa, a follower of Ramannja, 320,
,

380.

Stavamdld 376.
,

Sthalas, stages of spiritual progress, of

which six are distinguished in the
Vira Saiva system, 261.

Sthanakavasis, 359.
Sthaviras, a Buddhist school, 104
the
Sthavira Canon of Ceylon, 104.
Sthira-lihga, 103.
Sthidabhadra, a Jain leader, 75.
Stobhas, 19.
Stotra, a sacred ode in praise of a
;

Srmivasa, a follower of Nimbarka, 222,

287, 376.
^ 240,
Sripdlacharitra, 401, 405.
Sripalagopdlakaihd, 40 2
2S7.
Sripati,
See Sripati Panditaradhya.
Sripati Panditaradhya, one of the five
original Lingayat ascetics, 260, 264,

Ramanuja's
birthplace, 181, 246, 320.
Srirahgam, the metropolitan Sri-Vaishnava shrine at Trichinopoly, 241, 245,

Sri-perumbudur,

a theological school there

246, 321
also, 241, 242, 319.
Srl-Laila, 260.
;

Sri

Sampradaya, 327.

Si-t-subodhiiii, 377.

Sri-Sukacharya, 374.
Sri-vachana-bhushana, 380.
Sri-Vaishnava Sampradaya, 246.
Sii-Vaishnava sect, 188, 240, 319;
only Vishnu, his consorts and incarRadha not
nations recognized, 247
recognized, 247 the Alvars regarded
;

as le_aders and teachers, 187, 241

system, 242 f.
the Acharyas, 241
mantra, 1S6, 1S8, 246; the dvaya
mantra, 246 n. sect-mark, 186, 246
Sampradaya, 246 temple-ritual, 320;
tapa, i.e. branding, 186, 246; guru,
186; initiation, diksha, i86; holds
the Samuchchhaya doctrine, 239, J43;
;

SrI-Vaishnava literature, 187, 240,

379 ; Sri-Vaishnava sannyasis, 243
non-Bratiman Sri-Vaishnava ascetics,
243 n. Sri-Vaishnavas are very strict
;

in caste matters,

247

the

two sub-

319, 320; two forms of the

sect-mark, 320
seats of the pontiffs,
320.
,
Srivarddhadeva, 217, 219, 404.
Srividya, the right-hand worship of the
Devi with a view to release, 269,
358.
Sri Vyasa Raja, 303.
Srl-Yogindra Acliarya, 2S2, 405.
sects,

divinity, 214.

Student, one of the four a^rama's, 29, 40.

Stupa, a burial mound, Buddhist, 71,
72, no.
Suali, 224.

Subdld U., 364, 379.

Subha Tantras,

268.

Subhachandra, 360, 361, 405.

Subhagodaya, 388.
Subhakrishna, 210.
Subhasila, 360, 403.
Stibhaufnachariira, 405.

Subodhim, 316, 377.

Subrahmanya, 14S, 347.
Sub-vyuhas, 185.
SucharitamiSra, 367.
SudarSana Bhatta, 246, 380.
Suddhadvaita, 287.
Suddhddvaitanidrtanda , 316, 377Sudras
Sudra, 16, 21, 36; duties, 401
;

admitted to Sahkhya and Yoga asSudra worship, 36

cetic orders, 61
Sudras usually not sectarians, 2.
;

Sufiism, influence in India, 284, 331 ;

powers, 33*1
the Sufi conception of
God the real, 331; the
God, 331
path, 331 the teacher, 331 Sufi practice like Yoga, 331 f. tends to reduce
all religions to equality, 332 ; a Sufi
;

scarcely a Muslim, 332.

4uka, 287, 373.

Suka

S., 388.
Sitka T., 208.

Suka-bhdshya, 287, 297, 373.

S,ukacharya, 297, 374.
Sukapakshiya, 380.
Sukarahasya l\, 364.

Sukhdmani, 341.
Sitkhdvativyuha, the longer text,

117,

118, 396.

Sukhdvativyuha, the shorter, 117, 118,

158, 396; J'ipanese translations, 275.

INDEX
Sukh Niilhan, 38

Sutta Nipdta, a book of the Buddhist

Sukra, 47.
Sukshma A., 193, 264.

Sulta_Pitaka, 71, 392.

Sutta Pitaka, second part of the Buddhist
Canon, 64, 390 character and con-

Sulva-sutras, 42, 365.

Sumaitgalavildsini, 393
Sumatra, 168, 391.
Sundar Das, 342.
Sundar Das, the younger, a Dadupanthl
poet, 341, 382.
Sundar Vilas, 382.

relation
69 date, 64, 66, 67
of Pali Sutta Pitaka to earliest texts,
tents,

197, 256, 3^5Sundarar, see Sutidara-murti.

Sunga dynasty, 78, 83.

Sunya P., 271.
Sunyata, the Mahayana philosophy of
1

68.

trik features, 212, 39S.

Svddhishthdnaprabheda, 159, 397.

SvamI Hari Das, 318, 378.^
Svami-Naravana, 318 his Sikshd-pdtrt
;

378.

Svami-Narayanls, 318

14.
,

Sunyavada, the vacuity system of Nagarjuna, called also

Sutta Vibhaitga, the first book of the.

Buddhist Vinaya, 391.

