County of San Diego

Low Impact Development Handbook

Stormwater Management Strategies

DECEMBER 31, 2007

Department of Planning and Land Use

5201 Ruffin Road, Suite B
San Diego, California 92123

The County of San Diego

LID Handbook

HANDBOOK DEVELOPMENT
This document was prepared by the County of San Diego, Department of Planning and
Land Use (DPLU), MSCP Watershed Planning Program, in coordination with the staff of
several departments within the County. The LID Handbook Project Team consisted of
the following:
Project Management/Research
Christine A. Sloan, M.S.
LID Project Manager
Carter Jessop
Student Intern
Naomi Trejo
Student Intern
Project Direction/Technical Oversight
Thomas Oberbauer
Chief, Land Use
Joseph M. DeStefano II, MSE, CPP
Land Use/Env. Planning Manager
Please note:
The mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use by the County of San Diego.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
While this document was prepared by Staff of the County of San Diego, the preparation
of this handbook would not have been possible without the contribution of many experts
from the planning, design, development, and environmental professions.
We would like to extend our appreciation to the Bay Area Stormwater Management
Agencies Association and to Patrice Dawe, AIA, AICP. This document was primarily
adapted from BASMAAs Start at the Source Manual (1999) [1]. The drawings
contained in this document were created by Patric Dawe unless otherwise noted. In
addition, we would like to thank EOA, Incorporated for the use of select images.
The County especially would like to acknowledge the invaluable assistance provided by
the members of the LID Technical Advisory Committee (TAC). We are grateful for the
committees time commitment and all of the comments, multiple revisions, and
suggestions provided by the TAC in preparation of this document.

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LID TECHNICAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Sara Agahi, PE

Marian Marum, ASLA

County of San Diego

Department of Public Works

American Society of Landscape Architects

Jim Bennett, RG.

Building Industry Association

Scott Molloy, PE
County of San Diego
Department of Planning & Land Use

Matt Moore, PE
URS Corporation

Dennis Bowling, M.S, R.C.E.

Rick Engineering

Eric Mosolgo, P.E., CFM

RBF Consulting

Eric Brennecke, PE
County of San Diego
Department of Public Works

Jim Nabong
City of San Diego

Ron Coss

Sean ONeill

County of San Diego

Department of Environmental Health

County of San Diego

Department of Parks and Recreation

Bob Eisele

Janet Park

County of San Diego

Department of Planning & Land Use

San Diego Coastkeeper

Tina Fransson

Weston Solutions, Inc.

David Pohl

Lundstrom and Associates

Karen Franz
San Diego Coastkeeper

Todd Galarneau

Mark Principe, PE
County of San Diego
Department of Public Works

Gary Ruyle, RLA

The Corky McMillin Companies

American Society of Landscape Architects

Rob Hawk

American Society of Landscape Architects

City of San Diego

David Kahler, RLA

County of San Diego
Department of Planning & Land Use

Chris Kloss
The LID Center

Tom Langpap
Geocon Incorporated

Rich Lucera, P.E., CFM

RBF Consulting

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Glen Schmidt, FASLA

Gabriel Solmer
San Diego Coastkeeper

David Timber
County of San Diego
Department of General Services

Cid Tesoro, PE
County of San Diego
Department of Public Works

Richard Watson, AICP

Richard Watson & Associates, Inc.

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Executive Summary............................................................................................................ 1
Section 1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Purpose and Organization of the LID Handbook ............................................... 1
1.2.
Stormwater Management .................................................................................... 3
1.2.1.
Background ................................................................................................. 3
1.2.2.
State and Federal Stormwater Regulations ................................................. 6
1.2.3.
Stormwater Management Plans and BMPs................................................. 6
1.3.
Overview of Low Impact Development (LID) ................................................... 8
1.3.1.
Goals of Low Impact Development............................................................ 9
1.3.2.
Benefits of LID ......................................................................................... 10
1.3.3.
Challenges and Limitations of LID Practices ........................................... 11
1.3.4.
LID and Stormwater Management Planning ............................................ 12
1.3.5.
LID and the Water Conservation in Landscaping Act.............................. 14
1.3.6.
LID and the Multiple Species Conservation Program .............................. 14
1.4.
Summary of LID Considerations in San Diego ................................................ 15
Section 2 Site Planning Practices.................................................................................. 17
2.1.
Site Assessment ................................................................................................ 17
2.2. Site Planning ..................................................................................................... 19
2.2.1.
Conserve Natural Areas, Soils, and Vegetation........................................ 20
2.2.2.
Minimize Disturbances to Natural Drainages........................................... 21
2.2.3.
Minimize and Disconnect Impervious Surfaces ....................................... 22
2.2.4.
Minimize Soil Compaction ....................................................................... 24
2.2.5.
Drain Runoff from Impervious Surfaces to Pervious Areas..................... 25
2.3.
LID Site Design Examples................................................................................ 27
2.3.1.
Residential................................................................................................. 29
2.3.1.1.
Clustered Low-Density Residential Design...................................... 29
2.3.1.2.
Single Residential Lot....................................................................... 30
2.3.1.3.
Multi-Family Residential Site........................................................... 31
2.3.1.4.
Residential Hillside Site.................................................................... 32
2.3.1.5.
Large Residential Flat Site................................................................ 33
2.3.2.
Commercial............................................................................................... 34
2.3.2.1.
Commercial Shopping Center........................................................... 34
2.3.2.2.
Commercial Office buildings............................................................ 35
2.3.2.3.
Commercial Restaurant..................................................................... 36
2.3.3.
Industrial ................................................................................................... 37
2.3.3.1.
Industrial Park................................................................................... 37
Section 3 Integrated Management Practices................................................................. 39
3.1.
Hydrologic Design ............................................................................................ 40
3.1.1.
Infiltration ................................................................................................. 40
3.1.1.1.
Infiltration Trench............................................................................. 41
3.1.1.2.
Infiltration Basin ............................................................................... 41
3.1.2.
Retention and Detention ........................................................................... 42
3.1.2.1.
Extended Detention (dry) Ponds....................................................... 43
3.1.3.
Biofilters ................................................................................................... 43
3.1.3.1.
Vegetated Swales / Rock Swales ...................................................... 44
3.1.3.2.
Vegetated Filter Strips ...................................................................... 44

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3.1.3.3.
Sand Filters ....................................................................................... 44
3.1.3.4.
Bioretention....................................................................................... 45
3.2.
Permeable Pavement Design............................................................................. 46
3.2.1.
Pervious Concrete ..................................................................................... 47
3.2.2.
Permeable Asphalt Concrete (AC)............................................................ 48
3.2.3.
Permeable Pavers ...................................................................................... 48
3.2.3.1.
Open Cell Unit Paver ........................................................................ 49
3.2.3.2.
Brick Pavers ...................................................................................... 49
3.2.3.3.
Natural Stone Pavers......................................................................... 50
3.2.3.4.
Concrete Unit Pavers ........................................................................ 50
3.2.4.
Subsurface Reservoir Bed......................................................................... 51
3.2.5.
Granular materials..................................................................................... 51
3.3.
LID Road Design .............................................................................................. 52
3.3.1.
Public Road Standards .............................................................................. 55
3.3.2.
Private Road Standards ............................................................................. 55
3.3.3.
Curb-Cuts.................................................................................................. 56
3.3.4.
Rural Swale Systems................................................................................. 56
3.3.5.
Concave Median ....................................................................................... 57
3.3.6.
Cul-de-sac Design..................................................................................... 57
3.4.
LID Parking Lot Design.................................................................................... 58
3.5. LID Driveway, Sidewalk, and Bike Path Design ............................................. 60
3.6.
LID Building Design......................................................................................... 63
3.6.1.
Dry-Well ................................................................................................... 63
3.6.2.
Rain Water Harvesting.............................................................................. 64
3.6.2.1.
Cisterns & Rain Barrels .................................................................... 64
3.6.2.2.
Large Scale Harvesting ..................................................................... 65
3.6.3.
Foundation Planting .................................................................................. 65
3.6.4.
Downspout to Swale ................................................................................. 65
3.6.5.
Vegetated Roofs........................................................................................ 65
3.7.
LID Landscaping Design .................................................................................. 67
3.7.1.
Soil Amendments...................................................................................... 68
3.7.2.
Street Trees ............................................................................................... 69
3.7.3.
Plant Species Selection for Infiltration Areas........................................... 69
3.7.4.
Landscape Maintenance for Stormwater Systems .................................... 70
Appendix 1 Glossary
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Appendix 3 San Diego LID Considerations
Appendix 4 Technical Fact Sheets

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Executive Summary
Urban runoff pollution is commonly considered the nations number one water quality
problem [2, 3]. Stormwater issues have increasingly become a key consideration in land
use planning and development over the last several years in San Diego County. The San
Diego Regional Water Quality Control Board (Board) first approved San Diegos
Municipal Stormwater Permit in 1990 (Order No. 90-42) and renewed the permit in 2001
(Order No. 2001-01), which required all jurisdictions to develop and implement a
stormwater program. On January 24, 2007, the Board adopted the revised Municipal
Stormwater Permit (Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB) Order No.
R9-2007-0001) [4]. The revised permit contains standards and requirements which are
intended to further reduce the pollution that enters local streams, creeks, bays and
beaches. San Diego County jurisdictions are mandated by the permit to regulate new and
existing development and redevelopments (that add or increase impervious cover by
5,000 sq. ft.) to comply with stormwater requirements.
As part of the revised Municipal Stormwater Permit [4], San Diego jurisdictions must
initially encourage developments to incorporate minimal Low Impact Development
(LID) techniques into Priority Development Projects by January 2008. During this initial
phase the LID Handbook will serve as the guidance structure for these LID techniques
and the initial LID projects that will be monitored as LID standards and criteria are being
developed in the region. San Diego jurisdictions will collectively establish feasibility and
applicability criteria and develop specific LID requirements over the next couple years.
Once these specific criteria and requirements have been established and accepted by the
Board, the jurisdictions will have one year to incorporate the new LID requirements into
their local codes and ordinances. Therefore, by the year 2010, the County and other local
jurisdictions will each have an updated stormwater program with a comprehensive list of
BMPs, including the new LID standards and criteria.
The Permit is a product of the federal Clean Water Act (CWA) [5]. The CWA passed in
1972 and was expanded to include stormwater regulation in 1990, making it illegal to
discharge pollutants into waterways. The Board is responsible for ensuring that federal
and state water regulations are implemented at the local level.
Stormwater runoff (also known as urban runoff in populated areas) is defined as
rainwater that flows over land, roofs & pavements and then enters our stormwater
infrastructure, i.e. our gutters and storm drains. It is important to note here, that all public
storm drains in San Diego (west of the Tecate Divide) drain directly to our beaches
without any wastewater treatment. As stormwater runoff flows over various structures
and pavement, the water picks up and carries sediments and pollutants such as pesticides,
fertilizers, oils, metals, bacteria, and animal feces down to our streams, lagoons, bays and
beaches.
For the above reasons, on-site stormwater management has become one of the critical
elements for preventing pollution from entering our storm drains. The County of San
Diego is required to reduce the discharge of pollutants in urban runoff to the maximum
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extent practicable by requiring development to use stormwater best management

practices (BMPs) and Low Impact Development techniques in new and redesigned
developments.
LID uses decentralized, site-based planning and design strategies to manage the quantity
and quality of stormwater runoff. LID attempts to reduce the amount of runoff by
mimicking the natural hydrologic function of the site. LID focuses on minimizing
impervious surfaces and promoting infiltration and evaporation of runoff before it can
leave the location of origination. Using small, economical landscape features, LID
techniques work as a system to filter, slow, evaporate, and infiltrate surface runoff at the
source [6].
The LID Handbook is designed to assist public and private land developers with the
selection of various design features. LID planning techniques include: minimizing paved
areas, minimizing soil compaction, preservation of natural open space including trees and
natural drainage channels, clustering of development on compacted soils, and locating
open space areas to absorb overflows. In addition to planning, the LID Handbook
discusses a broad range of LID Integrated Management Practices (IMPs) to help
developers mimic the sites natural hydrological function. IMPs may include directing
runoff to natural and landscaped areas, man-made filtration devices such as small
vegetated swales, rain gardens, and permeable pavements and pavers. Other basic
principals include dividing and sectioning impervious surfaces (no large continuously
paved areas), eliminating runoff pathways and re-dispersing runoff (no downspouts
connected to stormdrains), and, where feasible, harvesting of rain water in rain barrels or
cisterns and using runoff as an irrigation source. These LID techniques can be applied to
areas of residential, commercial, industrial, and municipal development.
The LID Handbook has been initially designed to complement the existing County of San
Diego Stormwater Standards Manual [7] and the Landscape Water Conservation Design
Manual [8]. Once the County updates its local Standard Urban Stormwater Mitigation
Plan (SUSMP) [9] with revised BMPs, the LID Handbook will be incorporated into the
updated Stormwater Standards Manual.

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Section 1

LID Handbook

Introduction

1.1. Purpose and Organization of the LID Handbook

The Goal of the County of San Diegos LID Program is to protect water quality by
preserving and mimicking nature through the use of stormwater planning and
management techniques on a project site. The Purpose of the LID Handbook is to
provide a comprehensive list of LID planning and stormwater management techniques
for developers, builders, contractors, planners, landscape architects, engineers, and
government employees to reference as guidance prior to developing a project site. The
LID Handbook has been developed for the County of San Diego under the guidance of
the LID Technical Advisory Committee.
The LID Handbook is designed to assist planners, developers, architects, landscape
professionals, city and county development services, including planning and public works
staff, and others with engineering solutions and site planning practices that attempt to
mimic natural hydrologic functions for development sites. Some examples of engineering
solutions include diversion, infiltration and filtration of runoff into and through vegetated
swales and landscaped areas, permeable surfaces and soils, evapotranspiration by
vegetation, biodegradation of pollutants by soil bacteria, and infiltration for groundwater
recharge. Conventional development and storm drain system design typically inhibit
natural hydrologic functions by creating large impermeable surfaces that prevent
infiltration and groundwater recharge, increase runoff, and discharge polluted runoff
offsite and eventually into streams, rivers, lakes, lagoons, bays, and ultimately the Pacific
Ocean [10]. Some examples of LID practices that mimic natural hydrologic functions
include vegetated rock swales, bioretention basins and permeable pavement. In addition
to providing water quality benefits, LID practices reduce the quantity of runoff from
developed areas and can assist with water conservation.
The LID Handbook is intended to complement the County of San Diego Stormwater
Standards Manual [7] (Appendix A of the Countys Watershed Protection, Stormwater
Management and Discharge Control Ordinance), the Standard Urban Stormwater
Mitigation Plan (SUSMP) [9], the Countys Hydrology Manual [11], and the Landscape
Water Conservation Design Manual [8]. Local design engineers, architects, landscape
professionals and contractors should use the current version of the Stormwater Standards
Manual and Landscape Water Conservation Design Manual for specific information
related to the performance, design, operation, inspection and maintenance of structural
treatment controls and LID practices such as vegetated swales, bioretention basins and
permeable pavement. The LID Handbook provides guidance for new development and
redevelopment to incorporate these practices and other techniques that reduce runoff,
increase groundwater recharge, and improve water quality. However, the current
Stormwater Standards Manual will be updated to reflect the new LID solutions that are
implemented as a result of the new Regional Permit. Certain standards contained in the
current Stormwater Standards Manual will need to be amended to properly implement
these LID solutions. For example, the current manual states that LID infiltration areas

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must not be located within 100 feet of a building foundation or drinking water well as
required by the Stormwater Standards Manual. This standard would preclude the use of
LID on most sites and therefore it will need to be changed to allow for new LID
solutions, including those identified in this manual. Any and all specific LID solutions
must be designed and reviewed by a qualified and licensed professional before they can
be incorporated into a development project.
The LID Handbook should be the first guidance document referenced during the
development planning process. This includes new development or redevelopment (net
addition of less than 5,000 square feet of impervious surface, and/or less than 1 acre of
land disturbance) of residential, commercial, industrial, civic (e.g. parks and churches), or
public works projects. The LID Handbook should be used to reference LID planning
policies and procedures and general site designs for reducing stormwater quality impacts
from new development and redevelopment projects. Once a conceptual LID site plan is
developed, stormwater treatment, storm drainage and flood control facilities should be
designed based on the design criteria presented in the current version of the Stormwater
Standards Manual. During the construction phase, Best Management Practices (BMPs)
should be employed to comply with the San Diego County Watershed Protection,
Stormwater Management and Discharge Control Ordinance (WPO) [7].

