Foreword

- Sericol Limited 1998

Led by trends in design and marketing, advertisers are more frequently incorporating complex
colour graphics and photography in their screen printed advertising and point of sale
materials. In printing terms, this has prompted a move away from solid colours and towards
halftone printing 4-colour halftones, in particular. As a result, screen printers now find
themselves competing in a changing marketplace where a greater emphasis is being placed on
the ability to produce good quality 4-colour halftone prints.
Some screen printers have been producing halftone work for many years and are perfectly
positioned to capitalise on the growing demand for this type of work. Indeed, the ability to print
4-colour halftones has traditionally been held up as a sign of a superior print operation. Other
printers, however, are only just coming to grips with the new and greater demands of this
application of the screen printing process, having recognised the need to move with the times.
Whether you are an established halftone printer or entering the market for the first time, The Sericol
Halftone Printing Manual is intended to provide an invaluable source of information and advice.
Derived from Sericols long involvement with halftone screen printing, it places a quarter century of
experience and expertise at your fingertips.
For the newcomer, the manual is structured to provide comprehensive, step-by-step explanations of
all the key areas that affect the final printed result. It allows you to build up your knowledge of the
different processes at your own pace, in a logical, easy-to-follow manner. Plain English makes even
the most complex concepts easy to understand.
The experienced halftone screen printer will probably prefer to dip in and out of the text to find the
information and advice which is most relevant to their level of expertise. For you, the manual
provides useful information on how to adapt your current working practices to improve the quality
and efficiency of your operation and become even more successful in an increasingly competitive
marketplace. In particular, the manual spells out the considerable benefits to be gained from
adopting the latest digital repro technologies.
The expansion of halftone printing has been accompanied by a general move towards computergenerated art, coupled with major developments in digital pre-press technologies. Just as screen
printers are being asked to produce more and more 4-colour halftones, to ever higher standards, so
they are being asked to work in an increasingly electronics-based production environment. These
demands, together with advances in the speed and performance of hardware and software and the
greater affordability of even high end digital pre-press systems, are rapidly changing the working
practices of the screen printing industry and the graphic arts industry as a whole.
The recent, rapid development of digital pre-press technology means that there are new skills and
new opportunities for even the most experienced screen printer to master. The manual offers an
authoritative introduction to this increasingly important area of the industry.
The Sericol Halftone Printing Manual is, however, just a part of Sericols overall customer package.
An extensive range of advanced ink and consumable products is complemented by an experienced
team of expert staff, providing a wide range of specialist services designed specifically to meet the
varied needs of the halftone screen printer. This combination of products and service makes Sericol
the obvious partner for any printshop wishing to develop its own 4-colour halftone printing
operation.

Index

CHAPTER 1

An Introduction to Halftone Printing

CHAPTER 2

Understanding Colour

CHAPTER 3

Digital Repro

CHAPTER 4

Mesh and Stencils

CHAPTER 5

Inks and Colour Density

CHAPTER 6

Printing

CHAPTER 7

The Sericol Support Offer

CHAPTER 8

Troubleshooting Guide

GLOSSARY

AZ of Terminology

An Introduction to Halftone Printing

- Sericol Limited 1998

Before you consider printing halftone work, it is

essential to have a clear understanding of the
fundamental principles underlying the halftone
printing process. This opening chapter explains
what halftones are; why you would want to use
them; how they are made; and the variables
you must control when producing halftone
positives
Look at a photograph, airbrush illustration, artists
painting or shaded pencil sketch and you will
notice that it contains smooth gradations of tone,
from the lightest to the darkest areas. This type of
image is described as a continuous tone image
(often referred to as contone or CT). Now
compare a continuous tone image with a
conventional single- or multi-colour screen print:
youll notice that the print contains flat areas of
colour and no gradations of tone.
Like most other printing processes, screen
printing cannot be used to produce continuous
tone images, as it is not capable of laying down
continuously variable densities of ink. However,
through the use of halftones, it is possible for the
screen printer to create the illusion of a
continuous tone print.

CHAPTER 1

On the final print, light reflected by the dots

merges with light reflected from the substrate to
accurately recreate the smooth tonal gradations
found on the original image.
The tone (lightness or darkness) of a printed area
is dictated by the size of the printed dots. The
dots reflect less light than the white substrate,
which means that larger dots, which cover more
of the substrate, reduce the overall amount of
light reflected by the print, resulting in a darker
tone. Conversely, small dots cover less of the
substrate, so more light is reflected, resulting in a
lighter tone.
The relative size of each halftone dot is described
as a dot percentage. The dot percentage scale
runs from 0% to 100%, where white (no dot)
equals 0% and black (total coverage of the
substrate) equals 100%. A midtone area is made
up of 50% halftone dots, which cover half the area
of the substrate.

Fig 1.4. Dot size percentage is a relative measurement both

of these dots cover 30% of their halftone cell.

How are halftones made?

Fig. 1.1. A halftone is made up of varying size dots to

simulate continuous tones.
20% dot

80% dot

Fig 1.2. The amount of the surface of each halftone cell

covered by a printed dot dictates the tonal effect the
lightness or darkness of that area of the print.

Fig 1.3. Printing different dot percentages together allows

you to create the impression of tonal gradation. The less
noticeable the individual dots, the smoother the tonal
gradation appears.

What is a halftone?
A halftone is the result of converting a continuous
tone image into a pattern or grid of regularly
spaced dots (a halftone screen). The individual
dots all have the same density, but vary in size.

1.1

and the smoother the tonal changes will appear to

the eye. Ideally, the dots should be too small to
be noticeable, as this will ensure that there is a
stepless gradation of tones between light and dark
areas. For example, the dots on a 48-sheet poster
may be very noticeable if you view the poster
from close range; but when you view the poster
from a distance of several metres, the eye is no
longer able to make out the individual shapes of
the dots and the smooth tonal effect is created.

The actual size of the dots will be dictated by the

level of definition required and will be influenced
by the distance from which the finished print will
be viewed. Put simply, the less noticeable the
individual dots in a halftone screen, the more
original detail can be resolved on the final print

Traditionally, halftones were created

photographically, by producing a halftone film
negative, which was then contact exposed to
another piece of film to obtain a positive. The
negative was made by placing a screen a glass
plate carrying a finely ruled grid made up of lines
which cross each other at 90 between the
original continuous tone image and a sheet of
film. Light from a process camera was reflected
from the original image, passed through the
square windows formed by the crossed lines on
the screen, and on to the film. This caused the
original continuous tone image to be rendered as
a series of dots. The size of the dots depended on
the brightness of the reflected light, which in turn
was dictated by the tone of the original: for
example, highlight areas reflected the most light
and created the biggest dots on the negative and,
after contact exposure, the smallest dots on the
positive film.
To reproduce a full-colour original, multiple
exposures were made with the light being passed
through red, green and blue filters (on separate
exposures), to produce the film positives (or
colour separations).

Today, the photographic method has been

superseded by electronic scanners and
imagesetters, which do away with the need for
process cameras, halftone negatives and the
screens themselves.
A scanner is used to capture a digital
representation of the original image. A pattern of
red, green and blue light is reflected (or
transmitted, in the case of transparencies) by the
original image. This pattern is captured as a digital
image and is subsequently passed on to an
imagesetter, which can be thought of as a very
precise laser printer. An interpreter in the
imagesetter converts the digital image into a
matrix of halftone dots (arranged in regular rows
and columns) and then records each dot on a
sheet of light sensitive or thermal imaging film.
The matrix of dots (also known as a raster)
represents the halftone screen.
Digital techniques speed up the production of
halftones significantly. More importantly, they
allow far more creative and technical control over
the many variables which affect the final result.
The screen printer has the opportunity to modify
the digital image extensively before it is output to
film, using a desktop computer or workstation to
control variables such as colour balance, image
sharpness, contrast, dot gain and tonal
compression. These variables will be discussed
later, but for now it is safe to assume that there is
no longer any reason to produce halftones using
traditional techniques.

Halftone parameters
When a digital halftone is output to film there are
several key parameters which must be specified:
the screen ruling; screen angle; and dot shape.
Each can have a marked effect on the appearance
of the final print.
Screen ruling is a measure of the frequency of the
lines of dots on the halftone screen that is, the
actual size of the dots and how close together
they are. The ruling is measured in lines per inch
(lpi) or centimetre (lpcm): thus, you will find 150
lines of dots in each inch on a 150 lpi halftone
screen. In theory, if you wish to find out the
screen ruling of a single-colour print you can lay a
rule and measure the number of dots along an
inch or a centimetre length. However, this is more

1.2

easily achieved using the screen ruling indicator

which is included at the back of this manual.
The higher the screen ruling, the smaller and less
visible the dots. Thus a halftone screen with a
screen ruling of 133 lpi (54 lpcm) is finer than a
halftone screen with a screen ruling of 65 lpi (25
lpcm). Generally speaking, higher screen rulings
give sharper and more detailed prints with
smoother tonal changes. The caveat is that they
are harder to print well, being more susceptible to
dot gain (see Dot gain page 1.6) and darker areas
may well fill in completely, sacrificing shadow
detail. Also the smaller dots are not always
supported by the mesh. Higher screen rulings also
require more digital information to be captured by
the scanning device, which can slow down the
processing of the digital image.

Halftone angles (often referred to as screen

angles) are not be confused with screen mesh
angles. (The latter will hitherto be referred to as
mesh angles to avoid confusion.) They describe
the angle of the halftone screen (the lines of dots)
as measured from the horizontal axis.
Changing the angle of the halftone screen can
make the dots more or less noticeable to the eye.
Since the aim of halftone printing is to reproduce
the smooth tonal transition found on the original
image, the less noticeable the dots are the better.
When printing a single colour halftone, the
halftone screen is usually produced at an angle of
45 the angle at which the dots are least
noticeable to the eye. The dots are most
noticeable when the halftone screen is angled at
90.

The type of substrate you are printing on to will

influence the optimum screen ruling for a halftone
print: higher screen rulings can be used with
smooth, coated, non-porous substrates.
Higher screen rulings can give sharper, more
detailed prints, but require more skill to print well.
Fig 1.7. Individual dots are most noticeable when the halftone
screen is angled at 90. The dots are least obvious when the
halftone screen is angled at 45.

Fig 1.5. 120 lpi halftone screen

Fig 1.6. 55 lpi halftone screen

1.3

Halftone angles become especially important on

multi-colour halftone prints. Theoretically, if each
positive is given the same halftone angle and each
dot on each of the positives is in exactly the same
position, the printed image would be perfect. In
practice, even a minute misregister results in
distinct interference patterns, known as moir.
You can see this for yourself by laying two
positives together and rotating the top one to see
the resulting patterns. You should find that the
moir is least noticeable when the positives are
30 opposed.
Fig 1.8. The
term moir
describes the
unwanted
interference
patterns which
are produced
when regular
patterns, such as
halftone screens
and screen
mesh are placed
over one
another.

STOCHASTIC SCREENS
In recent years, an alternative screening method has emerged, which offers certain benefits
over conventional halftone screening. Stochastic screening (also known as Frequency
Modulated or FM screening) takes the opposite approach to halftone screening instead of
arranging different sized dots in a regular pattern, it uses dots of uniform size and distributes
them in random patterns. Variations of tone are achieved by adjusting the concentration of
dots in a certain area the dots are spaced further apart in highlight areas and clustered
tightly in shadow areas.
The stochastic approach can help to produce smoother tonal gradations, as the use of similar
size dots means that prints do not suffer from tonal jump (see Dot shape page 1.6). The
random pattern of dots also eliminates the problem of moir (see sub-section dealing with
moir, page 1.7).
Another benefit is the use of very small dots (the equivalent of using very high screen rulings),
which can reproduce finer details and smoother tonal transitions. However, until recently, this
proved to be a double-edged sword for screen printers, as the largest dot size available 20
microns was too small to be supported by even a 150 threads per centimetre (tpcm) mesh,
with its 25 micron opening. Today, stochastic screens can carry maximum dot sizes up to 100
microns, so the problem no longer exists.
Stochastic screening is still relatively new. Some of the specialist software developed to
produce these types of screens is still not capable of producing top quality positives (although
this will change) and an extremely accurate (and expensive) output device is essential for best
results. If you do want to print with stochastic screens, therefore, you will need to find a repro
house which has high end software and imagesetting equipment and a staff who are qualified
in stochastic screening for screen printing applications.
Fig 1.9
Conventional halftone
screening

Stochastic
screening

1.4

CHAPTER 1

- Sericol Limited 1998

While you cant ever eradicate moir, you can

minimise it by keeping a 30 angle between the
separate halftone screens. For a 2-colour halftone
(duotone) you could position the dominant colour
at 45 and the other colour at 15. When you try
to specify halftone angles for a 4-colour print,
however, you will run into an obvious problem:
because halftone dots are arranged at 90 to each
other on the halftone screen, maintaining a 30
angle between each screen will mean that the first
and the last screens would be at the same angle,
causing moir.
For this reason, the angle of the fourth screen is
always going to be a compromise. However,
there are accepted sets of angles for both offset
and flexographic printing which are proven to
minimise moir when printing four colours.
Producing the four positives at these angles
causes the different coloured dots to be printed in
a characteristic rosette pattern, with some of the
colours overlapping.

eye, so this halftone screen is set at 45 (37.5

when using the Flexo standard) to render the
halftone dots less obvious. The cyan and black
halftone screens are most likely to cause moir, so
they are set at 30 to the magenta screen.

The shape of the dot has little effect on the

appearance of the printed image, especially at fine
halftone screen rulings where the dots will not be
noticeable to the eye in any case. (However,
elliptical dots may help to minimise moir.)
Where dot shape does have an effect is on the
smoothness of tonal gradation in the midtone
areas.

Fig 1.11. When 4-colour process inks are printed together,

they form a distinctive rosette pattern in the areas where
they overlap one another.

Y 90

Y 82.5
K 75

C 67.5
M 45

135
45

C 15

90

105

45

15

Fig 1.10. Halftone screens have 2 angles opposed at 90. If

30 was maintained between each colur, the last angle would
be the same as the first.

As explained previously, the halftone pattern is

most noticeable when the halftone angle is at 90.
For this reason, yellow the lightest and least
visible colour is often positioned at 90.
Magenta is regarded as being most visible to the

1.5

M 37.5

With a conventional halftone screen, as the dot

percentage increases and nears 50%, the corners
of individual dots just touch the corners of
adjacent dots, forming a checkerboard pattern.
This gives the impression of an abrupt darkening
of the tone at that point and is known as a tonal
jump. The visual effect is to destroy the smooth
tonal gradation from light to dark. Tonal jump is
particularly noticeable in fleshtones where distinct
smooth gradations of tone give way to a
posterised effect. The image may also have a
noticeably grainy appearance in areas on either
side of the 50% dot.

K 7.5

Fig 1.12. Left, standard Offset halftone angles (DIN 16547a)

and standard Flexo halftone angles (DIN 16547b), right.

75

background at higher dot percentages. However,

when you generate a halftone screen
electronically, using an imagesetter, you can
choose from several different dot shapes,
including diamonds and ellipses.

While the use of correct halftone angles can

minimise the risk of moir, there is another major
factor to consider the interference pattern set up
between the halftone screen on the stencil and
the threads of the mesh you are using. The closer
the halftone screen ruling to the mesh count, the
greater the risk of moir occurring. This problem
can be overcome by carefully controlling the
halftone angles/mesh count relationship, angling
of the screen mesh, experimenting with the
halftone angles and controlling the halftone screen
ruling/mesh count relationship (see, Avoiding
Moir on page 1.7).
Dot shape When halftone positives are produced
using the traditional photographic process, dots
appear as black circles on a white background at
lower dot percentages, squares at around the
50% dot, and open white circles on a black

Diamond- and elliptical-shaped dots are a better

alternative to conventional round/square shaped
dots as they reduce the impression of tonal jump.
As the dot percentage increases, the edges of the
dot join in two separate stages: first, the ends of
the dots join; as the dot percentage continues to
rise, the sides of the dot join. In this way,
diamond- and elliptical-shaped dots give a
smoother tonal transition around the midtone
area.

Dot gain
An important variable that must be controlled on
any halftone print is dot gain. This describes
increases in the size of printed dots when
compared with the dots specified by the software
which created the halftone screen. As its name
suggests, dot gain causes dots to grow larger, so
that they cover more of the substrate and reduce
the intensity of the reflected light. The effect of
this is to make the halftone appear darker,
especially in midtone areas. Dot gain also lowers
contrast by darkening highlight tones, and it can
eliminate shadow detail by causing shadow tones
to fill in.
There are two types of dot gain: optical and
physical.
Physical dot gain is the result of changes in dot
size caused by the pre-press and production
processes. When a halftone screen is output to
film by an imagesetter, the individual dots may
increase slightly in size. Similarly, transferring the
halftone screen to the stencil may also increase
the size of the dots. However, the biggest
increase in dot size is caused by the printing
process itself. Ink viscosity, press parameters
such as screen tension and squeegee pressure
and the absorbency of the substrate will all affect
the size of the printed dot.
Optical dot gain describes the apparent increase
in dot size caused by the scattering of light in the
substrate. This causes the dots to cast tiny
shadows, which have a darkening effect.
Total dot gain is the sum of both physical and
optical dot gain and is measured using a
densitometer (see Chapter 3).
Dot gain occurs around the circumference of the
dots, so the larger the dot, the greater the gain
will be. This is why dot gain is most noticeable in
midtone areas where the dots have the highest
circumference to surface area ratio. (Figures
quoted for total dot gain always refer to the 50%
dot, precisely because dot gain is greatest at this
dot percentage).

Fig 1.13. At the 50% dot percentage, each corner of a

conventional halftone dot (top) just comes into contact with
its neighbour. This creates a tonal jump (an abrupt darkening
of the print) as dot values increase in size from 40% to 50%.
Elliptical dots (bottom) are joined in only one direction, so
the tonal transition is smoother and there is no noticeable
tonal jump.

As previously mentioned, dot gain also varies

between different ink systems it can be as high
as 20% with some conventional UV inks, and as
low as 3% with some water-based inks. This,
together with the wide variety of substrates used,

1.6

makes it impossible to quote a standard dot gain

figure for the screen printing process. Thus, you
have to determine the dot gain for your own set
up and compensate for it by reducing dot sizes on
your positives accordingly. (How to control dot
gain is covered in Chapter 3.)

AVOIDING MOIR

The standard Litho and Offset halftone angles

minimise moir occurring between film
positives. However, the screen printer also has
to consider the possible interference effect
created between the halftone screen and the
mesh.
To reduce the chances of moir occurring, you
must ensure that the mesh count you use is
appropriate for the halftone screen ruling that
is, the mesh count which is least likely to cause
interference.
You can generally calculate which mesh counts
are appropriate and which are not by
determining the ratio between the mesh count
and halftone screen ruling you are using. To
calculate the ratio, use the following formula:
mesh count
Ratio =
halftone screen ruling
(Make sure that both figures refer to the same
unit of measurement either inches or
centimetres.)

Fig 1.14. This image shows the effects of dot gain filled in
shadows, dull highlights and an overall lack of contrast.

If the ratio is 5.0 or above, you can be reasonably

sure of producing moir-free prints, all other
factors being equal. If the ratio is below 3.5, you
should choose a different mesh count as moir is
a strong possibility.
It has also been shown that moir is more likely if
the first decimal place in the ratio is an even
number for example 3.4.
If you have to use such a combination, you can
either experiment with the halftone angles on the
positives, or change the angle of the mesh
itself

How to select mesh angles

Included in this manual are two sets of positives for each of the following halftone screen rulings:
55 lpi/21.6 lpcm
60 lpi/23.6 lpcm

75 lpi/29.5 lpcm
85 lpi/33.5 lpcm

100 lpi/39.4 lpcm

120 lpi/47.3 lpcm

133 lpi/52.4 lpcm

One set of positives was produced using standard Offset halftone angles; the other using standard Flexo
halftone screen angles. Both sets include panels which simulate different mesh angles when printed
through mesh fixed at 90 to the frame.
Assume that you wish to establish a standard for printing 85 lpi halftones for a particular ink system. The
first step is to determine which set of standard halftone angles produces the least moir. Prepare a
screen, stretched with straight mesh of the recommended count for the ink system you wish to use;
place the two 85 lpi positives adjacent to each other and square to the edge of the frame; expose the
screen and develop under your normal production conditions.
Next, print through the stencil using your chosen ink at the normal thinning rate. Study the print to see
which of the Offset or Flexo angles gives the best result that is, no moir pattern on the print. You
may find, for example, that the Flexo angles produce the best result, giving a moir-free print for three
of the colours, with moir only present on the yellow screen. To eliminate this moir pattern, look at the
other Flexo panels marked 5, 15 and 30. If the 15 panel reduces the appearance of the moir, then
have the screen for the yellow printer stretched at 15.
Because the maximum width of screen fabric is 2.2 metres, angled mesh is not an option for printers
using very large format screens. One solution to this problem is to print one colour at a different
halftone ruling to the others, this will eliminate the clash between that colour and the mesh. The
different screen ruling is not usually detectable in the final print. For this reason, if you have room on
your test screen it is a good idea to include the screen ruling positives that are either side of the ruling
you intend to use. Alternatively you could experiment with different halftone angles (see box
Alternative Angles)

Alternative Angles

Fig 1.15. Compensating for dot gain brightens the highlights,

reveals shadow details and boosts overall contrast of the
image.