Sundara-murti, or Sundarar, 193, 196,

vacuity,

Suvarnaprabkdsa, 159, 275, 396.

Suvarnap] abhdsottamardja, 212;
a
Vijfianavadin work with many Tan-

Sundara Bhatta, 376.

Sundara Dcva, 3S3.

443

Madhyamaka,

116,

136, 271.
Suprabha A., 193.
Suprabh ata -stava, 399.
Stiprabheda A., 193, 2600. 2, 264.
Sur Das, 316, 377.
Surat Gopal, 335.
Suiesvaracharya, or Mandanamisra, 169,
367.

378.

their literature,

Svaprabhananda Sivacharya, 387.

Svarnabhadra, 293 n. 2.
Svarna-Ganapati, 270.
Svarnarekhd, 293 n. 2.

Svdtmdnubhava 374.
Svatmarama Yogindra, 348,
,

384,

Svayambhii, 273.

Svayambhii P., 275, 399.

Svayambhustotra, 403.

Svdyambhuva

A., 193, 194, 264.

Sur Sagar, 377.

Sursdravalt, 377.
Surya, 10; in third stage of Epic, 92
adored by Saura sect, q.v. 205 one
of the five gods, 179, 301
believed
to cure leprosy, 153; symbols used
in his worship, 293 n. 2
sometimes
not represented by an image, because
he is visible in the sky, 294 n. 1.

Svetambara, a Jain sect, 75, 119, 162.

Svetambara Jain Canon, 76, 120, 121,
162, 163 ff., 399; date of publication,
163; the Ahga, 163, 399; the other
works, 163 f.

Surya

Syadvada, the Jain system of

U., 364, 390.

Suryakanta, 2930. 2.
Suryaprajiiapti 166, 219, 399, 403.
Surya-sataka, 205, 390.

Svetambara literature, 76, 120,

2i3> 277,359, 399.
,
Svetasvatara
,

C,

163,

58, 59, 60, 173, 243,

364, 383dialectic,

216.

Symbols of divinities, 293.

Syrian Christian Church, 122.

Sushunuid, 201.

Susiddhikdramahd
Suta S., 389.

T., 398.

Taittirlya

Aranyaka,

363Taittirlya

Brdhmana,

27, 30, 226, 295,

Sutra 0/ /'orty-iwo sections, 1 18.

Sutra Pitaka, Sansk. for Sutta Pitaka
translated into Chinese, 155.
Siitra-bhashya, of Madhva, 222. 236,

27, 28, 295.

Taittinya Samhitd, 27, 28, 226, 295,

Taittiriyas, a school ot the Black Yajus,

287. 375Sutrakritdiiga-sfdra, 216, 399.

Sutrdlaihkdra, n6, 157, 395.

26, 27, 54.

Taittirlya U., 54, 226, 364.
Talavakdra Brdhmana, 27, 28.
Talavakaras, a scliool of the Samaveda,

Sutrapdth, 249, 380.

Sutra-method of teaching, 38,
116, 124;
religion in sutras, 41

Tamas,

Sutras,

legal sutras, 39, 81,

Sfdrasamuchihhaya, 208.

27. 54-

Talkad, 297.
t.

t.

of Sankhya system, 130,

148.

Tamil

Literature, 147, 187, 196

ft.,

218,

INDEX

444

220, 228, 296, 347, 351, 378, 379,

3S3ffv
Tamil Saiva poet-singers, 187, 196;
.

7'arka-idndava, 375.

their influence, 220.

Tamil 6aivas,

147, 196, 255, 350; they

are scarcely an organized sect, 350

their system the
use Agamas, 191
;

Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, 255

call

do not
themselves Mahesvaras, 191
accept doctrine of incarnations of
;

Siva, 191

literature in

Tamil, 196,

255; monasteries, 350; the majority

of the monasteries under non-Brahmans, 350.
Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, 220, 255, 385;
mostly a school of non-Brahmans,
their use of the Vedas, 351 ;
255
;

own

Tamil, 255,
350 philosophic standpoint Bhedabheda, or Advaita (Sivadvaita), 255,
255 n. 3 see Tamil Saivas.
Tamil Vaishnavas, 187.
Tandins, a school of the Somaveda, 27,
their

literature in

54-

Tandulavaitahka., 400.
Tati-gyur, the second half of the Tibetan Buddhist Canon, also called
Tanjur, 277.
Tanjore, 256.

Tanjur, see Tan-gynr.

Tahka, author of a Visishtadvaita vakya
on the Vedanta-sutras, 171.
Tanmatras, t. t. of Sahkhya system,
131-

Tcthdgata Guhyaka, 210,

1,

275,398;

contents, 211.
Taittiva- Kattalei, 386.
Tattuva-Pirakdsa, 386.

Tattuva Rayar, 352, 387.

Tattva-dloka, 371.

7attva-dloka-rahasya

371.
Tattva-chintdiiiam, 370, 370 n. i.
Tattva-ch intamam-vydkhyd, 371.
lattva-dldh iti, 371.
Tattva-didh iti-tippani, 371.
Tattva-dipa-iiibandha, 316, 377.
,

Tattva-kauniudt-vydkhyd, 369.
Tattva-nirupana, 380.
Tattva-pradiplkd of Trivikrama, 375.
Tattva-prakdsa 386.
Tattva-prakdsikd, 375.
Tativardtnadipika, 405.
Tattvdrthddhigama-sutra, by Umasvati,
the fountain-head of Jain philosophy,
,

136, 219,
taries,

400

165

Svetambara commenDigambara commen-

taries, 216, 219.