The LID Handbook is organized as follows:

Section 1

Provides an overview of Stormwater Regulations and Management, LID

Background, LID Benefits, and Goals of LID.

Section 2

Contains LID planning practices, including land use planning, site

assessment, and site design examples.

Section 3

Provides a brief discussion of LID Integrated Management Practices (onsite LID techniques).

Appendix 1

Is a Glossary of relevant LID terms.

Appendix 2

Contains a Bibliography of references cited in the manual.

Appendix 3

Discusses primary considerations for implementing LID in the County of

San Diego.

Appendix 4

Contains important Fact Sheets for specific design considerations for each
LID technique.

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1.2. Stormwater Management

1.2.1. Background
Historically urban development and storm drain system design have consisted of streets,
driveways, sidewalks and structures constructed out of impervious materials that directly
convey runoff to curb and gutter systems, storm drain inlets and a network of
underground storm drain pipes. They have been designed to convey stormwater away
from developed areas as quickly and efficiently as possible [10]. Conventional storm
drainage systems can include detention basins designed to reduce peak flows. However,
they typically do not address stormwater quality or improvement of groundwater
recharge. This has been the engineering standard for approximately the last 50 years.
When natural vegetated pervious ground cover is converted to impervious surfaces such
as paved highways, streets, rooftops, and parking lots, the natural absorption and
infiltration abilities of the land are lost. This typically results in post-development runoff
with greater volume, velocity, and peak flow rate than pre-development runoff from the
same area [4].
Runoff durations can also increase as a result of flood control and other efforts to control
peak flow rates. Increased volume, velocity, rate, and duration of runoff accelerate the
erosion of downstream natural channels. Significant declines in the biological integrity
and physical habitat of streams and other receiving waters have been found to occur with
a 10% conversion from natural to impervious surfaces [4]. Furthermore, ephemeral and
intermittent streams as found in the semi-arid regions in southern California have been
shown to be even more sensitive, where an increase of 2-3% total-impervious-area can
have impacts to stream morphology [12].
Table 1. Degradation of watershed conditions and stream response.
Change in Watershed Condition

Stream Response
Increased storm flow volume and frequency

Increased drainage density due to road

networks, road crossing and stormwater
outfalls

Increased fine sediment deposition

Loss or fragmentation of riparian areas

Reduced quantity and quality of woody

debris

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Channel erosion
Increased fine sediment and urban water
pollutant loads
Increased fish passage barriers
Reduced intergravel dissolved oxygen levels in
streambed
Loss of macroinvertebrate habitat
Reduced delivery of woody debris
Reduced bank stability and loss of bank habitat
structure and complexity
Reduced shading and temperature control
Reduced channel stability, sediment storage, in
stream cover for fish and insects, loss of pool
quality and quantity

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Change in Watershed Condition

Increased pollutant loads

LID Handbook
Stream Response
Synthetic organic compounds and trace
elements: some acutely toxic; negative health
effects in fish; altered spawning and migration
of fish in presence of metals.
Nutrients: excessive aquatic plant growth;
excessive diurnal oxygen fluctuations
Synergistic influence of multiple pollutants
unknown

Around the country conventional development has resulted in increased runoff rates,
volumes, and increased flooding potential. Additionally, conventional development,
together with previous storm drain system design methods which did not provide storm
water quality treatment, resulted in the direct transport of pollutants to local streams,
rivers, lakes, lagoons, bays, and the Pacific Ocean. Urban development creates new
pollution sources as human population density increases and brings with it
proportionately higher levels of vehicle emissions and maintenance waste, municipal
sewage, pesticides, household hazardous waste, pet waste, trash, etc. which is either
washed or directly dumped into the storm drains [4]. Individually, residential homes and
businesses typically contribute relatively small amounts of runoff and pollutants.
However, numerous studies have shown that the collective discharge of untreated runoff
from large areas of conventional residential, commercial, industrial, and municipal
development often results in significant environmental impacts to local water resources
[13].
The volume and rate of runoff and the potential to transport pollutants to local water
bodies depends on a variety of factors, including developed and proposed land use and
management practices, and existing climatic, hydrologic and geologic conditions within a
drainage area. Numerous studies have shown that small storms, which occur more
frequently than relatively large storms, typically transport the greatest load of pollutants
to local water bodies [13]. In addition, the majority of pollutants are typically transported
during the first flush portion of a runoff event, which is often considered to be the first
half-inch of a storm event. Therefore, the sizing of structural treatment controls and LID
practices is most efficient and cost effective when they are designed to capture and treat
the most frequently occurring storm events as well as the first flush portion of runoff
producing storm events.

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Figure 1.

LID Handbook

Conventional vs. LID Stormwater Approach

Conventional Approach

LID Approach
Roof Runoff

Stormwater
Runoff

Allotment Runoff

Retention
rainwater tanks,
raingardens,
vegetated swales

Water Reuse

Conveyance
Road Runoff

pollution control, swales,

gravel trenches,
landscaping

At Source
Conveyance
curbs & gutters, pipes, drains

Gross Pollutant Trap

In route
Receiving Waters

Receiving Waters

Outfall

Improvements in stormwater management have been made in the County of San Diego
since 2001 with the passing of the first Stormwater Municipal Permit. Additional
stormwater improvements are now required as defined in the revised Stormwater
Municipal Permit in 2007 [4]. With the addition of almost one million new residents in
the San Diego region by 2030 [14], new development and redevelopment in San Diego
County will continue to present challenges for stormwater treatment and management. In
addition to the NPDES stormwater permit requirements discussed in Section 1.2.2;
effective management of both the quantity and quality of stormwater is vital to the longterm economic growth and quality of life in the County of San Diego. With the current
knowledge that conventional storm drainage systems are responsible for the degradation
of many of the nations water bodies, stormwater quality management must now also be
considered in the design of storm drainage for new development and redevelopment.

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1.2.2. State and Federal Stormwater Regulations

The California Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB), a division of the State
of California Environmental Protection Agency, requires all local jurisdictions to
implement a stormwater program to address stormwater concerns. The RWQCB issued
the regions first Municipal Stormwater Permit, or NPDES permit, in 1990 (Order No.
90-42) and renewed the permit in 2001 (Order No. 2001-01) [15] permitting San Diego
County jurisdictions to discharge stormwater runoff via storm drains into natural water
bodies. Requirements under the permit mandate that the jurisdictions regulate
development and existing establishments to comply with stormwater requirements.
The Permit is a product of the federal Clean Water Act (CWA). The CWA was passed
by Congress in 1972 and was extended to stormwater concerns in 1990; thus making it
illegal to release pollutants into waterways. The RWQCB is responsible for ensuring that
federal and state water regulations are implemented at the local level.
On January 24, 2007, the RWQCB adopted a revised Municipal Stormwater Permit
(Order No. R9-2007-0001) [4]. The revised Permit intends to further reduce the pollution
that runs down storm drains into local waterways. As part of the Permit, San Diego
jurisdictions must initially encourage developments to incorporate minimal LID
techniques into Priority Development Projects by January 2008. During this initial phase
the LID Handbook will serve as the guidance structure for these LID techniques and
initial LID projects will be monitored as LID standards and criteria are being developed
in the region. San Diego jurisdictions will collectively establish feasibility and
applicability criteria; develop specific LID requirements within the next couple of years.
Once these specific criteria and requirements have been established and accepted by the
Board, the jurisdictions will have one year to incorporate the new LID requirements into
their local codes and ordinances. By the year 2010, the County and other local
jurisdictions will each have an updated stormwater program with a comprehensive list of
BMPs, including the new LID standards and criteria.
Additional detailed information about stormwater requirements can be found on the
Regional
Water
Quality
Control
Board
Region
9
website
at:
http://www.swrcb.ca.gov/rwqcb9/

1.2.3. Stormwater Management Plans and BMPs

To meet the goals of the NPDES permit renewed in 2001, the County of San Diego
established a Watershed Protection, Stormwater Management and Discharge Control
Ordinance (WPO) with Appendix A: Stormwater Standards Manual (SSM) [7] for
developers. The WPO, including the SSM, defines the requirements that are legally
enforceable by the County. The County also established a Standard Urban Storm Water
Mitigation Plan (SUSMP) for Land Development and Public Improvement Projects. The
SUSMP addresses land development and capital improvement projects. It is focused on
project design requirements and related post-construction requirements, but not on the
construction process itself. The SUSMP also addresses the WPO requirements.

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In order to comply with the CWA, the state Water Code, and the above mentioned
County Ordinances, the County requires that property owners complete a Stormwater
Management Plan (SWMP) prior to issuance of any permit. The purpose of a SWMP is
to document Best Management Practices (BMPs) that will be implemented to prevent
pollutants from entering stormwater conveyances and receiving waters.
Construction projects with a disturbed area of greater than 1-acre, must also prepare a
Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) in order to receive a construction
permit. In a typical project, a SWPPP is a document consisting of narrative and a
separate sheet within the construction document set, usually in the Civil Engineering or
Landscape series, that outlines both a plan to control stormwater pollution during
construction (temporary controls) and after construction is completed (the permanent
constructed stormwater pollution prevention elements). The permanent controls are
usually found on the sheet within the construction documents.
The most economical and effective stormwater treatment and management strategies
arise in site planning and design. This document emphasizes ways to reduce the creation
of new runoff, and to infiltrate or detain runoff in the landscape.
LID Integrated Management Practices (IMPs) go beyond the previous set of stormwater
BMPs by requiring a new way of thinking about impervious land coverage and
stormwater management. They are a collection of proven methods and techniques that
integrate stormwater management into planning and design; reducing the overall
runoff, managing stormwater as a resource, and focusing filtration at the source.
LID practices are ecological structural controls and are therefore considered BMPs.
Planning and implementation of BMPs to protect surface water quality is required under
the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) stormwater permit issued
to the unincorporated County of San Diego, incorporated cities, Port of San Diego and
Regional Airport Authority [4]. These permits require the county and cities to control
pollutants in stormwater discharges to the Maximum Extent Practicable (MEP) and to
reduce pollutants to a level compatible with the beneficial uses designated for the
receiving waters.

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1.3. Overview of Low Impact Development (LID)

Low Impact Development is an innovative stormwater management approach with the
basic principle that is modeled after nature: manage rainfall runoff at the source using
uniformly distributed decentralized micro-scale controls. It was pioneered in Prince
Georges County, Maryland and has been applied successfully across the country. LIDs
goal is to mimic a sites predevelopment hydrology by using design practices and
techniques that effectively capture, filter, store, evaporate, detain and infiltrate runoff
close to its source [15]. This can be accomplished by creating site design features that;
direct runoff to vegetated areas containing permeable/amended soils, protect native
vegetation and open space, and reduce the amount of hard surfaces and compaction of
soil. LID practices are based on the premise that stormwater management should not be
seen as merely stormwater disposal. Rather than conveying the runoff from small
frequent storm events directly into underground pipes and drainage systems for discharge
offsite, LID IMPs dissipate and infiltrate stormwater runoff with landscape features and,
where practical, permeable surfaces located onsite, thereby reducing runoff volumes and
filtering runoff before it leaves the site. Most forms of development have the ability to
incorporate some level of LID design techniques and practices. However higher density
infill and vertical development is more limited in feasible LID solutions whereas lowdensity residential development has more flexibility to incorporate LID design
techniques.
LID design techniques and practices need to look at the major development features of a
project, including project green space areas and landscaping, rooftops, streetscapes,
parking lots, sidewalks, and medians. LID is a versatile approach that can be applied to
new development, urban retrofits, redevelopment, and revitalization projects [15].
The Principles of LID can be characterized by the following five elements [6]:

Principles of LID
Conserve natural resources that provide valuable natural functions
associated with controlling and filtering stormwater
Minimize & disconnect impervious surfaces
Direct runoff to natural and landscaped areas conducive to infiltration
Use distributed small-scale controls or Integrated Management Practices
(IMPs) to mimic the sites pre-project hydrology
Stormwater education leads to pollution prevention

LID is a stormwater management and design strategy that is integrated into design of the
development project. LID complements other urban planning techniques such as Smart
Growth Green Building and Sustainable Development by focusing on alternative
approaches to stormwater runoff management and treatment. Smart Growth and
Sustainable Development are land use planning terms that describe the efforts of

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communities across the country to manage and direct growth in a way that reduces
damage to the environment and builds livable towns and cities. A sustainable community
preserves and enhances the quality of life of residents both within and between
communities, while minimizing local impact on the natural environment. Green or
sustainable building is the practice of creating healthier and more resource-efficient
models of construction, renovation, operation, maintenance, and demolition [15]. By
focusing on the watershed protection aspect of smart growth and sustainable
development, LID can be incorporated into Smart Growth, Green Building and
Sustainable Development practices. LID does not replace local land use planning; rather,
it is a complementary set of planning tools applied at the project level to better manage
stormwater in areas appropriately designated for growth.

1.3.1. Goals of Low Impact Development

LIDs approach to urban planning and design aims to minimize the hydrological impacts
of urban development on the surrounding environment. Both stormwater management
and LID are directed at providing flood control, flow management, and water quality
improvements.
LID recognizes that opportunities for urban design, landscape
architecture and stormwater management infrastructure are intrinsically linked.
The goal of LID site design is to reduce the generation of stormwater runoff and to treat
pollutant loads where they are generated. This is accomplished first with appropriate site
planning and then by directing stormwater towards small-scale systems that are dispersed
throughout the site with the purpose of managing water in an evenly distributed manner.
These distributed systems allow for downsizing or elimination of stormwater ponds,
curbs, and gutters. Because LID embraces a variety of useful techniques for controlling
runoff, designs can be customized according to local management requirements and site
constraints. Designers and developers can select the LID technologies that are
appropriate to the sites topographic and climatic conditions that are appropriate to meet
stormwater control requirements and specific project constraints and opportunities. New
projects, redevelopment projects, and capital improvement projects are all candidates for
implementation of LID [16].

Goals of LID
Protect Water Quality
Reduce Runoff
Reduce Impervious Surfaces
Encourage Open Space
Protect Significant Vegetation
Reduce Land Disturbance
Decrease Infrastructure Costs

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1.3.2. Benefits of LID

LID has numerous benefits and advantages over the conventional approach. In short,
LID is a more environmentally sound technology. By addressing runoff close to the
source through intelligent site design, LID can enhance the local environment and protect
public health. LID protects environmental assets, protects water quality, and builds
community livability. Other benefits include [17]:

Benefits of LID
Protects surface and ground water resources
Reduces non-point source pollution
Reduces habitat degradation
Applicable to greenfield, brownfields, and urban developments
Multiple benefits beyond stormwater (aesthetics, quality-of-life,
air quality, water conservation, property values)
Groundwater recharge (where needed)
Meets Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDL) and other
stormwater requirements

As new development increases over time, increased impervious area will result, effecting
hydrologic functions such as infiltration, groundwater recharge, and the frequency and
volume of discharges. These natural functions can be maintained with the use of LID
practices, which includes reduced impervious surfaces, functional grading, open channel
sections, disconnection of hydrologic flowpaths, and the use of bioretention/filtration
landscape areas.
In areas where groundwater recharge is desired, LID is beneficial because these practices
facilitate rainwater infiltration. Rainwater infiltration is needed for adequate groundwater
recharge, especially to provide adequate recharge to endure extended drought periods.
Groundwater recharge directly influences local water tables. Local water tables are often
connected to reservoirs as well as streams, providing seepage to streams during dry
periods and maintaining base flow essential to the biological and habitat integrity of
streams. A significant reduction or loss of groundwater recharge can lead to a lowering of
the water table and a reduction of base flow in receiving streams during extended dry
weather periods. Increased impervious area can reduce rainfall infiltration, which can
lead to increased risk of potential impacts from drought. LID practices increase natural
rainfall penetration and natural groundwater recharge, thus reducing potential impacts to
biological habitat and reduced base flow into reservoirs from extended drought periods.
However, in a few San Diego County areas served with municipal drinking water, the
potential for high groundwater exists due to the artificial introduction of imported water
into the groundwater system from septic system and/or irrigation return flows. The
artificial recharge from these sources in some cases may exceed natural pre-development
groundwater recharge. This in turn has caused some natural pre-development ephemeral

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streams to develop year-round perennial flows. Infiltration devices would not be feasible
in such areas as it could potentially exacerbate already high groundwater conditions and
in some cases contribute to artificial perennial stream flows. In this type of situation, rain
water harvesting in appropriately designed barrels or cisterns would be an appropriate
LID alternative to infiltration.
LID techniques can facilitate and remove stormwater pollutants. The natural processes
employed by LID practices allow pollutants to be filtered or biologically or chemically
degraded before stormwater reaches the water bodies. Section 303(d) of the Clean Water
Act [5] requires each state to set a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) for all impaired
waterbodies. A TMDL is the maximum amount of pollution that a waterbody can receive
without violating state water quality standards. For example, Chollas Creek is impaired
for the pesticide Diazinon. Jurisdictions in this watershed must implement BMPs to
reduce Diazinon concentrations that discharge to the creek. To do so, these jurisdictions
plan to use LID practices to reduce impervious area, reduce impacts, and achieve TMDL
goals. The combination of runoff reduction and pollutant removal in LID practices is an
effective means of reducing pollution released to the environment and meeting Clean
Water Act requirements.