1.7

As explained previously, there is no reason

why you shouldnt experiment with halftone
angles to come up with the optimum result for
your own work. The halftone angles shown on
the right provide a starting point for your
experiments.
Experimentation may be necessary to counter
specific production parameters. For instance, if
you have used gray component replacement
during the processing of your digital file (see,
Chapter 3) the black screen will be much
heavier than usual, which may make the dots
more obvious. In this case, you may find you
achieve a better result if you switch the

halftone angles for the black and magenta

screens. However, if you are trying to
reproduce fleshtones, always try to keep
yellow and magenta 45 apart. If green is the
dominant colour in the image for example in
a landscape photograph you may discover
that it helps to have yellow and cyan 45
apart.
Although 45 has been shown to produce the
least noticeable halftone dots, it can suffer
from interference with the mesh. In which
case, use the Flexo angles described
previously or experiment with your own set of
angles.

Possible Alternative Halftone Angles

C

172.5

52.5

7.5

112.5

82.5

112.5

7.5

52.5

22.5

52.5

7.5

82.5

20

50

80

82

22

97

52

1.8

CHAPTER 1

GEOMETRIC
SCREENING
- Sericol Limited 2000

A screening method, which is gaining in

popularity with screen printers, is Geometric.
The positives in this case comprise parallel
lines, instead of dots, which vary in thickness to
effect tone changes (see fig. 1.16).
As with halftone dots, the lines must run at
different angles for each of the four printing
colours to avoid primary moir (see page 1.7).
Because each geometric positive has only one
angle of direction (conventional halftones have
two angles, see Fig 1.10. page 1.5), it is easier to
produce a set of angles, that avoid primary moir,
and can be used on straight mesh with minimal
secondary moir being created.
Other advantages include smoother tonal
graduations and reduced tonal jump. This is
achieved because there is no break point as with
conventional dots. i.e. where a dot begins to
separate from adjacent dots below 50% tone
values. Commonly used rulings are 55 - 75 l.p.i.,
although some printers regularly use 85 l.p.i. Most
observers comment that finished prints appear to
be a finer screen ruling than is actually used but,
adversely, others comment on the grainy
appearance of some images.

Dot Gain?
Although the halftone pattern is lines, the term
dot gain still applies. Target areas can still be
measured with a densitometer to record any
gains, or losses, in tone value. As with
conventional halftones, test prints are necessary
with any unfamiliar ink/screen ruling/substrate
combination.
In the interest of good communication between
printer and repro house, we recommend having a
geometric positive with agreed step values
produced by the repro house. The resulting values
on the print can be recorded and used to set up a
tone curve. This can be applied whenever
positives are produced for the same screen ruling,
ink, substrate and production equipment. As a
guide a useful set of percentage values is 5, 10,
20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 95.

Fig. 1.16.
Enlargement of
magenta positive.

Can geometric totally eliminate moir?

In the lightest areas, where the lines become
extremely narrow, they can reach a point where
some will print and others may dry in, appearing
as breaks in the lines, possibly causing visible
interference patterns on high key images (where
the majority of colours are less than 50% tone
value).
Some repro houses have worked very closely with
their clients to achieve the optimum angles for the
work they produce. However, most printers would
agree that total elimination of moir is unlikely
with any halftone pattern but the tendency is
greatly reduced with geometric. Ultimately, to
ensure consistent and best quality halftone prints a
printer must fingerprint his press, type of work
and production methods to establish optimum
angles and other parameters such as print order
and dot gain values.

1.9

1.10

Understanding Colour

- Sericol Limited 1998

Any screen printer who is contemplating the

use of digital repro techniques for 4-colour
process work, must have a clear understanding
of colour: its properties; how the eye perceives
it; how it is represented on digital displays and
the printed page; and the ways in which it can
be managed. This information is essential if you
are to make the most of the powerful colour
controls which digital pre-press systems offer.
This chapter provides a guide to the
fundamentals of colour theory; the RGB and
CMYK colour models; and the relationship
between colours on the desktop and final print.
First things first: colour does not exist it is
merely an illusion created by a combination of
light, the perceptual mechanisms of the human
eye and brain, and the ways in which different
surfaces affect the light that they reflect or
transmit. To understand basic colour theory, you
must appreciate how these factors combine to
create the colours that your brain perceives.
Additive colour So-called white light is made up
from various wavelengths of radiation emitted by
a light source, such as the sun. These wavelengths
are what the human eye perceives as colours and
are referred to collectively as the visual spectrum.
(There are many other wavelengths that fall
outside the visible spectrum and cannot be
perceived by the human eye. Examples include:
infra-red radiation; ultra violet radiation; and Xrays.)
Using a prism, you can separate white light into
its constituent colours. You will notice that the
main bands of colour are red, green and blue.
These are said to be the primary colours of light.
The entire range, or gamut, of colour that the
human eye can see can be expressed by adding
these three colours of light together in different
proportions and intensities. For example, adding
all three colours together at full intensity produces
white. Adding equal proportions but lower
intensities of all three colours produces shades of
gray. Adding any two of the primary colours
together produces a secondary colour: green and
red produce yellow; green and blue produce
cyan; and red and blue produce magenta.
(Whenever you add two primaries together the
secondary colour they produce is brighter hence
the term, additive.) The absence of any colours
produces black.

2.1

CHAPTER 2

BLUE

CYAN

GREEN

WHITE
YELLOW

MAGENTA

RED

Fig 2.1. Additive colour notice how cyan, magenta and

yellow (the subtractive primaries) are formed in areas where
two of the primary colours overlap.

Your computers monitor uses an additive colour

system, known as the RGB colour model, to
display colours. The screen is covered with tiny
red, green and blue phosphors which glow (emit
light) when activated. So, the monitor reproduces
the yellow of a lemon by activating a combination
of red and green phosphors. The mixture of red
and green light that they emit is perceived as
yellow by the eye.
The brightness of the colours on screen is
determined by the intensity of the light emitted
by the phosphors and this is dictated by the
intensity of the electrons which are fired at the
screen to make the phosphor coatings glow.
Subtractive colour A printed image does not emit
light in the same way as the phosphor on your
computer monitor. Instead, the light that reaches
your eye has been reflected from the surface of
the printed material. Crucially, all surfaces act as a
filter reflecting or transmitting certain
wavelengths of light and absorbing (subtracting)
others. For example, when light strikes a tomato,
the pigment in the surface of the tomato filters out
all the non-red light, so what you see is a red
colour. Printing inks act in the same way,
absorbing some wavelengths and reflecting
others.
This explains why the primary colours of light do
not produce an additive effect when printed

together. Put simply, each primary colour filters

out the other primaries, making it impossible to
create secondary colours. To illustrate: suppose
you print an area with blue and red ink; the blue
absorbs all the non-blue wavelengths (red and
green) and the red absorbs all the non-red
wavelengths (blue and green). Hence, all the
primary colours would be removed, resulting in
black.
To reproduce colours on printed materials, you
must control the amount of red, green and blue
light which is reflected by the print. This can be
achieved by printing combinations of the
secondary colours of light cyan (C), magenta (M)
and yellow (Y). These are generally referred to as
the subtractive primaries, as each colour absorbs
one of the primary colours of light: cyan absorbs
red; magenta absorbs green; and yellow absorbs
blue. For instance, if you want to reproduce a red
colour, you would print with a combination of
magenta and yellow inks to filter out both the
green and blue light.

CYAN

BLUE
MAGENTA

RED

GREEN

YELLOW

colour system and 4-colour process printing.

Colour percentages
By using different proportions of CMYK inks you
can effectively control the proportions of red,
green and blue light reflected from the print and
the colour of light perceived by the eye. With
4-colour process printing, the four inks are printed
as separate, overlapping halftone screens. In this
way, the proportion of each subtractive primary is
dictated by the size of the halftone dots for that
screen. (Process colours are expressed in terms of
the dot percentage for each CMYK ink.) Dot size,
then, dictates colour as well as tone.
It follows that dot gain can have a significant
effect on colour also. If the size of a yellow dot
increases by, for instance, 5% when it is printed,
then it will absorb 5% more of the blue light that
falls on it. This will result in a warming of the
image, as there will be less cold blue light
reaching the eye.
The problem is exacerbated by the fact that dot
gain values vary from colour to colour, dependent
on the print order. This can have a marked effect
on the colour balance of 4-colour process prints.
For example a colour printed onto virgin paper
will have a slightly different dot gain value than
when overprinting because of factors such as
stock absorpency, ink build etc. Added to this is
the fact that dot gain is not uniform, so midtone
areas are more likely to suffer a greater colour
change than highlights and shadows. This explains
why the most common example of colour change
due to dot gain occurs in the magenta content of
fleshtones.
Colour fidelity is another reason why dot gain
must be measured and controlled.

Fig 2.2. Subtractive colour - Notice how the primary colours

are formed where two of the subtractive primaries overlap.

In theory, printing cyan, magenta and yellow inks

together should produce black. However, this is
not the case the result is a dark brown colour.
Adding black ink to the subtractive primaries
increases the possible density range that can be
printed, ensuring clean blacks, deep shadows and
neutral grays. Black is known as the key colour
and is denoted by the letter K - hence the CMYK

2.2

C0LOUR GAMUTS

SUBSTRATES AND COLOUR

Each colour system is said to have a colour gamut. This describes the range of colours the
system can reproduce. As explained previously, white light contains all the colours that the
human eye can perceive.

In 4-colour process printing, the CMYK

inks are printed as overlapping halftone
screens. This requires that the inks are
transparent, so that the light can pass
through them, reflect off the substrate
underneath and bounce back towards
the eye. In areas where the colours
overprint, the colour of the reflected light
is determined by the combined filtering
effect of all the inks.

The RGB colour system, as used in computer monitors, is capable of reproducing millions of
different colours, but it cannot reproduce the entire gamut of colours that the eye can see.
This is due to the limitations of the phosphor coatings which emit the light.
The CMYK colour model has an even smaller colour gamut, due to inherent impurities in the
pigments used to manufacture printing inks; the substrates they are printed on to; and the
very fact that it is a subtractive system the inks absorb light so light intensity (and colour
brightness) is reduced.
In order to print an image that was captured as a colour digital file, it must be separated
converted from the additive RGB colour model, as used by scanners and monitors to the
subtractive CMYK colour model, as used in printing inks. This conversion process can give
rise to problems in terms of colour fidelity. (Colour separation is covered in greater detail in
Chapter 3.)
The difference in colour gamut also makes it very difficult to predict how colours on a
monitor will appear in print. Even after an image has been separated, it may still appear very
differently on screen to how it will appear in print. (You can prove this by holding a printed
colour swatch next to the monitor and bringing up the same colours on the screen. The
chances are they will appear very differently on screen.)
The common solution is to never trust the
colours you see on the monitor. Instead, use
the softwares colour information tool
(referred to as the Info palette in Adobe
Photoshop) to measure colour rather than
judging it by eye. You should also make
sure that you use a reliable proofing system,
which provides an accurate representation
of what the printed result will look like.
(Both topics are dealt with in later chapters.)
Another option is to use a monitor which is
calibrated to show colours as they will
appear on the printed page. These are
relatively expensive and must be used
under carefully controlled viewing
conditions changing light levels, flare on
the screen and even the reflection of the
operators clothing can affect the on-screen
colours. Similarly, different software
applications may represent colours
differently. For these reasons, so-called
soft proofing (judging colours from a
monitor by eye) cannot be relied on totally
when colour fidelity is critical.

2.3

CMYK
Gamut
RGB
Monitor
Gamut

The fact that the light is reflected from

the substrate, however, introduces
another colour variable namely, the
colour of the substrate. If the substrate
is a colour other than white (which
reflects all colours equally) it will have
its own filtering effect on the light. This
means that generally accepted
combinations of ink colours could
produce markedly different colours to
those specified.

Fig 2.3. The CIE (Commission Internationale de

lEclairage) Yxy colour model indicates the colour gamut of
different colour models. As you can see, CMYK inks can
produce only a small percentage of the total colour gamut
perceived by the eye.

2.4

Digital Repro

CHAPTER 3

- Sericol Limited 1998

There are many screen printing parameters to

consider when producing 4-colour process
work, but thanks to recent advances in the
digital repro process, it is no longer necessary
to tackle all the key variables on press. A full
understanding of colour manipulation at the
repro stage has enabled printers who
specialise in halftone work to move the
emphasis away from the manipulation of ink
formulations at the time of printing and
towards tighter control over the production of
halftone film positives during pre-press.

By investing in the latest technology and

adopting up-to-date working practices, screen
printers now have the necessary means to
standardise as far as possible the 4-colour
halftone screen printing process. The potential
benefits, in terms of speed, quality, efficiency,
cost and repeatability, are substantial.
This chapter opens with a tour of the digital
repro process, providing an introduction to the
various technologies and how they operate. But
how something works, and how it is of

Fig 3.1. The digital repro flow path

ORIGINATION
Flat copy artwork,
photographic prints
& transparencies

DIGITAL ARTWORK
Created on PC or AppleMac
and supplied on disk
(Jaz, CD etc.)

practical use, are two very different questions.

The following section addresses the practical
application of digital systems to control key
halftone printing variables, such as colour
balance, dot gain and tonal range.

THE INPUT STAGE

The other question to consider is whether or

not to bring the digital repro process in-house.
The final section provides valuable pointers on
which parts (if any) of the repro process screen
printers should be handling themselves, and
which should be left to specialist repro houses.

During the scanning process, red, green and blue

filtered light is passed through or reflected from
the original image and is sampled by an array of
light sensitive measuring devices either photo
multiplier tubes (PMTs) in a drum scanner or
charged coupled devices (CCDs) in a flatbed
scanner. The brightness and the colour of the
transmitted or reflected light is used to map
colours and tones from the original image to a
grid of small squares. These squares are known as
picture elements (or pixels) and the grid is known
as a bitmap (hence, bitmapped images). Pixels can
appear as white; black; a shade of gray; or a
colour.

The digital repro process can be split into three

stages: input; processing; and output. These
stages are shown in figure 3.1. Whether you plan
to handle the repro process yourself, or use a
specialist repro house, a clear understanding of
each stage is vital if you are to achieve the high
standard of film positives needed to produce
quality halftone prints.

ORIGINAL IMAGES
SCANNER
Maps original and
converts image into
digital information

The first step in the digital repro process is to

convert original images, such as photographs and
artists illustrations, into digital files. But before
you begin, you need to check whether the images
are suitable for print reproduction.

COMPUTER
Images adjusted using
photograph manipulation software
and combined with other artwork
in page layout programme

3.1

DIGITAL PRINTER
Proofing results used to
apply final adjustments
before sending to RIP

RIP
(Raster Image Processor)
creates halftone screens
and angles

CROMALIN PROOF
Produced from
film positives

IMAGESETTER
Processes information
and outputs separated
film

POSITIVES
Right reading
emulsion side up
(for screen printing)

Often, you will have little say over which images

are to be used the client or their designer will
have made the choice before you become
involved. However, by understanding the
limitations imposed by less than ideal images, you
are better equipped to deal with the problems
that are likely to arise.
If possible, ask for photographic images to be
supplied as transparencies rather than prints.
Transparencies possess a wider possible tonal
range and more saturated colours.

STENCIL MAKING
&
PRINTING

The rich colours used in some paintings are

impossible to reproduce using printing inks. A
common solution is to photograph the work on
transparency film, along with a colour chart. You
can then compare the colours of the chart in the
scanned image with the colours of the original
chart and match the colours as closely as possible
using image editing software.
Artwork which has been generated in computer
image editing and illustration programs can be
transferred directly to the processing stage.

Once the appropriate images have been

evaluated, the next step is to convert them to
digital image files, using a scanner.

Four closely related parameters are specified at

the time of scanning:
scan resolution
scan size
bit depth
colour model

Scan resolution
Scan resolution is a measurement of the number
of pixels in a given distance. It is most commonly
quoted as the number of pixels per inch (ppi) for
instance, 133 ppi. Resolution can also be quoted
in terms of a Res number, which specifies the
number of pixels per millimetre. A resolution of
five pixels per millimetre, for example, would be
quoted as Res 5.
The actual size of each pixel is determined by the
resolution of the image, in much the same way as
the size of a halftone dot is determined by the
halftone screen ruling. (Incidentally, there is an
important relationship between scan resolution
and halftone screen ruling see, Scan resolution
and sizing). At high scan resolutions there are
many pixels per inch, so individual pixels are
small: details are rendered sharply and tonal
transitions appear smooth. At low scan resolutions
there are fewer pixels per inch, so individual
pixels are larger. At very low resolutions, the

3.2

SNAP DECISIONS
Whenever you are asked to incorporate scanned photographs in a print job, check the
following:

Does the image contain a wide range of tones?

Some scanners compress the tonal range,

heightening contrast. An original image with a
wide range of tones helps to minimise this
problem.

Is a limited range of tones intentional?

For instance, the client may have chosen to use

high key or low key images to accentuate mood.
Automatic scanning software may attempt to
compensate by redistributing the tones. Manual
adjustment using scanner or image editing
software may be necessary.

Were individual photographs taken on the

same film stock?

Different films have different colour balances

which can lead to some images appearing
warmer or cooler than others. This is
especially noticeable when photographs on
different film stocks are used next to each other.
If mixed film stocks are batch scanned (several
different images scanned at once) the images will
generally require some editing at the processing
stage.

Are you scanning from a duplicate

transparency?

Duplicating an image tends to boost contrast

(sometimes unacceptably), alter colours and
reduce overall sharpness. Avoid using dupes if
possible.

Has the original been screened before?

If the answer is yes, the original must be

descreened at the scanning stage, or during
processing using image editing software.
Descreening will reduce the risk of moir caused
by interference between the halftone screen on
the original image and the halftone screen
applied to the scan.

Fig 3.2. At high scan resolutions (left), fine details can be

resolved and tonal gradations are smooth.
At very low scan resolutions (right), individual pixels may be
visible to the eye and staircasing is evident on straight,
diagonal lines.

It would seem logical, therefore, to scan original

images at the highest resolution possible.
However, this is not necessarily the best solution,
as the higher the scan resolution, the larger the
file size. Large files take longer to edit, slow down
monitor redraw and increase the time taken by
the imagesetter to output the final films.

How big is the original image?

The larger the original, the larger it can be

printed without sacrificing sharpness or smooth
tonal transitions. Enlarging a photograph tends to
lower its colour contrast, so ensure that pictures
for large scale output have rich, saturated
colours to begin with.

Is the image sharply focused?

Are the originals damaged?
Scanning or post scanning software can help to
compensate for a small amount of blur, but out
of focus images will not reproduce well. Use a
powerful eyeglass to check for sharply focused
details. (Even the sharpest images may benefit
from a small amount of software sharpening.)

individual pixels are so large as to be visible to

the eye, causing images to look jaggy. This effect
is most noticeable in areas of the image
containing straight, diagonal lines, which appear
as sets of distinct steps hence the term,
staircasing.

Fingerprint marks can usually be removed by

careful cleaning prior to scanning and minor
scratches can be removed in an image editing
program.

Scan size
The dimensions of the scanned image are
determined by the number of pixels it contains
and the scan resolution. This can be illustrated
using the following example:
Suppose a scanned image measures 1,000 pixels
by 1,000 pixels and has a resolution of 200 pixels
per inch (200 ppi). The scanned image would
measure 5 inches by 5 inches:
Size =

1,000
=5
200

Now suppose you were to scan the image at 500

ppi. The pixels would be smaller and arranged
closer together, so the image would be reduced in
size: it would now measure 2 inches by 2 inches:
Size = 1000 = 2
500

3.3

In practice, correct scan size and scan resolution

should be determined before the scan is made, by
matching them to the intended size and halftone
screen ruling of the printed image. Altering these
parameters after the scan has been made can have
a dramatic effect on the appearance of the image.
For example, if you were to simply increase the
overall size of the image, each pixel would be
enlarged until the bitmap fitted the new
dimensions. In effect, you would be lowering the
scan resolution the pixels would be bigger, so
there would be fewer pixels per inch. This might
spoil the smooth transitions of tone or even create
noticeable jaggies or staircasing, as described
previously.
Reducing the size of a digital image has the
opposite effect: pixels become smaller, so there
are more of them per inch. This effectively
increases the resolution of the image and gives
smoother tonal transitions. However, the file size
may now be unnecessarily high for the dimensions
of the scan, as explained previously.

Resampling
Ideally, if you need to increase the size of a
scanned image for any reason, you should rescan
the original to achieve the correct dimensions. If
this is not possible for one reason or another, you
can use computer software to resample the
image. This involves adding extra pixels to the
image, rather than changing the size of the
existing pixels. The most accurate method is
known as bicubic interpolation, whereby the
program assigns the colour of a new pixel by
averaging the colours of the surrounding pixels.
You may also need to use interpolation if your
scanner offers a low maximum optical resolution
(scanner specifications usually state the units
maximum optical and interpolated resolutions).
You are most likely to need to use it when
scanning a small original such as a 35mm
transparency for output at a large size.
Resampling should be treated as a last resort as it
degrades the quality of the original scan and
causes a marked softening of the image. This is
why it is worth investing in a scanner with a high
maximum optical resolution, so that you can
ensure the correct scan resolution without having
to resort to using interpolation programs.

3.4

CHAPTER 3

Down-sampling
SCAN RESOLUTION AND SIZING
Determining the correct scan resolution is important for high quality results. It is calculated
using a combination of the following:
- Sericol Limited 1998

THE HALFTONE SCREEN RULING

THE SCALING FACTOR

The scaling factor is a measurement

of the amount the original image
must be enlarged or reduced to fit
the dimensions of the final printed
image. This is calculated as follows:
Suppose that a transparency measuring
36 x 24 mm is to be printed at a final
size of 360 x 240 mm. Measuring the
longer dimension the scaling factor
would equal 10. Thus:

THE QUALITY FACTOR

output size
actual size

360
= 10
36

Down-sampling is the opposite to resampling it

describes the process whereby a computer
program is used to remove pixels from an image,
to reduce its dimensions. This method has fewer
drawbacks compared with resampling, but it can
lead to staircasing if it is used excessively.