Tattvdrthadipikd, 360, 405.

Tattvdiihasdra, 281, 404.
Tattvdrthasdradtpikd, 1 20, 360,
405Tativdrthafikd, 164, 401.

403,

Tattvdrthatlkdvydkhydlamkdra,

216,

219, 404.
Taitva-safndsa, 288, 369.

Tantrdhka, 386.
Tanti-aratiia, 367.
Tantras, I99ff., 38S

Tarka-katimudl, 370.

Tarka Saiigraha, 370.

Tarka-sdsira of Vasubandhu, 161.

lists,

199, 268;

dates, 199; contents, 200; Buddhist

Tantras, 210; Mika Tantras, 268;

Samaya or Subha Tantras, 268.
Tantrasdra, 355.
Tantrasn7-a of Madhva, 375.
Tantra-vdrtika, of Kumarila, a work

on the Mimarhsa, 169, 367.

Tantrism = the 6akta movement see
Buddhist 6akta system, and 6akta
;

sect.

Tapa, branding, i e. branding the

symbols of Vishnu on the body, 1S6.
Tapas, 22, 29, 158.
Tara, 212.
Taranatha, 210.
Tdrdsddhanasaiaka, 399.
Tdrasdra U., 364.
Tariqat, 331.

Tarka-bhdshd, 224, 371.

Tarka-jvdld, 371, 397.

Tattva-sahgraha, 397.
Tattvatraya, 305, 375, 380.
Tattva-vaiidracii, 177, 369.
Taxila, 42.

Tayumanavar, 351, 386.

Teg Bahadur, a Sikh guru, put to death
by Aurungzebe, 338.
Tejobindu U., 95, 364.

Telugu literature, 228, 260, 264, 296,

297.347, 382Temple-priests, must be Brahmans, 50;
less regarded than other Brahmans,
51 n.

Temples, Buddhist and Jain, 113, 120.

Temples, Hindu, first mention of, 41
later common, 48
priests must be
Brahmans, 50, 51 n. i open only to
origin of the
the four castes, 50
worship, 50 classes of temples, 293
the liturgy, 293
temples in which
the five gods are worshipped, 294
;

;;

INDEX
orii^inally
Temple-worship, 50, 51 n.
unorthodox, 50; its growth, 51, 170.
;

Tengalais, 319, 320.

Teutonic people, i.
Tevdrai, 256.
Tiieism, 41, 47, 58; movement towards, in Hinduism and in Buddhism, 78, 82, 83; in ^fikta Buddhism, 273, 274
in Jainism, 2 78f.
Thera Gatha, a book of verses by
;

Buddhist monks, 71, 392.

Thetl Gatha, a book of verses by
Buddhist nuns, 71, 392.
Thitpava^hsa, 394.
Tibet, Buddhism in,

168,

207,

391

445

Upanishads, 33
arose still earlier,
sources of
date unknown, 33
33
is
the ideas, 34
the doctrine, 34 f.
a doctrine of moral requital, 34 ; the
work of the Aryan mind, 34 created
by polytheists, 35 ; great influence of,
value of, 35
its automatic
33 f.
character, 61
in Kdvidyana, 48
releads to desire for release, 52
lease from, 52.
Trayividya, triple knowledge, i.e. the
three Vedas, 25.
Tree-worship, 43, 48.
Tridandis,
SrI-Vaishnava Sannyasis,
;

Trika, t. t. of Kashmir Saivism, 198.

Trilochana, 299 f., 323, 374, 381.
Trilokasdra, 282, 405.
Trimurti, 148 f.

Tibetan Buddhist Canon, 275, 391.

Tilaka, sect-mark, 168.
Tilaka, 359, 3S9.
Tilakacharya, 2 78, 402.
Tilakamanjari, 279, 401.

Tripddvibhfitimahdndrdyana U., 364.

Timmappa Das,

303.
Tipitaka, Pali for Tripitaka, q. v.
Tirhut, 176, 306.
Tirtha, one of the ten orders of Sahkara's sannyasis, 174, 304; a Vira
Saiva t. t., 261.
Tirthakaras, see Jain Tirthakaras.

Tripitaka
the

Tipitaka),
three sec-

(Sansk. for Pali

Canon

Buddhist

tions, 67.

in
,

Tripundra, name of the Saiva sectmark, 196; used by Saktas also, 202.
Tripura, one of the names of the Devi.
Tripiird-tdpaniya U., 189, 266, 3^4,

"^

3S9.

Tirtliixvali, 383.

Tripurd U., 266, 267, 358, 364, 389.

Tim-ariil-piyati, 255 n. 4, 258, 386.

Tint Isaipa, 256.
Tirukkalirriippadiydr, 258, 385.

Trishashtilakshanamahdpurdnasaiigra-

Tirukkovaiyar, 385.
Tirumalisni, 188.

Tirumantrani, 197, 256, 385.