1.3.3. Challenges and Limitations of LID Practices

Not all sites can effectively utilize some of the LID techniques. Soil permeability, soil
contamination, slope, and water table characteristics may limit the potential for local
infiltration. Urban areas planned for multifamily and mixed use development or high rise
construction and locations with existing high contaminant levels in the soil may be
severely limited or precluded from using LID infiltration techniques onsite. A more
community-level approach to LID rather than a site by site approach may be warranted.
Other non-infiltration LID techniques such as street trees, permeable pavements with an
under drain, raised sidewalks, rain water harvesting with appropriately designed barrels
or cisterns, vegetated roofs/modules/walls are still an option for projects in the urban
setting, however these techniques must be carefully integrated into projects with thorough
consideration of engineering and geotechnical limitations.
Another limiting factor to LID is the lack of research and pilot projects in an arid
environment. There are existing examples of LID in Los Angeles County, Orange
County, and San Diego County [18]. However access to project information, success
stories and lessons learned are limited. The County of San Diego is striving to encourage
LID pilot projects in the region and will provide access to research as it becomes
available. An extensive Literature Index on related LID topics around the world can be
accessed on the County of San Diegos website at:
http://www.sdcdplu.org/dplu/docs/LID/LIT-INDEX.pdf
Established practices can be difficult to modify and negative perceptions and lack of
information must be alleviated. Even though the public may welcome naturalistic
features prescribed by LID, some may prefer the conventional and familiar method of

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treating stormwater. As experience and demonstration of infiltration and filtration

practices increase in the region and our knowledge of the techniques that are most
appropriate for the San Diego region develops, fears and misunderstanding should
diminish. Education, careful planning and professional consultation and experience will
alleviate LID misperceptions over time.
Important Note: Proposed stormwater Infiltration BMPs, including permeable
pavements, shall be reviewed by a qualified, licensed professional to provide a
professional opinion regarding the potential adverse geotechnical conditions created by
the implementation of the plans. Geotechnical conditions such as: slope stability,
expansive soils, compressible soils, seepage, groundwater level, and loss of foundation or
pavement subgrade strength should be addressed, and where appropriate, mitigation
recommendations should be provided. The impact on existing, proposed, and future
improvements including buildings, roads, and manufactured slopes, must be included in
the review.
For further LID challenges and considerations in San Diego, please see Appendix 3.

1.3.4. LID and Stormwater Management Planning

A broad approach to the development of a stormwater management scheme is outlined in
the County of San Diegos WPO Appendix A Stormwater Standards Manual (SSM)
[7]. The guidelines in the manual provide strategies to meet stormwater management
objectives involving integration of site design with catchment-wide use of non-structural
BMPs and structural BMPs. Consideration of these strategies during the planning phase
of a stormwater management scheme helps guide the decision making process when
selecting and designing BMPs to manage stormwater. The construction activities
involved in translating a design concept for a stormwater management scheme into onthe-ground solutions will vary depending on what BMPs are included.

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Figure 2. Planning, design, assessment and implementation stages, and associated

activities involved in applying LID principles and practices to urban stormwater
management.

Multidisciplinary
Design Team
Urban Planner
Hydrologist
Geologist
Biologist
Landscape Architect

Stakeholders
Land Developer
Local Government
Community
Water Authority
Business Industry

Identify
Project
Objectives

LID Planning Practices

Site Analysis
Land suitability assessment
Land use plans

Integrated Management Practices

Flow control
Water quality improvement
Treatment effectiveness
Design
Cost

Implementation of Stormwater Management Plan

LID uses the same strategies as the stormwater standards manual. Strategies fall under
the two broad categories of Planning Practices and Integrated Management Practices
(IMPs).
Common LID Planning Practices include site design planning based on natural land
contours and decreasing the impervious surface. These methods may include:

Reducing Impervious Surfaces

Disconnected Impervious Areas
Natural Resource Conservation

Cluster / consolidate development

Xeriscaping and water conservation

The basic LID strategy for handling runoff is to reduce the volume and decentralize
flows.
This is usually best accomplished by creating a series of smaller
retention/detention areas that allow localized filtration instead of carrying runoff to a
remote collection area to be treated [19]. These are known as LID Integrated
Management Practices (IMPs). Common LID IMPs include:
Bioretention
Vegetative Roof Systems
Vegetated / Rock Swales
Rain Collection Systems
Filter Strips
Permeable pavement and materials
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Table 2. [20] Presents the variety of runoff management functions provided by the LID
IMPs. A more detailed description is provided in Section 3 and technical Fact Sheets are
provided in Appendix 4.

X
X
X

X
X
X

Water
Quality
Control

Evaporation

X
X

Detention

Infiltration

X
X

Retention

Filtration

IMP
Soil Amendments
Bioretention
Vegetated Filter Strips
/ Buffers
Grassed Swales
Rock Swales
Rain Harvesting
Street Trees
Vegetated Roofs
Permeable Materials
Rock Beds

Slow Runoff

Effect or Function

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

1.3.5. LID and the Water Conservation in Landscaping Act

The State of Californias Department of Water Resources is updating their Water
Conservation Landscape Ordinance to establish specific standards for landscape design
and irrigation design to assure efficient and responsible use of all available water
resources for all citizens within the State. The Ordinance is also intended to implement
the water efficiency/drought tolerant landscape design requirements of California
Assembly Bill 1881, (Water Conservation in Landscaping Act) which apply to new
development. These design requirements will support landscapes that are essential to the
quality of life here in San Diego County as well as reducing the use of our limited water
supplies for irrigation and landscaping. The requirements will also be compatible with a
variety of other landscaping objectives, including erosion control, brush management,
and invasive plant species control as well as filtering, treating, and utilizing storm water
run-off in landscaped areas. Landscape design, installation, maintenance, and
management can and should be water efficient. The right to use water is limited to the
amount reasonably required for the beneficial use to be served and the right does not and
shall not extend to waste or unreasonable methods of use.

1.3.6. LID and the Multiple Species Conservation Program

The Multiple Species Conservation Program (MSCP) is a comprehensive habitat
conservation program that addresses multiple species habitat needs and the preservation
of native vegetation communities in San Diego. The MSCP targets thousands of acres of
open space for conservation within the planning area, including over half of all remaining

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natural habitat areas and other open spaces (such as disturbed and agricultural lands) that
can contribute to conservation objectives. The MSCP does not place a moratorium on
development, rather, in these areas an ordinance for addressing biological mitigation
provides incentives to develop in the less sensitive habitat areas and mitigate in the areas
that have been identified for preservation.
One of LIDs planning strategies is to conserve natural areas, soils, and vegetation.
This strategy is in alignment with the goals of MSCP. Developments occurring within
the MSCP may already be meeting a fundamental LID objective by applying this
planning strategy of preserving sensitive lands and drainages. LID techniques specific to
the development projects footprint may still be necessary to achieve the other LID
objectives. On a landscape level, the creation of large preserve areas through
implementation of MSCP and other programs will serve as the foundation for watershed
protection in the San Diego region. Other LID/MSCP scenarios are expected to develop
as the MSCP and LID programs are implemented together and grow to compliment each
other.

1.4. Summary of LID Considerations in San Diego

The County of San Diego is incredibly diverse. With approximately 4,260 square miles
of land [14], the County includes a large variety of geologic and topographic conditions,
land uses, and climate types, all of which influence stormwater runoff planning strategies.
Key physical factors in San Diego that affect the function, design and performance of
LID measures include climate (precipitation, temperature, evapotranspiration), geology
(slopes & soils), hydrology (rain distribution and runoff,), groundwater, surface water
quality objectives and land use planning and constraints. More information is provided
on these physical factors in Appendix 3 of this manual and corresponding County
manuals/documents are referenced in those pages.

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Section 2

LID Handbook

Site Planning Practices

2.1. Site Assessment

A comprehensive inventory and assessment of site conditions is the crucial initial step for
implementing LID. Site assessment, site planning, and site design are iterative processes.
The site assessment process should evaluate
existing conditions such as hydrology,
topography, soils, vegetation, and water features
to identify how stormwater moves through the
site prior to development. Next, the assessment
must consider the land use requirements such as
the
underlying
General
Plan,
zoning
requirements, Multiple Species Conservation
Program (MSCP) requirements (if applicable),
road design standards, sidewalks and parking
requirements, driveways, and regulations
regarding the use of cluster developments.
Utilizing this information, site planning and
design should consider how road design, lot
configuration and construction practices can
utilize existing natural features on the site in
order to retain beneficial natural hydrologic
functions. In instances where these features do
not exist or can not be retained, LID Site Design
IMPs should be utilized to mimic the preexisting hydrological function of the site.
Site designers and municipal planners must understand site conditions and use these as
the basis for selecting appropriate stormwater quality controls. Site analyses should
indicate how each of the following constraints and opportunities (where applicable) affect
the site (WSUD Sydney Region Practice note 2) [21]. Use the following inventory check
list to assist with the identification and evaluation of a potential site for LID:

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Site Assessment Checklist

Landform
Contours / Top of slope
Steep slopes (>25%)
Orientation of site (North arrow)
Natural Features (cliffs, rock
outcrops, drainages)

Climate
Avg. Temperature
Avg. Precipitation
Prevailing winds
Areas of full or partial shade
Wildfire Hazard

Water
Water flow
Water quality
Drainage patterns
Riparian Zones
ESA
Flood Hazards
Depth to Groundwater
Seeps and Springs

Site Features
Existing structures noted to be
removed or retained
Location and height of walls/fences
Archeological sites
Easements
Aesthetics of and around the site
Aesthetic qualities on site

Soils
Soil Type
Permeability of soils
Expansive soils
Collapsible soils
Landslides
Depth to topsoil and subsoil
Erosion potential
Geotechnical Hazards
Plants & Habitat
Vegetation type
Evapotranspiration
Existing trees and shrubs
Weed species
Sensitive species
Vegetation to be removed
MSCP lands
Biological Open Space
Park lands, BLM, preserves

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Land Use Planning

General Plan & Zoning
Setbacks
Parking lot requirements
Landscaping requirements
Building restrictions
Adjacent lands
Location of adjacent structures
Rooftop and floor levels of adjacent
buildings
Form and character of adjacent
buildings
Services
Location of existing overhead /
underground utilities
Street requirements
Fire Safety requirements

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2.2. Site Planning

For a particular site, assessment of the existing environment and land use constraints
outlined in the previous section and checklist above can be used to produce a series of
maps identifying setbacks, streams, lakes, wetlands, steep slopes, hazard areas,
significant habitat areas, buffers (fire, wetland, open space, slopes), and soils. Permeable
soils or soils offering the best available infiltration potential should also be noted and
utilized. When infiltration practices are not desirable, filtration practices such as swales
running to the municipal stormwater system or temporary on-site water retention should
be considered in site planning. Map layers showing different aspects of a site (soils map,
slopes map, hydrology map, zoning, etc.) can be combined to delineate the best areas for
development to occur on the site. Building sites, road layout, and stormwater
infrastructures should be configured within these development areas to reduce soil,
significant vegetation, and drainage disturbance and take advantage of a sites natural
stormwater processing capabilities.
To reduce directly connected impervious areas and promote filtration and infiltration, the
site planning principles below shall be considered to guide the layout and orientation of
development projects. As required by the California Regional Water Quality Control
Board, San Diego Region, Order Number R9-2007-0001, the following site design
strategies shall be implemented where applicable and feasible:

Conserve natural areas, soils, and vegetation

Minimize disturbances to natural drainages
Minimize & disconnect impervious surfaces
Minimize soil compaction
Drain runoff from impervious surfaces to pervious areas

The following sections define these LID site planning principles and how to apply them
while designing the LID project site plan.

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2.2.1. Conserve Natural Areas, Soils, and Vegetation1

Consistent
with
the
Countys
Conservation
Element of the General
Plan the first site planning
strategy is to conserve
natural resources on site.
Assess
the
site
for
significant
trees
(see
definition),
shrubs,
sensitive vegetation, and
permeable soils and refer to
applicable local codes,
standards,
easements,
setbacks, etc., to define the
development envelope and
create the draft plan.
The upper soil layers of a natural area contain organic material, soil biota, vegetation, and
a configuration favorable for storing and slowly conveying stormwater. The canopy of
existing native trees and shrubs also provide a water conservation benefit by intercepting
rain water before it hits the ground. By minimizing disturbances in these areas natural
processes are able to intercept stormwater, providing a water quality benefit. By keeping
the development envelope concentrated to the least environmentally sensitive areas of the
site and set back from natural areas, stormwater runoff is reduced, water quality can be
improved, environmental impacts can be decreased, and many of the sites most attractive
native landscape features can be retained. Retaining these natural landscape features may
also count toward landscaping credit for developments requiring landscape plans. In
some situations, site constraints, regulations, economics, and/or other factors may not
allow avoidance of all sensitive areas on a project site. The standard California
Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) review process will ensure that projects impacting
biological resources onsite shall offset those impacts with mitigation elsewhere onsite or
through offsite preserve creation to comply with CEQA, the Biological Mitigation
Ordinance (BMO), MSCP objectives (if applicable) and other County requirements.

Order No. R9-2007-0001, Pg19. Section: D.1.d.(4)(b)i.

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2.2.2. Minimize Disturbances to Natural Drainages2

The next site planning strategy is
to minimize impacts to natural
drainages
(natural
swales,
topographic depressions, etc.).
During the site assessment, natural
drainages must be identified along
with their connection to creeks
and/or streams, if any.
Natural
drainages offer a benefit to
stormwater management as the
soils and habitat already function
as a natural filtering/infiltrating
swale.
When determining the
development footprint of the site,
natural drainages should be
avoided.
By keeping the
development envelope set back
from natural drainages, the
drainage can retain its water
quality benefit to the watershed. Implementing treatment train IMPs, such as filter
strips and bioretention, further protect the natural swale from runoff and help to increase
the sites stormwater benefit by reducing stormwater runoff, improving water quality,
decreasing environmental impacts, retaining sensitive habitat areas and attractive
landscape features. In some situations, site constraints, regulations, economics, or other
factors may not allow avoidance of drainages and sensitive areas. The standard CEQA
review process will ensure that projects impacting drainages onsite shall offset those
impacts with mitigation in order to comply with CEQA, the BMO, the Resource
Protection Ordinance (RPO), MSCP objectives (if applicable) and other County
requirements.

Order No. R9-2007-0001, Pg19. Section: D.1.d.(4)(b)v.