Some scanning programs require that you set the

image size by specifying a scaling percentage (or
give you the option to do so). This is calculated as
follows:
required size
x 100
original size

5
3

Increasing the quality factor makes no difference to the appearance of the final print. However,
at halftone screen rulings of 133 lpi and above, it is possible to reduce the quality factor to 1.5,
to keep file sizes manageable, provided the image contains no obvious geometrical patterns or
straight diagonal lines.

Suppose that the image

mentioned above were to be
reproduced using an 85 lpi
halftone screen. The correct scan
resolution would be:
Suppose, then, that your client
supplied a large print measuring
720 x 480 mm instead of a 35
mm transparency. The size of the
print would need to be halved to
match the size of the final print,
so the new scan resolution
would be:

halftone screen ruling x scaling factor x quality factor

2
1
85 x
10
x
2
= 1700
(lpi) x (scaling factor) x (quality factor) = (ppi)

85 x
0.5
x
2
= 85
(lpi) x (scaling factor) x (quality factor) = (ppi)

You can see from the above examples that the greater the scaling factor (magnification), the
higher the scan resolution all other factors being equal. This is why repro houses use drum
scanners with very high optical resolutions the higher the optical resolution of the scanner,
the higher the possible scan resolution. This allows them to work with small originals which
need to be greatly enlarged for output. On flatbed scanners with lower optical resolutions you
would have to resort to using an interpolation program to add extra pixels, which would mean
compromising the sharpness of the image (see, Resampling).

3.5

If the output size of the digital image is

not known at the scanning stage, make a
large scan (by setting a high scaling
percentage) at a high scan resolution it
is better to down-sample than resample.

Scaling percentages

The quality factor describes the fact that a scan resolution of approximately twice the screen
ruling gives the best quality printed image. Thus, if an image is to be printed at 55 lpi, the scan
resolution should be 110 ppi. This is not a hard and fast rule, but rather a general guide which
has been agreed upon across the graphic arts world.

The scan resolution is

determined by a simple
calculation:

BRING IT DOWN

FIG 3.3. It is very simple to resample and down-sample

images using Adobe Photoshop (though try to avoid
resampling whenever possible). First check that Bicubic
Interpolation is selected in the General Preferences box
(File/Preferences/General Preferences). Once selected,
there is no need to alter it on subsequent occasions.
Next, open the Image Size dialogue box (Image/Image
Size) and make sure that resample is selected (1).
Select Constrain Proportions (2) if you want to maintain
the same height/width proportions and enter new
values for the width and height in the Pixel Dimensions
boxes (3). (If you have clicked Constrain Proportions,
the width will automatically be changed when you enter
a value into the height box and vice versa). If you wish
to enter values as a percentage of the current
dimensions, select Percent as the unit of measurement
(4). The new file size for the image appears at the top of
the Image Size box with the original file size shown in
parentheses (5). Click OK (6) or press the return key
on your keyboard to resample the image or downsample it if you have entered smaller image dimensions.
Finally, apply the Unsharp Mask filter
(Filter/Sharpen/Unsharp Mask).

Bit depth
Each pixel in a digital image contains colour and
tonal information. However, due to the inherent
limitations of the RGB colour model, the pixels
have a smaller colour gamut (a smaller range of
reproducible colours) than continuous tone colour
originals, such as colour transparencies and artists
illustrations. When the original image is converted
to a bitmap during the scanning process, certain
colours in the original cannot be matched exactly
using RGB colours, so pixels are assigned
whichever RGB colour is the closest match to the
colour found in the original image.
Bit depth is a measurement of how many tones or
colours each pixel can reproduce. It follows, then,
that the greater the bit depth, the more accurately
the colours of the original image can be mapped
to the digital image.
At its simplest level, a pixel can be turned on
(white) or off (black). This level, or depth, of
information is known as 1-bit data (2 to the power
1).
By increasing the bit depth, the pixel can show
intermediate levels of gray (levels of brightness
between light and dark). For example, pixels
containing 2-bit data (2 to the power 2) can show
four levels of information: black, white, light gray
or dark gray. 8-bit data (2 to the power 8) allows
the pixel to show 256 levels of gray including
black and white.

3.6

Which colour model?

A scanner can record a full-colour original image
in RGB or CMYK colour.

1-bit 2 shades
(levels of brightness)
Black and white 2 shades
(1-bit)

2-bit 4 (levels of
brightness)

Grayscale 256 shades (8-bit)

8-bit 256
shades (levels
of brightness)

Specialist repro houses use powerful colour

separation software for converting the RGB data
captured by the scanner to a CMYK file and have
the necessary experience to make high quality
separations. If you are using a repro house, the
general advice is to leave the separations to them,
rather than handling them yourself in an image
editing program.
However, you should bear in mind that repro
houses are generally set up to service litho
printers, so the scans they supply may be far from
ideal for the screen printing process. Unless you
are scanning the images yourself, or the repro
house is willing to change the settings on its
scanner to accommodate your particular screen
printing parameters, some image editing will be
necessary. In this case, it may pay to have scans
supplied as RGB files and handle the colour
separation yourself. The bonus of working with
RGB files is that they are smaller than CMYK
equivalents, so processing times are faster and
computer memory overheads lower.

Fig 3.4

THE PROCESSING STAGE

8-bit data is needed to produce smooth tonal
transitions in digital images. This is because the
eye can differentiate between at least 150 levels
of gray (brightness levels). 7-bit data enables a
pixel to show only 128 levels of gray, meaning
that 8-bit data contains the least amount of
information necessary to reproduce all the gray
levels the eye can see.
With an RGB colour image, 8-bit data (256 gray
levels) is required for each colour channel. Hence
the term, 24-bit colour (3 x 8-bits). When a
digital file is separated into the CMYK colour
model, extra colour and tone information is
required, as there are now four colour channels,
each requiring 8-bits of data. Hence, the CMYK
colour model is often referred to in terms of 32bit colour (4 x 8-bits).

3.7

RGB colour 16.7 million

shades (24-bit)
Fig 3.5

Some scanners are able to capture more than 8bits of data. The latest desktop flatbed scanners
are capable of capturing 12-bit data and top of the
range repro flatbed and drum scanners can
capture 16-bit data.
The primary reason for capturing this extra data is
to allow pixels to show a wider range of subtle
shadow details an important consideration when
working with high density transparency films, such
as Fuji Velvia. Image editing software is now also
capable of handling 16-bit data, which means that
there is more scope for colour correction of digital
images and greater control when it comes to
separating RGB images into the CMYK colour
model.

Once the original image has been scanned, the

digital image file is transferred to a desktop
computer or workstation (see, File formats and
transfer) for processing.
Computer processing may involve the use of an
image editing program to alter, say, colour
balance or repair scratches. An image editing
program may also be used to separate the image
into CMYK colours and set relevant parameters
for example, dot gain and black generation (how
to control these variables is explained later.)
The amount of image editing already carried out
at the scanning stage will determine what is
necessary at the processing stage. Experienced
scanner operators using high end equipment and
software can handle most of the essential colour
separation work, provided they are supplied with
all the relevant information regarding the
separation parameters required for the printing
press and substrate in question.

FILE FORMATS AND TRANSFER

Digital image files can be saved in
numerous different formats. Some
formats are more open than others
they can be read by a wide range
of computer programs on different
computer platforms (such as
Macintosh, Windows, Windows NT
and so on). Suitable formats include:

TIFF (Tagged Image File Format)

EPS (Encapsulated PostScript)
DCS (Desktop Colour Separation)

Avoid the use of lossy compression

formats, which discard digital data in
order to reduce file size. Non-lossy
compression formats, such as TIFF LZW
and non-lossy JPEG (Joint Photographic
Experts Group) files are fine, as they do
not degrade image quality noticeably
and help to keep file size small.
If you are using a specialist repro
house, ask which file formats they
prefer to work with usually, either
EPS or DCS. Similarly, if you are
handling any of the repro process inhouse, you will need to specify which
file formats you wish your customers to
use. This will tend to be dictated by the
software you are using, though the
three file formats mentioned above are
compatible with all of the most
commonly used programs.

3.8

CHAPTER 3

refresh rate a high refresh rate helps to

prevent the display image from flickering

FILE TRANSFER
- Sericol Limited 1998

At some point in the repro workflow you will need to transfer files between different systems
for instance, from the scanner to the computer, or the computer to the imagesetter. You will also
need to have a facility for your clients to transfer their layout files to your system and you will
need to transfer files to and from a repro house if you are sending out part of the work.
The most commonly used means of transferring files is via removable disk drives. The disk is used to
store the data. They are relatively cheap to buy and the removable disks mean that storage capacity
is, effectively, unlimited. Typical drives include:
Jaz drives very widely
used, offer large
amounts of storage
(1 or 2 gigabytes)
and are currently
the best option for
the transfer of
digital image files.
Zip drives cheap, widely used,
but individual disks have limited storage
capacity (100 megabytes a tenth of the
size of the smallest Jaz disk).

How much RAM?

Image editing programs require a large
amount of random access memory (RAM) to
work quickly and efficiently. When you
open a file, the computer attempts to load
the entire file into RAM. If insufficient RAM
is available, the computer can load only part
of the file being worked on at any given
time. This means that it has to continually
swap data between RAM and the hard disk,
which slows down processing speeds
considerably.
As a rule, you need to install at least three
times the amount of RAM as the largest file
you are likely to be working on. This allows
the computer to hold the entire file in RAM,
plus the last unsaved version (allowing you
to undo a manipulation if you dont like an
effect), and still have enough available
memory to perform editing operations.
With any new computer, check for the
maximum amount of RAM you can install, as
this will dictate the largest file size you can
work on comfortably.

3.9

Optical disks widely used, very robust

and offer a large storage capacity, but are
slow to read and write to.
Rewritable CD-ROMs widely used, robust,
inexpensive and have a reasonable
storage capacity. However, writing data to a
compact disc is more complicated and
prone to errors, compared with other transfer
systems.

calibration profiles some monitors can be

calibrated so that on-screen colours more closely
match both the colours captured by the scanner
and the ultimate colour of the printed image
Add-on graphics cards can increase the rate at
which the screen redraws. Similarly, graphics
cards or extra video memory can allow you to
display higher resolutions (more pixels) or a
greater number of colours (higher bit depth).
The monitors surroundings must also be
considered carefully, as reflections and glare can
affect on-screen colours and contrast, as well as
the comfort of the operator. Sericols
Environmental Services team or a computer
consultant can advise on these and other
considerations.
Software Most important of all is your choice of
software, as this will determine the level of
control you have over the final printed image.

Computer processing equipment can be roughly

split into two types: desktop computers and high
end graphics workstations. Desktop computers are
much cheaper than workstations, but workstations
tend to process data faster. The right choice for
your operation will depend on numerous factors
far too many to be covered in the space available
here. Sericols Imaging Team or a specialist
computer consultant will be able to advise on the
options.
Colour monitors Again, there are a number of
key factors to consider when you are choosing a
monitor for repro work. The most important are:

screen size (the bigger the better, as it reduces

the amount of scrolling and screen redraws, which
increase editing times)
dot pitch the size of the individual screen
pixels (smaller is better)
display resolution the number of pixels which
can be shown on the screen (the higher the
better)
bit depth how much colour information a
monitor can display (a 24-bit colour display can
show more than 16 million colours)

Adobe Photoshop has established itself as the

industry standard image editing program. It
contains an extremely powerful set of digital
tools, which afford a remarkable amount of
control over the image editing and separation
processes. (Photoshops most useful tools are
explained in the following section.)
The major page layout programs are currently
Quark Xpress and Adobe Pagemaker. Both
programs afford precise control over the
positioning of elements on a page. They are
invaluable for arranging text, graphics and digital
images within a design and can also be used to
set separation parameters, halftone screen rulings
and so on. They also allow different scan
resolutions to be brought together on the same
page. All images are represented on the page by
low resolution screen images which are linked to
the high resolution file used for output. This
results in faster processing times.
Page layout files often contain low resolution
positionals to show where the scanned images
should be placed and how they should be
cropped. Once the scans have been made and
edited, they can be substituted for the low
resolution positional. Clients may even scan
originals themselves and supply the files at the

correct size and resolution for output. In this case,

all that is required is to open the scans in an
image editing program to check that the correct
separation parameters for your printing presses
have been specified.
Digital printers Proof prints of the completed
layout file can be output from a digital colour
printer (such as a 4-colour dye sublimation printer)
for client approval. However, this type of proof
cannot be used to check dot gain, exact colour
balance and so on, so the proof is only useful for
checking that the design layout is correct.
PostScript files Once the image editing has been
completed and the page layout has been
approved, the page layout file must be converted
from so-called application code (the code used by
the page layout program) to a PostScript file. The
industry-standard PostScript page description
language can be read by nearly all output devices
and contains all the information needed for an
imagesetter to output a file as 4-colour
separations.

THE OUTPUT STAGE

RIPs The PostScript file is transferred to what is
known as a raster image processor (RIP). This may
be custom-designed hardware or, more likely, a
software emulator which can be run on any
suitable computer. Its job is to rasterise the
PostScript file (convert the data into a matrix of
halftone dots the raster which the imagesetter
can subsequently output to film). The RIP can also
handle the colour separation process if required.
Imagesetters The rasterised file is transferred to an
imagesetter for output to the four film positives
one each for the CMYK inks. The imagesetter uses
a laser beam to record opaque, fixed-size dots,
known as device pixels, on to the films light
sensitive emulsion. The minute dots (measuring
mere hundredths of a millimetre in diameter) are
output at very high resolution a high end
PostScript imagesetter can achieve an output
resolution in excess of 3,200 dots per inch (dpi).
Once the film has been exposed, it is processed
chemically using a carefully controlled processing
unit, which maintains the correct chemistry,
temperature and processing speed for correct

3.10

results. The film can then be checked for problems

such as unwanted fringing (halos) around the
halftone dots, low dot density and excessive dot
gain.
A high end imagesetter is an expensive
investment. There are, however, alternatives,
including the most recent innovation the
thermal imagesetter. This type of imagesetter uses
heat to record dots on a special heat-sensitive
film. It is considerably cheaper than high end,
photo-based versions and is very quick and simple
to use. However, it cannot match the very high
output resolution found on more expensive
imagesetters.

Output resolution
An imagesetters output resolution has an
important role to play in determining the quality
of the final print. As explained previously, a digital
image requires 256 levels of gray per colour
channel to reproduce smooth tonal gradations and
accurate colours. The total number of gray levels
that can be reproduced on the final print is
dependent upon the halftone screen ruling and
the output resolution of the imagesetter. It is
calculated using the following formula:
Total gray levels =

output resolution2
+ 1.
halftone screen ruling2

Looking at this formula, it is clear that, provided

the halftone screen ruling remains the same,
higher output resolutions will provide a larger
number of gray levels and, as a result, a smoother,
more accurate print. Similarly, higher output
resolutions will be required when working with
fine halftone screen rulings such as 133 lpi or
150 lpi if you are to guarantee the reproduction
of 256 levels of gray.
The following examples illustrate the relationship
between screen ruling, output resolution and
levels of gray:
1. Suppose you were to try outputting your fine
150 lpi film positives using a 600 dpi laser printer.
The total number of gray levels would be equal to:
Gray levels =
Fig 3.6. High end imagesetters can output film positives at
very high resolution, but are very expensive to buy and
operate. The Aspect 600 thermal imagesetter has a lower
maximum resolution, but represents a far more cost-effective
option for many in-house repro studios.

HARD AND SOFT

An important point to look out for is the
type of dot the imagesetter records. Older
models tend to record soft dots, which
have a halo around their edge. This can
cause colours to be reproduced
inaccurately at the printing stage. Newer
versions record hard dots, which
reproduce colour more accurately on the
final print.

3.11

6002 (dpi)
+ 1 = 17
1502 (lpi)

It is not possible to reproduce a continuous tone

image faithfully using just 17 levels of gray the
print will have a posterised appearance.
2. Having obtained an unsatisfactory result using
your laser printer, suppose you decide to send the
job to a repro house for output on a high end
imagesetter with an output resolution of 2540 lpi.
The total number of gray levels would now be
equal to:
Gray levels =

25402 (dpi)
+ 1 = 288
1502 (lpi)

288 levels of gray is ample to produce a smooth

image which exhibits accurate colours.
3. Finally, suppose you decide to print the job on
the laser printer once again, but using a much
lower halftone screen ruling for instance, 37 lpi.

The total number of gray levels will now be equal

to:
Gray levels =

Fig 3.7 The relation of halftone screen angles to

screen mesh stretched at 5 from base right.

6002 (dpi)
+ 1 = 264
372 (lpi)

As the above examples show, output devices with

a low output resolution are capable of producing
quality results, provided the halftone screen ruling
is not too high. Indeed, the use of a high end
imagesetter for this type of work would be
superfluous. To produce smooth tonal gradations
and accurate colour with higher halftone screen
rulings, however, requires the use of an output
device with a high output resolution in the
region of 2,500 if you are attempting to print at
very fine screen rulings, such as 150 lpi.

OTHER OUTPUT CONSIDERATIONS

A commonly overlooked difference
between offset litho printing and screen
printing is the orientation of the emulsion
on the film positive (the emulsion carries
the halftone dots). Offset requires the
emulsion to be downward when looking at
a correct reading image. Screen printing
requires the film emulsion to be
uppermost, so that this side is in contact
with the stencil emulsion when exposing
the screen. If the film emulsion was on the
underside you would be exposing through
the thickness of the film base and light
would scatter under the image. This would
result in a loss of fine detail and, in the
case of halftones, a complete loss of dots
in the highlight areas.
So, remember to specify: emulsion up
right reading.

Differential between
halftone and mesh
angles = 70

Halftone angle 75 from

base right

Differential between
halftone and mesh
angles = 80

Halftone angle 75
from base left

Consider using a standard specification

sheet (see sample at back of this manual)
and use a symbol for the orientation of the
halftone angles you require. On an elliptical
dot halftone screen, the angles should be
specified in relation to the direction that the
dots join.

Fig 3.8 Use a simple symbol to indicate that all the

angles are measured from base right.

Also, you must be consistent in how you

specify the halftone screen angles you
require when you are using angled mesh.
Many imagesetter software programs
measure the angles from a base right. If
you have established a set of angles
suitable for the mesh you print through
maybe, one screen has to have the mesh
angled to avoid a clash between it and the
positive measuring angles from a base
left would produce a totally different
relationship to the mesh.

3.12

CHAPTER 3

- Sericol Limited 1998

Off-press proofs (or contract-quality proofs),

such as Cromalin, Matchprint and Agfaproof, are
used for client approval before a job goes into full
production. However, they have been developed
to meet the needs of the litho printing industry, so
they give a less accurate representation of how
the image will appear when it is screen printed.
(The possibility of tailoring dot gain on a screen
printing press so that it matches the dot gain
found in off-press proofs is discussed in Chapter
6.)

CONTROLLING THE KEY

HALFTONE PRINTING VARIABLES

For absolute accuracy, you can run a press proof.

This is the only way to determine exactly how the
particular substrate and ink system will affect dot
gain under the specific production conditions used
to print the job. By running a series of tests on
various substrates using the appropriate ink
systems, you will have the information necessary
to predict fairly accurately the amount of dot gain,
without having to proof each job.

In order for an RGB image to be printed, it must

first be converted to the correct CMYK values, so
that film positives can be produced and screens
exposed. This process is known as colour
separation and is carried out automatically by
scanning or image editing software all you need
do is select the correct colour model from a pull
down menu and click the mouse. However, the
user-friendly manner in which colour separation is
selected belies the very sophisticated process
responsible for the actual conversion from one
colour model to the other. While it is not essential
to master the maths, it is useful to have an
understanding of how the separation works,
especially if you wish, at some stage, to bring the
digital repro process in-house.

Any problems that might arise during proofing

can be corrected by further editing of the image
files. For example, suppose a models face
appears slightly too red. A densitometer test
shows that the problem is caused by a higher than
expected dot gain reading for the magenta screen
in the fleshtones. Instead of experimenting with
ink formulations to try to correct the colour
balance on-press, it is a simple matter to return to
the processing stage, alter the image file to
compensate for the dot gain and re-run the films.
Provided the press set-up remains unchanged,
you can be certain of an accurate result. In this
way, colour can be controlled without the need to
constantly modify the inks. Careful control and
modification of the halftone film positives allow
you to reproduce any image on a wide variety of
different substrates, using standard 4-colour
process ink sets. It goes without saying that this
reduces the number of different halftone inks the
printer needs to carry, introduces a strong
element of standardisation and ultimately speeds
the print process considerably by removing the
trial and error approach to getting colours right
on press.
The next step, then, is to look at how computer
software can be used to achieve accurate colours
on the finished print. (Adobe Photoshop 5.0 will
be used throughout to demonstrate the various
techniques involved.)

3.13

The most powerful, and important, feature of

custom scanning software and image editing
programs is that they allow fast and accurate
control over the all-important colour separation
process.

Colour separation

Mapping colours During the separation process,

the computer maps the RGB values for each pixel
in the image to the appropriate CMY values and
generates a value for the black ink. (Black
generation is covered later.)
Mapping RGB values directly to CMY values,
however, does not produce an accurate result.
There are a number of reasons for this:
Even the best printing inks have inherent
impurities, which mean that their spectral
properties are not perfect. In effect, this means
that the different coloured inks absorb some of
the light they are supposed to reflect and
reflect some of the light they are meant to
absorb. Cyan ink is especially problematic as it
tends to absorb a high amount of the blue and
green light falling on it. This reduces the
amount of blue/green light reaching the eye,
which leads to a warmer image on the final
print. (For this reason, separation software will
always reduce the level of magenta and yellow
ink when they are printed together with cyan.)

