VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg.

Department

ENTROPY
The first law of thermodynamics introduces the concept of the internal energy U, and this
term helps us to understand the nature of energy, as defined by the first law. In the similar
way the second law introduces the concept of entropy S, like internal energy it is also a
thermodynamic property and is defined only in terms of mathematical operations.
General Discussion:
For a system undergoing a quasistatic process, work done at the boundary is given by,

W P dV (1)

Since a reversible process is a quasistatic process this relation gives the work done at the
boundary of a system during a reversible process.
Considering a reversible cycle in which only work involved is done at the boundary of
the system , we have

Q W P dV (2)
Form the equation (2) ,Work is given by the cyclic integral of product of two properties
viz. P is an intensive property & dV is change in an extensive property.
For a reversible cycle when work (which is a path function) is defined by the product of
two properties one is intensive and the other is change in an extensive property, why
cant Heat (which is also a path function) is defined by the cyclic integral of product of
two properties one intensive and the other change in an extensive property.
Yes, the intensive property most closely associated with heat is temperature and the other
extensive property for this answer is ENTROPY. Total entropy is denoted by capital
letter S and lower case s represents the specific entropy, i.e. entropy / unit mass.
If entropy is an extensive property then what exactly is entropy?
Entropy is
1. The amount of Energy that is not available for work during a certain process
2. A measure of the disorder of a system.
3. Measure of disorganization or degradation in the universe that reduces available
energy, or tendency of available energy to dwindle. Chaos, opposite of order.
4. The state of disorder in a thermodynamic system: the more energy the higher the
entropy.
5. A measure of the dispersal or degradation of energy.
MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

6.A measure of the disorder or randomness in a closed system. For example, the entropy
of an unburned piece of wood and its surroundings is lower than the entropy of the
ashes, burnt remains, and warmed surroundings due to burning that piece of wood.
7.The scientific measure of the disorder in a system; the greater the disorder, the greater
the entropy.
8.The thermodynamic entropy S, often simply called the entropy in the context of
thermodynamics, is a measure of the amount of energy in a physical system that cannot
be used to do work. It is also a measure of the disorder present in a system. The SI unit
of entropy is JK-1 (joule per Kelvin), which is the same unit as heat capacity.
9."Entropy" is defined as a measure of unusable energy within a closed or isolated system
(the universe for example). As usable energy decreases and unusable energy increases,
"entropy" increases. Entropy is also a gauge of randomness or chaos within a closed
system. As usable energy is irretrievably lost, disorganization, randomness and chaos
increase.

Understanding entropy:
Example 1.
One of the ideas
involved
in
the
concept of entropy is
that nature tends from
order to disorder in
isolated systems. This
tells us that the right
hand box of molecules
happened before the
left. Using Newton's
laws to describe the
motion
of
the
molecules would not
tell you which came
first.

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

For a glass of water the number of
molecules is astronomical. The
jumble of ice chips may look
more disordered in comparison to
the glass of water which looks
uniform and homogeneous. But
the ice chips place limits on the
number of ways the molecules
can be arranged. The water
molecules in the glass of water
can be arranged in many more
ways;
they
have
greater
"multiplicity"
and
therefore
greater entropy.

Example 2.

Solids have lesser entropy than liquids. Statistically, in solids the atoms or molecules are
in their fixed places, whereas in liquids and even more in gases you never know exactly
where to find them. The fixed sequence of atoms in solids reflects a higher ordered state.
Consider a body which is heated and another one is cooled. What happens to the entropy
of the two bodies? Entropy increases on heating. Does disorder increase, too?
Yes, it does. We know that heat is stored in a piece of matter as the random motion of
particles. The hotter a body, the more its atoms and molecules jiggle around. It is not
difficult to identify disorder by faster jiggling motion.

CLAUSIUS THEOREM:
The thermal efficiency of reversible Carnot cycle is given by the expression,

Carnot 1

QL
T
Q
Q
1 L or H L (1)
QH
TH
TH TL

Where TH and TL are the temperatures of high temperature thermal reservoir and low
temperature thermal reservoir respectively, and QH is the heat supplied and QL is the heat
rejected by the Carnot engine.
Considering the usual sign convention, +ve for the heat absorbed and ve for the heat
rejected, we may write,

QH
Q
Q
Q
L or H L 0 (2)
TH
TL
TH TL
QH
Q
and L , associated with
TH
TL
absorption and rejection of heat by the fluid of a reversible heat engine is zero for the
Equation (2) shows that the sum of the quantities