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2.2.3. Minimize and Disconnect Impervious Surfaces3

Development typically
increases
impervious
surfaces on formerly
undeveloped or less
developed landscapes
and
reduces
the
capacity of remaining
pervious surfaces to
capture and infiltrate
rainfall [22].
In
traditional
development, the runoff
from these impervious
surfaces is captured by
pipes and is directly
connected
to
the
municipal storm drain.
Impervious
areas
directly connected to
the storm drain system
have been identified as
contributing to nonpoint source pollution.
Minimize Impervious Surfaces
Reducing impervious surfaces retains the permeability of the project site, allowing
natural processes to filter and reduce non-point sources of pollution. Many opportunities
are available within the development envelope to increase the permeability of the site by
minimizing impervious surfaces. For instance, transportation related surfaces such as
streets, sidewalks, and parking lot aisles should be constructed to the minimum width
necessary, provided that public safety, circulation, and pedestrian access are not
compromised.3 In addition, walkways, trails, overflow parking lots, alleys and other low
traffic areas are required to be constructed with permeable materials where underlying
site conditions allow.3
Other ways of reducing impervious surfaces can be
accomplished by concentrating development to specific areas on the site, building
vertically instead of horizontally, incorporating landscaping in the center of cul-de-sacs,
and designing for shared parking lots and driveways. In addition, in areas where the
ground has been properly tilled, gravel, mulch, and water conserving lawns are
permeable ground covers suitable for a wide variety of uses.
Pavement surfaces should be selected for permeability. A patio of permeable unit pavers,
for example, is more permeable than a large concrete slab. Pervious concrete and
3

Order No. R9-2007-0001, Pg19. Section: D.1.d.(4)(a)iii., (b)ii., iii.

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permeable asphalt-concrete (AC) are alternative materials that can preserve permeability
where a larger, more intensely used paved area is needed.
Pervious concrete and permeable AC designs can allow for very slow infiltration in areas
with low permeability by adding stone reservoirs under the permeable surfaces. In areas
where infiltration is not appropriate, these reservoirs can be fitted with an under drain to
allow filtration, storage, and evaporation, prior to drainage into the municipal stormwater
system. Urban and infill developments may have limited opportunities to reduce
impervious surfaces, in which case LID techniques such as the application of permeable
pavements with underdrains, raised sidewalks, rain water harvesting with appropriately
designed barrels or cisterns, vegetated roofs/modules/walls, street trees, etc., may be
more appropriate. When applying the strategies above, they must be reflected at all
levels of a project, from site planning to material application in order to ensure proper
implementation and the desired water quality benefit.
Disconnect Impervious Surfaces
Creating permeable surfaces between impermeable surfaces is an effective way to
intercept urban runoff and reduce runoff volumes. This technique can be achieved by
disconnecting continuously paved areas with landscaping and/or permeable materials and
by directing roof runoff into similarly permeable areas, vegetation, soils, and permeable
materials. This technique results in reduced stormwater peak flows and filtration of the
water before it drains to the municipal stormwater system and/or natural watercourses. It
also reduces the amount of runoff which enters the stormdrain or leaves the site as some
of the runoff is infiltrated into the sites permeable areas.
Any impervious surface which drains into a catch basin, drain, or other impermeable
conveyance structure is considered a Directly Connected Impervious Area (DCIA).
The DCIA is measured by adding together the square footage of all impervious surfaces
(see definition impervious surface area) that flow directly into a conveyance
stormwater system. These impervious surfaces are principally comprised of rooftops and
conventional pavements. Impervious surfaces that flow into a pervious area are not
directly connected to a conveyance system are not included in the calculation. However,
the pervious area receiving the impervious surface runoff must be of appropriate width,
location, slope, and design to effectively treat the runoff [23].

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2.2.4. Minimize Soil Compaction4

The fourth site planning strategy is to minimize soil compaction in planned pervious
areas (infiltration areas, landscaping, lawns, green space etc.) and reduce the overall area
of soil disturbance. The upper soil layers contain organic material, soil biota, and a
configuration favorable for storing and slowly conducting stormwater down gradient. By
protecting native soils and vegetation in appropriate areas during the clearing and grading
phase of development the site can retain some of its existing beneficial hydrologic
function. It is important to recognize that areas adjacent to and under building
foundations, roads and manufactured slopes must be compacted with minimum soil
density requirements [24] in compliance with the Grading Ordinance. Clearing and
grading exposes and compacts the underlying subsoil, producing a site with significantly
different hydrologic characteristics. For this reason, disturbance should be avoided in
planned green space and proposed landscaped areas where feasible. These areas that are
planned for retaining their beneficial hydrological function should be restricted during the
grading/construction phase so that vehicles and construction equipment do not intrude
and inadvertently compact the area. Protecting native soil and vegetation to retain the
beneficial hydrologic function during the clearing and grading phase can present a
significant yet important challenge within the development process.
In urban sites, it may not be possible to avoid soil disturbance. In areas planned for
landscaping where compaction could not be avoided, re-tilling of the soil surface should
be performed to allow for better infiltration capacity. Soil amendments are recommended
and may be necessary to increase permeability and organic content. Soil stability, density
requirements, and other geotechnical considerations associated with soil compaction must
be reviewed by a qualified, licensed geotechnical, civil or other professional engineer.

Order No. R9-2007-0001, Pg19. Section: D.1.d.(4)(b)iv.

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2.2.5. Drain Runoff from Impervious Surfaces to Pervious Areas5

When planning for stormwater
management and designing the
project to meet stormwater
requirements, the permeability of
the project site should be retained
or improved. Projects planned
with landscaped areas or other
pervious areas (lawns) are required
to be designed and constructed to
receive stormwater runoff (from
rooftops, parking lots, sidewalks,
walkways, patios, etc.)5. These
pervious areas help slow, retain,
filter, and treat runoff in the first
few inches of the soil before
discharging into the municipal
stormwater system.
In rural
situations these pervious areas
should be designed to infiltrate
and/or percolate stormwater on site
where appropriate. In areas that
have stormwater infrastructure,
pervious areas must receive runoff
before it drains into the municipal
stormwater system. As required,
the amount of runoff directed from impervious areas shall correspond with the pervious
areas capacity to treat that runoff5. When directly infiltrating into the ground using pure
infiltration BMPs (infiltration trench, infiltration basin, dry wells, permeable pavements
without an under-drain) the soil conditions, slope and other pertinent factors must be
addressed by a qualified licensed geotechnical, civil or professional engineer.
Urban and infill developments may have limited opportunities to maximize permeability,
in which case LID techniques such as the application of permeable pavements, vegetated
roofs/modules/walls, raised sidewalks, street trees, etc., may be more appropriate.
LID techniques for stormwater infiltration and/or filtration attempt to work with land uses
and natural land features to become a major design element of the development plan. By
applying LID techniques early in the site plan development, these stormwater techniques
can be utilized more efficiently. When applying LID strategies in the stormwater
management plan and the drainage plan, the project can include optimal pathway
alignment, optimum locations for usable open space, pocket parks and play areas, and
building sites. In this way, the stormwater management plan helps the project convey a
5

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more aesthetically pleasing and integrated relationship to the natural features of the site
and the projects surroundings. In redevelopment and other site-constrained projects
where the opportunities for surface drainage and surface infiltration systems are limited,
it may be possible to create underground storage systems to promote retention and/or
slow infiltration (e.g. permeable pavements, recharge bed, etc.) prior to releasing runoff
into the municipal stormwater system.
Important Note: Proposed stormwater Infiltration BMPs, including permeable
pavements, shall be reviewed by a qualified, licensed professional to provide a
professional opinion regarding the potential adverse geotechnical conditions created by
the implementation of the plans. Geotechnical conditions such as slope stability,
expansive soils, compressible soils, seepage, groundwater, and loss of foundation or
pavement subgrade strength should be addressed, and where appropriate, mitigation
recommendations should be provided. The impact on existing, proposed, and future
improvements should be included in the review.

Mission Valley Library Photograph Courtesy of C.Sloan

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2.3. LID Site Design Examples

LID site designs use planning and design strategies to reduce the quantity and
improve the quality of stormwater from new development and redevelopment. LID site
design attempts to mimic the sites pre-developed (natural) hydrologic function. Site
techniques involve reducing impervious surfaces, disconnecting impervious surfaces
from storm drains and other impervious surfaces to allow natural infiltration and
treatment of stormwater runoff, increasing opportunities for infiltration and conveyance
through vegetated and landscaped features near roads and structures, reducing soil
compaction during development, reducing road and driveway widths in exchange for
additional landscaping and green space, protecting sensitive natural areas, habitats and
important drainages, and linking greenways, parks, wilderness, and conservation land.
In addition to laying out LID planning concepts, this section also provides guidance on
how LID water quality goals can be addressed within the three basic types of land use
development: Residential, Commercial, and Industrial.
The site planning principles and design concepts described in the following pages are
integrated in a series of design examples based on topography and land use. The design
examples are illustrative only. They are not intended to be hard and fast requirements for
all development but instead examples of LID solutions which can be employed. They
show an approach to site planning and design that integrates stormwater management as
an organizing element. Real sites and real projects will require various combinations and
engineering ingenuity to suit unique conditions.
As
shown
here,
a
treatment train approach
should be used to provide
multiple opportunities for
stormwater treatment to
maximize the effectiveness
of LID design. This multitechnique approach will
increase temporary storage
and retention of stormwater
during short intense storms,
as
well
as
increase
filtration,
infiltration,
percolation, and recharge to
ensure
water
quality
standards [13].
Using
Photograph Courtesy of EOA, Inc. multiple LID techniques
will decrease the need for additional traditional stormwater control methods, and help
stormwater to be naturally treated through filtration, infiltration, and percolation (in
compliance with the Hydrology Manual). For example, a site can be designed by

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combining LID methods such as implementing a grass swale with permeable pavers as
overflow areas and a landscaped bioretention cell. The following pages show examples
of sites utilizing a treatment train approach to LID site-specific design.
Site planning is a complex and demanding process. Proper planning will involve
balancing IMP needs with site constraints as well as other development concerns. To be
successful, a new development must meet marketing, economic, regulatory, engineering,
environmental, construction, and design criteria. The following design examples attempt
to show that by recognizing stormwater as a resource, and making it a primary
consideration in site design, communities can be built to reward the investment, enhance
the natural environment, and create an ideal place for people to live and work.

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2.3.1. Residential
2.3.1.1.

Clustered Low-Density Residential Design

Cluster development, a site

planning technique in use for
several decades, considers not
only individual lots, but larger
site boundaries. It concentrates
development on one portion of
a site, and maintains more of
the site in open space. Cluster
designs include strategies such
as smaller lot sizes, reduced
setbacks
and frontages,
alternative street layouts to
reduce road networks (see
Appendix 4, Fact Sheet 14),
and
alternative
driveway,
sidewalk, and bike path designs
(see Appendix 4, Fact Sheet
24).
When choosing the
development envelope for a site, features such as drainages and creeks, sensitive habitat
areas, steep slopes, and highly erosive or permeable soils should be protected.
A focal point of clustered development is to reduce the actual footprint of the
development project and the footprint of the roadway network internal to the project.
Clustered development can provide increased area for passive recreation, when usable
open space is concentrated in a public or semi-public place, rather than divided in many
large, private yards. However, clustered developments can face resistance in the
marketplace, because home buyers sometimes prefer the larger lot sizes and wider streets
of conventional development patterns. Rural communities may also resist clustered
development because they appear as an unconventional development pattern which
differs from the large conventional rural lot pattern. Watershed education and clustered
development benefits must be clearly communicated as a benefit to the community.
Clustered development should include appropriate landscaping (native/Xeriscape) in
order to blend with the surrounding environment. These landscaping areas can also be
used in conjunction with LID treatment solutions.
In a watershed plan that employs clustered, dense development to preserve open space,
on-site treatment in the more densely developed portion of the watershed may not be
necessary. Dense or clustered development allows for significant areas to be preserved
and remain undeveloped, reducing the need to mitigate throughout the entire watershed.

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LID Handbook

Single Residential Lot

A single-family residential
lot may provide significant
opportunities for stormwater
management.
Because they
occur at the garden
level,
LID solutions can add aesthetic
richness that will directly
benefit the project and the
surrounding
community.
When the ratio of impervious
cover relative to land area is
low, landscape area can
accommodate a variety of
subtle filtration strategies.
Stormwater management
techniques can also provide
habitat for wildlife, create
shade, improve character,
provide
supplemental
irrigation water, and promote growth of landscape planting. When planning a
subdivision of small single family lots, the determination of whether lot-by-lot LID
infiltration solutions are appropriate must be carefully weighed. Consider all physical,
engineering, geotechnical and public health and safety constraints as well as the long
term maintenance and practicality of approaching infiltration at this level. Conserving
natural resources, disconnecting impervious surfaces by pitching driveways towards
yards and allowing roof runoff to run over the lawn before entering the stormdrain, are
infiltration techniques more appropriate for subdivision planning.
Homeowner education is a crucial component of successful stormwater management
techniques at all levels, but especially at the single lot scale. Residents need to be
educated on the purpose, operation, and proper care of various design elements,
particularly those requiring routine maintenance like cisterns which must periodically be
emptied and cleaned. If drywells are used, residents must also understand that they
are for rainwater only never as a place to dump oil, pesticides, paint thinner, solvents,
degreasers, household cleaners or other unwanted wastes.
The techniques for this type of development might include:
Unit pavers-on-sand patio
Not directly connected impervious driveway
Unit pavers-on-sand pathway
Roof downspout to swale
Vegetation for water retention (deep rooted trees)
Herbaceous vegetation at dripline of roof

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2.3.1.3.

LID Handbook

Multi-Family Residential Site

Photograph Courtesy
of EOA, Inc.

In urban areas, many of the sites for new construction are infill or redevelopment sites.
These sites usually have higher densities (typically from 12 to 100 units per acre) which
demand a greater proportion of pavement and roof coverage.
Opportunities for on-site stormwater management still exist, even in the most densely
developed infill site, though they will require greater creativity or multiple use of space.
For instance, an underground/under pavement storage reservoir may be created to
promote filtration and stormwater storage prior to release into the municipal stormwater
system.
Urban high rise densities often result in the entire site being covered by buildings with a
minimal amount of landscaping. Although these sites present limited opportunities to
incorporate LID solutions, they are a highly efficient way to develop land and reduce
pressure on rural and undeveloped land. By allowing high density in urban cores (often
referred to as Smart Growth), rural lands can be preserved more effectively allowing a
watershed benefit by reducing impacts to water quality and encouraging groundwater
recharge and habitat conservation.
The techniques illustrated in this example are:
Not directly connected impervious driveway (pitched to lawn)
Turf block fire access road (with fire sign)
Multiuse lawn play area, fire access, and biofiltration
Roof downspout to landscaping
Rain harvesting
Vegetation for water retention (deep rooted trees)
Herbaceous vegetation at dripline of roof

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2.3.1.4.

LID Handbook

Residential Hillside Site

Hillside sites, large and

small, present particular
challenges for stormwater
management.
Because
slopes
are
often
pronounced,
some
infiltration strategies that
are best suited to more level
sites, such as dry wells,
infiltration
basins,
or
trenches,
are
impractical and can cause
landslides
or
severe
damage. Erosion must be
prevented through siting
with
contours
to
reduce grading and careful
stabilization of disturbed
slopes.
Finally, drainage
systems, pure infiltration
techniques and detention
devices must be located so
that water does not compromise the integrity of building foundations and other structures.
The techniques illustrated in this example are:
Avoidance of steep slopes
Buildings aligned with topography to reduce grading
Preservation of existing trees and indigenous vegetation
Preservation of riparian vegetation (drainages with native plants/soils)
Deep rooted vegetation for erosion control
Narrow rural roads
Shared driveway
Combination parking and driveway area
Tuck-under parking utilizing pervious materials
Permeable wood deck for outdoor use area
Unit pavers-on-sand patio (with qualified, licensed professionals
approval)
Detention basin connected to roof downspout (down slope from building)
Swale with check dams flows to creek

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LID Handbook

Large Residential Flat Site

Larger flat sites present

some of the greatest
opportunities
for
stormwater management.
If
soils
have
adequate percolation
rates, infiltration swales
and basins are easily
incorporated.
In more
poorly drained soils, flat
sites
allow
for
detention and
retention
systems to slow the speed
of runoff and hold it for
later release. This allows
sediments to settle and
minimizes stream bank
erosion
from
high
velocity flows, meeting
important
hydromodification objectives.
This example applies the site planning and design principles discussed earlier at the
neighborhood scale. For the purposes of illustration, two different street access systems
are shown: driveways from the street or rear alley access. Each has different
planning implications, but both can be integrated with appropriate stormwater
management.
Each cluster of buildings could also contain the finer grain elements like those illustrated
for the small single lot, large single lot and infill site.
The techniques illustrated in this example are:
Minimal street widths
Permeable rear alley & shared driveways to reduce pavement
Community facility within walking distance
Parking lot over infiltration basin1
Depressed playfield with multiple use as infiltration basin1
Swale along parkway collects street runoff (with appropriate slopes)
Culvert to carry parkway swale under cross street
Trees and infiltration basin at end of swale1
Swale and greenbelt pathway between rear yards

Technique requires Qualified, licensed professionals approval.