Printing inks are not perfectly transparent, so

the order in which they are printed can have a
marked effect on the appearance of the image.
The gamut of reproducible colours using CMYK
inks is limited compared with that of the RGB
colour model. This means that there may be no
accurate CMYK match for some colours
contained in an RGB scan. (A Gamut Warning
control allows you to preview which colours
cannot be matched precisely, before you
proceed with the separation process.)
Increases in dot percentage values do not
produce a uniform increase in colour density that is, colour change is not uniform across the
tonal range.

Gamut Warning

Fig 3.9 This RGB colour specification cannot be mapped to

CMYK

In fact, the mathematical equations used to

accurately map RGB colours to CMYK ink values
are extremely complex and require a great deal of
processing power to calculate. To speed up the
separation process, therefore, separation
programs store the equations for individual colour
conversions in a colour look up table (CLUT).
During separation, the colours of each pixel in the
image are compared with the colours in the table:
if an exact match is found, the pixel is given the
appropriate CMYK value; if no exact match is
found, the nearest CMYK value in the CLUT is
used.

COLOUR LOOK UP TABLES

Some colour look up tables (CLUTs)
contain more information than others.
High end scanning software works with
a very detailed CLUT containing a large
number of RGB/CMYK colour matches,
so the separation process is very
accurate. Image editing programs tend to
work with scaled down CLUTs (for
reasons of processing speed), which can
lead to less accurate separations.
However, the sophistication of the CLUT
used with high end scanning software
means that it takes a long time to
calculate, so repro houses tend to
standardise on a table which gives the
best results for printing SWOP
(Specifications for Web Offset
Publication) inks on to coated paper. The
advantage of using an image editing
program is that the smaller size of the
tables means that the image editing
software is able to contain multiple
CLUTs. This means that it is possible to
create and store a variety of tables
geared for screen printing with different
types of inks.

Black generation Theoretically, printing cyan,

magenta and yellow inks together should produce
black. However, this is not the case: the three
subtractive primaries alone cannot produce a high
enough density to render a true, rich black - they
produce a muddy brown colour. A vital part of the
separation process, then, is the generation of a
black ink value.
Most colours in a scanned image will contain
various amounts of each of the subtractive
primaries. One or two of them will be dominant
and will dictate the hue. The remaining
complementary colour(s) has no effect on the hue,
but simply makes the colour lighter or darker. This
makes sense when you recall that equal
proportions of cyan, magenta and yellow combine
to create gray. The equal amounts of the three
subtractive primaries contained within any colour
is known as the gray component

3.14

Higher ink weights can lead to increased

dot gain. (By limiting the maximum dot size
in shadow areas, there is less filling in, so a
lower total ink weight will help to preserve
shadow details.)
Heavy ink deposits can lead to drying
problems and prolonged drying times.

= Gray component
Fig 3.10. Equal proportions of three subtractive primaries
combine to make gray a colours gray component.
Removing equal amounts of the three colours and replacing
them with black ink reduces the total ink weight printed
without noticeably altering the hue.

If you remove equal levels of cyan, magenta and

yellow (the amount is dictated by the level of the
complementary colour) and replace them with
black, therefore, the hue will remain the same
(only the gray component will be removed), but
the total amount of ink printed will be reduced
while the maximum density will be increased
(thanks to the inclusion of the black).
More importantly, it is possible to reduce the
total ink limit (the maximum weight of ink
deposited on the substrate). Controlling the total
ink limit is especially important as a high ink build
up can cause a number of problems:
A heavy deposit of ink is more likely to
cause smearing of the halftone dots,
reducing the definition of the image and
affecting colours and tones.
A high build up of ink over successive
colours may cause the height of the ink
deposit to impair the lay down of the final
colour. Simply put, all of the ink printed
through the final screen may not be able to
reach the substrate.
The slightest misregister in areas where
there is a large deposit of each of the three
subtractive primaries can reveal unwanted
gray tones within darker colours.

3.15

For the reasons outlined above, the generation of

a black value involves replacing a certain amount
of each of the subtractive primaries with black.
There are two methods by which black values can
be generated: under colour removal (UCR) and
gray component replacement (GCR).
UCR reduces the amount of cyan, magenta and
yellow in the darkest neutral and near neutral
colours of an image and increases the amount of
black accordingly. UCR becomes active in any area
of the image where the total ink percentage of
cyan, magenta, yellow and black exceeds the
specified total ink limit.
To select the appropriate UCR settings for your
press and printing parameters, first open the
Separation Setup dialogue box
(File/Preferences/Separation Setup) and click on
the UCR radio button. Then set the total ink limit
by entering the percentage value in the
appropriate box. (If it were possible to print a
100% dot in all four colours, the total ink weight
would be 400%. In practice, it is usually set
between 240% and 340% depending on the
printing conditions. You need to determine the
optimum total ink limit for your press and the
type of ink you are using.)

GCR Whereas the effect of UCR is concentrated on

darker areas, GCR works to replace some of the
gray component with black in every area of the
image where the three subtractive primaries
overprint each other. The amount of each of the
subtractive primaries replaced can be specified by
the operator. Removing the entire gray
component can lead to noticeable colour shifts 50% is generally regarded as a useful starting
point. (This is the default setting in Photoshop.)
To set GCR, open the Separation Setup dialogue
box as before (GCR is automatically selected as
the default in Photoshop) and set the total ink
limit. Now choose a black generation setting
using the pull down menu. None generates the
colour separation using no black value. Ignore this
setting. The default setting is medium, which
equates to 50% gray component replacement.
This is most likely to give optimum results. You
can also use the custom command: this lets you
adjust the black generation curve manually.
Using GCR results in a marked reduction in the
amount of coloured ink used. However, you must
be especially careful to control dot gain on the
black screen as even a small amount can severely
affect the brightness of the finished print.
At present, there is a general lack of experience of
using GCR with the screen process and this,
combined with a lack of feedback from printers,
means that its suitability for use with separations
for screen process printing has yet to be
quantified.

values from 0% (white) to 100% (black). The vertical axis

shows the levels of cyan, magenta and yellow inks generated
at each value. Notice that there are equal amounts of
magenta and yellow at each value, but slightly more cyan.
This is because of the inherent impurity of cyan ink which
means that it absorbs a relatively large amount of blue and
green light. If the magenta and yellow levels were not
reduced below the level of the cyan, the finished print would
appear too red.

Dot gain It is essential to compensate for physical

dot gain if you are to control the colour density of
your printed image. However, before you can
compensate for it, you must measure the amount
of dot gain created by your choice of halftone,
press settings, inks and substrate.
To calculate the amount of dot gain, print a
calibration bar (File/Print/Calibration Bars), or other
grayscale ramp, for each colour using the same
halftone screen ruling, press settings, inks and
substrate as you will be using for the production
run. Using a reflective densitometer, measure and
record the amount of dot gain occurring at various
halftone values along the bar - say, at 10%
intervals. In Photoshop, open up the CMYK Setup
dialogue box (File/Colour Settings/CMYK Setup).
You now have a choice of either entering a value
for the standard 50% dot only or using the more
accurate Curves option to specify dot gain at each
of your measured dot percentages. Using the
Curves option, select each colour in turn and enter
the dot gain values as measured with the
densitometer. For instance, if the yellow 40% dot
actually printed at 50%, enter 50 in the 40%
dialogue box. At the output stage, the dot gain
will be compensated for and the imagesetter will
print a smaller dot which will grow to 40% with
dot gain once printed.

An area where UCR has been shown to be

advantageous is printing with UV curing inks.
These inks have a low volatile component, so ink
build is high, which can cause problems, as
described above.
UCR improves ink transfer in the darkest shadow
areas of the image because the amount of ink
present does not exceed the optimum level that
the screen printing press can produce. The
stability of the gray balance is also improved,
because less of the coloured inks is used in the
neutral and near neutral tones. (Gray balance is
covered later).

Fig 3.11. In Photoshop, UCR and GCR settings are selected in

the Separation Setup dialogue box. The gray ramp (the graph)
shows how neutral colours will be separated - that is, the
amount of cyan, magenta and yellow inks that will be used to
produce a given tone. The horizontal axis shows the tonal

Fig 3.12. Dot gain can be adjusted in the CMYK Setup

dialogue box.

3.16

CHAPTER 3

DENSITOMETERS
- Sericol Limited 1998

Arguably the most useful tool to the screen

printer is the densitometer. This device can
be defined as a hand-held spectrophotometer which works on the principle
of reflecting a point source of light off the
surface of a printed area. The electronics
within the device then calculate the
spectral (or colour) components within this
reflected light to give the operator a readout of which colour is being measured, the
strength of that colour and the exact
coverage of that colour in terms of
percentage area of substrate covered by
ink.
It is still widely believed that the
appearance of a 4-colour process print can
be modified by manipulation of the
strengths and shades of the subtractive
primaries cyan, magenta and yellow.
While this may be true for very minor
changes to the finished print, the overriding
factor in determining halftone colour
reproduction is not colour strength, but the
size of the printed dot. If this is not correct,
then no amount of adjustment of the inks
will produce faithful colours on the print. In
this case, the only recourse is to adjust the
dot sizes on the separations by
manipulating gradation curves in image
editing software, at the processing stage. A
densitometer allows you to easily check
whether dot reproduction is the cause of
incorrect colours. It also provides the
necessary information for your studio or
repro house to make the required
adjustments.

Gray balance The term gray balance refers to the

proportions of the subtractive primaries that are
necessary to produce a neutral gray colour.
The gray tones in an image are the most difficult
to reproduce accurately as the eye is very
sensitive to even slight variations in the colour
balance of neutral gray areas. If the gray balance is
set incorrectly, therefore, the image will appear to
have a very noticeable colour cast.
As explained previously, the inherent impurities in
ink pigments mean that it is not possible to
achieve a neutral gray simply by printing equal
amounts of the subtractive primaries - the gray
appears as a brown. The gray balance control
enables the densities of the three subtractive
primaries to be adjusted to overcome this
problem and produce a neutral gray. (Gray
balance must also be set for the scanner to ensure
that the device does not introduce a colour cast at
the input stage.)
For offset litho inks, the accepted correction is
50% cyan, 40% magenta and 40% yellow.
However, screen inks are different to offset inks
and there is a wide variety of different screen inks
to meet the various applications of the screen
process. This means that the correct gray balance
must be worked out for each ink set.
To set the correct gray balance for a particular set
of inks, first print an IT8 reference target which
contains a swatch of neutral gray blocks. Check
the printed swatch under controlled viewing
conditions to see whether there is a colour cast
present. If you notice a colour cast, adjust the
cyan, magenta or yellow density value in the
Printing Inks Setup dialogue box to compensate.
Determining the correct gray balance for a set of
inks often involves some trial and error. However,
once you have ascertained the correct settings for
a certain set of inks and substrates, you should not
need to alter them again. Any colour casts on
individual images should be corrected using
colour correction controls (covered later).

Fig 3.13. A densitometer is arguably the most useful

tool to the screen printer, as it allows precise
measurement of colours, enabling you to determine
the exact degree of dot gain at every point along the
tonal scale.

3.17

Fig 3.14. To set the correct gray balance, open the printing
Inks Setup dialogue box (File/Color Settings/Printing Inks
Setup) and enter the appropriate values for the cyan,
magenta, yellow and black inks in the gray balance boxes.

Due to the limitations of the stencil systems plus

mesh interference and the types of inks being
used, it is impossible for the screen printing
process to reproduce such a wide tonal range. For
example, some halftone dots in the shadow areas
will be too small to be supported by the mesh, or
may even be placed within a mesh opening.
These dots will be washed away during the screen
making process or removed during the printing
process, leading to shadows which are darker
than they are supposed to be. Similarly, in
highlight areas, openings on the stencil may be
placed under one or more mesh threads, losing
much of their area, or may even disappear
altogether. This leads to a lightening of the
highlight areas. The overall effect is an unwanted
heightening of contrast and an absence of detail in
the highlights and shadows.

SEPARATION POINTERS
Always save a copy of the original
RGB file before conversion to CMYK.
This way, the image can be
reseparated using different
separation settings if the original
separation is deemed unsatisfactory
on the sample prints.
Convert between RGB and CMYK
only once repeated conversion can
degrade the image.

Colour and tonal corrections

As well as performing the colour separation
process, digital repro systems can be used to
dramatically or, more often, subtly alter the
appearance of an image. This generally involves
altering the tonal range of the image, sharpening
details or correcting unwanted colour casts.
Tonal range A good photographic print or
transparency generally has a full tonal range that
stretches from the purest white highlight area to
the darkest black shadow area. The tonal range
can be said to stretch from 0% to 100%.

Fig 3.15. With certain halftone ruling and mesh count

relationships, some highlight dots in the stencil will be
blocked by the mesh thread. Also, (shown inset) some
shadow dots will have been lost in development because
they fell at points of the image where no thread was available
to adhere to.

These limitations are overcome by adjusting the

halftone range. In the past, a tonal range of 15%
for the smallest highlight dot and 85% for the
darkest shadow area would have been the
maximum tonal range that could be reproduced.
Today, however, with advances in ink and stencil
products, the generally accepted range for screen
printing, using water-based inks, would be close
to 5% through to 95%. However, there are no

3.18

standards, owing to the wide range of meshes,

screen rulings, stencils and ink drying systems
used by screen printers. You should, therefore,
determine the tonal range for your own
press/screen/ink combination by printing a
calibration bar and noting the smallest dot
supported in the highlight area and the halftone
percentage value at which the shadows begin to
block up. You can then set the correct highlight
(white point) and shadow (black point) values (the
lower and upper limits of the tonal range) to suit
your own printing parameters.
Of the two, it is more important to set the white
point correctly. This is because the eye is more
sensitive to highlight areas than shadows. A lack

DETERMINING THE SMALLEST

DOT SIZE

of detail in the highlights, therefore, will be more

immediately noticeable than a lack of detail in the
shadows. Thats not to say that you shouldnt aim
to set both the white and the black points as
accurately as possible for the press/screen/ink
combination you are using.

Ideally, the correct tonal range for your

combination of press, screens and inks will be set
at the input stage, by the scanner operator. This
will ensure that the scan captures the maximum
amount of reproducible detail from the original
image. However, the tonal range must be set
when the image is separated to CMYK. Therefore,
if your repro house supplies RGB scan files, you
need to set the tonal range at the processing
stage, using an image editing program just prior
to performing the separation.

As there are no standards when it comes

to determining the smallest dot that can
be held on press, you need to determine
the tonal range for your own
stencil/inks/press set up. Print a
calibration bar and note the smallest
halftone dot percentage supported in the
highlight area. Generally speaking, the
lower the screen ruling and the higher
the mesh count, the smaller the
minimum dot size that can be
reproduced.

To set tonal range in Photoshop, you use the

powerful Curves tool to map the lightest area of
the image which contains detail (not specular
highlights, such as the bright highlight on a
chrome surface) to the smallest dot that can be
reproduced, and the darkest point of the image to
the largest halftone dot percentage that can be
reproduced before the dots begin merging and
the shadows fill in. There are several ways of
achieving this: the following methods are the
most useful.

The smallest dot that can be printed by

the screen printing process will depend
on the following factors:

Method 1 Simply move the bottom left hand

point of the 45 tone curve up to 5% and move
the top right hand point down to 95%. The tonal
range is compressed to fit the new highlight and
shadow values, but the general distribution of
tones is retained. If you wish, you can alter the
distribution of tones by clicking on the tone curve
at various points and moving it upwards or
downwards to increase or decrease the dot
percentage at that point in the tonal range.
Generally, a gentle S shaped curve produces the
best distribution of tones.

the mesh count

the resolving power of the stencil
the type and quality of the substrate
used
the type and quality of the screen
printing press
the type and quality of the ink
Now look at the shadow end of the
printed calibration bar and note the
largest halftone dot percentage that still
retains shadow detail without filling in.
The largest dot that can be printed
depends on the above factors plus:
the degree of physical dot gain

3.19

values throughout the entire image are adjusted

accordingly. Any pixels which are lighter than the
area you clicked in are rendered as white
(specular highlights). Repeat the process for the
shadow value, but using the black eyedropper and
clicking in the darkest area which contains details
you want to reproduce.

Method 2 This involves setting the tonal range for

each colour individually. First, find the lightest
area of the image which contains detail you wish
to reproduce. Then, set the highlight value by
double clicking on the white eyedropper tool to
bring up the CMYK colour picker dialogue box
and entering the appropriate values - for example,
C6%, M4%, Y4% and K0%. Next, click on the
highlight area you identified earlier. The pixel

Fig 3.16. The powerful Curves command allows you to match

the tonal range of your print to the smallest and largest dot
percentages your halftone screen/press/inks/stencil set up
can reproduce.

Colour correction Unwanted colour casts can

stem from the original image or may be a product
of the scanning process. The original image may
appear too warm or too cool, depending on the
film stock used or the prevailing lighting
conditions. Similarly, different scanners can
produce subtle variations in the colour of a
scanned image especially if the gray balance is
not set correctly. Whatever the cause of the colour
cast, it is necessary that you remove it before
outputting a separated image to film.
With most image editing programs you can
compensate for colour casts by using the Curves
command to selectively edit individual process
colours. By moving specific points along the tone
curve for individual process colours you can
produce controlled changes to the colour balance
of the shadows, highlights and midtone areas. For
example, if a picture looks too cool in the shadow
areas (often a problem when photographs are
taken on a sunny day under a blue sky) it is
possible to reduce the percentage of cyan in the
shadows by pulling the cyan tone curve
downwards at that point. Similarly, if the
fleshtones in a portrait appear too warm, you can
reduce the percentage of magenta in the
midtones, using the same technique.
In this way, instead of altering the formulations of
the printing inks to try to achieve accurate colour,
you can make all the adjustments before the film
positives are output. Equally, if a sample print
shows a colour cast, you can use the Curves
command to solve the problem, without risking
the introduction of new variables by
experimenting with changes to the inks.

fig 3.17. Here (left), the tonal range of the print is wider than
that which could be reproduced by the printing set up. The
result: the highlights have burnt out and the shadows have
filled in.
Compressing the tonal range (right) by setting the correct
smallest and largest dot percentage ensures that detail is
visible in the highlight and shadow areas. The slight S shape
of the tonal curve provides the most accurate distribution of
midtones and threequarter tones.

3.20

CHAPTER 3

effect to areas of the image with lower contrast

between adjacent pixels.

- Sericol Limited 1998

Too much USM will give the whole image a hard,

pixelated look and edges will stand out as a white
fringe. It is better, therefore, to set low USM
settings and apply the filter repeatedly to build up
the sharpening effect gradually.

BRINGING REPRO IN-HOUSE

How much of the digital repro process you should handle yourself is a vexed question, and one to
which there is no straightforward answer. Ultimately, your decision will be dictated by the volume of
4-colour process work you receive, your current resources (finances, personnel, factory space) and
your customers demands.
However, the repro process is split into distinct areas, as described above, meaning that there are
several different options open to the screen printer:
1. Contracting out All digital repro work is contracted out to a specialist repro house, which
takes the original images, scans and edits them and provides you with film separations and a
contract proof.
For newcomers to 4-colour halftone printing this is the obvious option. It leaves you free to
concentrate on your core activity producing the finished print. It also relieves you of the
responsibility of handling the sometimes complex repro process. Similarly, you do not need to
invest in expensive non-printing equipment and staff training.
2. In-house processing The scanning of the original images and the output of the final film is
handled by a repro house, while you carry out the image editing work and any manipulation of
the digital files required following the printing of a press proof.

Fig 3.18. Here, the models face appears too red, because the
percentage of magenta ink in the midtones is too high.
Using the Curves command, the percentage of magenta ink
can be reduced, simply by dragging the tone curve
downwards in the midtone area.

The cost of the hardware and software required to perform image editing tasks is relatively low, yet
an image editing facility gives you the opportunity to take much greater control over the finished
print, should you wish to do so. It has the potential to speed up the repro process (once staff are
fully skilled) and cut costs repro houses charge a premium for image editing time. An in-house
studio also provides operators with an ideal introduction to digital repro techniques. On less qualitycritical jobs, your operators may be able to handle the input stage as well using a reasonably high
quality flatbed scanner. This has the potential to speed up the process and cut costs even further.

Sharpening the image As explained previously, it

is always advisable to scan an image at the correct
size for output. However, this is not always
possible for example, a client may supply you
with an existing scan which needs to be enlarged
for reproduction at a larger size. Any
enlargement, however, leads to a slight softening
of the image, which must be corrected before the
film positives are produced. (Sharpening should
always be carried out after all the other
manipulations have been completed.)
The most useful sharpening filter is Unsharp Mask
(USM). This works by increasing the contrast at
the edges of details in the image. The more USM
that is applied, the more the visual sharpness of
the image will be increased.
The effect of applying the USM filter can be
controlled using three tools: contrast (the amount
of USM applied), radius (the distance on either
side of the edge that will be affected) and
threshold (how much contrast there must be
between neighbouring pixels before USM has an
effect).
A low USM setting will cause sharpening to
appear only around those detail edges where
there is already high contrast between
neighbouring pixels. A higher setting extends the

3.21

3. In-house output Scanning is handled by a repro house, but image editing and separated film
output is performed in-house.
The low cost and user friendliness of thermal imagesetters such as those supplied by Sericol
means that for all but the most critical work, an experienced operator could handle film output
alongside image editing work. This brings further cost savings and the opportunity to offer even
faster turn-round. The ability to output your own films is especially valuable when you need to
amend a digital file and re-run the separations. It can mean the difference between starting
production the same day as opposed to the following day.
4. In-house repro The entire digital repro process is handled in-house.