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

entire cycle. Since the working fluid returns to its initial state at the end of the cycle, it
QH
Q
and L
undergoes no net change in properties, suggesting that the quantities
TH
TL
represents property changes of the working fluid because their sum is zero for the cycle
and this is the characteristic of a property or state function. The amount of heat transfer is
known to depend on the path of the process. However if the heat is divided by the
temperature at which the transfer takes place, the result is independent on the path.
The above conclusion is for the Carnot reversible cycle. But it can be proved that the
conclusion is valid for any reversible cycle.
Consider any arbitrary reversible cycle a-b-c-d-a as shown. In such cycle absorption and
rejection of heat do not occur at two constant temperatures but take place at continuously
changing temperatures.

j
m
f
Pressure

e
c
a
n

g
d

Volume
The cycle can be now broken into an infinite number elementary Carnot cycle by
drawing a series of infinitely close adiabatic lines, eh, fg, mn, etc. efgh, fmng etc
represents elementary Carnot cycle in which sections ef, gh etc can be considered as
isothermal lines.
For any differential Carnot cycle, efgh, let QH1 be the heat absorbed during isothermal
process ef and QL1 be the heat rejected during the isothermal process gh. The temperature
of ef is TH1 and gh process is TL1.Then we may write,
QH 1
Q
L1
TH 1
TL1
Using proper sign convention +ve for the absorption of heat and -ve for rejection, we get,

QH 1
Q
L1 0 (1)
TH 1
TL1

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Similarly,

QH 2
Q
L 2 0 (2) for the cycle fmng
TH 2
TL 2
From these relations we see that the algebraic sum of the ratios of the amounts of heat
transferred to the absolute temperature for the Carnot cycles taken together is equal to
zero, thus,

QH 1
Q Q
Q

L1 H 2 L 2
TL1 TH 2
TL 2
TH 1
i.e.

QH

QL
TL

0 (3)

As the number of Carnot cycles is very large, the sum of the terms
cycle becomes equal to the cyclic integral of

Q
0 ( 4)
T

Q
over the complete
T

Q
, We may , therefore write
T

Where R represents reversible cycle. This result is known as CLAUSIUS THEOREM.

Q
is known as ENTROPY.
T
ENTROPY:
Definition: Entropy , S is a property of system such that its increase S2 - S1 as the system
changes from state 1 to state 2 is given by,
Q R
(1)
T
1
2

S 2 S1

In differential form equation (1) can be written as dS

Q R
T

THE CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY:

When any system undergoes a cyclic process, the integral around the cycle of

Q
is less
T

than or equal to zero.

In symbols,

Q
T 0 (1)

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Where Q is an infinitesimal heat transfer, T is absolute temperature of the part of the
system to which heat transfer Q occurs.
PROOF:
For any reversible cycle from Clausius theorem,

Q
0 ( 2)
T

From the Carnots theorem we know that the efficiency of an irreversible engine is less
than that of a reversible engine, i.e.

I R

Where I is efficiency of the irreversible engine and R is efficiency of the reversible

engine.
Q
Q
Hence, 1 L 1 L (3)
QH I
QH R
Where I and R represents irreversible and reversible processes respectively.
For a reversible engine, the ratio of the heat absorbed and heat rejected is equal to the
ratio of the absolute temperatures. Therefore
Q
T
Q T
1 L 1 L (4)
i.e. L L
QH I
TH
QH I TH

Q T
Q Q
or H H i.e. H L 0 (5)
QL I TL
TH I TL I
Using sign conventions of +ve for absorption of heat and ve for the rejection of heat ,
we get,
QH QL

0 (6)
T
T
H I L I
From this we see that the algebraic sum of the ratios of the amounts of heat transferred to
the absolute temperature for a cyclic irreversible process is always less than zero,

Q
0 (7 )
T

Combining equations (2) and (7), we get

Q
T 0 (8)

This is known as CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY.

CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY is helpful in determining whether the process is reversible
or not.
If

Q
Q

0
,
the
cycle
is
reversible,
T
T 0 , the cycle is irreversible and possible

and
MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Q
T 0 , the cycle is impossible since it violates the second law of thermodynamics.
ILLUSTRATION OF CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY:
Example 1. Consider the flow of heat from the reservoir at temp T1 to that at T2 across
the conductor as shown. Conductor is the system. In the steady state there is no change in
the state of the system.

T1

Q1

T2

Q2

A Clausius
inequality

Let Q1 = 1000 kJ , T1 = 500 K, T2 = 250 K

Since Q1 = 1000 kJ , Q2 = -1000 kJ

Q 1000 1000

2.5 kJ / K , Hence
T
500
250

Q
0 , proved.
T

Example 2. E is the system which executes a cyclic process.