Tirumahgai, one of the Alvars, 18S.
Tirumular, 193, 197, 256, 385.
Tiru-murai, the poetic Canon of the
Tamil Saiva Siddhanta school, 255
"5) 256; formed by Nambi-andar-

nambi, 256.
Tiruniuruhattuppadai, 148, 383.
Tirnppanar, 18S.

133-

"^

Tirii-puhal, 347, 383.

Tiruvdchakani, 197, 256, 385.
Tti'tivasiriyam, 379.
Tiru-vilaiy-ddar-piirdiiani, 347, 383.

Tiruvirnttam, 379.
Tiruvoymoli, 379, 380.
Tinivuntiydr, 258, 385.
Tondarippodi, 188.
Tonda7--tiruv-a)itddi, 256, 385.
Tontad SiddheSvara, 387.
Tota Purl, 357.

Trances, in Buddhism, 64.

Transmigration and Karma, absence of

the doctrine in the early Vedic literature, 23, 30, 33
appears first in the
;

ha, 217, 219, 404.

Trishashti-saldkdpuriishacharita, 2 80,
402.
Trishashtismriti, 283, 405.
Trisikhib>-dk?)iana U., 364.
Trivallur, 320.
Trivariidchdra, 166, 219, 403.
Trivikrama, 375.
Tryanuka, t. t. of Vaiseshika system,

Tsong-Kha-pa, 277.
'Tukaram, 296, 300, 302, 374,
381; a Smarta
became a Ramanandl

Tulsi Das, 317, 328,

Brahman, 328
vairagi, 329

h\s Jidina-cha)-it-mditas,

basis of the work, 329;

329, 3S1
the religion is that of the Mediaeval
poems, 329 ; often expresses great
reverence for Siva, 330 ; contains
many advaita phrases, 330 noble
conceptions in the poem, 330
quite
orthodox, 330 ; the vernacular Gttd,
330; other works, 329, 381.
Tuptlkd, of Kumarila, 169, 367.
Turtydtltdvadhuta U., 364.
Turkestan, 104.
Twice-born castes, 31 education of, 31
;

INDEX

446
by,

flesh-eating

Si

literature

date of, 55
prose Upanishads, 54
teaching of, 55 ff. pessimism in, 57
quality of, 57 ; verse Upanishads, 58 ;
date of, 58
teaching of, 58 philo-

of,

79 ff. ; characteristic of in early

times, 37 ; the twice-born fall into
two groups, 81.
36

fif.,

sophy of, 59 yoga practices in, 59

the Upanishads appended to the
;

Uchchhishta-Ganapatyas, 270.
Udaipnr, 306 n. 2.
Uddna, a book of Buddhist verse, 71,

Brahmanas

their
as sruti, 60, 1 26
teaching not systematic, 126; later
which
Upanishads, 79 an early work
summed up Up. teaching, 79 three
divergent groups of Upanishads, 80
the philosophy called the Vedanta,
1 26
summed up in the Vedantasutras, 1 26
the Upanishads, along
with the Gitd and the Veddnta-sutras
forms the Canon of the Vedanta, 173 ;
commentaries, 121, 171, 223, 236.

392-

Uddnavarga, 398.

Udasis, 340.

Udayana, author of the KtisuJiidnjali,

221, 222, 369, 370 assails Bhaskara,

221
other works, 223, 224, 370.
Uddyotakara, 178, 370; was a PaSupata

teacher, 191.

Udgatri, 6,

7, 14, 17, 18,

21

education

Upapuranas, 139.
Updsakadasd, one of the Jain Angas,

of, 'iSf.

Udgitd A., 193.

Ujjini, 260.

400.

Ujjvalanxlamatii, 376.
Uma, wife of Siva, 47, 150, 197.
Umanandanatha, 358, 359, 389.
Umapati, title of ^iva, used for
pati Sivacharya, q. v.

Upasana, meditation; meditative "worship, 253 n. 2.

Uma-

Upasargahara-stotra, 400.
Upatissa, 393.

Upendra

S., 183.

Umapati Dhara, 306, 378.

Umapati Sivacharya, one of the Acharyas of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta,

Urddhva-lihga, 103.
Urddhva-pundra, the Bhagavala sect-

25511. 4. 257, 258, 386.

Umasvati, a Jain thinker, 136, 164, 219,
400; his date, 164; his sutra, 136,

Urddhva

164, 165.

Umd-ydtnala
Unknowable,

T., 265.
the, i.e. the

Atman

in the

Upanishads, 56, 59; to be apprehended by yoga, 59.

Unmai-neri-vilakka, 258, 386.

Unmai

Vilakka, 257, 258, 386.

comm. on Sarvastivadin
Siitra Pitaka, 108.
Upadesa-kandali, 2S0, 402.
Upadesaratnanidld, 380.
Uiadesarnatndkara, 402.
Upadea-sahasTi, 171,
Upadesasata, 402.

Upadesa,

Upagamas,

mark, 234.

retas, 103, 145 n. 4, 147 n. i.

Ushas, 10, 21.
Ushmsha-vijaya-dhdrani, 399.
Utpalacharya, 259, 386.
Utpala Vaishnava, 386.
Utradls, an order of Dadupanthi ascetics, 342.

Lttarddhyayana, 400.
Uttara Mimamsa, 124, 126.
Uttara P. (Jain), 217 n. 2, 218, 219,
404.