Fig 3.19. Enlarging a scan can lead to a noticeable softening

of the image the greater the enlargement, the softer the
image appears.
Applying the Unsharp Mask filter increases the visual
sharpness of the image.
Over-use of the Unsharp mask filter can compromise the
visual appearance of the image.

For the large format graphics screen printer who is handling a high volume of 4-colour halftone
work, the cost of using a specialist repro house will represent a major cost overhead per year.
Bringing the repro process in-house, therefore, can lead to considerable savings over time. It also
offers other significant benefits, including greater control over the finished result, the ability to
standardise the entire production process and much faster turn-round. However, you must be
prepared to support a significant investment in equipment, the on-going cost of hardware and
software upgrades and staff training and the added expense of continuing to use an outside repro
house for quality jobs while your operators master the steep learning curve associated with digital
repro technology.

Ultimately, whether you decide to handle the repro process (or parts of it) yourself, it is most
important that you fully appreciate how best to harness digital technology to realise the possibilities
and avoid the pitfalls that it offers.

3.22

Mesh and Stencils

- Sericol Limited 1998

The accurate reproduction of individual

halftone dots is a prerequisite for successful
halftone printing and the correct choice of
mesh and stencil systems is central to
achieving this aim.
By using the most appropriate mesh and stencil
system for a particular job, you can reduce the
risk of moir, limit dot gain and print the
widest tonal range possible.
Mesh selection, in particular, can be viewed as
the catalyst to successful 4-colour process
printing, offering added control over major
screen printing variables The result: well
defined prints which exhibit faithful colours
and fine detail.
This chapter concentrates on mesh selection,
stretching and preparation, plus stencil
selection and stencil-making.

Mesh Selection
The mesh used for printing a 4-colour process job
will be determined, primarily, by the type of ink
technology you are using. Before considering
mesh and stencil recommendations, therefore, it
is first necessary to consider the various ink
technologies available and which of these are
most commonly used for halftone printing. The
main ink systems are as follows:
Jet/Air dried inks

- Solvent Based
- Water-based

Ultra-Violet
(UV) curing inks

- Conventional UV
- Water-based UV

Solvent-based air dried ink With all air drying ink

systems, screen stability is critical. While the best
results with respect to print quality are achieved
using a finer mesh (140 PW), drying-in can be a
problem, especially in the highlight areas.
Generally, the best compromise between quality
and performance is achieved by using a slightly
coarser mesh (120 PW).
Water-based air dried ink tends to produce a
better quality print than solvent-based systems,
but there is a higher chance of substrate distortion
when printing paper or board.
Conventional UV ink is a 100 per cent solids
system, so there is no evaporation and reduction

4.1

CHAPTER 4

in ink film weight during the drying process. It is

imperative, therefore, to minimise the ink film
weight if print quality, tonal reproduction and cure
speed are to be maintained.
Water-based UV ink gives the best quality
halftone reproduction of all the commonly used
ink systems. However, it requires a finer mesh to
maintain cure response and limit substrate
distortion a common problem with all waterbased systems.
The mesh recommendations for each type of ink
are summarised in Table 4.3.(pages 4.3/4.4)

General guidelines
Plain or twill weave? For 4-colour process
printing, choose a plain weave (PW) mesh. Plain
weave meshes have a thinner fabric thickness
allowing the ink to pass through the mesh
openings more easily. This produces a sharper
transfer and crisper dots. In addition, plain weave
mesh requires a lower stencil thickness in order to
achieve these results, which helps to reduce the
ink deposit. It is difficult to reproduce fine dots
using a high stencil build and resultant large ink
deposit especially when using UV inks. A lower
ink deposit also results in reduced dot gain.
Finally, twill weave mesh is known to exacerbate
the problem of moir.
Table 4.1 shows the theoretical ink volumes of
various mesh counts for plain and twill meshes.
Table 4.1.
Plain Weave v Twill Weave Theoretical Ink
Volumes
MESH COUNT (tpcm)

INK VOLUME (cm3/m2)

165.31 TW

15.5

165.34 TW

11.5

180.31 TW

10.0

140.34 PW

9.0

150.34 PW

8.0

Sericols tests show that

good results can be
achieved with a thread
diameter of 34 microns.
However, ink type,
substrate, ink colour,
squeegee pressure and
even the squeegee profile
all play a role in
determining the optimum
thread diameter for your
printing conditions. More
important, perhaps, is the
need to standardise on one
size of thread as changing
to a different diameter is
likely to have a noticeable
effect on the appearance of
your print.

Table 4.2.
Mesh Count and Tonal Range
As mentioned previously, the mesh count you use will have an influence
on the smallest dot you can print (see, Determining the smallest dot size,
Chapter 3). Table 4.2 presents the smallest printable halftone dot that can
be held by various mesh counts. As the table illustrates, smaller dots can
be held at lower halftone screen rulings and higher mesh counts. If you
need to reproduce a smaller dot percentage at a given halftone screen
ruling, therefore, it is advisable to select a higher mesh count. For
example, with a 120.34PW mesh and a halftone ruling of 120 lpi, a dot
size below 23% will be poorly reproduced, there will be a higher risk of
moir and the print will lack contrast. Switching to a 150.34PW mesh will
allow you to reproduce a 14% dot accurately.
Halftone screen ruling cm
(inch)

20 24 28 34 40 48 60
(50) (60) (71) (86) (100) (120) (152)

Mesh count cm (inch)

Thread colour
Amber/yellow coloured
mesh performs better than
white meshes at higher
mesh counts, where the
refraction of light during
direct stencil exposure
causes undercutting of fine
detail in the image.

120.34 (355) PW

11.5

16

23

120.40 (305) PW

4.5

6.5

8.5 12.5 17.5

25

130.34 (330) PW

4.5

6.6

8.5 12.5 17.5

25

140.34 (355) PW

5.5

15

25

150.31 (380) PW

15

24

150.34 (380) PW

2.5

3.5

14

22.5

Mesh Tension

165.31 (420) PW

7.5 10.5

15

24

2.5

5.8

11

18

180.27 (460) PW
As with all forms of screen
printing, it is important that
you ensure all the meshes
employed when printing a
particular job are stretched to the same tensions.
Priority should be given to consistency rather than
excessively high tensions, but wherever possible,
meshes should be stretched to give an optimum
tension of 18-20 N/cm2 on relaxation after
stretching.

11

7.5 11.5
7

10

Using a set of screens stretched to the same

tensions is doubly important when printing 4colour process work since differences in mesh
tensions will lead to misregister between the
process colours and, ultimately, to inaccurate
colour representation and poorer print quality.
These undesirable effects are most noticeable on
larger format images where differences in mesh
tension are amplified due to frame size.

Thread diameter influences possible screen

tension and ink film thickness on the final print.
Although there is no correct thread diameter,

4.2

Table 4.3
Mesh Recomendations for 4-Colour Process Printing
INK TYPE

MESH SELECTION

COMMENTS

INK TYPE

MESH SELECTION

COMMENTS

Solvent-based
Jet/Air Dried

110.34 PW/
120.34 PW
recommended

Gives best chance of holding highlight tone during the print

run due to the high percentage open area of mesh.

Conventional
UV Cured

150.34 PW
recommended
(If possible, you
can use finer to
reduce the ink
deposit).

Gives optimal ink deposit for best cure speed. You must ensure
that the mesh is plain and not twill weave.

Ink may flood more than desired in the shadow areas.

Gives strong block area colours. On occasion these may need
to be based, depending on the artwork.
You may need to use a capillary film to attain the best quality
an emulsion may not resolve the highlight/shadow dots when
printing finer screen rulings.
If higher quality is needed, you may need to choose a finer
mesh for example a 140.34 PW or go to harder
squeegees.

140.34 PW
optional

Where possible, a thin flood with a sharp flood coater should

be used to minimise ink deposit and maximise cure.

Water-based
UV Cured

150.34 PW
recommended

Gives higher dot quality than coarser meshes.

When using an emulsion stencil, shadow dots are better

supported than with 120 mesh.

Prints will dry more quickly allowing faster running speeds.

However, this benefit may be cancelled by the need to retard
the ink to prevent it drying into the finer mesh.
You may need to re-select the screen ruling and halftone
angles to avoid moir on the finer mesh, but this is not
normally required.

Water-based
Jet/Air dried

110.34 PW/
120.34 PW
recommended

150.34 PW
optional

Gives the best combination of print quality and ink deposit.

The inks water content means that this mesh will give
minimum substrate distortion and the best cure response from
the ink.
If water-based UV inks are printed at a slightly higher viscosity
(for example, when the ink has thickened a little on the press)
higher pressures or harder squeegees may be needed to force
the ink to flow through this fine mesh.

Midtones and shadow areas are cleaner.

The finest highlight dots may be lost due to being obscured by

the mesh filaments.

In addition, the deposit should be minimised by using harder

type, sharp squeegees. Even so, the fourth colour may require
the use of a softer squeegee to obtain the best coverage over
the first three colours due to ink build considerations.

140.34 PW
optional

This mesh produces less interference between the halftone dots

and the threads thus producing printed dots with cleaner,
rounder edges.
It should only be used when printing thicker substrates since
laying down more ink results in a greater level of water with
the potential to distort the substrate.
Because ink flows more freely through this mesh, ink dribble
marks/trails are less likely to appear on the finished print.

See comments on Solvent-based Air/Jet Dried Inks (above).

Will give poorer ink mileage compared to a 150.34 PW mesh

(see theoretical ink deposit figures).

Water-based inks generally give improved print quality over

solvent-based systems, but they can cause major problems
with distortion on certain papers pre-production tests are
recommrnded.

* Ink may cure a little slower on this mesh, thus requiring slower
belt speeds or higher lamp power settings.

Gives best result for printed dot, tonal reproduction and

minimising stock distortion.
Although the superior screen stability of these inks allows the
use of this mesh to improve print quality, stops in production
may mean the screen needs to be wiped before continuing.

4.3

4.4

CHAPTER 4

Stencil Systems

- Sericol Limited 1998

It is important when choosing a stencil system for

4-colour process printing to consider the type of
ink to be used on the job. For instance, is the
stencil/filler system resistant to the ink you are
planning to use?
Stencil systems for process printing can be
broadly categorised as:
(1) Direct Emulsions of the diazo photopolymer
type.
(2) Capillary Direct Films
(3) Indirect Films
All of the stencil types listed above exhibit
resistance to both solvent-based air dried inks and
conventional UV inks. However, stencil selection
becomes more critical when considering the use
of water-based inks both air dried and UV cured.
Only certain direct emulsions and capillary direct
films exhibit resistance to water-based inks and it
is, therefore, essential to consult the relevant
Product Information sheets when choosing an
ink/stencil combination.
Tonal Reproduction When considering stencil
type, it is true to say that indirect and capillary
direct films give slightly better dot definition and
resolution than direct emulsions designed for the
same applications. This is in no small part due to
the fact that stencil film emulsions are coated on
to ultra flat backing sheets when they are
manufactured. When exposed, developed and
mounted on the screen (in the case of indirect
films) the stencil retains this very smooth surface.
This means that the stencil edge definition and the
contact between the stencil and the substrate are
both very good and serve to prevent ink flow
under the stencil. The result is a stencil with
excellent print definition.
Emulsions, on the other hand, are coated directly
on to the mesh and they shrink, on drying, into
the open area of the mesh resulting in an uneven
surface. This can allow flow under the stencil to
produce a saw tooth pattern. In general, the
higher the solids content of the emulsion the
flatter will be the resultant stencil.
However, the quality of the latest generation of
direct diazo photopolymer emulsions, such as
Dirasol Super Coat, is almost equivalent to the

4.5

best capillary direct films and it is clear that

emulsions compare very favourably when ease of
use and cost in use are taken into account.
It is clear, then, that by judicious selection of ink
and stencil combinations, it is possible to choose a
package which best suits the criteria of resistance,
reproduction, ease of use and cost in use.
These ink/stencil combinations can be summarised
in terms of the level of print quality they are able
to achieve in general production. Table 4.4 shows
how the different ink/stencil combinations
measure up. It is, however, worth pointing out
that the best combinations of ink and stencil in
terms of quality, are not necessarily the most
durable. Hence, run length also becomes a
consideration.

Indirect stencil films can only be used with

solvent-based and UV curing inks and the
manufacturers instructions should be followed to
obtain the required stencil.
Capillary stencil films can be used for all types of
4-colour process inks and, once again, the
manufacturers instructions should be followed to
obtain the required stencil.
Stencil emulsions used for 4-colour work require
more care and attention to detail in order to
obtain quality stencils. However steady the
screenmakers arm, the use of an automatic
coating machine is recommended for consistent
coating weights. To avoid ambiguity, the following
terminology has been widely adopted by
screenmakers:

As an approximate guide Table 4.5 shows the

coating technique required to achieve a 4-5
microns build, using Dirasol Super Coat and a
Harlacher H41 automatic coater at 200 cm/min.

Table 4.5. Mesh Coating Techniques

MESH

COATING TECHNIQUE

120.34 PW

1.1

150.34 PW

1.2

The coating technique required to achieve a

4-5 micron build.

(1,1) means one coat simultaneously applied

by machine to each side of the screen.
Table 4.4. Ink/Stencil Combinations
WATER-BASED UV CURING
CAPILLARY DIRECT
WATER-BASED JET/AIR DRYING
CAPILLARY DIRECT
SOLVENT-BASED JET/AIR DRYING
INDIRECT
WATER-BASED UV CURING
DIRECT EMULSION
WATER-BASED JET/AIR DRYING
DIRECT EMULSION
SOLVENT-BASED JET/AIR DRYING
DIRECT EMULSION

Highest Quality

Stencil Making
Mesh preparation is a must for both new screens
and used screens. New screens should be
thoroughly degreased before use to remove any
water-repellent residues left from the mesh
manufacturing process. You can use an abrasive
cleaner to roughen the mesh to improve stencil
adhesion, but care should be taken that the
abrasive is not so rough that it damages the
mesh. Special products with a graded abrasive,
such as Seriprep 101, are available.
Whilst these processes are adequate for emulsion
and indirect stencils, a special mesh preparation is
required for capillary films so that the mesh
retains a water film prior to film mounting.

(1,2) means one coat simultaneously applied

by machine to each side of the screen and
then one coat applied only to the squeegee
side.
(2,2) means one coat simultaneously applied
by machine to each side of the screen and
then the process repeated.
(1,3,1,1) means one coat simultaneously
applied by machine to each side of the
screen followed by two further coats applied
wet-on-wet to the squeegee side and dried.
Then, two futher coats are applied to the
print side with drying between each coat.
Stencil build The ideal stencil for water-based
4-colour work is considered to have a build on the
print/substrate side of the mesh of 4-6 microns,
whatever the mesh, for solvent-based inks the
build should be 8 microns and for conventional
UV 6 microns. You can buy instruments which
measure the stencil build.
The solids content and viscosity of the emulsion,
the mesh tension, the edge profile of the coating
trough and the speed and number of coats are all
factors that can make a difference to the coating
build. The solids content and viscosity of the
emulsion should be controlled by the
manufacturer but ensuring the emulsion is kept at
a constant temperature will ensure consistent
viscosity. Surprisingly, perhaps, the amount of
emulsion in the trough can also affect the coat
weight, so it is important to keep the level as
constant as possible.

Fig 4.1. The ideal stencil has a flat surface profile and a sharp
edge that forms a 90 angle with the fabric surface and
substrate.

Drying the screen Once coated, the screens

should be dried horizontally with the squeegee
side uppermost at temperatures up to 35C, with
some air flow to remove the expelled water. The
actual temperature is not so important as the
humidity raising the temperature in a drying
area reduces the humidity so that the water leaves
the coating. However, if that water isnt removed,
an equilibrium will be set up and the screen will
not dry. It is particularly important that stencils for
use with water-based inks are thoroughly dried
and, having been dried, are not placed where
they can reabsorb moisture for instance, in the
vicinity of a washout booth.

4.6

STENCIL COATING AND DOT GAIN

These findings indicate that a 1,1 coating

technique (uneven stencil profile) may compress
the reproducible tonal range, making it very
difficult to print detail in shadows and highlights.
Also, the dot gain exhibited by UV curable inks
seems to be very sensitive to the quality of the
stencil, so any small change in the stencil is likely
to cause a noticeable effect on the finished print
unless corrections are made.
With water-based inks, the story was slightly
different. The 1,3,1,1 coating technique produced
an almost identical dot gain curve to the capillary
film, at the 50% dot value around about 2%.
However, the 1,1 coating technique once again
produced a much higher dot gain reading of 12%.
These findings indicate that water-based inks will
allow the reproduction of a wider tonal range and
are less sensitive to the quality of the stencil. This
means that the screenmaker is afforded a higher
degree of tolerance when making stencils for use
with water-based inks.
Independent research by screen mesh
manufacturer Saati, confirms the unwanted effects
of an uneven stencil profile in terms of marked
dot change.
Two stencils one with a flat profile (a), and the
other with an uneven profile (b) were used to
print a 16 step halftone grayscale. A densitometer
was used to measure the printed grayscale so that
the dot percentages at each step could be
compared with those on the film positive to
determine the degree of dot change.

4.7

Fig. 4.2
= Grayscale as read on original
positive.
= Grayscale as read on print.
100
87
75
63
56
43
34
31
24
21
19
12
8
5
3
2
0

Stencil (a)
Grayscale % at each step

Research conducted by the University of Wales

involved printing a solvent-based ink through
various combinations of direct emulsion stencils,
with a capillary stencil used as a control. The
results showed that a 1,1 coating technique
produced a 25% dot gain at the midtone (50% dot
value, while a 1,3,1,1 coating technique gave a
dot gain value of just 5% at the 50% dot. (The
1,3,1,1 coating technique produces a much flatter
stencil profile than the 1,1 coating technique.) By
comparison, the capillary film stencil produced a
print which exhibited significantly lower dot gain
throughout the tonal range.

The readings showed that stencil (a) reproduced

the dots more accurately with a more faithful
reproduction of the tonal values of the original
image. Stencil (b) suffered from severe ink
spreading and produced a marked dot change in
the brightest highlights, midtones and shadow
areas. In a 4-colour print, this would have led to
marked colour and tonal shifts.

Grayscale step number

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

100
87
75
63
56
43
34
31
24
21
19
12
8
5
3
2
0

With direct emulsions, the type of emulsion and

its chemical properties, number of coatings and
coating technique, coating trough profile,
position of the coated screen during drying and
the mesh count and structure are the main
factors determining stencil flatness. As a general
rule, the higher the solids content of the
emulsion, the less it will shrink on drying and
the flatter the surface. To get the print side of
the screen even flatter one or two coats can be
applied to the dried surface and then dried,
although this will add to the production time.
The flatness of capillary film stencils will be
determined by the mounting technique and
level of exposure under exposure can cause
shrinkback.

Stencil (b)
Grayscale % at each step

Recent research proves that stencil coating both

type and quality has a major influence on the
amount of dot gain exhibited throughout the tonal
range of a finished print.

Stencil flatness The flatness of the print side of

the screen will dictate the printed edge definition
and will have an effect on dot gain (see Stencil
Coating and Dot Gain). The pertinent factors
concerning how to achieve a flat stencil profile
will depend upon the type of stencil system you
are using:

The mounting technique is also an important

factor in achieving flat stencils with indirect
stencil systems. The backing sheet will generally
maintain a uniform stencil profile even if the
stencil is underexposed. However,
underexposure should be avoided as it will
produce weak edges that will gradually
deteriorate during the print run.

Exposing the stencil The first step before

exposure is to ensure a proper vacuum in the
exposure frame. You must then check that the
lamp is set at a distance from the exposure frame
of at least one and a half times the diagonal of the
glass area. The lamp should also be central to the
frame and the front of the lamp parallel to the
frame in the exposure position.
Exposure times can be affected by the lamp
output, the bulb type, the age of the bulb, the
distance of the frame to the screen, the clarity of
the open area of positive, the cleanliness and
thickness of the vacuum frame glass, the emulsion
type and its coating technique and the mesh type
and colour. However, most of these can be kept
constant, though a light integrator should be used
to compensate for lamp output.
The correct exposure should be assessed using an
exposure calculator (Fig 4.3), preferably in the
following manner:
1 Place the exposure calculator on the screen,
checking its the right way up with film
emulsion to stencil emulsion.
2. Expose the screen for double the
manufacturers recommended time.
3. Wash the stencil out.

Table 4.6 shows the likelihood of producing a flat

stencil using the various types of stencil system.
Table 4.6.
Stencil Systems and Stencil Flatness

Grayscale step number

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

STENCIL
SYSTEM

LIKELIHOOD OF ACHIEVING
A FLAT STENCIL

Indirect

Excellent

Capillary

Excellent (under manufacturers

recommended conditions)

Direct
(diazo
sensitised)
emulsion

Unlikely to produce a flat profile

with normal handling
recommendations.
Good results are possible when
following special coating
techniques as described above.

Fig 4.3. Exposure

calculator (above)
and developed image
on test screen.

When you come to evaluate the exposed stencil,

there are a number of indicators which confirm
correct exposure:
Throughcure It is essential that on stencils for
water-based inks the emulsion is cured right
through to the back of the stencil. This ensures
that it will envelop the mesh to give maximum

4.8

CHAPTER 4

- Sericol Limited 1998

stencil adhesion during printing. An easy way to

assess this is to view the squeegee side of the
developed calculator at an angle of about 20 to
the surface, with a light behind the image. Judge
by the matt appearance of the surface, the
exposure time at which no emulsion has been
washed from the screen.