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2.3.2. Commercial
2.3.2.1.

Commercial Shopping Center

Shopping
centers
present
many
opportunities
for
stormwater
management, especially
in the parking areas.
Infiltration swales and
extended dry detention
basins can
be
incorporated into space
between parking aisles.
Recognizing that much
of the parking is only
necessary
during
peak times, such as the
holiday
season,
a
proportion of outlying
stalls may be paved
with permeable materials.
The utility functions inherent in any shopping center also need attention, such as
restaurant wash-down areas, trash collection areas, and service yards. These outdoor
work areas require specific techniques to prevent polluted runoff from entering the storm
drain system or local water bodies. Similarly, potential hazardous materials use within
the shopping center, i.e. dry cleaning establishments, requires special attention and
treatment. Finally, trash and other storage areas can be properly designed and
constructed to prevent pollutants from running off these areas into the storm drain
system.
If well designed, correctly installed, and properly maintained, stormwater management
techniques can enhance the aesthetic character of a shopping center and improve its
marketability.
The techniques illustrated in this example are:
Vegetated/rock swale along perimeter
Infiltration bed to divide parking aisles1
Permeable pavement parking stalls1
Notched curb to direct runoff from parking area into swale
Catch basin runoff directed to infiltration area1
Covered maintenance yard/service areas
Rain harvesting
1

Technique requires Qualified, licensed professionals approval.

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LID Handbook

Commercial Office buildings

Office buildings can

integrate stormwater
management
techniques in many
ways.
Landscape areas for
employee use and
perimeter screening
can be designed as
extended
dry
detention basins or
biofilters (swales) to
infiltrate and detain
runoff, while drying
up shortly after a
rain event. These
areas can also be
designed
as
fountains or entry
statements to add aesthetic enhancement.
Parking can be treated in a variety of ways with the use of permeable materials.
Impervious parking stalls can be designed to drain onto landscape infiltration areas.
A portion of the required parking may be allowed to be held in landscape reserve, until
a need for the full parking supply is established. This means that the original
construction only builds parking to meet anticipated staff needs. If the parking demand
increases, the area held in landscape reserve can be modified to accommodate parking.
In this way, parking is held to a minimum based on actual use, rather than by a zoning
formula that may not apply to the office buildings actual parking need.
The techniques illustrated in this example are:
Catch basin runoff directed to infiltration area1
Vegetated swale with check dams
Landscaped parking reserve
Concave landscape areas to infiltrate runoff1
Pervious overflow parking stalls1
Roof drainage directed to landscape
Rain harvesting

Technique requires Qualified, licensed professionals approval.

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LID Handbook

Commercial Restaurant

Restaurants offer a strong contrast between infiltration opportunities and special activity
areas. Careful selection of materials such as brick or stone paving for outdoor patios can
enhance the restaurants aesthetic appeal while allowing for infiltration as appropriate.
Landscape plantings can also be selected for stormwater infiltration.
Parking can be provided in a variety of ways, with hybrid parking lots for staff, who stay
for long shifts, or with landscaped infiltration islands in lots with conventional paving for
patrons, who stay for shorter periods.
In contrast to these infiltration opportunities, restaurants have special activity areas that
need to be isolated from the storm drain system. Grease, stored items, trash, and other
food waste must be kept in properly designed and maintained special activity areas.
Local ordinances may have design guidelines for allowable square footage of covered
and uncovered areas.
The techniques illustrated in this example are:
Permeable pavement patio1
Catch basin runoff directed to infiltration area1
Hybrid parking lot
Vegetation at drip line
Concave landscape areas to infiltrate runoff1
Rain harvesting
Covered outdoor work area (trash, food waste, storage, equipment wash)
1

Technique requires Qualified, licensed professionals approval.

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2.3.3. Industrial
2.3.3.1.

Industrial Park

Industrial parks present special challenges when designing for stormwater management.
They usually require large paved areas for truck access and employee parking, and space
is usually limited. They also often have chemical storage and other special activity areas
that require that infiltration techniques are avoided.
Still, there are opportunities to incorporate design details to protect stormwater quality.
These include minimizing impervious surface area through the use of permeable
pavements, infiltration areas to collect runoff, and proper treatment of special activity
areas.
The techniques illustrated in this example are:
Vegetated/rock swale along perimeter
Catch basin runoff directed to infiltration area1
Permeable pavement fire lane
Notched curb to direct runoff from parking area into swale
Rain harvesting
Proper loading dock design
Covered maintenance yard/service areas
1

Technique requires Qualified, licensed professionals approval.

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Section 3

LID Handbook

Integrated Management Practices

A variety of Low Impact Development (LID) design concepts and specific engineering
solutions are presented in this chapter and are further detailed as Fact Sheets in
Appendix 4. Each Fact Sheet illustrates an approach to design and construction of
developed areas for increasing stormwater infiltration, providing stormwater retention,
slowing runoff, and/or reducing impervious developed areas. The techniques presented
here are not all-inclusive, and are not appropriate for every site or condition, but it is
anticipated that, once the intent and utility of these design concepts and engineering
solutions are understood, planners and designers will use their ingenuity to develop the
appropriate treatment train of LID strategies consistent with water quality goals.
The various categories or types of development listed in Section 2 present unique
challenges which make certain LID solutions appropriate for some types of development
but not for others. For example, permeable pavement may be an effective and
appropriate solution for a low-rise office building, however, in a high-rise residential or
office building with virtually no part of the site left undeveloped and with parking
provided underground, permeable pavement would not be an effective or appropriate
solution. Additionally, downstream conditions on neighboring properties, manufactured
slopes, the location of structures and utilities among many other design aspects of a
project will present unique challenges for designers and engineers and may make what
are otherwise effective LID solutions inappropriate for the specific site. All LID
infiltration BMPs proposed for a specific project shall be reviewed and approved for
use in the project by the projects geotechnical engineer, civil engineer, or other
qualified licensed professional to avoid the potential for slope failure, water seepage or
migration under structures or on to neighboring property, conflicts with underground
utilities, or other potential conflicts with engineering and design objectives. Project
plans must be designed in accordance with local zoning regulations, ordinances, and
community plans.
Before specific LID solutions can be developed for a particular project, the project
designer must determine the appropriate development category for the project (e.g.,
multifamily residential). Once the designer has determined the appropriate development
category for the project a multitude of specific design considerations must be taken into
account when determining the projects runoff and hydrology conditions. These design
considerations include grading and the creation of slopes, selection of paving materials,
collection and channeling of roof, driveway, parking, and road surface runoff, grading,
soil conditions and the creation of slopes, and many other design aspects of the project.
The individual design aspect of a project may make little difference to the overall
hydrological characteristics of the project, but taken together, these design aspects create
significant changes to the natural hydrology of the project site and, likewise, significant
challenges in meeting stormwater quality goals. Consistent with the concept of starting at
the source, a combination of individual LID solutions may be required for a particular
project which taken collectively effectively mitigate the projects water quality impacts.

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3.1. Hydrologic Design

Drainage systems can achieve stormwater management goals by using one of three basic
elements: infiltration, retention/detention, and biofiltration. These elements can be
implemented either alone or in combination, depending on site and other conditions.

3.1.1. Infiltration
Infiltration is the process where
water enters the ground and moves
downward through the unsaturated
soil zone. Infiltration is ideal for
management and conservation of
runoff because it filters pollutants
through the soil and restores
natural flows to groundwater and
downstream
water
bodies.
Attenuating
flow
through
infiltration, while
allowing
evaporation and evapotranspiration
is an effective
stormwater
management practice in blocking
the transport of pollutants to
receiving waters. An infiltration system is designed to match pre-development condition
infiltration rates and to infiltrate the majority of runoff from small storms into the soil
rather than discharging it into a surface water body. Infiltration basins can range from a
single shallow depression in a lawn, to an integrated swale, pond, and underground
storage basin network.
Site soil conditions generally determine if infiltration is feasible. In Soil Groups A and B
(see Appendix 3, Section B.1) infiltration is usually acceptable, but it is severely limited
in Soil Groups C and D. It is also limited where high groundwater, steep slopes, or
shallow bedrock is present. The base of an infiltration system must have a vertical
distance of at least 10 feet from the seasonal high groundwater mark (water table).
Infiltration is also not appropriate in or directly above manufactured slopes, where
infiltrated flows could cause slope failures, near building foundations, or where
downstream neighboring properties would be adversely affected.
Infiltration basins can be either open or closed. Open infiltration basins, which include
ponds, swales, and other landscape features, are usually vegetated the vegetation
maintains the porous soil structure, reduces erosion, and utilizes water through
evapotranspiration. In arid regions, Xeriscaped rock-lined basins are common. Closed
infiltration basins can be constructed under the land surface with open graded crushed
stone, leaving the surface to be used for parking or other uses (see Fact Sheet 11).
Subsurface, closed basins are generally more difficult to maintain and more expensive
than surface systems, and are used primarily where high land costs demand that the land
surface be used for economic use.

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Other design considerations include clogging that may occur in very fine or poorly
drained soils and impacts on slope stability if located uphill from hillside sites.
Infiltration basins are best installed at the end of construction, after the site is fully
stabilized. If possible, flows should be bypassed until the site is stabilized, as
construction-related runoff may contain a high proportion of silts that can clog the basin
floor.
Infiltration systems have been used by CALTRANS and local jurisdictions in California
for about three decades [25], though heavy clay soils sometimes limit their local
application. The basic design goal of infiltration systems is to provide opportunities for
rainwater to enter the soil. This is generally accomplished by retarding the flow of
runoff, and by bringing it into contact with the soil, either by holding it in ponds or
subsurface reservoirs or moving it slowly along the ground surface. Infiltration basins
are most economical if placed near the source of runoff, but they should be avoided on
steep, unstable slopes, near building foundations, within 100 feet of water wells, or other
structures.
Infiltration Practices are discussed below:
3.1.1.1.
Infiltration Trench
Infiltration trenches temporarily hold
stormwater runoff within a sub-surface
trench prior to infiltration into the
surrounding soils. An infiltration trench is
similar in function to an infiltration basin
except that an infiltration basins stored
volume is held above ground, while an
infiltration trenchs stored volume is held
below ground.
Photograph: City of Encinitas, Detention/Infiltration Area

For more information on Infiltration

Trenches please see Fact Sheet 1 in Appendix 4.
3.1.1.2.
Infiltration Basin
Infiltration basins are sited in either natural
or excavated open areas and are designed to
temporarily hold stormwater runoff prior to
evaporation and infiltration through the
basin floor. They are similar in function to
infiltration trenches except that an
infiltration basins stored volume is held
above ground, while an infiltration trenchs
stored volume is held below ground.
For more information on Infiltration Basins please see Fact Sheet 2 in Appendix 4.

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3.1.2. Retention and Detention

Retention
and
detention
systems differ from infiltration
systems primarily in intent.
While infiltration systems are
intended to percolate water into
the soil, retention and detention
systems are designed primarily
to store runoff for gradual
release or reuse. Detention
systems store runoff for up to
72 hours after a storm and are
dry until the next storm event.
Detention facilities provide
pollutant
removal
by
temporarily capturing runoff
and allowing particulate matter
to settle prior to release to surface waters. Retention facilities are used to capture runoff,
which is subsequently withdrawn or evaporated [13]. Properly designed retention and
detention systems release runoff slowly enough to reduce downstream peak flows to their
pre-development levels, allow fine sediments to settle, and uptake dissolved nutrients in
the runoff where vegetation is included. Retention and detention systems are most
appropriate for areas where water percolates poorly through the soil.
Detention and retention facilities and other practices that temporarily store runoff also
evaporate it and allow for plant evapotranspiration. Evaporation from runoff detention
and retention areas, including rooftops, streets, basins, and ponds can be an important
mechanism for runoff management within San Diegos warm, dry climate [13].
Outlets of detention systems may clog easily if not properly designed and maintained.
Retention system outlets must both maintain the permanent pool and release the
remainder of runoff at a controlled rate during each storm. Common outlet designs are
orifices, perforated risers, and V-notch weirs, with an emergency spillway provided to
safely convey storms larger than the stormwater quality design storm [11].

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3.1.2.1.
Extended Detention (dry) Ponds
Photograph: City of Encinitas, Volleyball Court/ Detention Area
Extended detention (dry) ponds can be
used for both pollutant removal
and flood control. These ponds store
water during storms anywhere from a
day to a few days, discharge it to
adjacent surface waters, and are dry
between
storms.
Clay
or
impervious soils should not affect
pollutant removal effectiveness, as
the main removal mechanism is settling.
Extended detention ponds are generally
appropriate for developments of ten
acres or larger, and have the potential for
multiple uses including flood control
basins, parks, playing fields, tennis courts, open space, and overflow parking lots. It is
important to consider design elements to improve pond safety. Most importantly,
detention basin side slopes should be constructed at 3:1 or flatter. This prevents people
from accidentally falling into deep water.
For more information on Dry Ponds please see Fact Sheet 3 in Appendix 4.

3.1.3. Biofilters
Biofilters can include rock and vegetated swales, filter strips or buffers, sand filters, and
bioretention. Biofilters are effective if flows are slow and depths are shallow. Shallow
and low-velocity flows are generally achieved by grading the site and sloping pavement
in a way that promotes sheet flow of runoff. The slow movement of runoff through
vegetation provides an opportunity for sediments and particulates to be filtered and
degraded through biological activity [25]. In draining soils, the biofilter also provides an
opportunity for stormwater infiltration, which further removes pollutants and reduces
runoff volumes.
Furthermore, biofiltration devices can be designed with soil
amendments to allow for some flow attenuation.
Photograph Courtesy of EOA, Inc.

Slow, shallow sheet flow is maintained in

the biofilter by constructing it with gently
sloping sides based on slope stability.
The key concept is to move water slowly
through the vegetation at a shallow depth
for a minimum critical time. Biofilters
should be vegetated (and/or rock-lined)
with appropriate plant material such as
Xeriscape plants and/or salt grass to match
the climatic/soil conditions and relevant
landscaping requirements. In the dry arid

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regions of the County, rock swales and Xeriscaping are appropriate to meet State water
conservation goals.
Biofilters are especially applicable to parking lots, parkways, and along highways as the
long aisles can be sloped into linear grass or rock swales to collect and treat runoff from
pavement surfaces. Adjacent pavement elevations should be set slightly higher than the
adjacent biofilter. If water enters at concentrated points, as opposed to sheet flow,
erosion control should be included at inlets and outlets [26].
3.1.3.1.
Vegetated Swales / Rock Swales
Photograph Courtesy of EOA, Inc.
Vegetated or rock swales can be a
particularly effective design strategy in
large conventionally paved parking
lots.
Parking lot drainage can
be integrated with landscaping to
provide
filtration,
evaporation,
infiltration
and
detention
of
stormwater.
Swales provide low
maintenance and act as linear biofilters
along the perimeter of the lot or along
internal islands.
Stormwater is
directed to these linear landscaped
spaces and travels slowly over rocks
and vegetated surfaces, allowing pollutants to settle and slow runoff velocities. Check
dams or gravel weirs can also be added to swales to further slow and spread concentrated
flows.
For more information on Swales please see Fact Sheet 4 in Appendix 4.
3.1.3.2.
Vegetated Filter Strips
Filter strips are areas of either planted or native vegetation, situated between a potential,
pollutant-source area and a surface-water body that receives runoff. The term 'buffer
strip' is sometimes used interchangeably with filter strip. Vegetated filter strips are broad
sloped open vegetated areas that accept shallow runoff from surrounding areas as
distributed or sheet flow.
For more information on Vegetated Filter Strips please see Fact Sheet 5 in Appendix 4.
3.1.3.3.
Sand Filters
Sand filters have proven effective in removing several common pollutants from storm
water runoff. Sand filters generally control storm water quality, providing very limited
flow rate control [27]. The purpose of sand filters is to manage the first flush, which
typically contains the highest concentration of pollutants.
For more information on Sand Filters please see Fact Sheet 6 in Appendix 4.