Uttararchika, 18.
Uttara Tantra, 397.

Uyyavandan
Uyyavandan

(A.), 258, 385.

(B.), 258, 3S5.

Vachana, Lihgayat sermons

in

Kanar-

ese, 264, 387.

193.

Updli-pariprichchhd-sutra, 395.
Upa77iitibhavaprapanchdkathd,
215,
401.
Upahgas of Jain Canon, 399.
Upanishad Brdh?iiana, 27.
Upanishads, 364 the name, 54 rise of
the philosophy, 52 ; formed in free
taken into Vedic
discussions, 53
therefore taught by
schools, 53 ;
Brahmans only, and open to twiceborn only, 54, 87, 244; the early
;

Vachaspatimika, commentator, date,

176, .^67, 368; works, 176, 177, 178,
288, 367, 368, 369, 370; position,
176.
Vachissara, 394.
Vacuity, the Mahayana philosophy, 1 14,
209 ; expressed in Prajflaparamita
sutras, 115, 116.

Vadagalais, 319, 320.

Vaibhashika, the name

sophy of the

of the philo-

Sarvastiv.'idins, loS.

INDEX
hermit, 29.
Sec Vanaprastha.
Vaik/iditasa Dharina-sfilras, 141, ifi^,

Vaikhannsn,

366.

Vaikhanasa

Griliya-sfitras^ 141,

},()t^.

Vaikhiinasa Saihhitas, 142, 187

in
accordance with Vedic usage, 181
used in some S. Indian temples, 181
are probably Bhagavala manuals,
iSi, 374; ousted from many temples
by KainSnuja, 1S2, 244 still used in
some temples, 320
about a dozen
;

Sairihitas survive, 321.

Vaikuntha, 185.
Vairaginis, 31 1.
Vairagis, 311, 327.

ment

of system, 133, 370.

Vaiseshika-siitra-bhdshya, or Paddrtha-

159. 397-,
Vajradhatvlsvarl, 27211. 3.
Vajia-ma)itra-dhirusanti-)iidra 7'., 398.
Vajrapani, 273.
Vajrasattva, 272 n. 3.
Vajrasekhara, 212.
Vajrasdcht, 1 16, 395.
Vajrasilchl L'., 364.
VajrayoginT, 272.
Valabhi, here the Jain Canon was
written and published, 162, 213.

Vallabha, 287, 312; his account of himself, 313

his four disciples, 316
his
books, 377.
Vallabhacharya, sect, 312 ff.
standpoint called Suddhadvaita, 313 doctrine of bhakti, 313; of grace, pushti,
313; theology, 313 f.; the Vallabha
heaven, 314; the cult, 314
mantra,
314; organization of the sect, 314;
the gurus, 314; called Maharajas,
314 worship of the Maharajas, 314
immorality, 315, 318; the Rds-mandalt, 315; absorption of the Vishnusvamls, 315; literature, 316, 317,
376 Vallabha aspiration, 314.
Valmiki, 47.
Vamachari,^ left-hand
epithet of the
original Sakta sect and its cult, 203,

Vaishnava Das, 377.

Vaishnava incarnations, a

series,

268.

77, 369.
Vaiseshika-siliropaskdra, 224, 370.
Vaishnava, adjective from Vishnu.

Vamadeva,

8.

Vdiiiakcsvara T., 265, 356, 358, 388.

Viimana, the dwarf, 84 n, 2.
84,

Vdmana

P., 139, 179, 372.

Vathia BrdJimaiia, 363.

145-

Vaishnava

Vajrabodhi, 210, 212.

Vajrachchliedikd-prajndpdramitd-sutra,

Vairochana, 273.
Vaisall, Buddhist Council at, 66.
Vaiscshika system, rise, 95, 369 meant
for householders, 135; early manual,
now lost. So in didactic Epic, 96
fundamental document, the Vaiseshi/ca-sfttra, 133; system, i33f.
originally atheistic, 134; becomes theistic
with Prasastapada, 177, 178; other
manuals, 177, 223, 2S9; the Vaiseshika combined with the Nyaya, 224,
289 literature, 369 f.
Vaiscshika-sRtra, fundamental
docu-

dharma-sahgraha,

447

liteiature, 143, 181, 22S, 296,

373\'aishnava

Samhitas,

sec

Pancharatra

Samhitas.

Vaishnava sect, 86; heterodox, 82, 91,

98; emergence of Sakta ideas, 183.
Vaishnava worship, 48
in the Gltd,
88 {.
;

Vaishuavatoslimi, 376.
Vaishnavism, formed in Gild, 86

and
no artictdaLcd
in didactic Ejiic, 97
Vaishnava theology in Gitd, 97.
Vaisyas, 21, 36;
education of, 31;
;

duties of, 40.

Vaitdiia-si'tda, 42, 365.

Vajasaneyins, the school of the White

Sankara's sannyasTs, 1 74.

Vanaprastha, the word, 29

= hermit,
29; magic in the
practice, 32
continued to worship,
29,53; austerhies of, 59, 74; ahimsa,
place in Asramas, 81.
76
Varadaraja, 304, 375.
47; the

29,

1.

rule,

Varadatapaniya

i'.,

206, 364, 390.

Varadotiaratdpa)nya U., 364, 390.