Projection Stencils

Essentially the screen-making techniques are

broadly the same, but with some subtle
differences.

Resolution Assess the calculator from the front

and judge at what exposure time your required
resolution is obtained. It may be necessary to
expose another stencil with your most demanding
artwork at the calculated exposure to ensure that
you obtain the resolution of that job.

General rules Whilst it is theoretically possible to

use film type stencil-making materials, in practice
only emulsions are used. It is not possible with
todays stencil technology to print water-based air
dried inks with stencils made on a projection
system.

Short exposure times Using the shortest

possible exposure time you can get away with is a
technique which is often used to turn stencils out
rapidly. However. it should only be used for
relatively short runs and never with stencils for
water-based inks.
It is surprising just how many stencil-making
shops use this technique, particularly for 4-colour
work with coarser line rulings for example, for
printing posters. In this case with four colours,
short runs and large screens meaning a large lamp
to frame distance and consequent long exposure
time a short exposure time is the only practical
way to keep up with screen demand..
Ideally, throughcure and resolution should be the
same, but there is always going to be a conflict if
they are not. You have to decide what kind of
compromise can be made. Reducing the stencil
build will reduce the difference between
resolution and throughcure, but will also reduce
the quality of the edge of the printed dot.
If you are using solvent-based or UV inks, or are
producing only short runs with water-based inks,
then you can lean more towards the resolution
exposure. If longer runs with water-based inks are
required, it may be necessary to accept a smaller
tonal range or reduced dot definition.

4.9

special fast exposing emulsions are used. In some

cases special diazo-sensitised emulsions can be
used for lower magnifications, but it is more
common that fast one pot emulsions are used.

Mesh selection Because of the output intensity of

projection systems only white mesh tends to be
used, as the dye of coloured mesh would
compete with the emulsion sensitisers. The same
mesh counts are used as with conventional
stencils. It is particularly important with projection
stencils that the mesh is properly degreased for
good stencil adhesion.
Projection units have been used for some time to
produce stencils for multi-sheet 4-colour posters.
However, they are now being used more often
with the finer halftone screen rulings used in point
of sale display work.
There are a number of manufacturers of projection
exposure equipment and a number of different
lens systems are available. All the modern
systems use the same bulb shaped UV source to
give as near to a point light source as possible.
The UV radiation passes through a condenser lens
system, through the positive and is then focused
on the screen using an objective lens. The
exposure systems tend to be defined by the
diameter of the condenser lens and hence the size
of positive and the focal length of the objective
lens.

Stencil making Because of light scatter between

the projection system and the screen, the lack of
an absolute point light source and the different
wavelengths of UV light focusing in different
planes, the dot produced on a stencil on a
projection system tends to have a slight halo,
which makes it bigger. It is possible to reduce the
exposure to reduce the halo, but this can lead to
undercutting of the stencil dot and delamination.
Reducing the stencil build can alleviate this
problem to some extent and thus durable stencils
are only likely to be made with a (1,1) or (2,2)
coating technique, both of which produce a stencil
build of only around 1 to 2 microns. Indeed,
poster printers often only use (1,0) which has no
stencil build at all, even on 120.34 mesh.

The specification will depend on the quality you

require, but generally the higher resolution
systems have longer focal lengths, which mean
longer projection system to screen distances and
longer exposures. Shorter focal lengths are often
used for poster work with higher magnifications
the higher the magnification, the longer the
projection system to screen distances. With these
large light source to screen distances (typically 6
metres) and the thickness of the lens, it is hardly
surprising that exposure times are long, unless

4.10

Inks and Colour Density

- Sericol Limited 1998

Ultimately, it is the appearance of the ink

deposit which determines whether your
4-colour halftone print is a success or
otherwise. All the work in the repro studio,
screen-making department and on the press
itself comes down to just one thing: controlling
the way in which the four process colours are
transferred to the substrate.
There are four main types of process inks
currently used for screen printing halftones.
Each ink is based on different components and
has different printing and drying characteristics.
For these reasons, individual inks have their
advantages and disadvantages. These will be
explored in this chapter.
The aim of 4-colour halftone printing is, like
every other type of commercial screen printing,
to reproduce an image or design which
satisfies the customers requirements. This
introduces the question of proofing: what is it,
precisely, that you are being asked to
reproduce? More often than not, it is a proof
rather than an original photograph or
illustration. It is necessary, therefore, to be able
to control the different types of inks to
produce a faithful reproduction, not of an
original image, but a customer-approved
Cromalin, Matchprint or other light-sensitive
proofing system instead. By applying the digital
repro techniques covered previously, it is
possible to manipulate the process to do just
that. This chapter goes on to explain this in
detail.

As mentioned previously, there are four main

types of 4-colour process screen printing inks for
graphics screen printing: Solvent-based jet/air
dried; Water-based jet/air dried; Conventional UV
curable; and Water-based UV curable. The system
that best suits you will depend upon a wide
range of different factors, such as the substrate
you are printing on to, the type of machinery you
are using, the desired quality of the finished print,
production budget and so on. Similarly, the type
and amount of volatile components in the
individual inks will have an influence on the
equipment and techniques used to perform the
printing and drying process.
To begin with, then, it makes sense to take a
detailed look at the four types of ink system

5.1

CHAPTER 5

a good adhesion range and product resistance,

unlimited screen stability and self-solvency and a
high gloss to matt range of finishes.

Solvent-Based Jet/Air Dried

This type of ink system contains: pigment,
additives, resins and solvent. The large solvent
content means that the inks will lose
approximately 75% of their build due to
evaporation.

5% PIGMENT
5% SOLVENT
5% ADDITIVES
20% RESIN

5% PIGMENT
5% ADDITIVES

65% WATER

45% REACTIVE
DILUENT OR
MONOMER

5% PIGMENT
5% ADDITIVES
15% RESINS

45% REACTIVE
RESIN OR
OLIGOMER

75% SOLVENTS

WET

DRY

Fig 5.2. The constituent parts of a water-based jet/air dried

ink and its build after curing.

WET

WET

DRY

Fig 5.1. The constituent parts of a solvent-based jet/air dried

ink and its build after curing.

The major advantage of this type of ink system is

that it is easy to use and commands a wide
adhesion range. It can be used with a wide
selection of solvent-resistant stencil products and
allows the use of coarser, more robust meshes.
On the downside, solvent-based jet/air dried ink
systems contribute to solvent emissions under
EPA regulations and are flammable. They can dryin when you are printing finer halftones and need
to be retarded, which reduces printing speed.
Drying speed limitations can also reduce
production speeds and the cost-effectiveness of
your operation. Also, the strong odour associated
with these inks can make for an unpleasant
working environment.

Water-based Jet/Air Dried Ink Systems

Replacing largely all solvents with water, this
type of ink system contains: pigment, solvent,
additives, resin and water. The heat used
during the drying process causes the inks to
lose approximately 70% of their build, due to
evaporation of the water and solvent content.

These inks can be thinned with water, making

them far more environmentally friendly than
solvent-based alternatives. The small solvent
content also means that they have very low odour.
Most importantly, perhaps, they produce
excellent quality halftone prints.
Balancing out these advantages are the inks more
limited adhesion range and the extra care
required when selecting suitable substrates they
may cause paper distortion. (see Table 5.1, Inks
and Substrates). Although better than solventbased inks, they may also suffer from some
drying-in on finer halftones and drying speed
limitations will, like those of solvent-based inks,
reduce production speeds.

Conventional UV Curable Ink Systems

Conventional UV ink systems contain: pigment,
additives, reactive diluent or monomer, reactive
resin or oligomer.
A major advantage of conventional UV curable
inks over jet/air dried ink systems is the lack of
drying in, even on the smallest dots this is
especially important when printing with indirect
stencils, as damage caused through the washing
down of the screen during printing is reduced.
The inks are easy to use and the UV curing
process allows the use of space saving
equipment. Being solvent-free they also have a
low odour. As well as being fast curing, they offer

DRY

FIG 5.3. The constituent parts of a conventional UV curable

ink and its build after curing.

As for drawbacks, the inks do not offer as wide an

adhesion range as solvent-based inks and are also
less flexible in comparison with solvent-based
inks. As the inks are based on acrylates, they have
an irritancy rating and must be handled with care.
Being a 100% solids system, it is essential to
exercise careful control over the ink weight: since
it is the relative sizes of the different coloured
halftone dots in relation to one another which
determines the appearance of the finished print,
quality 4-colour process printing is reliant on tight
film weight control. This is especially important
with conventional UV curable inks as they contain
little or no volatile component, relying solely on
reactive cross-linking under UV radiation in order
to dry. This means that the final ink film weight is
virtually identical to the initial ink deposit and ink
build is relatively high. Unless it is tightly
controlled, this high ink build will have a
detrimental influence on the appearance of the
finished print.

5.2

Water-based UV Curable Ink Systems

Water-based UV curable ink systems contain:
pigment. additives/initiators, reactive diluent or
monomer, reactive resin or oligomer and
approximately 40% water.
Offering the ultimate in terms of quality, waterbased UV curable inks are the first choice for fine
halftone work. They offer all the advantages of UV
curing, but without the high ink build associated
with them. They are water thinnable and washable
and can be used to produce posters for pasting
outdoors. They also offer infinite screen stability, a
low odour and fast curing, leading to higher
production speeds.
As with conventional UV curing inks, careful
handling is essential as water-based UV curable
inks also contain irritant acrylates. Like other
water-based inks, substrate choice is also a
potential problem area as the inks water content
can cause paper to distort.

approves, as opposed to an original transparency,

print or illustration.
As explained previously, the size of the halftone
dots determine the colours of the final print and
this in turn will be affected by the dot
reproduction characteristics of the inks and press
you use. This is equally true of offset litho printing
as it is for screen printing.
For this reason, proofing systems were developed
to mimic the dot gain characteristics of litho
presses to give an accurate preview of what a
finished litho print will look like. However, the dot
gain characteristics of inks printed on an offset
press are very different to those of inks printed on
a screen printing press. Further, the dot gain
characteristics of different screen prints will vary
depending on:

Table 5.1. Inks and Substrates

INK TYPE
PAPER

BOARD

PLASTIC

Solvent-based
Jet/Air dried
inks

The general formulation

characteristics of solvent-based ink
systems means that they will not
distort papers to any great extent.
Any paper shrinkage or movement
is normally due to poor conditioning of the substrate prior to
printing and may be explained as a
loss of moisture in the heated
stage(s) of the jet air dryer.

Almost all boards are suitable for

use with solvent-based inks, but
particular attention should be paid
to edge chipping and delamination
when guillotining, platen-cutting or
folding/creasing especially on
highly coated boards.
Also more highly coated boards
may suffer from rub/scuff problems
when using solvent-based inks.

See relevant product

information sheets for specific
recommendations, and pay
particular attention to the
resistance properties required
in the end application.

Water-based
Air/Jet dried
inks

Water replaces most or all of the

solvent found in solvent-based
systems, so paper selection is more
critical. As a guide, 150 gsm is the
minimum weight recommended to
avoid paper distortion.To avoid
distortion, paper should be cut in
the long grain direction that is,
with the grain of the paper running
parallel to the long edge of the
paper wherever possible. Preproduction tests are also essential.

See above

See above

Conventional
UV cured inks

Because of the mechanism involved

in the curing (drying) of UV inks,
prints using this type of system may
show a degree of shrinkage.
Whether or not this becomes a
problem is determined by the
weight of paper you have selected.
as well as how highly the inks are
cured. In addition to running these
inks at their optimum cure speed to
minimise shrinkage, you should
treat 130 gsm as the minimum
recommended weight for this type
of ink system.As with all inks, preproduction tests are essential.

Since UV curing ink is a 100% solids

system, film thickness is high, so
you must pay particular attention to
the print finishing process.The
possible brittleness of the UV ink
film, coupled with the quality and
nature of the board liner, means
that cutting and creasing tests
should be conducted when using a
previously untested ink/board
combination.

Due to the high film thicknesses involved, there will be a

tendency for prints made with
UV curing inks on plastic
substrates to show poor flexibility particularly when using
lighter weight plastics, printing
heavy coverage jobs or double
sided work. As a general guide,
it is not advisable to print
double sided work on plastics
(for example PVC) thinner than
240 microns.

Water-based
UV cured inks

As with air drying inks, the

inclusion of water as the primary
thinner/diluent means that paper
choice is critical. As a general rule,
you should not print papers of less
than 150 gsm with this type of ink
system. If required, you can use a
low water content base-coat colour
to minimise distortion on lighter
weight papers or heavy coverage
jobs. These work by partially
sealing the paper, peventing
absorption of excessive quantities
of water.

Because these inks contain

35%45% water, the film thickness
achieved when using water-based
UV systems are significantly lower
than conventional UV inks.
However, even though prints will
be more flexible as a result,
finishing is still an important
consideration. Care should be
exercised when using a previously
untested board/ink combination
especially when cutting and/or
creasing.

Although water-based UV
curable inks are more flexible
than conventional UV inks
(because of the lower film
weights involved) it is still
advisable to use a minimum
substrate thickness of 240
microns for double sided work.

the screen ink

the press set up
the stencil system
the substrate

5% PIGMENT
5% ADDITIVES/
INITIATORS

The challenge for the screen printer, therefore, is

to print the screen inks in such a way that they
mimic the halftone dot reproduction figures for
the proof. This is achieved by adjusting the
characteristics of the halftone dots and often the
colour values on the film separations at the repro
stage. The amount of adjustment required will
depend on many factors such as the ink system,
used for printing the actual job, stencil thickness,
squeegee angle, type and pressure.

35% REACTIVE
DILUENT OR
MONOMER
45% REACTIVE
RESIN OR
OLIGOMER
40% WATER

WET

DRY

Fig 5.4. The constituent parts of a water-based UV curable ink

and its build after curing.

Colour Density and Proofing

For most advertising work, the finished print will
contain text, photographs or illustrations, maybe
areas of solid colour, and so on. All of these
elements are brought together in a page layout
program at the repro stage, film separations are
run out and a contact proof produced from the
film positives. It is this proof which the customer

5.3

Table 5.2 (Ink systems and dot gain) shows

examples of the dot gain characteristics for a proof
(Cromalin, Matchprint and so on) and those for
the major screen ink systems. It is immediately
obvious that, in order to match the depth and
brightness of colour found on the proof, specific
amounts of dot gain would need to be
introduced in the midtone areas of the film
positives for each of the different screen inks.

SUBSTRATE

For further information, see the relevant product information sheets. The recommendations, included in the sheets, pay
particular attention to the resistance properties required in the end application.

5.4

CHAPTER 5

Table 5.2. The figures shown were obtained from tests conducted within Sericol Technical Services.
Actual % Dot Reproduced on Print vs Ink Type
Solvent-based
Jet/Air Dry

Conventional UV

Water-based
Jet/Air Dry

Water-based UV

Proof
(Cromalin etc)

10

14

11

17

20

16

27

16

23

30

30

36

38

32

33

41

40

50

50

44

44

53

50

65

62

53

54

67

60

73

70

65

65

72

70

80

80

73

74

79

80

86

85

83

83

85

90

93

94

92

92

93

100

10

100

100

100

100

Halftone reproduction characteristics

for the proof
Figure 5.5 (Gradation curve for the proofing
system) shows the gradation curve for an industry
standard proofing system. Notice the large
amount of dot gain in the midtone areas. To
reproduce the appearance of the proof print, you
must reproduce this gradation curve on the colour
separations for your chosen screen ink.

% dot printed

80

80
60
40
20
0

20

40
60
theoretical % dot

REFERENCE

80

100

PROOF

60

Fig 5.6. Gradation curve for solvent-based jet/air dried inks.

40

Due to the mechanism by which solvent-based

inks dry (that is, solvent evaporation) there is a
tendency for the ink to dry into the mesh during
the run, especially in fine tone or highlight areas.
The gradation curve for this type of ink system,
above, shows a significant amount of dot loss
below the 20% halftone. This can be a major
problem when printing skin tones and other areas
where 10%-20% halftone dots predominate.

20
0

20

40
60
theoretical % dot

REFERENCE

80

PROOF

Fig 5.5. Gradation curve for the proofing system.

5.5

100

100

100

From the figures in Table 5.2, it is clear that the

dot reproduction values for solvent-based jet/air
dried inks begin to approximate closely with those
for the proof at around the 40% dot value. It
would be prudent, therefore, to adjust all the
tones below 40% on the film positives to
accommodate the dot loss caused by the drying in
process. The level of dot gain you (or the repro
house) build in should be sufficient to bring the
gradation curve in line with that of the proof (see
figure 5.5).

FINGERPRINTING

Solvent-based jet/air dried ink systems

% dot printed

- Sericol Limited 1998

Theoretical % Dot
(on Film Positive)

The figures in Table 5.2 are merely

examples of typical printed halftone
dot percentages for the different
types of screen printing process inks.
Before you specify any adjustments to
your separated film positives, it is
vital that you fingerprint the print
process. This involves printing a
control strip consisting of specific
and known halftone areas using the
mesh, ink and machine combination
you will be using to produce the final
job. You can then take densitometer
readings from the printed area and
compare them with readings taken
from the proof supplied by the client
or repro house. This will give you the
necessary amount of dot gain that
must be built in to your film
positives. (Alternatively, use the
Moir and Dot Resolution Test
positives included in this manual
prior to producing your first
separations.)

Water-based jet/air dried ink systems

100
80
% dot printed

You can compensate for the drying in process by

using retarders or detail thinners, but you run the
risk of creating other problems, such as blocking
or offsetting.

60
40
20
0

20

40
60
theoretical % dot

REFERENCE

80

100

PROOF

Fig 5.7. Gradation curve for water-based jet/air dried inks.

As with the solvent-based system, there is some

printed dot loss in highlight areas. However,
unlike solvent-based inks, this type of ink system
reproduces the tonal areas on the mesh with a
good deal more accuracy and produces a more
accurate representation of the dot as it appears on
the positive. Nevertheless, the separations need
to be adjusted by boosting the halftone values
across the entire tonal range.

ACCURATE DOT REPRODUCTION

An ink which gives accurate dot reproduction
has advantages, as it gives a more
predictable and controllable result than an
ink which exhibits significant levels of dot
gain on printing. This makes it possible to
exercise far more control over how
adjustments to the film positives will affect
the final print. Bear in mind that dot gain will
vary from substrate-to-substrate, stencil-tostencil and press-to-press. It would be
counter-productive to try to formulate an ink
for all combinations of production
parameters. By using an ink which allows you
to reliably and accurately predict the effects
of any changes you make to the separations,
you can tailor the separations to any
combination of stencil, press or substrate
parameters. In other words, you control the
performance of the ink to suit whatever
machinery, stencil and substrate you are
using. If you alter any of these parameters,
you simply amend the separations
accordingly.

5.6

Water-based UV curable ink systems

100

100

80

80
% dot printed

% dot printed

Conventional UV curable ink systems

60
40
20
0

20

40
60
theoretical % dot

REFERENCE

80

100

PROOF

60
40
20
0

20

40
60
theoretical % dot

REFERENCE

80

100

PROOF

Fig 5.8. Gradation curve for conventional UV curable inks.

Fig 5.9. Gradation curve for water-based UV curable inks.

The primary consideration with this type of ink is

its high build characteristics.

The use of 35%-45% water, coupled with the

general production advantages of UV technology,
makes this type of ink system extremely userfriendly and capable of excellent dot reproduction.
Since the build of the printed ink film approaches
that produced using an evaporative ink system
(solvent-based jet/air dried and water-based jet/air
dried), the quality of the halftone dots printed in
subsequent layers is maintained unlike those
reproduced by conventional UV curable inks. This
further enhances the quality of the finished print.

If you look at the gradation curves for the

individual process colours (eg. Fig 5.8) you will
see that they closely follow that of the proof seen
earlier in Fig 5.5. However, the very nature of
4-colour process printing requires that the inks are
printed together, building up layers of ink on top
of one another. UV curable ink systems contain
little or no volatile component, so the cured ink
film weight is likely to be relatively high and,
unless tightly controlled, will have a dramatic
affect on the appearance of the printed halftone
dots.
In areas where dots are partially overlaid on one
another, there will be a tendency for the overprint
to spread. In areas where the dots are printed
between previously printed dots there is a
possibility that the dot will either underprint or not
print at all. This is especially noticeable when
printing the third and fourth colours. However,
this does not mean that conventional UV inks are
unsuited to producing quality 4-colour process
prints far from it, in fact. You can take advantage
of the many advantages of using UV inks and
produce a high standard of printing, provided you
take care to control the ink build.

5.7

The most important point to understand, is that

modern ink and repro technologies allow you
to control what the ink does, rather than the
ink controlling what you do.

A look at the gradation curve for water-based UV

curable inks shows that they accurately reproduce
the halftone dots on the positive. Only slight
alterations to the separations to move the curves
closer to that of the proof are required.
The very nature of water-based UV ink systems
means that press parameters such as, stencil
profile, squeegee pressure and snap distance
can vary slightly from colour-to-colour and from
job-to-job without unduly affecting the inks dot
reproduction characteristics. This makes it possible
to control how the inks behave with a much
greater degree of accuracy and consistency. In
other words, any adjustments you make to the
gradation curves are not complicated by the inks
performance you can accurately predict the
effects of any alterations to the separations, as you
dont have to worry about complicating factors,
such as drying in, dot spread, high ink build and
so on.

5.8

Printing Halftones

CHAPTER 6

- Sericol Limited 1998

The accurate reproduction of individual

halftone dots is central to successful 4-colour
process printing. By tailoring your separations
to the inks and substrates you are using, and
by paying particular attention to choice of
mesh, stencil and screen exposure, you can
control dot gain and increase your chances of
achieving a quality result. However, it is the
accuracy of the printing process itself which
will ultimately determine the appearance of the
finished print.