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3.1.3.4.
Bioretention
Bioretention systems are essentially a surface and sub-surface water filtration system. In
function they are similar to sand filters. However, whereas sand filters provide water
quality treatment via passage of stormwater through a sand medium, Bioretention
systems incorporate both plants and underlying filter soils for removal of contaminants.
For more information on Bioretention please see Fact Sheet 7 in Appendix 4.

Photograph Courtesy of EOA, Inc.

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3.2. Permeable Pavement Design

Permeable pavements can be used for infiltrating stormwater while simultaneously
providing a stable load-bearing surface. While forming a surface suitable for walking
and driving, permeable pavements also contain sufficient void space to infiltrate runoff
into the underlying reservoir base course and soil. In this way they can dramatically
reduce impervious surface coverage without sacrificing intensity of use.
There are four main categories of
permeable pavements: poured inplace pervious concrete, permeable
asphalt concrete, unit pavers, and
granular materials. All of these
permeable pavements (except turf
block) have in common a reservoir
base course. This base course
provides a stable load-bearing
surface as well as an underground
reservoir for water storage. The
base course must meet two critical
requirements:

Photograph: City of Encinitas, Permeable Pavement & Rock Edge

It must be open graded,

meaning that the particles are
of a limited size range, so that
small particles do not choke the voids between large particles. Open-graded crushed
stone of all sizes has a 38 to 40% void space, allowing for substantial subsurface
water storage [28].

It must be crushed stone, not rounded river gravel. Rounded river gravel will rotate
under pressure, causing the surface structure to deform. The angular sides of a
crushed stone base will form an interlocking matrix, allowing the surface to remain
stable.

Depending on the use of the surface, a permeable, engineered base section may need to
be added to support the intended load. This pertains to applications subject to heavy
vehicle loads, but is also important for large areas where settling could result in unwanted
puddling on surfaces such as pedestrian walkways.
When used properly, permeable pavement can facilitate biodegradation of the oils from
cars and trucks, help rainwater infiltrate soil, decrease urban heating, replenish
groundwater, allow tree roots to breathe, and reduce total runoff [29].
Pervious concrete and permeable asphalt are two emerging paving materials with similar
properties. Like their impervious, conventional counterparts, both make a continuous,
smooth paving surface. They differ from their conventional counterparts in that they

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allow water to pass through the surface course to the rock base course that serves as a
reservoir and infiltration basin for stormwater. Both pervious concrete and permeable
Asphaltic Concrete share similar design considerations.
Conventional Concrete and Asphalt
Conventional concrete and asphalt (technically known as Portland cement concrete
and asphaltic concrete, respectively) are impervious pavements widely used in site
development. Because of their ease of installation, flexibility, durability, economy,
and load bearing capabilities, concrete and asphalt are the most commonly used
pavement materials. With a runoff coefficient of near 1.0, conventional concrete
and asphalt pavements are principal contributors to impervious land coverage in
most development. In site design for stormwater quality, these materials are best
used sparingly. If more permeable pavement materials cannot be used, minimizing
the area of concrete and asphalt surfaces through clustering and other techniques
will reduce the resulting impervious land coverage. For remaining area, designing
asphalt and concrete pavement surfaces to slope towards pervious areas instead of
into directly-connected collection structures will reduce their negative impact on
water resources.

3.2.1. Pervious Concrete

Pervious concrete, also known as Portland cement pervious pavement, is most commonly
used in Florida, where it was developed in the 1970s. Pervious concrete is a
discontinuous mixture of coarse aggregate, hydraulic cement and other cementitious
materials, admixtures, and water, which has a surface-void content of 15-25%, allowing
water and air to pass through the pavement.
Pervious concrete, like other concretes, acts as a rigid slab. It has an open, rough
appearance and provides a walking or riding surface similar to aggregate concrete. An
aggregate base course can be added to increase total pavement thickness or hydraulic
storage. Pervious concrete is an extremely permeable material: in tests by the Florida
Concrete and Products Association, permeability of new surfaces has been measured as
high as 56 inches per hour. With improper installation or mix, permeability can be
reduced to 12 inches per hour. Even after attempts to clog the surface with soil by
pressure washing, the material retained some permeability [30]. Because of its porosity,
pervious concrete pavements usually do not require curbs and gutters for primary
drainage control.
Pervious concrete may be suitable for light to medium duty applications such as
residential access roads, residential street parking lanes, parking lots, overflow parking
areas, utility access, sidewalks, bike paths, maintenance walkways/trails, residential
driveways, stopping lanes on divided highways, and patios.
For more information on Pervious Concrete please see Fact Sheet 8 in Appendix 4.

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3.2.2. Permeable Asphalt Concrete (AC)

Permeable AC consists of an open-graded asphalt concrete over an open-graded
aggregate base, over a draining soil. Unlike traditional asphalt concretes, permeable AC
contains very little fine aggregate (dust or sand), and is comprised almost entirely of
stone aggregate and asphalt binder. Without fine sediment filling the voids between
larger particles, permeable AC has a void content of 12-20% which makes it very
permeable.
In installations where permeable AC has been used over a permeable base, the pavement
becomes an infiltration system which allows water to pass through the surface and collect
in the open-graded aggregate base. This will achieve stormwater management without
curb or gutter systems. In these sites which mostly consist of parking lots and light duty
roads in the eastern United States, permeability has been maintained over long periods
without special maintenance. On light duty streets built of permeable AC, some loss of
porosity occurs in localized areas due to sedimentation or scuffing at intersections due to
repeated wheel turning, but the overall performance of the pavement is not significantly
compromised [31]. Permeable AC is widely used by CALTRANS as a wearing course
on freeways because its porosity creates a superior driving surface in rainy weather.
These installations are always over an impermeable asphalt layer and are not permeable
pavements [32]
Permeable AC may be suitable for light to medium duty applications such as residential
access roads, residential street parking lanes, parking lots, overflow parking areas, utility
access, sidewalks, bike paths, maintenance walkways/trails, residential driveways,
stopping lanes on divided highways, and patios. Permeable AC has also been used in
heavy application such as airport runways and highways because its porosity creates a
favorable driving surface in rainy weather [32]. It increases vehicle capacity of the
highways without the expense of widening. As such, interstate highways in Georgia and
Oregon have been repaved with permeable AC for safety reasons. Permeable AC allows
better drainage, traction, and visibility [29].
For more information on Permeable AC please see Fact Sheet 9 in Appendix 4.

3.2.3. Permeable Pavers

Permeable pavers are an alternative to conventional pavement and can create
an opportunity for infiltration of stormwater runoff and groundwater recharge. For areas
that are not heavily trafficked, permeable pavers are also an alternative to conventional
asphalt and concrete. Permeable pavers are modular systems with pervious openings that
allow water to seep through. Runoff that permeates through is either detained in an
underlying gravel bed, infiltrated into the underlying soil, or both. Types of permeable
pavers include open-celled unit pavers or modular blocks made of concrete or brick with
pervious openings.
Open-celled unit pavers are pre-assembled, flexible plastic grid networks that utilize soil
and turf/salt grass or gravel backfill to fill the blocks and create a flat surface.
3.2.3.1 demonstrates one type of open-celled unit paver. The grid systems have a solid

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support structure surrounding an open cell where the grass or gravel is placed. Some
systems have hollow rings or honeycombs with a base, while others have open cells
without bases. The plastic grids are flexible, allowing for use on uneven surfaces. These
systems work well in overflow parking areas, driveways and sidewalks. Open-celled unit
pavers can also be made out of concrete.
Concrete block pavers and brick pavers are designed to set on sand or fine gravel and
form an interlocking pavement surface. Modular block pavers are designed to bear heavy
loads and are well suited for industrial and commercial parking lots, utility access,
residential access roads, driveways, and walkways.
For more information on Unit Pavers please see Fact Sheet 10 in Appendix 4

3.2.3.1.

Open Cell Unit Paver

Open celled unit pavers are available in

either precast concrete or plastic and are
filled with soil and typically planted with
turf. They were developed in Germany
in the 1960s to reduce the heat island
effect of large parking areas and are now
used throughout the world.
The
products vary in size, weight, surface
characteristics, strength, durability,
interlocking capabilities, proportion of
Photograph Courtesy of EOA, Inc.
open area per grid, runoff characteristics,
and cost. Laboratory tests have shown that open-celled units have runoff coefficients of
from 0.05 to 0.35, depending on slope, and surface configuration [31].
When planted with turf, they are generally most successful in overflow parking areas,
driveways, or emergency access roads. If installed in heavily used parking areas, the turf
often does not get adequate sunlight and on heavily traveled roadways it can be worn
away from tire abrasion. Open-celled unit pavers can also be filled with alternatives to
turf which includes either inert gravel or a lower maintenance groundcover such as
chamomile. These alternatives can absorb some traffic and may be more appropriate to
meet the State Water Conservation goals in San Diego. Because of their irregular
surface, open-celled unit pavers generally do not provide comfortable walking surfaces,
though the degree of comfort varies depending on design.
3.2.3.2.
Brick Pavers
Clay-fired brick is an ancient, solid paving material of great durability and flexibility.
When laid on a permeable base with sand joints, brick paving provides an opportunity for
a limited amount of stormwater infiltration, especially at low rainfall intensities. One
experiment found coefficient of runoff volume to rainfall volume between 0.13 and 0.51
at half hour rainfall intensities up to 0.03 inches. This increased to between 0.66 and 0.76

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at intensities between 0.06 and 0.12 inches per half hour [31]. The larger the joints, the
greater the permeability.
Brick is available in a wide range of colors and finishes, and can be set in a variety of
patterns. When laid on sand, it creates a very suitable walking or riding surface. Though
it was widely used for roads in the early part of the last century, it is today generally used
for driveways, pathways, plazas, and patios.
Because brick is a relatively soft material, brick pavements can develop a rich character
over time as the surface becomes slightly worn with use and the natural colors and
textures are exposed. Brick is generally comparable in cost with other solid unit pavers,
though shipping costs and special finishes or colors can affect the price.
3.2.3.3.
Natural Stone Pavers
Natural stone paving materials are available in a wide variety of shapes and colors.
Because of their high cost and relative brittleness, they are usually laid in thin pieces on a
mortar bed over concrete which makes an impervious pavement. Some natural stone
materials, such as flagstone and granite, are available in thicker slabs suitable for placing
on sand. When laid in a random pattern with wide sand, gravel, or soil joints (from 1/2 to
4 inches) random cut stone can create a highly permeable pavement. The joints can be
planted with small groundcovers or left bare. Smaller, square-cut stones can also be
made into permeable pavements. The cobblestone walks of older European cities are a
familiar example of natural stone pavement. Stones set in these tighter sand joints can be
expected to have permeability similar to brick-on-sand.
Because of their high cost, natural stone pavements are generally limited to patio areas or
walkways where they can be attractive accents. Some stone materials, such as flagstone
and slate, are relatively brittle and suitable for pedestrian areas only. Paving made of
harder stone, such as granite, can bear vehicular loads.
3.2.3.4.
Concrete Unit Pavers
Solid, pre-cast concrete unit pavers are available in a wide variety of colors, shapes, sizes,
and textures. They are designed to be set on sand and form an interlocking pavement
surface that can bear heavy traffic loads. Their permeability and performance is similar
to brick-on-sand. Some manufacturers are now producing concrete unit pavers with
small voids to increase permeability (e.g. Ecostone). The cost of concrete unit pavers
is generally the lowest of all unit pavers, though it can vary depending on shipping,
special colors or finishes. A monitored demonstration site of Ecostone concrete pavers at
the San Diego County Operations Center detected no runoff from the pavers during the
2005-2006 and 2006-2007 wet seasons.
For more information on Unit Pavers please see Fact Sheet 10 in Appendix 4

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3.2.4. Subsurface Reservoir Bed

In some cases parking lots can be designed to perform more complex
stormwater management functions. Subsurface stormwater storage and/or infiltration can
be achieved by constructing a stone-filled reservoir below the pavement surface and
directing runoff underground by means of perforated distribution pipes.
Subsurface infiltration basins eliminate the possibilities of mud, mosquitoes and safety
hazards sometimes perceived to be associated with ephemeral surface drainage. They
also can provide for storage of large volumes of runoff, and can be incorporated with roof
runoff collection systems. These underground infiltration and storage systems are
relatively expensive, and require extensive engineering, but have been used in a variety
of locations in the eastern United States where land values are high and the need to
control runoff is great [31]. As emphasis on stormwater management increases, the
economic viability of these solutions will increase.
Based on the infiltration rate of the underlying soils, additional storage may be required
in the granular sub-base layer of a porous pavement section. The required storage may be
based on a comparison of the rate of infiltration of the sub-soils and the design storm
hydrograph. However, sites with low permeability soils (type D) may require
underdrains and/or liners to prevent seepage from damaging existing structures or slopes.
For further information on infiltration considerations, please see Appendix 3.G LID
Treatment BMPs Design Considerations.
For more information on Recharge Beds please see Fact Sheet 11 in Appendix 4.

3.2.5. Granular materials

A wide variety of loose aggregates can be made to form permeable pavements suitable
for walking, jogging, biking, or light vehicular traffic. The size of these granular
materials ranges from fine aggregates to large stones, and can be divided into two general
categories: gravels and cobbles. Depending on the aggregate size, these granular
pavements have a runoff coefficient of 0.20 to 0.40 [31].
If laid on a slope, and subjected to moderate traffic or concentrated runoff, loose gravel
can be displaced and require periodic regrading. Weed abatement may be required
periodically, though this can be reduced by laying permeable landscape fabric between
the gravel and subgrade. Organic materials such as bark or wood chips decompose over
time and must be replenished. Some mulches meet federal requirements for playground
fall surfaces and can be inexpensive, permeable pavements for outdoor play areas.
Installation costs for gravel and other granular materials are generally the least of all
permeable pavements, but require a degree of periodic maintenance to preserve the
integrity of the pavement surface.
For more information on Granular Materials please see Fact Sheet 12 in Appendix 4.

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3.3. LID Road Design

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Roads include a significant portion of impervious coverage in a community and are
among of the largest contributors of stormwater flows and pollutant loads. LID road
design is a strategy to reduce this impact by minimizing impervious coverage
and maximizing stormwater infiltration and pollutant uptake.
Road Design Standards
More than any other single element, road design has a powerful impact on stormwater
quality. Roads are at the nexus of a wide variety of land use and environmental issues.
Considered a number of ways, the road is a large design element. In a typical
neighborhood, the public right-of-way (i.e. the road or street) comprises approximately
20 to 25% of total land area, making it the single most important determinant of
neighborhood character. Roads also can comprise up to 70% of a residential
communitys total impervious land coverage with the remainder of impervious land
coverage coming from rooftops and other structures. This can make road design one of
the greatest factors in a developments impact on stormwater quality. Roads are subject
to municipal ordinances, standards, and management which allow local jurisdictions a
great deal of control over their design. For these reasons, the road is one of the most
important design elements in site planning and an element that can be most directly
affected by local ordinances and policies.
Elements of LID Road Design:
Road layout Consider alternatives that reduce impervious coverage such as
reducing the length of the road network by exploring alternative road layouts.
Clustering homes and narrowing lot frontages can reduce road length by reducing
the overall development area. Another approach is to lengthen street blocks and
reduce cross roads by providing pedestrian and bicycle paths mid-block to
increase access,
Road width Road width is a function of land use, density, road type,
average daily traffic, traffic speeds, street layout, lot characteristics and parking,
drainage, emergency access, and underground utilities.
Cul-de-sac design Cul-de-sacs create large areas of impervious coverage
in neighborhoods. Alternatives to the traditional cul-de-sac can reduce
impervious coverage. Examples of alternatives which reduce impervious surfaces
are; a T-shaped hammerhead turnaround, standard radius cul-de-sac with
landscaped center-island [33] for bioretention (see Section 3.3.6), grid street
systems and a loop road network.
Right-of-way Reflect the minimum required to accommodate the travel
lane, parking, sidewalk, and, if present, vegetation in right of ways.
Permeable materials Use permeable materials in alleys and on-street parking
where feasible (less than 5% slope).