Varaha Mihira, 153, 390.

Viudha P., 139, 179, 310, 372; contains

Sakta material, 357, 389;

tains

Mathttrd-mdhdtmya, 376.

I'ardha S., 183

236 n. i.
Das, 375.

n. i,

Varaha Timmappa
Vardha U., 364.

Yajtis, 27, 54, 58.

Vajjdlaggd, 215, 401.

Vajra, 211
its three senses, 21
VaJrabhairaviJ T., 398.

Vamslvadana, 308, 376.

Vana, name of one of the ten orders of

Vdrdhi T., 389.

Varatunga Pandya, 347, 383.

con-

INDEX

448
Vardhamana, 370.

Veddfita-katisiuhha, 222, 240, 287, 376.

Vardhamana

l^edaiita-kansitiliha-p)-a/)hd, 376.

P., 405.

Varivasyd-rahasya, 358, 3S'9.

Varna, 5.
Varnandrhavarnaiia, 395.
Vaishaganya, a teacher of theistic Yoga,
seemingly author of the Shashtitanti'a,
94) 368.

Varuna,

2, 3, 10, 11, 21.

Vasishtha, 8.
Vdsishtha Dkanna-snlra, 80, 365.
Vasishtha S., 388.
Vasubandhu, a Buddhist leader, 129;
first a Saivastivadin, then a Vijnanavadin, 161; date, 129;
criticized
Vaibhashika philosophy, 156
his
works, 158, J 60, 161, 176, 394, 398.
Vasudeva, the father of Krishna, 100.
Vasudeva, epithet of Krishna, 49
in
;

Panini, 49; in inscriptions, 84 n. 3;

an epithet of Vishnu, 49 origin of
the epithet, 50
in the doctrine of
Vyuha, 98, 184.
;

Vasudeva Ghosh, 308, 376.

Vasudeva Hinda, 278, 280, 402.
Vasudeva Sarvabhauma, 2 89, 371
Sarvabhauma.
Vasudeva U., 234, 364, 374.
Vasugupta, 193, 386.

see

Vasumitra, 394.
VatapT, 216.
Vatsyayana, I23n. 2; 135, 370.
Vattakera, 166, 219, 403.
Vdtula A., 193, 264.

Vayu,

10.

referred
P., 139, 145, 372, 3S4
to in Mahdbhdrata, 156; its royal
genealogies of historical value, 137 ;
contains Saiva material, 140, 145,

Vdyu

146, 147, 196.

Vedahgas, 365.
Vedanta, name of the philosophy of the
Upanishads, 60, 150
its influence,
114; literature, 126, 170,221,286,
the Canon, called Prasthana367
traya, 128; varieties of the philo;

sophy, 127, 12S,

i7of.

158, 161, 273, 278, 282

influence,

in the Gitd,

90 admixture of Sankhya ideas, 228,

286, 287; the Vedanta in Europe, 28S.
Vedanta-desika, a teacher of the Srl;

Vaishnava

sect, 189, 286, 319, 367,

380.
Veddnta-dtpa, 379.
Veddnta-kalpalatikd, 286, 368.
Veddnta-kalpaiani, 222, 368.
Vcddnta-kalpatarn-parimald, 368.

Vcddnta-parijdta-sanrabha, 240, 376.

Veddnta-ratna, 376.
Veddnta-sdra, 286, 36S, 379.
Vcddnta-siddhdiita-mitktdvalt, 368.
Veddnta-SHtra-anuhhdshya, 316, 377.
Veddnta-sutra-bhdshya^ 368.
Veddnta-sutra-bkdshya of VishnusvamI,
375.
Veddnta-sfdras, 126, 368; teaching,
influenced by Gitd, 128; date,
127
94, 123; held to be inspired, 127; no
doctrine of Mdyd in sutras, 1 73
along with the Upanishads and the
Gitd, forms the Canon of the Vedanta, 173; is sviriti, not srtiti^ 173.
J^eddnta-tattva-sdra, 380.
;

Vcddrtha-sahgraha, 243, 379.

Vedas, eternity of, 125.
Vedasd7-a-

V tra-Saiva- C hintdm ani, 387.

Veda-vyasa, 369.
Vedi, 14.
Vedic Schools, see Schools.
Vegetarianism, 263.
Vema Reddis, 347.

Vemana,

346, 383.

Venkata Das, 375.

Venkata-natha, 380.
Venkatesvara, a terapl_e in Tirupati,
181
Vishnu and Siva were worshipped_in it as equals, 181, 320.
Venkaya Arya, 304.
Vernaculars, 284.
Vibhajjavadin school, a Buddhist school
in Ceylon, 68.
Vibhahga, 393.
Vibhasha comm. on Sarvastivadin Vinaya and Abhidharma, loS.
;

Vibhdshd-sdstra, 107, 108.

Vibhuti, 261.
Vichdrasdgara, 382.
Vidagdha-Jiiddhava , 376.

Vidhi, 25, 251.

Vidki-rasdyana, 286, 367.
Vidhivivcka of Mandanamisra, 169, 367.

Vidyananda, 217, 219, 371, 4.04.