Machinery Qualities

This chapter looks at the prerequisites of a

suitable screen printing press for 4-colour
process printing, and gives useful pointers as
to how different press parameters influence the
accuracy of dot reproduction. As you will
discover, standardisation of these parameters is
the key to printing halftones.

consistent performance throughout the run

Generally speaking, the screen printing of halftone

designs requires the same skills and techniques as
standard screen printing, only at a higher level of
precision. The nature of halftone designs means
that there is a need for far tighter controls over
the various press variables especially when it
comes to those affecting ink weight and ink
spread. For instance, when printing solid colours,
excessive squeegee pressure may, at worst,
slightly reduce the quality of the final print;
whereas with a 4-colour process print, it would
increase dot gain causing obvious colour and
tonal shifts and produce misshapen dots
noticeably reducing the definition of the print.
Before looking at printing technique, however, it is
necessary to understand what you require from
the press itself.

Sericols experienced Technical Services

Team can provide support for all aspects
of specifying, installing and operating
screen printing machinery for 4-colour
process printing. If you are considering
the installation of a multi-colour machine,
Sericols early involvement at the planning
stage can help you to smooth the path of
installation and realise the full potential
of your investment.

6.1

For most screen printers, the choice of screen

printing machinery for 4-colour process work will
be determined by the machinery that they already
own. However, there are certain qualities which
any press must possess in order to produce
quality halftone prints. These include:
precise registration
precise adjustment of press settings

correct installation and maintenance

While the above qualities may seem obvious, it is

essential that you check just how accurate and
reliable your press really is before you tackle
halftone printing. (The same factors apply to any
new machinery you may be planning to install.)
Precise registration It is essential that you can
guarantee the precise alignment of each colour if
you are to reproduce an original image faithfully.
Pay particular attention to the systems used to
lock the screen or printing base once perfect
register has been achieved. Some machines
accept automated systems which alert the
operator in the event of mis-register.
Precise adjustment of press settings 4-colour
process printing requires a more precise approach
than general screen printing, which means that
the press must allow you to make fine and
accurate adjustments to squeegee angles,
pressure and speed; flood bar angles and
pressure; and snap distances. Most importantly, it
must allow you to guarantee the registration
accuracy.
Consistent performance throughout the
production run Once the correct press
parameters have been set, you must be able to
lock them into place and know that they will
remain the same throughout the entire production
run. For instance, check that squeegee pressure is
the same at the end of the stroke as it was at the
beginning. The machine must be free from
vibrations and the vacuum base must be perfectly
flat. Check the size of the holes in the vacuum
base and the strength of the vacuum: large holes
and a strong vacuum can cause marking on thin
substrates.

Correct installation and maintenance Whatever

machinery you use, correct installation and
maintenance can mean the difference between
success and failure. Is the press absolutely level?
Is the flooring stable? Is the machinery protected
from vibrations caused by external sources
traffic and so on? Is the parallelism set up
precisely? Do you have the facility to control
ambient temperature, humidity and airborne
contamination? Do you have a regular
maintenance schedule? You may not have had to
consider these questions in the past, but to
guarantee the consistency of printing required to
produce 4-colour process work you must but be
able to answer all of them affirmatively.

SCREEN SELECTION
When selecting a set of screens for a 4colour process job, it is important to
ensure that the frames selected are:
all of the same mesh type and
appropriate thread count

The correct calibration of your printing press

should be carried out before you determine the
tonal range of the prints you can produce and the
amount of dot gain that needs to be compensated
for on your halftone positives. The following
variables all have an effect on dot gain.
Squeegees and flood bars The shore, profile,
angle, pressure and speed of the squeegee will
have a dramatic effect on the appearance of a
halftone print. While you need to experiment to
find the best combination for your own shop,
these general pointers have all been demonstrated
to improve the quality of 4-colour process
printing:

Angle Consistency is the key make sure that

the angle is the same throughout the production
run. The optimum angle will depend on the type
of ink system you are using, with a lower angle
tending to increase the weight of the ink deposit.
With conventional UV curable inks you may need
to use a higher angle to control ink build.

all of the same batch that is, all

stretched on the same date

Shore Harder squeegees tend to give better

definition print with squeegees of 70-80 shore,
depending on the ink system you are using. UV
inks require squeegees with a higher shore rating
compared with solvent-based inks. However, you
may need to use squeegees with a slightly lower
shore if you are printing on a cylinder press.

clean and dry - even though the ink may

have been removed from the screen from
the previous job with a suitable solvent, a
ghost image (usually of ink, but
sometimes from stencil residues) can
remain on the mesh. In this case, a ghost
image remover should be used to prevent
the ghost image being visible on the new
job.

The edge Unless the squeegee has a perfectly

straight edge, it cannot possibly exert equal
pressure over the width of the print. Variable
pressure will lead to variable ink density and
inaccurate dot reproduction. Check that the
squeegee has no waves or pits along the edge
and use a sharpener as often as is necessary to
ensure that the edge remains perfectly sharp and
straight.

all of the same tension with previously

used meshes this should be rechecked

Press Variables
As previous chapters have explained, the key to
successful 4-colour printing is the accurate
reproduction of individual halftone dots.
Unwanted dot gain has a marked effect on any
halftone print and will lead to tonal and colour
changes and lower definition. For these reasons, it
is necessary to calibrate your press in order to
print dots that are as similar as possible to those
on the film positives.

Pressure The golden rule when printing halftone

dots is to use the minimum squeegee pressure
required to provide good coverage. The actual
setting will depend upon the substrate you are
printing on and the size of the print. Larger sizes
require higher end pressure to get good pressure
in the centre of the print to overcome carriage
distortion. Some plastics and uncoated board
cannot be manufactured to the tight tolerances of
coated paper and board and have a greater
variation in their thickness across the sheet. These
types of substrates may require slightly greater

6.2

squeegee pressure to ensure even coverage

across the entire surface.
To determine the minimum pressure for each
substrate, produce a series of test prints, reducing
the squeegee pressure on subsequent prints until
the squeegee just fails to provide complete
coverage and the halftone dots are not perfectly
reproduced. Then raise the squeegee pressure
again until perfect coverage is achieved. Record
the setting and lock it into the press.
Setting a heavy squeegee pressure tends to force
more ink through the mesh, leading to a heavier
ink deposit. It may also act to spread the dots
causing exaggerated dot gain. Therefore, if you
find that the ink is not passing easily through the
mesh openings, dont be tempted to solve the
problem by increasing squeegee pressure. Look
instead at altering the ink viscosity, squeegee
durometer and the squeegee angle.

with ink. The idea is to prevent the ink from

drying-in between squeegee strokes, whilst at the
same time achieving a very light ink deposit on
the substrate.

Pressure Use the minimum pressure to provide

an even flood coat. Too much pressure will force
too much ink into the mesh openings, resulting in
a heavier ink deposit. It can also damage the
screen fabric itself, especially if the flood bar has
not been dressed correctly.
Profile For the reasons outlined above, very thin
metal flood bars are preferable to bars with a
thicker, rounded profile.
Speed See comments for squeegee speed above

Profile A sharp, straight profile is generally

recommended, as rounded or bevelled squeegees
tend to deposit heavier ink weights. However, be
careful not to use overly thin blades as they may
bend. This will also result in a heavy ink deposit.

Alignment Mis-alignment of the flood bar will

cause more ink to be deposited in some areas of
the print than others. Check that the flood bar is
straight and has been fitted correctly.
Angle The flood bar angle affects the thickness
of the ink deposit in the same way as the angle of
the squeegee the lower the angle, the heavier
the ink deposit. For 4-colour process printing, a
higher angle is recommended. This ensures that
mesh openings are merely fed rather than filled

6.3

Static eliminators Static electricity is a major

problem, especially when printing halftones on to
plastic substrates. It causes the substrate to stick
together and to the bottom of the screen; attracts
dust particles to the surface of the substrate,
which then attach themselves to the underside of
the screen, compromising ink transfer and the
accuracy of dot reproduction; and leads to feeding
problems on automatic presses, slowing down
production speeds.
Static can be controlled by using static eliminators.
It can also be reduced by controlling the humidity
of the printshop environment (more static is
generated in conditions of low humidity) and by
lowering off-contact distances and squeegee
pressure this reduces the amount of friction
between the squeegee and the screen, which in
turn reduces the amount of static build up.

The Drying Process

The type of drying/curing process you use will
depend upon the type of ink system and substrate
you have chosen. Nevertheless, the speed and
efficiency of the drying/curing process will affect
both the registration of the print and the amount
of dot gain.

Speed The slower the squeegee stroke, the

more ink you will deposit a major consideration
when you are seeking to minimise the ink build
with conventional UV curable inks.

Using a flood stroke helps to minimise the risk of

evaporative inks drying into the mesh during
production (UV inks do not suffer from drying in
as they contain no volatile components and
require intense UV radiation to cure). Flood bar set
up, therefore, can have an important influence on
the finished print. Again, these general pointers
are geared towards achieving the best quality 4colour process prints:

off-contact should be set at about 1.5 mm. The

maximum off-contact you should use is 3 mm.

Fig 6.1. Both prints were produced using the same screens.
Whilst the left print closely matches the contract proof, the
right hand print shows the results of using the wrong
squeegee profile, squeegee angle and pressure.

Snap distance A high off-contact setting

compromises registration, colour fidelity and
definition. It requires greater squeegee pressure
to bring the mesh into contact with the substrate,
causing a heavier ink weight deposit, a larger
degree of dot gain and the possibility of
premature mesh and stencil breakdown especially
at edges of the print where the mesh deflection
angle relative to the frame are greatest. High offcontact can also lead to smearing, bubbles and
mesh marks on the print. Bear in mind, also, that
the more the mesh is stretched to make contact
with the substrate, the greater is the likelihood of
print distortion. For these reasons, select the
lowest possible off-contact settings. As a guide,

The best option is to dry the print as soon after it

has been printed as possible. The more time the
wet ink is lying on the substrate, the more it will
spread and the greater the amount of dot gain.
This problem is exacerbated by the use of porous
substrates, which facilitate the spreading process.

Fig 6.2. UV print (left) has faithfully reproduced the film

positive with clean, sharp dots. The solvent-based ink print
(right) has considerable dot gain, with dramatic effects on
tonal values.

Traditional evaporative drying systems demand a

compromise between controlling dot gain and
maintaining close registration. Air drying is slower
than jet air drying systems, so the dots are likely
to gain. The heat used in jet air drying systems
speeds up the drying process, reducing dot gain,
but can distort some substrates. This can lead to
registration problems: after each colour is dried,
the substrate is distorted slightly, making it more
difficult to register the following colour. Ensuring
that there is a strong air movement within the
dryer can help to alleviate this particular problem.
UV curing systems do not suffer from either of
these problems providing there is adequate
cooling of the UV lamps because curing speeds
are fast and there is little heat involved, so
substrate distortion is minimal.

As with all the other printing and drying variables,

it is essential to be consistent in the amount of
time that elapses between printing and
drying/curing and the method and speed of
drying used.
The speed at which a UV ink can be cured is one
of its prime advantages over standard,
evaporative screen inks. UV ink contains
photosensitive resins which cross-link when they
are exposed to UV radiation. This process happens
within fractions of a second and helps the printed
halftone dots to hold their shape without
spreading even on porous substrates.

6.4

The Sericol Support Offer

- Sericol Limited 1998

To achieve good quality halftone screen

printing precise control over all the pre-press
and production variables is a necessity. Whilst
techniques such as those encompassed by
the digital repro process can be used to
effect a dramatic improvement in the quality,
efficiency and cost-effectiveness of your
operation, they can also stretch the abilities of
even the most experienced printers.
Sericol has always recognised the need for
providing technical information and advice,
plus hands-on support to its customers. The
companys experience and knowledge in the
field of 4-colour process printing is unequalled
and Sericol continues to maintain its position
at the forefront of the latest technological
developments and new working practices. By
treating Sericol as a member of your own team,
you have the opportunity to tap into the vast
range of resources which the company can
offer.
This chapter outlines the Sericol support offer
taking in everything from field support and
Project Conversion Teams to a state-of-the-art
screen stretching service and advice on current
environmental regulations.

Technical Field Support

CHAPTER 7

knowledge of how the digital pre-press process

relates to the finished screen print enables it to
show you how to achieve the best possible results
using the most up-to-date methods available.

Halftone screen printing technology continues to

develop at a rapid pace. Similarly, the knowledge
and experience of the Technical Services team
continues to expand with every introduction of
new technology. Sericol is committed to
identifying the technical requirements needed for
ink and stencil systems following each new
advance. By constantly staying abreast of change
in this way, the Technical Services Department
seeks to guarantee that it always provides the
best customer support available today.
Fig 7.1. Manipulation of images at the pre-press stage.

Stencil and mesh selection Correct mesh and

stencil selection are critical factors in achieving
quality reproduction. Sericols Technical Services
team can, on request, undertake on-site testing to
optimise the particular mesh/stencil combination
you are using. In practice, this represents a big
step towards achieving the quality of results your
customers will expect.

Whether you are a newcomer or an experienced

halftone printer, the Sericol Technical Services
team can make all the difference to the success of
your 4-colour process printing operation. The
expertise gained through handling all manner of
enquiries regarding halftone printing from all over
the world enables the team to assist customers
with every aspect of the process.
Pre-press The Technical Services and Imaging
Division teams can provide expert advice on
origination and scanning helping you to tailor
digital images and files to the screen printing
process. Similarly, whether you handle colour
separation in-house or use an outside repro
house, the team can help you to achieve the
optimum results for the specific screen ink system
you are using. On-site specialised support
includes assistance and advice on the use of all
the major page layout and image manipulation
software including Quark Xpress and Adobe
Photoshop. In short, the teams specific

7.1

Ink and substrate selection As a leading

producer of 4-colour screen ink systems for all
types of substrates and applications, Sericol has
amassed a wealth of experience in the area of ink
formulation. As a result, the chemists and printers
employed by the Technical Services Department
have the knowledge and expertise required to
provide a comprehensive on-site support service
to customers, whatever the application.

Project Conversion Teams

The installation of a multi-colour machine is
probably the single largest financial commitment
that any screen printer is likely to undertake in an
attempt to significantly enhance both productivity
and capacity. It is essential, therefore, to fully
realise the potential of such a major investment.
This can be achieved through a partnership
approach, based on careful and methodical
planning.
Sericols early involvement and commitment in
the development of ink technologies for both 2colour and 4-colour in-line presses has provided
unrivalled experience in supporting the successful
commissioning and use of these machines within
the production environment. For an installation to
be successful, however, there needs to be clear
communication and close co-operation between
you, the printer, and Sericol long before the
machine is due for delivery. Sericols successful
involvement in installations has proved that the
setting up of a dedicated Project Conversion Team
at an early stage (prior to the machine being
delivered) is absolutely vital.

Fig 7.2 Sericols Technical Service staff can assist you to

achieve optimum stencil making parameters.

Forming a team A Project Conversion Team

comprises nominated key personnel from Sericol
and your company. To begin with, the most
suitable people to be included in the team are

identified and nominated. From your perspective,

these team members should include both key
printshop and stencil area personnel, sponsored
by the management. Sericol will provide a
chemist, application technician and a graphic and
stencil products representative.
Pre-installation planning The first task is to
review and assess the type of work which you
plan to produce. This will ensure that the
optimum inks and drying system are selected to
match your future production needs.
Next, the team will identify any necessary training
needs. Sericols advanced training facilities can be
used to enhance existing skills in readiness for the
arrival of the machine (see Training Options, page
7.3).
With the necessary training organised, it is time
for the phased introduction into production of
both ink and stencil products on your existing
machinery. This ensures that both print and
screen-making departments are fully trained and
proficient in the use of the products, before the
new machine arrives.
A final assessment is conducted to ensure that
both ink and stencil areas are in full production
with the relevant products. The assessment will
indicate whether or not the production team is
fully conversant with the products. Provided that
this is shown to be the case, the team can then
focus on the commissioning of the machine itself.
Installation planning Multi-colour machines
require a longer installation period simply because
of their size and complexity. The trained
production team must concentrate on satisfying
themselves that the machine is operating
satisfactorily. Once the machine is commissioned,
ink trials can commence. Experience has shown
that it is very important for the Project Conversion
Team to attend each of these trials.
At the end of each trial, Sericol conducts a formal
review meeting involving the entire Project
Conversion Team. These meetings are designed to
facilitate the discussion of results to date and
provide an opportunity to co-ordinate any future
initiatives.
Before the trials are signed off, you should aim to
achieve the successful completion of a commercial
production run on paper, board and PVC.

7.2

Training Options
The growth of 4-colour process printing is a good
example of how screen printers have had to adapt
to change, in order to meet the technical and
quality demands of todays customer. The current
climate of change means that you must look for
greater flexibility and productivity from your
workforce in order to remain competitive. Without
doubt, the organisations that gain their
employees commitment and manage to tap their
capacity to learn and develop essential skills in
key areas will build a competitive advantage. For
this reason, screen printing companies need to
become learning organisations, where
change is viewed as an opportunity. Put
simply, training is now an organisational
necessity.
Appropriate
training is
particularly
relevant in the
area of 4-colour
process
printing, as the
process has
become very
specialised with
the introduction
of alternative
screen inks and
new digital
technologies.
Nevertheless,
there are still many organisations that have failed
to keep pace with these changes and, as a result,
continue to tackle a series of costly and timeconsuming production problems in order to
attain a reasonable quality result. To avoid these
sorts of problems, it is essential that your
workforce possesses a thorough understanding
and practical appreciation of each of the key
stages involved within the 4-colour process
production. It is no longer appropriate for only a
small number of select individuals to have an indepth knowledge of the process, while the
majority have only a superficial understanding.
However, building a knowledge-based workforce
takes time. Most production managers are only
too well aware of the difficulties involved in
recruiting suitably qualified and experienced staff.

7.3

It makes sense, therefore, to start taking

responsibility for developing the knowledge and
skills of your existing staff.
Sericols International Training Centre enjoys a
world-wide reputation for training excellence. It
provides a comprehensive range of training and
development courses, specifically designed to
meet the varied needs of the modern printshop.
Apart from the inclusion of 4-colour process
printing elements in most of the standard courses,
the Centre has developed a two-tier approach to
training in this increasingly specialised area (see
Course Contents).
Each course is
designed not only to
enhance knowledge,
but also to provide
new insights into how
4-colour process
printing can be applied
and what can
be achieved.
Above all,
however, they
deliver the
practical skills
which are
essential for
any printshop
hoping to
produce
quality
halftone prints.
In addition to
the standard
courses
referred to
above, special
programmes
can be drawn
up to meet a
companys
own needs.
Each year, Sericol helps many printshops to
achieve specific 4-colour training objectives
through these bespoke training courses. Such
courses can be conducted at Sericols International
Training Centre or, if appropriate, in-house.

COURSE CONTENTS
Sericols International Training Centre operates a two-tier approach to 4-colour process
printing training.
COURSE ONE This three day course imparts the knowledge and skills required to assist in the
standardised reproduction of 4-colour process printing. It provides a detailed introduction to
the 4-colour process, plus comprehensive training in all aspects of meshes, stencils,
proofing systems, screen inks and printing techniques.
COURSE TWO concentrates on pre-press, and scanning in particular. The three day course is
designed to improve your communication with scanner operators through clear interpretation
of both visual and measured information obtained from images reproduced by 4-colour
process screen printing.
The subject areas taken in by each course, plus a summary of the benefits offered by the
courses are shown below

COURSE ONE THE ESSENTIALS

OF

4-COLOUR PROCESS PRINTING

FOR

GRAPHIC APPLICATIONS

BENEFITS
EAS
SUBJECT AR
cess
4-colour pro
Theory of
n
Originatio
Moir
king
Stencil ma
roduction
rayscale rep
g
e
n
to
lf
a
H

ossible dot
Smallest p
Proofing
n inks
rocess scree
p
r
u
lo
o
-c
4

ng
rocess printi
4-colour p

An understanding of the most appropriate screen rulings for

different applications.
Knowledge of halftone screen angle selection for minimum
moir and procedures for determining screen ruling and
separation angles suitable for screen printing.
An understanding of trichromatic ink density readings
suitable for screen printing.
Awareness of proofing techniques their advantages and
limitations for screen printing.

An appreciation of the qualities offered by technically

advanced mesh fabric, stencil systems and ink drying systems.
Knowledge of the processing steps taken to produce quality 4-colour process reproductions.

COURSE

TWO

4-COLOUR SCANNING SPECIFICATIONS

FOR

GRAPHIC SCREEN PRINTING

BENEFITS
EAS
SUBJECT AR
hics
Reprograp
Pre-press
er
The scann
ne
The halfto
tionship
alftone rela
/h
sh
e
m
e
Th
g parameters
Establishin
Dot gain
Proofing
r
cial 4-colou
Use of spe
Testforme
tions
and specifica
Standards
n
o
ti
f specifica
Benefits o

Knowledge of the terminology used with 4-colour

reproduction.
An awareness of the technology and terminology associated
with scanners.
An understanding of the influence of screen printing
variables and recognition of standard pre-press and print
procedures.
Confidence in the ability to analyse results and to
communicate these effectively at all stages of 4-colour
process printing.

7.4

CHAPTER 7

Screen Stretching

- Sericol Limited 1998

In todays 4-colour process printing market,

demands on increasing quality and registration are
pushing the technology of screen stretching to
new heights. This increased requirement for
accuracy, together with the sophistication and
expense of modern equipment, has contributed to
a noticeable decline in the number of screen
printers who re-stretch their own screens.