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Increased access Create paths to open space and other opportunities for
pedestrians and bicyclists in subdivisions where alternative street layouts such as
loop networks and cul-de-sacs are utilized.
Traffic calming features Traffic circles, chicanes, chokers, and center
islands, offer the opportunity for stormwater management through the use
of bioretention areas or infiltration within these areas while providing pedestrian
safety [34]. (For definitions and examples of chicanes and chokers, see Traffic
Calming: Roadway Design to Reduce Traffic Speeds and Volumes [34])
Drainage options:
Maintain drainage Preserve natural drainage patterns to the extent feasible and
avoid locating streets in low areas or highly permeable soils.
Uncurbed roads Build uncurbed roads using vegetated swales where feasible.
Urban curb/swale system Runoff runs along a curb and enters a surface swale
via a curb cut, instead of entering a catch basin to the storm drain system.
Concave medians Depress median below the adjacent pavement and design to
receive runoff by curb inlets or sheet flow. This can be designed as a landscaped
swale or a biofilter.

The overall objectives for LID road designs are:

Reduce directly connected impervious area (DCIA) by reducing the overall road
network coverage.
Minimize or eliminate effective impervious area (EIA) and concentrated surface
flows on impervious surfaces by reducing or eliminating hardened conveyance
structures (pipes or curbs and gutters).
Infiltrate and slowly convey storm flows in roadside bioretention cells and swales,
and through permeable paving and aggregate storage systems under the pavement.
Design the road network to reduce site disturbance, avoid sensitive areas, and
reduce fragmentation of landscape.
Create connected street patterns and open space areas to promote walking, biking
and access to transit and services.
Maintain efficient fire, safety, and emergency vehicle access.
Driveway, private road and public (non- circulation element) road design is influenced at
the individual parcel and subdivision scale and is the focus of this section. Road design
is site specific; accordingly, this section does not recommend specific road designs.
Instead, the strengths and weaknesses of different road layouts are examined in the
context of LID to assist designers in the process of providing adequate transportation
systems while reducing impervious surface coverage.
Road Width Considerations. Reduced pavement width is a goal of LID, however the
following concerns should be considered during project design:

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On roads where bicycle traffic is especially high, such as designated bike routes
wider roads may be advisable to provide adequate space.
Typical Fire Department standards require greater paved width for emergency
vehicle access. A principal concern is that emergency access may be blocked if a
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vehicle becomes stalled in the lane. Grid street systems and loop road systems
provide multiple alternate emergency access routes to address this concern,
though there may be a marginal increase in response times.
Hillside sites have special access concerns and fire risks. Because of the potential
for lanes to be blocked by a single vehicle with no comparable alternate route,
reduced street widths may not be advisable on long cul-de-sac streets or
narrow hillside sites.

Road Drainage. Concrete curb and gutters are commonly required along both sides of
a residential road, regardless of number of houses served. The curb and gutter serves
several purposes: it collects stormwater and directs it to underground conveyance
drainage systems, it protects the pavement edge, it prevents vehicle trespass onto the
pedestrian space, it provides an edge against which street sweepers can operate, and it
helps to organize on-street parking. Curb and gutter systems also provide a directly
connected conduit to natural water bodies and may act to collect and
concentrate pollutants. There are two alternatives to typical curb and gutter systems that
meet functional requirements while lessening the streets impact on stormwater quality.
Note that both of these alternatives are discussed and recommended in the Countys
SUSMP.
Private Roads (see [1], and [9]):
1. Rural swale system: road sheet flows to vegetated swale or gravel shoulder, curbs
at street corners, culverts under driveways and road crossings;
2. Urban curb/swale system: road slopes to curb, periodic swale inlets drain to
vegetated swale biofilter.
Driveways and parking areas:
1. Design residential driveways with shared access, flared (single lane at street) or
wheelstrips (paving only under tires); or, drain into landscaping prior to
discharging to the stromwater conveyance system.
2. Uncovered parking on private residential lots may be: paved with a permeable
surface; or, designed to drain into landscaping prior to discharging to the
stormwater conveyance system;
3. Where landscaping is proposed in parking areas, incorporate landscape areas into
the drainage design.
4. Overflow parking may be constructed with permeable paving.
5. Reduce overall imperviousness associated with parking lots by providing compact
car spaces, minimizing stall dimensions, incorporate efficient parking lanes.
Public (non-circulation element) roads - The design of public roads shall use at least one
of the following LID features [9]:

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Reduce sidewalk widths as long as ADA requirements are met

Incorporate landscape buffer areas between sidewalks and streets

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Design non-circulation element streets for the minimum required

pavement widths
Minimize the number of residential street cul-de-sacs and incorporate
landscaped areas to reduce impervious cover
Urban curb/swale system: street slopes to curb, periodic swale inlets drain
to vegetated swale biofilter
For more information on LID Street Design please see Fact Sheet 14 in Appendix 4.

3.3.1. Public Road Standards

Current Public and Private Road standards mandate 60-80% impervious land coverage in
the public right-of-way and/or the Private road easement. Runoff from these impervious
surfaces is a principal concern regarding stormwater quality objectives unless the directly
connected impervious areas are sufficiently reduced. Road standards that allow a
hierarchy of road sizes according to average daily traffic volumes yields a wide variety of
benefits: improved aesthetics from street trees and green parkways, reduced impervious
land coverage, and reduced heat island effect. If the reduction in road width is
accompanied by a drainage system that allows for infiltration of runoff, the impact of
roads on stormwater quality can be effectively mitigated.
Public roads may utilize curbs and gutters, though the gutter may be tied to a biofilter or
swale rather than an underground storm drain. Sidewalks may be provided on one side of
the road, though usually preferable on both sides [35].
For more information on Public Road Standards please see Fact Sheet 15 in Appendix 4.

3.3.2. Private Road Standards

A Private Road is used where required by Subdivision and Zoning Ordinance
requirements. Curbs and gutters are replaced by gravel shoulders that are graded to form
a drainage way, with opportunities for biofiltration and landscaping. Road sheet flow
drains to a vegetated swale or gravel shoulder. Other characteristics of a private road
standard include, curbs at street corners, and the placement of culverts under driveways
and road crossings.
Typically, a narrow two-lane paved roadway is provided at approximately 24 wide.
Most of the time single vehicles use the center of the paved roadway. Protection of the
roadway edge and organization of parking are two significant issues in rural street design.
Roadway edge protection can be achieved by flush concrete bands, steel edge, or wood
headers. Upon recommendation of the local Fire Authority parking can be restricted by
use of signage and/or striping.
For more information on Private Road Standards please see Fact Sheet 16 in
Appendix 4.

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3.3.3. Curb-Cuts
On streets where a more urban
character is desired or where a
rigid pavement edge is required,
curb and gutter systems can be
designed to empty into drainage
swales. These swales can run
parallel to the street, in the
parkway between the curb and the
sidewalk, or can intersect the street
at cross angles, and run between
residences,
depending on
Photograph courtesy of Mike Campbell (RBF consulting)
topography. Runoff travels along
the gutter, but instead of being emptied into a catch basin and underground pipe, multiple
openings in the curb direct runoff into surface swales or infiltration/detention basins. If
lined with vegetation or gravel/rock and gently sloped, these swales function as biofilters.
Because concentration of flow will be highest at the curb opening, erosion control must
be provided, which may include a settlement basin for ease of debris removal.
For more information on Curb-Cuts please see Fact Sheet 17 in Appendix 4.

3.3.4. Rural Swale Systems

On streets where a more rural character is desired, concrete curb and gutter need not be
required. Since there is no hard edge to the street, the pavement margins can be protected
by a rigid header of steel, wood or a concrete band poured flush with the street surface.
Parking can be permitted on a gravel shoulder. If the street is crowned in the middle, this
gravel shoulder also can serve as a linear swale (with appropriate slopes),
permitting infiltration of stormwater along its entire length. Because runoff from the
street is not concentrated, but dispersed along its entire length, the buildup of pollutants
in the soil is reduced. If parking is not desired on the shoulder, signage or striping can
be installed along the shoulder to prevent vehicle trespass. In these ways edge treatments
other than continuous concrete curb and gutters with underground drainage systems can
be integrated into street design to create a headwaters street system that reduces impact
on stormwater quality and that captures the most attractive elements of traditional
neighborhood design. [9]
For more information on Rural Swale Systems please see Fact Sheet 18 in Appendix 4.
Road drainage considerations. The perception that surface swale systems require a
great deal of maintenance is a barrier to their acceptance. In practice, maintenance is
required for all drainage systems, and surface systems can require comparable or less
maintenance than underground systems. Design factors for low maintenance include:

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Erosion control at curb openings

Shallow side slopes and flat bottoms (as opposed to ditches which erode)

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A cobble or rip-rap bottom combined with plantings

Proper plant selection so that weeds are easily maintained

Maintenance practices for surface systems are different than most urban Public Works
Department practices, and some employee retraining may be required to facilitate
maintenance of road systems using surface swales instead of concrete curbs and
underground pipes. One advantage of surface drainage systems is that problems, when
they occur, are easy to fix because they are visible and on the surface.

3.3.5. Concave Median

Conventional median design includes a convex surface rising above the pavement
section, with drainage directed towards a curb and gutter system. Runoff is conveyed
rapidly off the median and the street directly into a catch basin/underground pipe system,
concentrating pollutants and carrying them to water bodies.
If the soil level in the median is designed as a concave surface slightly depressed below
the pavement section, water is directed from the street into the median. Concave medians
are especially valuable at treating the first flush runoff, which carries a high concentration
of oils and other pollutants off the street, especially if the median is designed as
a landscaped swale or turf/rock lined biofilter. Because of the relatively small area
provided by the median for stormwater infiltration and retention, a catch basin and
underground storm drain system may be required. By setting catch basin rim elevations
just below the pavement elevation, but above the flow line of the infiltration swale, a few
inches of water will collect in the swale before overflowing into the underground system.
For more information on Concave Medians please see Fact Sheet 19 in Appendix 4.

3.3.6. Cul-de-sac Design

Cul-de-sac streets present special opportunities and challenges. Because cul-de-sac
streets terminate, they require a turn-around area large enough to accommodate
large trucks. County Fire code requires a minimum paved radius width of 36 feet in
residential areas. If an entire 36 foot radius turnaround is paved, it creates a 4,071 square
foot impervious circle. Aside from the implications for stormwater quality, this is
especially unfortunate as a design element, because it creates a heat island at the front of
several homes. A turnaround with a central concave landscaped area can create an
opportunity for stormwater infiltration and/or detention. A landscaped area in the center
of a cul-de-sac can reduce impervious land coverage depending on configuration.
Design of a landscaped cul-de-sac must be coordinated with fire department personnel to
accommodate turning radii and other operational needs [36].
For more information on Cul-de-sacs please see Fact Sheet 20 in Appendix 4.

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3.4. LID Parking Lot Design

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Parking lots contribute a sizeable
area of impervious coverage to a
community,
and
are significant
sources of stormwater runoff and the
discharge of associated pollutants to
the storm drain system and local
surface waters. Several strategies can
be implemented to mitigate this
impact,
including
reducing
impervious
surfaces,
using
permeable materials in overflow
parking areas and bioretention
basins in parking lot islands and
perimeter landscaping.
Parking is the greatest single land use in most industrial, office, and commercial
development. A standard parking stall, occupies only 160 square feet, but when
combined with aisles, driveways, curbs, overhang space, and median islands, a parking
lot can require up to 400 square feet per vehicle, or nearly one acre per 100 cars. Since
parking is usually accommodated on an asphalt or concrete surface with conventional
underground storm drain systems, parking lots typically generate a great deal of directlyconnected impervious area which make them a significant contributor to environmental
degradation. There are many ways to both reduce the impervious land coverage of
parking areas and to filter runoff before it reaches the storm drain system.
Stormwater management in parking lots can mimic natural hydrologic functions by
incorporating design features that capture, treat, and infiltrate or detain stormwater runoff
rather than conveying it directly into the storm drain system. Management options
include:

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Landscaped detention areas (see Fact Sheet 3) can be installed within and/or at
the perimeter of parking lots to capture and infiltrate or detain runoff.
Parking groves, which include permeable landscaped areas designed with
grades several inches below the impervious parking surface can delineated by flat
concrete curbs, shrubs, trees and bollards (see Fact Sheet 22).
Permeable surfaces can be installed in down gradient parking stalls and in
overflow parking areas. Permeable materials that can be utilized include
permeable pavers, permeable AC, and pervious concrete. In some circumstances,
gravel or wood chips can also be used.
Stormwater runoff from the top floor of parking garages can be drained to
planter boxes located at the perimeter of the parking lot or at street level.

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Reducing Impervious Surfaces

Research has shown that zoning regulations typically
require more parking spaces than are needed. Parking
lot size is usually based on peak demand rather than
average usage.
Parking codes should be reviewed and revised to
either reduce parking minimums or require reduction
in directly connected impervious areas. Parking
codes should also be revised to allow shared parking
for businesses with different hours of peak demand.
Bus and shuttle services can be provided between
commercial centers that experience peak demands
only during holidays and parking areas such as
government facilities and schools that are typically
vacant over holidays. Other strategies that can also
be implemented to reduce the total parking area
include compact parking spaces and determining the
Photograph Courtesy of EOA, Inc.
most space-efficient design for parking spaces
(e.g. angled or perpendicular). Consideration should be given to design options such
as underground parking or multi-storied garages. As noted above, vegetation and
landscaping can be designed to intercept rainfall and capture stormwater. Including trees
in parking lot landscaping should also be considered. In addition to reducing impervious
coverage, trees reduce the urban heat island effect of parking lots by shading heatadsorbing surfaces.

For more information on Hybrid Parking, Lots Parking Groves, and Overflow Parking
please see Fact Sheets 21-23 in Appendix 4.

Photograph: City of Encinitas, Roadside GrassCrete parking

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3.5. LID Driveway, Sidewalk, and Bike Path Design

Driveways, sidewalks, and bike paths add a significant amount of impervious coverage to
a community and are an element of a sites design that can be altered to minimize directly
connected impervious areas. Driveways often slope directly to the street and storm drain
system and contribute significantly to stormwater pollution. There are three primary
strategies that can be implemented to reduce these impacts, including:

Reduce pavement widths.

Direct surface flow from pavements to a permeable landscaped area.
Utilize permeable paving materials

Driveways
Driveways offer a relatively simple opportunity to improve both the aesthetics and
permeability of residential developments.
By allowing tandem parking, shared
driveways, or rear alley access, municipalities can reduce mandated driveway
requirements. For designers and developers, the driveways intimate relationship with
the residence, and its relative freedom from government regulation, make it an element
that can be designed to increase permeability and market appeal. Some treatments, such
as turf-block or gravel, require greater maintenance than poured-in-place asphalt or
concrete designs. Other materials, such as brick or unit pavers, require a greater initial
expense.
Not Directly-Connected Impervious Driveway
A conventional driveway that drains to the storm drain system is a directly connected
impervious area which collects and concentrates pollutants. The easiest way to reduce
the impact of a conventional impervious driveway on water quality is to slope it to drain
onto an adjacent turf or groundcover area. By passing driveway runoff through a
permeable landscaped area, pollutants can be dispersed and cleansed in the soil.
Crushed Aggregate Driveway
Gravel and other granular materials can make a suitable permeable pavement for rural
and other low-traffic driveways. Because it is lightly used by very slow moving vehicles,
a well-constructed driveway of granular material can serve as a relatively
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smooth pavement with minimal maintenance. In choosing a granular material for a

gravel driveway, use crushed stone aggregate. For proper infiltration and stormwater
storage, the aggregate must be open-graded (see Section 3.2: Permeable Pavements).
Unit Pavers on Sand
Unit pavers on sand can make a permeable, attractive driveway. A pavement of brick-onsand or turf-block can make the driveway more integrated with the garden rather than an
extension of the street penetrating deep into the garden space. For parking, a permeable,
engineered base structural section may be required in addition to the sand setting bed.
Some unit pavers may also be installed on very fine gravel.
Paving only Under Wheels
Concrete paving only under the wheel tracks is a viable, inexpensive design if the
driveway is straight between the garage and the street. By leaving the center strip open to
be planted groundcover or filled with a permeable material such as gravel, a driveway of
two concrete wheel tracks can significantly reduce impervious surface
coverage compared with a single lane concrete driveway. Drainage, climate, and
maintenance must be considered with the design of this technique so that the landscape
can be planned appropriately.
Flared Driveways
Long driveways or driveways that serve multi-car garages do not require the full multilane width along their entire length. The approach to the garage can be a single lane,
adequate to accommodate the relatively infrequent vehicle trips, while the front of the
garage can be flared to provide access to all garage doors. This strategy can reduce
overall pavement cost and land coverage while maintaining adequate access for all
parking spaces.
For more information on LID Driveway, Sidewalks, and Bike Path Design please see
Fact Sheet 24 in Appendix 4.