Vidyanatha, 268, 358.
Vidyapati,* 306, 307, 30S, 378,
Vidydvaijayanti, 377.
Vidyesvaras, 185.
Vijaya A., 193.
Vijaya Das, 375.
Vijayanagarn, 285, 312.
Vijiidiia Bhairava Tantra, 352, 386.
Vijufma Bhikshu, 228, 287, 289, 290,
36S, 369.

INDKX
Vira

ViJndna-gUd, 373.
Vtjtidnaiiiritii, 287, 368.

Vijfianavada Buddhisin, 273, 274

liter-

ature, 397.
Vikhanas, 29,

Vikramdrjuna I'ijaya, 28.', 404.

Vikrama^ila, a Tantrik Buddliist Univ272.

ersity, 225,

Vimala A., 193.

Vimala Suri, 165, 400.
Viiiidiiiivatthzt, 392,

Vimsakdrikdprakarana, 398.
Viiid-venba, 258, 386.

Vinaya Pitaka, the Discipline basket of

the Buddhist canon, 66, 67, 68, 391;
source of,69; Buddhaghosha's comm.
in

Chinese,

many

449

155, 392
schools, 207.

Vinaya

of

Saivas (B), of the Right-hand

sakta^ movement, 358.
Vtra - Saiva - sai-votkarsha -pradtpikd,

387.
Virasena, 217.
Vtrastava, 400.
Viresvara, 373.
Viresvara Paddhati, 373.
Virupaksha Pandit, 353, 3S7.
Visa/hvddasataka, 403.
Visesha, t. t. of Vaiseshika system, 134.
Vishnu, a Vedic god, lo, 21, 22, 32,
47, 48, 58, 97 ; in second stage of
in Rdmdyana, book I, 84
Epic, 83
in the Trimurti, 148 f.
centre of
the first real sect, 81, 84; identified
;

with
in

Vinayavijaya, 403.
Vindhya mountains, 149.
Vindhyachal, 283 n. I.
Vipdka^
one of the Jain Angas,
400.
Virabhadra, 120, 400.
Virachandra, 309, 311.
Vtracharita, 401.
Virakta Jahgamas, 262.
Viraktas, an order of DadupanthI ascetics,^ 342.
V%ra-Saiva-dchdra-katistubha, 387.
Vira-Saiva-dchdra-pradlpikd, 387.

Vira-Saiva-chandrikd, 387.
Vv'a-Saiva-dha7-ia-siromam, 387.
Vira-Saiva-mata-prakdsikd, 387.

the

Brahman and with Krishna

Gitd, 86, 97
his thousand
a panegyric, 97 a hymn
;

names, 97

of praise, 97

conjoined with Sesha

and Brahma in didactic Epic, 98 his
incarnations, 84, 85, 86. 98, 145
has
four forms, 102
adored by Bhagavatas .as equal with .Siva, 142 f., 175,
181,182; one of the Five Gods, 179;
often represented in worship by the
;

Salagrama, 293 n. 2
sometimes by
a tortoise, 294 n. i.
Vishnu-bhakti, taught by all the bhakti
;

sects to Sudras and Panchamas, 244,

Vishnu- Brahman, 149.
Vishnukranta, 356.
Vishnu P., 139, 372; date, 140, 143;
is a Pancharatra Vaishnava
work,
contains much
cos140, 143, 144
mic material, 137; best represents
the old Puranas, 144 life of Krishna
appended to royal genealogies, 138
gives much space to Krishna-legend,
I43f., 151; theology, 144; relation
to Gttd, 144 f.
Vishnu Purl, 229 n. i, 302, 375.
Vishnuralidshya, 305, 375.
Vishnusinha, 354.
Vishmismriti, 141 f., 366.
VishnusvamI, founder of VishnusvamI
sect, 222, 234, 235, 238, 287;
a
dualist, 236; his works, 238, 287, 375.
VishnusvamI sect, 235; recognize Radha, 237
their mantras, 235, 239
their literature, 238, 304, 375; Sampradaya, 327
their sect-mark, 304;
their monasteries, 304 influence, 307,
312; hold the samuchchhaya doctrine,
221
decline of the sect, 304
a few
'

Vtra-Saiva-mata-sahgraka, 387.
Vtraiaivdthrita, 387.
Vira-Saiva-pradipikd, 387.
Vira Saivas (A), 191, 259, 386; meaning of the name, 261
called also
Lingayats, 191, 259 call themselves
Mahesvaras, not Pasnpatas, 191 ; use
Agamas, 191 do not accept doctrine
of incarnations of Siva, 191
rise of
the sect, 259 ; their monasteries, 259,
gurus, 261, 262; theology,
260 f.
261, 264; temples, 262; the six
sthalas or stages, 261, 264
worship,
261 ; linga, 261 ;
reliquary, 261
ashtavarna, 261
meditation, 261
padodaka, 261
social organization
262 f., 264
marriage, 263
dining,
vegetarians, 263;
263; burial, 263
abstainers, 263
child-marriage, 263
;

widow-remarriage, 263 release, 263

literature, 264, 353, 386
Vachanas,
264; Puranas, 264.
;

'

ascetics left, 304.

Vishimtattva

S., 184.

INDEX

45

Vishnu vardhana, 245.

ViMshtadvaita form of the Vedanta
philosophy, 241, 287, 297, 319, 326,
349-

Malsya Ptirdnas,

the

190.