Sericol uses pneumatic stretching systems, which

allow the mesh to be stretched and tensioned
simultaneously in both directions. This offers
greater control over the mesh stretching process
and a subsequent improvement in the
performance of the fabric. In addition, Saati Top
10 stretching clamps are used to allow the fabric
to be tensioned off the surface of the frame,
ensuring the correct elongation warp and weft.

In response to this industry trend, Sericol has

implemented a continuous reinvestment
programme in its screen stretching service, across
all nine of its UK Customer Service Centres.

Fig 7.4. Correctly calibrated gauges ensure consistently

tensioned mesh.

Fig 7.3. Sericol uses the latest pneumatic stretchers at all

service centres.

As the sole UK distributor of Saati fabrics, Sericol

has helped to establish Saatilene Hi-Tech
monofilament polyester as an industry standard.
The products popularity stems from its renowned
climactic stability, excellent screen performance
and memory of elongation. However, even the
best quality mesh requires precise stretching, as
the quality of the stretch has an important
influence on the final results and the workable
screen tension. Sericols screen stretching service
is geared to do just that. Its aim: to meet and
surpass the needs of the modern, 4-colour
process screen printer.
While mechanical high volume screen stretching
systems have serviced the industry well for many
years, the performance of the latest hi-tech fabrics
is somewhat limited by such equipment. Instead,

7.5

Spring or dead weight gauges are used to

monitor screens tensions. Their sensitivity
demands great care and careful use, and accuracy
can only be maintained through regular calibration
Sericol self-calibrates all tension meters in its
screen stretching departments on a daily basis.

HIGH TENSIONS?
Sericols experience in this area of the
screen printing process has revealed that,
contrary to popular belief, high screen
tension is not the only way to ensure
precise registration. Like so many other
variables in 4-colour process screen
printing, consistency of tensioning is the
priority. Indeed, overly high tensions, which
exceed manufacturers recommended
tensions (and the elasticity of the fabric), are
likely to result in varied performance and
inconsistency on the press. Hence, the
importance of using a precise screen
stretching service in order to ensure the
quality of finished results.

Health Safety and Environmental

Advice

working environment and health and safety

training.

Health, safety and environmental regulations have

been tightened considerably over recent years and
all the indications suggest that new legislation will
seek to enforce regulations even more rigorously
in the future. Due to the nature of some of the
materials and processes used during the screen
printing of 4-colour work, it is imperative that
every screen printer is aware of the relevant
regulations and understands the practical
implications of implementing appropriate working
practices.

COSHH assessment Environmental Services can

undertake a review of all the activities and
materials used in your printing operation, to
determine the measures necessary to control any
substance which is hazardous to health. A
subsequent report would include
recommendations concerning measures required
to control exposure to materials which may be
classed as hazardous. Measurement of the
working environment provides an accurate
assessment of the potential risks to the workforce.

The cost of failure to comply with regulations can

be severe not only in terms of substantial
financial penalties, but also in a loss of business.
Customers, in response to public concerns, have
themselves become far more aware of health,
safety and environmental issues. Increasingly,
customers are unwilling to purchase goods and
services from companies who fail to comply with
accepted standards.

COSHH monitoring A COSHH assessment is

followed by a monitoring procedure which checks
on any actions required as a result of the
assessment. Environmental Services will also
review any changes in processes or products
which have taken place since the assessment or
last monitoring visit.

Sericols Environmental Services Department is

able to help and advise on all aspects of health,
safety and environmental legislation. This support
can take many forms, ranging from safety surveys
of your printshop to health and safety training.
Safety surveys For companies who wish to gauge
their current standing with regard to health, safety
and environmental regulations, the obvious
starting point is for Environmental Services to
undertake a two-hour survey of the site. The
assessment is conducted free of charge and you
are provided with a report on any deficiencies
discovered during the visit, together with
informed and practical recommendations of how
to overcome them.
Management of Health and Safety Dependent
upon your managerial structure, Environmental
Services can act as your safety advisor, or work to
provide support to your existing safety staff. It can
assess the range of activities you carry out at your
site to determine the risks associated with the
individual processes and the various ways in
which they are currently conducted. This
assessment procedure can cover all relevant areas
of your business, ranging from the Control of
Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations
(COSHH) to manual handling and display screen
reviews. This can include measurement of the

COSHH measurement Where a company already

undertakes assessment and monitoring, there is
still the need to measure the working
environment. Screen printing inks and solvents
are complex mixtures requiring the use of
sophisticated sampling pumps for meaningful
results. Simple equipment, such as Draeger and
Gastec pumps, should only be used as an
intermediary check that the working environment
remains satisfactory between full assessment and
monitoring studies.
To ensure accurate sampling of the working
environment and the subsequent analysis of the
samples, Environmental Services uses finely
calibrated sampling pumps which, together with
specially packed sampling tubes, are capable of
capturing the full range of organic solvents used in
the industry. The complex mixtures used can be
fully analysed using Automatic Thermal
Desorption Gas Chromatography that can measure
the organic solvents in concentrations of less then
one part per million. Accuracy is important, as
these results will be viewed by the Factory
Inspectorate.
Manual handling review As in any production
environment, many activities in the screen
printing process involve manual handling. It is the
source of most accidents and lost time. The
Environmental Services review covers all the
operations concerned and highlights where action

7.6

is required. Proper training can be provided,

which will help to improve performance and
profitability.

Local authority environmental process

applications Where a company uses more than
5000 kg of organic solvent per annum, it will
require an authorisation under the Environmental
Protection Act. Environmental Services can assist
with the provision of all of the relevant
information to the authorities on the quantity of
organic solvent consumed, or undertake the entire
application on your behalf. In many cases, advice
can be given on how to avoid authorisation,
together with assistance in the submission of the
application.

An essential part of any safety management system is

structured training

Automatic Thermal Desorption Gas Chromatography

Display screen review The increased use of

digital technology means that more personnel are
using computers whether it be in the art studio,
pre-press area or stock handling department. A
review of these activities is essential and includes
a formalised report which sets out the action
required by the employer to comply with legal
obligations with regard to electronic display
equipment.

Environmental reviews It is not only the

authorities who are demanding compliance with
strict environmental regulations: customers are
also requiring confirmation that the products
supplied and the processes used to produce them
have been examined from an environmental
standpoint.
Specialised reports can be prepared dealing with
all aspects of emissions to the atmosphere, water
courses and land, as well as other activities which
impact upon the environment. These reviews are
prepared following a site inspection.

7.7

Waste collection and disposal is now an

important issue for all users of screen printing inks
and allied chemicals. A large proportion of waste
ink and solvent is classified as hazardous, in which
case it must be managed as Special Waste.
Empty ink containers and contaminated wipes are
also considered Special Waste and must be
managed in the appropriate manner.
Failure to dispose of such materials in the correct
way can lead to prosecution under the Control of
Pollution or Environmental Protection Acts. As the
generator of the waste, you are responsible for its
correct disposal. Throwing it in the nearest skip or
pouring it down the drain does not satisfy that
requirement and is illegal. Environmental Services
can make arrangements for the collection and
legal disposal of any printing waste product.

Monitoring of health and safety issues (such as noise levels) is

part of the service.

Effluent assessment This assessment involves a

review of all the outlets to the mains sewage and
an assessment of the material entering the drains.
Its impact on the Trade Consent Licence is made
by measuring the Chemical Oxygen Demand,
settleable solids and acidity/alkalinity of the
effluent during the entire process. Estimates of
Consent Discharge Costs can be calculated and
Environmental Services will recommend changes
in working practices and product selection which
can help to minimise the charge.

Noise The level of noise within the production

environment can be monitored to ensure that
employees are not being subjected to excessive
levels. Depending upon the process and
equipment concerned, the noise study can involve
a comprehensive survey or simple noise checks in
specific areas.
Training An essential element of any safety
management system is structured training.
Companies that participate in the Environmental
Services programme of Health and Safety
Management can use these resources to
supplement their own training programmes. Short
courses on risk assessment, personal protective
equipment, manual handling, accident reporting
and understanding COSHH are available on-site.
Each course can be tailored to meet your specific
needs. Alternatively, Environmental Services
offers a one day course on the understanding of
Health and Safety issues at the Sericol
International Training Centre.

understanding of the health and safety

implications of the process. Thus, the
comprehensive range of services provided by
Sericol Environmental Services can play an
important role in maximising the success of your
own printing operation.

Effluent monitoring is undertaken to confirm that

Environmental Services recommendations have
been implemented and to provide evidence in
case of any dispute with the local water authority.
Sericols Environmental Service can advise on remedies to
conform with effluent regulations.

While 4-colour process screen printing is

dependent upon a trained and motivated
workforce, it is also essential that such a workforce
is available and is not absent from work as a result
of accidents or ill health caused by a lack of

7.8

Troubleshooting Guide

CHAPTER 8

However tightly you control the many variables which influence 4-colour process printing, there are
numerous production problems which can, and do, affect this type of work at one time or another. The
following table summarises the most common problems.
- Sericol Limited 1998

PROBLEM

POSSIBLE CAUSE

Moir/patterning

Primary Moir
Incorrect relationship
between screen ruling on
positives and thread count.
Incorrect halftone angles.
Secondary Moir
Although the positives may
not show moir when
positioned on the mesh,
the dots may set up
interference patterns when
printed over one another.

Screen print does not

match proof

8.1

Ink may be drying-in in

certain areas (for example,
the highlights).
Ink may be spreading in
certain areas (for example
shadows and midtones).
The tonal curves on the
positives are not correct for
the ink or print conditions
being used.
Exposure errors the
stencil may be incorrectly
exposed.
Wash-out problems the
stencil may be insufficiently
washed out.
The build of an ink may be
too high causing dots to
print incorrectly over one
another. This may lead to
bias changes.
General print conditions
have changed (for example,
squeegee/coater pressures,
snap, peel-off).
Substrate absorbency
more absorbent substrates
will cause dot spread and
possibly darkening of the
block area colours.
Wrong colour print order.

POSSIBLE SOLUTION
Use different halftone screen ruling or
choose alternative mesh count.
Select alternative halftone angles for
positives or stretch mesh at an angle
(for example, start with 5 mesh angle).
Select angles such that there is at least
30 difference between the darker, more
noticeable colours.
Positives may be pre-tested by
overlaying them on each other on a light
box and looking for interference.
Use detail thinner to retard the drying of
the ink and reduce drying-in problems.
Thin ink a little less, use harder squeegee
or increase stencil thickness.
Measure the coverage of the printed
dots on the control strip and compare to
the proof. Adjust the positives if
necessary.
Repeat exposure calculator procedure to
assess optimum exposure.

PROBLEM

POSSIBLE CAUSE

Mis-registration

Substrate effects
Nature of substrate
Storage/conditioning
Quality of substrate

Ink effects
Drying mechanism leading
to film shrinkage.
The main carrier in the ink
for example, solvent,
monomer or water
interacts with substrate.

Temperature effects
Excessive temperature in
dryers.
Dryer configuration not
compatible with ink type.

Check wash-out pressure and check for

loss of dot due to overexposure.
Take measures to reduce ink film
weight for example, use finer mesh,
harder squeegee, minimise pressures,
check the ink thinning.
Refer to your records and select correct
settings.

Measure size of printed dots with a

densitometer and amend the separations
to compensate for extra ink spread.

Check colour order all trichromatic inks

have some degree of opacity which
affect the appearance of the overpint
colours depending on colour order.

Mesh tensions
Tension of meshes not
equal from colour to colour.
Snap distances may vary
from colour to colour due
to poorly made or distorted
frames.
Frame may be wrong type
or profile for the mesh size
and tension required.

POSSIBLE SOLUTION
The manufacturer of the substrate and/or
the ink should be consulted on the
suitability of a substrate for use with a
particular ink or ink type.
Ensure that all papers and boards are
supplied at the manufacturers
recommended RH (relative humidity)
value. Incorrect storage of delivered
substrate may cause problems.
Inks which shrink substantially upon
drying/curing may cause problems when
trying to register successive colours.
Select substrate accordingly, particularly
with water-based UV and UV systems.
Substrates will move or distort if
insufficient consideration is given to
ink/substrate/dryer compatibility.
Some dryers may run at excessively high
temperatures (in the case of UV
systems). this often leads to distortion of
lower weight papers and temperature
sensitive plastics. Do everything possible
to minimise unnecessary heat and dwell
time in such dryers.
For some applications on certain
substrates, inks such as water-based UV
may require a little pre-drying prior to
curing. If this does not occur, water
trapped in the ink film and substrate will
cause gradual substrate distortion.
Always check the dryer configuration.
Always ensure that meshes and frames
are matched for tension, frame profile
and mesh age to ensure the best
possible chance of avoiding mis-register.
A tension meter is a useful tool to assist
in achieving this aim.

All information regarding the general applications, methods of use and fault finding for individual inks
will be found in the manufacturers product information sheets. It is advisable to consult this
information before using a new ink.

8.2

AZ of Terminology

- Sericol Limited 1998

Airbrush Small pencil-shaped spray gun that

sprays colour by means of compressed air.
Airbrushing is a method of retouching that may be
achieved electronically or conventionally. This
method enables creation of smooth, subtle tone
changes similar to continuous tone photographic
images.
Bit Contraction of binary digit. The smallest unit of
information used to store information on a
computer.
Bitmap graphics An image composed of
individual pixels. The colour value and position of
each pixel are described in bits and bytes of
computer memory. Because the position of each
pixel is individually described, it is considered
mapped.
Black printer Black separation added to cyan,
magenta and yellow to increase contrast by
making shadow areas darker.
Brightness The amount of light reflected from a
surface, regardless of the hue or saturation of
colour. Brightness is affected by the reflectance of
the paper.

GLOSSARY

Continuous tone An image consisting of gradient

tones.

Frame profile The shape of the steel or aluminium

section from which a frame is made.

Contrast (1) The difference in brightness between

two defined points in an image. (2) The difference
in brightness between the lightest and darkest
areas in an image. (3) The relation between the
maximum and minimum densities of an image.

GCR Gray Component Replacement method of

reducing CMY amounts that produce the gray
component in a colour, without changing the hue.

Cromalin A photographic proof made by

exposing the film separations one after another in
register. Generally used as a guide to how the
finished print will look.
DCS Abbreviation for Desktop Colour Separation,
an EPS data file which contains five files: four
colour files, one each for the CMYK data, and a
composite colour viewfile of the image.
Densitometer Instrument used for measuring the
transmission or reflection of light from an
illuminated material. A reflection densitometer is
used to measure proofs and ink laydown on
prints.
Diazo A photosensitive compound with which
stencil emulsions can be made light sensitive.

Byte Grouping of eight bits of stored information,

yielding 256 levels of data. In a colour system can
describe one out of 256 shades.

Digital file size A measure of the amount of data

occupied by a file in the computer memory.

Capillary film Pre-sensitised polymer based

photostencil film uniformly coated onto a
polyester base, adhered to the mesh prior to
exposure.

Dot gain The effect by which halftone dots are

enlarged during film replication and printing.

CLUT Colour Look-up Table. A two or three

dimensional array of values stored for specified
input-output relationships. When one input value
is known the system can automatically determine
the output value ie the system can find the
needed dot size for a given set of printing
conditions based on the stored gray level.
CMYK The process colours: Cyan, Magenta,
Yellow and Black. K is used to denote black (key)
to avoid confusion with blue.
Colour cast The predominance of a particular
colour which affects the whole image in the
original, proof or print.
Colour gamut The range of colours possible
within a colour system.

Dot The individual element of a halftone.

Dot loss The decrease in dot size during film

replication or printing. Its main effect is in the
highlights.
Dot shape The shape of the halftone dot which
can be round, elliptical, square or geometric.

Gradation Function in the scanner used to set the

distribution of colour throughout the tone range of
a picture.
Gray balance Combination of cyan, magenta and
yellow that result in a neutral gray. Matching the
gray balance of the scanner to that of the proof
and the press, enables accuracy of colours in the
reproduction.
Grayscale A scale of gray tones from white to
black, used to help analyse and optimise black
and white as well as colour reproductions.

Midtones Density values of an image between the

highlights and shadows. Midtones are dot areas
between approximately 40% to 60%.
Moir An undesirable interference pattern.
Caused by wrong halftone screen angles relative
to each other of the film separations. Incorrect
relationship of halftone screen angle to mesh
angle or incorrect screen ruling relative to mesh
count.
Pixels Smallest element of a digital image. The
contraction of the words picture element.

gsm Weight of paper or board in grammes per

metre.
Halftone An image reproduced with dots of
varying size but of uniform density. Creates the
illusion of continuous tone when viewed at the
appropriate distance.

Positive A film supporting an image in the

positive form as opposed to negative. Can also be
a transparent or translucent paper produced on a
digital printer.

Highlights The lightest portions of the original or

print. The highlight dot range in a print is from the
smallest printable dot to approximately 25%.

Posterization Graduated tones converted into a

specific number of steps.

Image Resolution The number of pixels per inch

in a digital image or the number of dots per inch
used by an output device. Can also be the number
of bits per pixel.
Imagesetter A device for outputting halftone
separations either by exposing conventional film
or by outputting finished separations on thermal
imaging film.
Interference pattern See moir.

Durometer An instrument to measure the

hardness of elastomeric or rubber materials such
as a squeegee blade. The unit of measurement is
degrees Shore.

Interpolation A method of adding pixels to

increase the resolution of a digital image. It works
by interpreting adjacent pixels and averaging out
the colours to decide the colour of the new pixel.
Some scanners use this method to obtain a higher
resolution than their optical capability.

Flood coater A blade which enables flooding of

the screen with ink prior to the print stroke.

Micron One thousandth of a millimetre.

Plain weave Mesh woven such that one thread

crosses over and under adjacent threads in both
warp and weft directions.

DPI Dots per inch a measure of resolution of an

output device.

EPS Encapsulated PostScript. A flexible graphic

format for storing object-oriented graphics,
bit-mapped, grayscale and RGB images.

Mesh count The number of threads per

centimetre. The higher the number, the finer the
weave and the lower the ink deposit.

LPI Lines per inch the number of rows of

halftone dots in an inch.
Matchprint See Cromalin

PostScript A page description language

developed by Adobe Systems, Inc., that describes
fonts, graphics and page layouts.
PPI Pixels per inch a measure of resolution of a
digital image.
Pre-press Generic term for all processes involved
in preparing an image for printing. Includes the
input, edit and output stages of repro as well as
screenmaking.
RAM An acronym for Random Access Memory,
the portion of a computers memory that
temporarily stores information while the computer
is on.
Register/Registration A position where all colours
in a full colour print fit exactly during overprint
and there is no obvious mis-alignment of colours.
Relative Humidity (RH) The amount of water
vapour in the atmosphere expressed as a
percentage.

RGB Abbreviation for the additive primaries Red,

Green and Blue, which are used in display
monitors, as opposed to the subtractive primaries
used in four colour process printing.
RIP Acronym for Raster Image Processor. A
hardware device or software emulator. Its job is to
convert PostScript data into a matrix of halftone
dots.
Scaling The enlargement or reduction of images
to alter size, before printing.
Scanner A device that views and records images
electronically for conversion to film separations.
Screen angle The position of rows of halftone
dots, represented in degrees. During output of
positives for reproduction, the dot arrangement of
each separation film is placed at a different angle
to the others to avoid interference (moir)
patterns between each of the colours.
Screen ruling Measurement of the number of dot
rows, in lines per inch or centimetre, of a halftone.
Screen stability The ability of an ink to print for a
prolonged period through all open areas of the
stencil, without drying-in.
Self-solvency The ability of the ink to re-dissolve
(or re-wet) dried-in areas of the stencil, following
a production break.
Separation films Films for each of the process
colours used to produce a print. Commonly, a set
of four separation films, cyan, magenta, yellow
and black are used.
Shadow dots The darkest areas of an image. In a
print, shadows are dots between 80% and 100%.
Sharpness The appearance of the edges of an
image. Sharp edges result in more apparent
detail. Unsharp edges result in an out of focus
image.
Snap distance/Off contact The gap between
screen frame and substrate that ensures release of
the mesh from the printed area of the substrate
after the passage of the squeegee.
Stencil emulsion A liquid polymeric emulsion
which after being photosensitised, is applied to
the screen, dried and processed. Exposure is
carried out on the mesh, hence the normal
terminology direct emulsion.

Substrate The material (paper, board, plastic, etc.)

upon which a print is to be made.
Tension meter A device that measures, in
newtons, the tightness of a stretched mesh on a
printing frame.
TIFF Acronym for Tagged Image File Format. TIFF
pictures can be black and white line art, grayscale
or colour.
Tonal compression The reduction of the density
range of an original to the density range
achievable in the reproduction.
Trichromatic The three subtractive primaries,
cyan, magenta and yellow. In the case of process
printing a fourth colour (black) is added.
Twill weave A weave pattern whereby threads
are woven one (or two) over and under two
adjacent threads.
UCR Undercolour Removal. A method of reducing
the CMY content in neutral gray shadow areas and
replacing them with black. As a result the
reproduction print appears normal but less CMY
colours are used.
Unsharp mask A method by which all edges in
an image are exaggerated, which produces more
detail in the reproduction. The software
exaggerates the edges of an image by altering the
value in two adjoining pixels in opposite
directions, thus increasing the edge contrast.
UV curing Radiations with a wavelength shorter
than that of visible light and having a powerful
actinic (reactive) effect. Ultraviolet radiation is
used for the exposure of photostencils and the
curing of ink systems.
Warp Direction of mesh threads stretched
lengthwise in the loom. These threads are crossed
by the weft.
Weft See Warp.