Photograph Courtesy of EOA, Inc.

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3.6. LID Building Design

By definition, buildings create impervious

land coverage.
An important planning
consideration is the site coverage and floor
area ratio (F.A.R.). Buildings of equal floor
area ratio can have widely different
impervious coverage. For example, a two
story building with 1,000 square feet of floor
area will create 500 square feet of impervious
area, while a one story building of the same
floor
area
will
create
twice
the
impervious land coverage. Therefore, multistory buildings have less impact on
stormwater quality than single-story building
with the same square footage. Once the building size and coverage is determined, there
are a limited number of techniques for managing runoff from individual buildings to
collect rooftop runoff and allow it to infiltrate into the soil.

3.6.1. Dry-Well
If a gutter and downspout system is used to collect rainwater that falls on a roof, runoff
becomes highly concentrated. If the downspout is connected to a dry-well, this
runoff can be stored and slowly infiltrated into the soil. A dry-well is constructed by
digging a hole in the ground and filling it with an open graded aggregate. An
underground connection from the downspout conveys water into the dry well, allowing it
to be stored in the voids. To reduce sedimentation from lateral soil movement, the sides
and top of the stone storage matrix can be wrapped in a permeable filter fabric,
though the bottom may remain open. A perforated observation pipe can be inserted
vertically into the dry-well to allow for inspection and maintenance. In practice, drywells receiving runoff from single roof downspouts have been successful over long
periods because they contain very little sediment. They must be sized according to
the amount of rooftop runoff received, but are typically 4 to 5 feet square, and 2 to 3 feet

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deep, with a minimum of 1 foot soil cover over the top (maximum depth of 10 feet). To
protect the foundation, dry-wells must be set away from buildings as required based on
soil type, and must follow local building codes. They must be installed in soils
that accommodate infiltration. In poorly drained soils, dry-wells have very limited
feasibility unless designed with an underdrain. Dry-wells must receive approval from a
qualified, licensed professional.
For more information on Dry Wells please see Fact Sheet 25 in Appendix 4.

3.6.2. Rain Water Harvesting

A key LID technique in a setting with soils relatively restrictive to infiltration is water
harvesting, which can be applied at smaller residential scales using rain barrels or cisterns
at larger scales in commercial and light industrial developments. Harvesting has been
successful in reducing runoff discharged to the storm drain system and conserving water
in applications at all scales.
3.6.2.1.
Cisterns & Rain Barrels
Photograph Courtesy of Arid Solutions, Inc.
Cisterns and rain barrels capture roof runoff
from the roof downspout and provide an
effective way to store and slowly
release runoff into the soil. A cistern is an
above ground storage vessel with either a
manually operated valve or a permanently
open outlet. If the cistern has an operable
valve, the valve can be closed to store
stormwater for irrigation or infiltration
between storms.
This system requires
continual monitoring by the resident
or grounds crews, but provides greater
flexibility in water storage and metering. If
a cistern is provided with an operable
valve and water is stored inside for long
periods, the cistern must be covered to
prevent mosquitoes from breeding. A cistern system with a permanently open outlet can
also provide for metering stormwater runoff. If the cistern outlet is significantly smaller
than the size of the downspout inlet (say 1/4 to 1/2 inch diameter), runoff will build up
inside the cistern during storms, and will empty out slowly after peak intensities subside.
This is a feasible way to mitigate the peak flow increases caused by rooftop impervious
land coverage, especially for small storms. Cisterns can be incorporated into the
aesthetics of the building and garden. The cistern must be designed and maintained to
minimize clogging by leaves and other debris. In the dryer regions of the County,
cisterns and rain barrels may only fill up a couple times a year and may be more practical
when the system is supplemented with graywater from a County Permitted Graywater
System.

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3.6.2.2.
Large Scale Harvesting
Examples exist around the world of harvesting water from much larger buildings than
could be served by a rain barrel, including vertically elevated as well as horizontally
spread harvesting structures. For example, in downtown Seattle the King County
Government Center collects enough roof runoff to supply over 60 percent of the toilet
flushing and plant irrigation water requirements, saving approximately 1.4 million
gallons of potable water per year [42]. A smaller public building in Seattle, the Carkeek
Environmental Learning Center, drains roof runoff into a 3500-gallon cistern to supply
toilets [43]. The Natural Resources Defense Council office in Santa Monica is another
example of a medium-scale rain harvesting application [44].
For more information on Rain Harvesting please see Fact Sheet 26 in Appendix 4.

3.6.3. Foundation Planting

For buildings that do not use a gutter system, landscape planting around the base of the
eaves can provide increased opportunities for stormwater infiltration and protect the soil
from erosion caused by concentrated sheet flow coming off the roof. Foundation
plantings can reduce the physical impact of water on the soil and provide a subsurface
matrix of roots that encourage infiltration. These plantings must be sturdy enough
to tolerate the heavy runoff sheet flows and periodic soil saturation but should not have
large woody roots that can grow under and disturb building foundation. Unvegetated
foundation swales utilizing cobble and gravel can also be used to protect foundations
from potential water damage.
For more information on Foundation Planting please see Fact Sheet 27 in Appendix 4.

3.6.4. Downspout to Swale

Discharging the roof downspout to landscaped areas via swales allows for polishing and
infiltration of the runoff. The downspout can be directly connected to a pipe
which daylights some distance from the building foundation, releasing the roof runoff
into a swale or landscaped area. An energy dissipater such as rock or cobble is
recommended at the outlet. The roof runoff is slowed by the rocks, absorbed by the soils
and vegetation, and remaining runoff can then flow away from the building foundation
towards the storm drain.
For more information on Downspout to Swale please see Fact Sheet 28 in Appendix 4.

3.6.5. Vegetated Roofs

Vegetated roofs (also known as green roofs and eco-roofs) offer a number of benefits in
the urban landscape including: increased energy efficiency, improved air quality, reduced
temperatures in urban areas, noise reduction, improved aesthetics, extended life of the
roof, and most importantly improved stormwater management. Stormwater benefits
include: reduction of stormwater run-off, reduce quantity of industrial effluent, extend
lifetime of infrastructure, reduce CSO events, and reduce flooding potential [37].

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Vegetated roofs fall into two categories: intensive and extensive. Intensive roofs are
designed with a relatively deep soil profile and are often planted with ground covers,
shrubs, and trees. Intensive green roofs may be accessible to the public for walking or
serve as a major landscaping element of the urban setting. Extensive vegetated roofs are
designed with shallow, light-weight soil profiles and ground cover plants adapted to the
harsh conditions of the roof top environment [38].
For more information on Vegetated Roofs please see Fact Sheet 29 in Appendix 4.

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3.7. LID Landscaping Design

In the natural landscape, most soils infiltrate a high percentage of rainwater through a
complex web of organic and biological activities that build soil porosity and
permeability. Roots reach into the soil and separate particles of clay, insects excavate
voids in the soil mass, roots decay leaving networks of macropores, leaves fall and form
mulch over the soil surface, and earthworms burrow and ingest organic detritus to create
richer, more porous soil. These are just a few examples of the natural processes that
occur within the soil [39]. In the developed environment, a certain amount of soil must
be covered with impervious surface, but the remaining landscape can be designed and
maintained to maximize its natural permeability and infiltration capacity.
One simple strategy to improve infiltration is to use the grading of landscape surfaces.
If a landscape surface is graded to have a slightly concave slope, it will hold water. The
infiltration value of concave vegetated surfaces is greater in permeable soils. Soils of
heavy clay or underlain with hardpan provide less infiltration value. In these cases
concave vegetated surfaces must be designed as retention/detention basins, with proper
outlets or underdrains to an interconnected system.
Aeration techniques such as drilling, scarifying, and roto-tilling can break up soil and
enhance percolation. In addition, by properly amending the soil and increasing soil
organic matter, water holding capacity can be significantly increased
Water Conservation in Landscaping Act of 1990
The State of Californias Department of Water Resources is updating their Water
Conservation Landscape Ordinance to establish specific standards for landscape design
and irrigation design to assure efficient and responsible use of all available water
resources for all citizens within the State. The Ordinance is also intended to implement
the new development landscape design requirements of California Assembly Bill 1881,
update to the Water Conservation in Landscaping Act [40]. These design requirements
will support landscapes that are essential to the quality of life here in San Diego County.
The requirements will also assure that we continue to meet a variety of landscaping
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off. Landscape design, installation, maintenance, and management can and should be
water efficient.
All landscape improvements shall conform to the County of San Diegos Landscape
Water Conservation Design Manual. Where a local water agency serving a proposed
project has adopted more stringent water conservation landscape requirements, the
landscaping and irrigation design shall comply with the water agencys requirements.
Where appropriate for the site and the intended stormwater management technique, the
landscaping may include natural features such as rock and stone.
Where service is available to the project site and appropriate for the intended use,
recycled or reclaimed water shall be used for irrigation.

3.7.1. Soil Amendments

Development activities often remove, disturb and compact topsoil from construction
sites. The outcome is a decrease in the infiltration and water storage capacity of post
development soils, and an increase in stormwater runoff potential. In addition, soils in the
arid climate of San Diego tend to lack organic matter and nutrients, and often have a high
silt and/or clay content. Soils high in clay content have slow infiltration rates, resulting in
a high runoff potential. By properly amending soils their hydrologic characteristics can
be enhanced, leading to increased infiltration and water storage characteristics. Benefits
accrued by incorporating soil amendments include decreased stormwater runoff, a
decrease in polluted runoff from landscaping practices, and water conservation.
Organic soil amendments improve soils by increasing the water holding capacity in sandy
soils, improving the physical characteristics of clay soils by altering the soil structure and
percolation rates, and by providing a steady supply of nutrients and organics to help
remediate ground water pollution. Properly prepared organic material can increase the
microbial diversity in the soil and enhance plant health and immunity to disease.
Composted products from licensed facilities are recommended, as these products have
undergone a process to reduce pathogens and have a carbon: nitrogen ratio of less than
25:1. They can be tilled into the soil or can be applied as a top dressing to existing
landscaped areas.
Landscaped areas that include decorative turf grass are a major contributor to stormwater
runoff contaminated by fertilizers and pesticides. In landscaped areas where soils have
been compacted and not amended, soils can behave like impervious areas, generating
considerable amounts of runoff. By properly amending soils, the runoff potential can be
reduced. This also reduces irrigation needs, as water is more easily infiltrated into the
ground and retained in the soil matrix where it can be utilized by plants. Fertilizer needs
can also be reduced by incorporating appropriate soil amendments, thereby reducing
stormwater pollution.
For more information on Soil Amendments please see Fact Sheet 30 in Appendix 4.

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3.7.2. Street Trees

Trees can be used as a stormwater management tool in additions to providing more
commonly recognized benefits such as energy conservation, air quality improvement, and
aesthetic enhancement. Tree surfaces (roots, foliage, bark, and branches) intercept,
evaporate, transpire, store or convey precipitation before it reaches surrounding
impervious surfaces. In bioretention cells or swales, tree roots build soil structure that
enhances infiltration capacity and reduces erosion [41].

Local community planning areas often have specific guidelines for the type and
location of trees planted along public streets or rights-of-way. The extent and
growth pattern of the root structure must be considered when trees are planted in
bioretention areas or other stormwater facilities with under-drain structures or
near paved areas such as driveways, sidewalks, utilities or streets.

For more information on Street Trees please see Fact Sheet 31 in Appendix 4.

3.7.3. Plant Species Selection for Infiltration Areas

The proper selection of plant materials can improve the infiltration potential of landscape
areas. Deep rooted plants help to build soil porosity. Plant leaf-surface area helps to
collect rainwater before it lands on the soil, especially in light rains, increasing the overall
water-holding potential of the landscape. A single street tree can have a total leaf surface
area of several hundred square feet, depending on species and size. This above ground
surface area created by trees and other plants greatly contributes to the water-holding
capacity of the land.
A large number of plant species will survive periodic inundation. These plants provide a
wide range of choices for planted infiltration/detention basins and drainage swales. Most
inundated plants have a higher survival potential on well drained alluvial soils than on
fine-textured shallow soils or clays. [38]. When designing landscapes for stormwater
management, appropriate groundcover and plant species must be selected. Xeriscape
plants, salt grass lawns, woody perennials, and cobbles can all be used, depending on the
desired aesthetic effect.
Selection of appropriate plant material for LID projects is dependant on several factors
These include:

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Micro-climatic conditions of planting area (i.e., sun exposure, temperature highs

and lows, prevailing winds)
Soil type (i.e., clay, sand, silt)
Drought or temporary inundation tolerance
Plants ability to aid in the removal of contaminants
Visual characteristics of plants (texture, color, form)
Maintenance requirements
Non-invasive
Disease resistance

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Final selection of plant material needs to be made by a landscape architect experienced

with LID improvement projects. Water retention areas and bio-swales need to have
access for periodic maintenance activities.
For more information on Plant Species please see Fact Sheet 32 in Appendix 4.

3.7.4. Landscape Maintenance for Stormwater Systems

All landscape treatments require maintenance.
Landscapes designed to perform
stormwater management functions are not necessarily more maintenance intensive than
highly manicured conventional landscapes. A concave lawn requires the same mowing,
fertilizing and weeding as a convex one and less irrigation after rain is filtered into the
underlying soil.
Sometimes infiltration basins may require a different kind
of maintenance than conventionally practiced.
Typical maintenance activities include periodic inspection of surface drainage systems to
ensure clear flow lines, repair of eroded surfaces, adjustment or repair of drainage
structures, soil cultivation or aeration, care of plant materials, replacement of dead plants,
replenishment of mulch cover, irrigation, fertilizing, pruning and mowing. Landscape
maintenance can have a significant impact on soil permeability and its ability to support
plant growth. Most plants concentrate the majority of their small absorbing roots in
the upper 6 inches of the soil surface if the surface is protected by a mulch or forest litter.
If the soil is exposed or bare, it can become so hot that surface roots will not grow in the
upper 8 to 10 inches. The common practice of removing all leaf litter and detritus with
leaf blowers creates a hard crusted soil surface of low permeability and high heat
conduction. Proper mulching of the soil surface improves water retention and infiltration,
while protecting the surface root zone from temperature extremes [38]. In addition to
impacting permeability, landscape maintenance practices can have adverse effects on
water quality. Because commonly used fertilizers and herbicides are a source of
organic compounds, it is important to keep these practices to a minimum, and prevent
over watering. Over watering can be a significant contributor to run off and dry weather
flows. Watering should only occur to accommodate plant health and should be adjusted
at least four times a year. When ever practical, utilize Weather Based Irrigation
Controllers and follow real time evapotranspiration (plant water use) data from the
California Irrigation Management Information System (CIMIS) from the Department of
Water Resources. Organic methods for fertilizers and pest control (including Integrated
Pest Management) should be utilized. When well-maintained and designed, landscaped
concave surfaces, infiltration basins, swales and bio-retention areas can add aesthetic
value while providing the framework for environmentally sound, comprehensive
stormwater management systems.

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