Yadava Prakasa,

222, 242, 243 n., 368,

379-

Vtstiddhimagga, 154, 393.

Yaga, worship, 186.

Ydjnavalkya Dho'iiiasdstfa, 141, 206,

Visvambhara Misra, 307.

Visvamitra,

Ndrada and

8,

366.

Visvananda T., 384.

Visvanatha Panchanana, 289, 370, 371.
Visvapani, 273.
Visvaradhya, one of the

five original

Lingayat ascetics, 260.

Visvasdra T., 354, 389.

Yajnavalkya U., 364.

Yajtirveda, 15, 20, 363
age of its formulae, 21; their magic power, 19,
21
relation to Kik, 20; formation
of, 20, 25
Samhitas and Brahmanas
of the Yajtirveda, 25, 26; religion,
ff.,
20
30 ff., 363 ritual, 363.
Yajus = Yajwveda.
;

Vitardgastuii, 2 So, 402.

Vithoba, the Vishnu of Pandharpur, 300.
Vitthal, 301.
Vitthal Das, 375.
Vitthalnatha, 311, 316, 377; his four
disciples, 316.

2, 23.

Yamaka, 393.
Yamala, 265.

Yamala

Tantras, 265.

Yamunacharya, 241, 242;

Vivasvant, 2.
Vivekachintdviani, 383, 387.
Vivekamaiijarl, 280, 402.

works,

his

241, 379-

a diagram possessing occult

significance and power, used in sects
under Sakta influence, 186, 189, 202,

Yantra,

Vivekananda, 357.
Vivekasindhu, 296, 373,
Vivekavildsa, 2S0, 402.
234, 269,
374Vrindavana Dasa, 310, 377.
Vrisknidasd, 400.
V) -itti Prabh dkara, 3 S 2

Vopadeva, 231,

297,

359,

203, 355. 357. 358.

Yasastilaka, 279, 282, 404.
Yasomitra, 161, 394.
J 'ati-dharia-savmchchhaya, 2 43

Vyakarana, 42.
Vyapi-Vaikuntha, the Vallabha heaven,
314Vyasa-raja-svami, 375.
Vyavahdra, 400,
Vyoina S., 236 n. i.
Vyuha, lit. 'expansion', a

Yama,

n ,3 79
Yatiiidramatadipikd, 320, 380.
Yavanas, i.e. lonians, Greeks, 83.
Yoga, the word, 59 Yoga practices, 59,
purpose of these practices,
60, 132
Yoga meditation on Oni, 103.
132
Yoga philosophy, 44; rise of, 6r; in
Arthasdstra, 93
an early manual,
now lost, 80 in the GVd, 90 in
Maitrdyana ^., 93 in didactic Epic,
.

Vaishnava

doctrine, 98, 99, 184.

93)

97
93

probably

ally,

theistic

origin-

atheistic

in didactic Epic,

Chidikd U., 93
in Yoga
93
Upanishads, 94
the chief document
is the Yoga-sutras, 131
the system
;

Warangal, 265.

in

Warkaris, 302.

Western Paradise,

of the

7.

White Island, 99.

White Yajus, 20, 26.
Widows, remarriage of,
;

Women, had no

khya, 132

prohibited, 41,
of, 81
remarriage

ascetic life
81
permitted, 263.

part

Hindu education,

31

in
;

sfitras,

the

ancient

some shared

in

philosophic discussions, 53,

132

f.

open to

relation
all

to.

San-

Hindus and

Outcastes, 133; Yoga ascetics called

Yogis, 133, 289 other manuals, 177,
223, 289, 369; described by Alberuni,
223.
Yoga Upanishads, 80, 94 f., 201.
Yoga-bhdshya, see Yoga-sfitra-bhdshya.
Yogachara, a name for the Vijnanavada,
;

132, 160.

Yogdchdra-blimni-sdstra

Yab-yum, 265.
Yddava-bhdshya 222, 368.

Yogachu4dma>n U., 364.

Yadava-giri, in Mysore, 248.

Yogaja,

Yddava-giri Mdhdtinya found

of

Asafiga,

160, 397.

in

the

name of an Agania, 193.

Yogaknndali U., 364.

INDEX
}'og(2-i)ianJart,

Yoga-vm-ttika, 369,

384.

Yoganidra, sister of Krishna, 149 n. 10.

Yoga-pada, one division of tiie contents
of Sariihitas,

Agamas, Tantras,

184.

Yogarahashya, 379.
Yogaraja, 386.

Yogasdmsahgraha, 289, 369.

Yoga-^dsira, 280, 401.
YogaUkhd U., 95, 364.
Yoga-sutra, 123, 131, 164, 369; date,
94, 123, 131 f.
Yogd-sfitra-hlidshya, 94, 177, 369.
Yogatativa 6^., 95, 364.

Yogdvdchdra, 394.

451

Yoga-Vasishtha-Rdnidyana, 222, 228,

250, 296, 373.

Yogdvaidra, 397.
Yogi, an ascetic of the

Yoga

school,

133, 289.

Yoginl T., 354, 389.

Yudhishthira, 151.

Yugas, 146
Yiiktvanuh'isana, ^o^,.
Zoroaster, 3, 12, 152.
Zoroastrianism, 2, 12, 2S7
168.

in India,

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