Q 1000 600
T 500 250 0.4 kJ / K

500 K

However, if E were a reversible engine, then

work
W would have been,

1000 kJ
W

E
600 kJ

1000 (500 250 )

500 kJ
500

and

Q 1000 1000 500

0 kJ / K
T
500
250

Hence
250 K

0 proved

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Example 3.
A heat engine receives reversibly 420 kJ / cycle of heat from a source at 327 0C, and
rejects heat reversibly to a sink at 27 0C. There are no other heat transfers. For each of the
three hypothetical amounts of heat rejected, in (a), (b) and (c) below, compute the cyclic
Q
integral of
. From these results show which case is irreversible, which reversible and
T
which impossible. (a) 210 kJ / cycle rejected (b) 105 kJ / cycle rejected and (c) 315 kJ /
cycle rejected.

Case (a)

Q 420 210
Q

0 , Since
0 , reversible
T
600 300
T

Case (b)

Q 420 105
Q

0.35 , Since
0 , Impossible
T
600 300
T

Case (c)

Q 420 315
Q

0.35 , Since
0 , irreversible
T
600 300
T

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

ENTROPY IS A PROPERTY:
Proof that entropy is a property:
Statement: For any system undergoing internally reversible cycle, the integral of

Q R
is zero, in symbols,
T

Q R
T 0 (1)

Let the system executes a cyclic process, starting at state 1, proceeding to state 2 along
the reversible path A, and returning state 1 along a different path B.
Reversible Path A
2
Y

Reversible Path B
1
X

Q R
T 0 ( 2)

From the Clausius inequality we have along path 1A2B1,

Since the process is reversible, we may reverse it and thus cause the system to retrace its
path precisely. Let the element of heat transfer corresponding to the system boundary at
temperature T be QR , for this reversed process.

Q ' R
0 (3)
Then we have along path 1B2A1,
T
But, since the second cycle is simple the first one with the direction reversed, we have,

Q R Q R ( 4 )
'

Therefore, statement (3) becomes; along path 1B2A1,

or

Q R
0 (6)
T

Q R
0 ( 5)
T

Comparing statements (2) and (6) we see that they can be both true simultaneously only

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

if,

Q R
0 (7 ) , hence Entropy is a property.
T
Q R
, when a system executes any reversible process
T

Statement: The integral of

between fixed end states, is independent of the path of the process.

2 Q
Q R

1 A T 1B T R
2

In symbols, for arbitrary paths A and B,

Reversible Path A
2
Y

Reversible Path B
Reversible Path C
1

X
Consider a system which executes a reversible cyclic process, from 1 along path A to 2,
and back along path C to 1.Then we have,
2 Q
1 Q
Q R
R

AC T 1 A T 2C T R 0 (1)

Similarly, for the reversible cyclic process 1B2C1, we can write,

2 Q
1 Q
Q R
R

BC T 1B T 2C T R 0 (2)

From equations (1) and (2) we get, i.e. (1) (2) gives,

1 Q
2 Q
1 Q
Q R
R
R

1 A T 2C T 1B T 2C T R 0 (2)
2

2 Q
Q R

1 A T 1B T R (3)
2

i.e.

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Path A and path B are arbitrary and

Q R
T

has the same value for any reversible

path between (1) and (2) , hence from the definition of entropy we may write ( S 2- S1) has
the same value for any reversible path between 1 and 2 . Therefore ENTROPY is a
property.
CALCULATION OF ENTROPY CHANGE FOR DIFFERENT PROCESS
Entropy change in IRREVERSIBLE process:
For a process that occurs irreversibly, the change in entropy is greater than the heat
change divided by the absolute temperature. In symbols,
dS

Q
T

Proof:
Irreversible Path A
2
P

Reversible Path B
1

V
Consider an arbitrary irreversible cycle 1-A-2-B-1 as shown in figure. The path 1 to 2
(1-A-2) is traversed irreversibly and the path 2 to 1 ( 2-B-1) reversibly. From the Clausius
Inequality, we have

Q
0 , for the cycle which is irreversible and
T

Q
0 , for the cycle which is reversible ---------------------------- (1)
T
Since
the
entropy
is
a
thermodynamic
property,
we

dS

1A

can

dS I dS R 0 ( 2)
2B

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

write

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

1

For a reversible process we have,

2B

Q R
(3)
2B T
1

dS R

Substituting this in equation (2), we get

1A

Q R
0 ( 4)
2B T
1

dS I

Using equation (1), for an irreversible cycle,

2 Q
Q

T 1 A T I

0 ( 5)
2B
T R
1

Now subtracting equation (5) from equation (4), we get

1A

For

dS I

Q
1 A T I
2

small

changes

Q
dS I

T I

( 6)
in

states

the

above

expression

can

be

written

as,

(7 )

Where the subscript I represents the irreversible process. The equation (7) states that in
Q
an irreversible process the change in entropy is greater than
. Therefore we can write,
T

dS I

Q
T

,where equality sign is for reversible process and inequality sign is for

irreversible process.
IMPORTANT: The effect of irreversibility is always to increase the entropy of the
system. If an isolated system is considered, from the first law of thermodynamics the
internal energy of the system will remain constant. Q 0 , from the above expression

dS Isolated 0 , i.e., the entropy of an isolated system either increases or remains

constant. This is a corollary of the second law of thermodynamics and this explains the
principle of increase in entropy.
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION OF THE SECOND LAW:

Q TdS

for reversible processes and Q TdS for irreversible processes

The above equation may be regarded as the analytical expression of the second law of
thermodynamics.
MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

ENTROPY CHANGES FOR AN OPEN SYSTEM:
In an open system the entropy is increased because the mass that crosses the boundary of
the system has entropy. Thus for an open system, we may write,

dS

Q
mi s i me s e (1)
T

Where, mi and me are the masses entering and leaving the system & si , s e are the
entropies.
As the mass mi enters the system , the entropy is increased by an amount mi si ,
similarly as the mass me leaves the system , the entropy decreases by an amount
me s e
In steady flow process there is no change in the mass of the system and mi me m .
We can write, therefore

m ( se si )

Q
( 2)
T

s s

For steady flow adiabatic process

Q 0 ) i.e. in a steady flow
e
i ( since
adiabatic process the entropy of the fluid leaving must be equal to or greater than the
entropy of the fluid coming in.
Since the equality sign holds for a reversible process, we conclude that for a reversible
steady flow adiabatic process,

se si (3)
IMPORTANT RELATIONS FOR A PURE SUBSTANCE INVOLVING ENTROPY

PURE SUBSTANCE:
A pure substance has a homogeneous and invariable chemical composition even though
there occurs a phase change.
The first law for a closed system is given by,

Q dE W (1)
In the absence of changes in kinetic and potential energies the equation (1) can be written
as

Q dU W ( 2)

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

For a reversible process

Q TdS

Therefore equation (2) becomes

TdS dU W (3)
The work done at the boundary of a system during a reversible process is given by

W PdV ( 4)
Substituting this in equation (3), we get

TdS dU PdV (5)

From equation (5) we realize that it involves only changes in properties and involves no
path functions. Therefore we conclude that this equation is valid for all processes, both
reversible and irreversible and that it applies to the substance undergoing a change of
state as the result of flow across the boundary of the open system as well as to the
substance comprises a closed system.
In terms of per unit mass the equation (5) can be written as

Tds du Pdv (6)

dU d H PV
dH PdV VdP

Since

(since H = U + PV)

TdS dH PdV VdP PdV dH VdP

TdS dH PdV VdP PdV dH VdP

Therefore
i.e.

TdS dH VdP

In terms of unit mass,

or

Tds dh vdP

ds

dh vdP
(7 )
T

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

PRINCIPLE OF THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY:
Entropy Change for the System + Surroundings
Consider the process shown. Let Q is the heat transfer from a system at temperature T to
the surroundings at temperature T0, and W is the work of this process (either +ve or ve
). Using the principle of increase in entropy

dS system

System
Temperature = T

Q
(1)
T

dS surroundin gs

Q
( 2)
T0

for a reversible process

The total change of entropy for the combined
system

Q
Surroundings
Temperature = T0

dS system dS surroundin gs

Q Q

T
T0

1 1
or dS system dS surroundin gs Q
T T0
The same conclusion can be had for an open system, because the change in the entropy of
the system would be

dS open system

Q
mi si me se
T

The change in the entropy of the surroundings would be,

dS surroundings

Q
mi si me se
T0

dS system dS surroundin gs
Therefore,

that

or dS system dS surroundin gs

Q Q

T
T0

1 1
Q
T T0

since T T0 and it follows

1 1

0 and therefore dS system dS surroundin gs 0

T T0

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

This means that processes involving an interaction of a system and its surroundings will
take place only if the net entropy change is greater than zero or in the limit remains
constant. The entropy attains its maximum value when the system reaches a stable
equilibrium state from a non equilibrium state.
ENTROPY FOR AN IDEAL GAS :
Let the ideal gas undergoes a change of state from state 1 to state 2. Let T1 , V1 and T2 ,
V2 be the temperatures and volumes at state 1 and 2 respectively.

TdS dU PdV (1)

We have,

dU P
dV
T
T

or dS

Since, dU m cv dT and
dS mcv

P mR
where m is the mass and R is the gas constant, we get

T
V

dT
dV
therefore
mR
T
V
T2

2
2
V
dT
dV
dT
S 2 S1 m c v
mR
m cv
m R ln 2 (2)
T
V
T
V1
T1
V1
T1

If cv = constant, then

S 2 S1 m cv ln

T2
V
m R ln 2 (3)
T1
V1
TdS dH VdP

Similarly, we have

or dS

Since, dH mc p dT &

T2

dH V
dP ( 4)
T
T

V mR
dT
dP
we get, dS mc p

mR
T
P
T
P

2
2
P
dT
dP
dT
Therefore, S 2 S1 m c p
m R cv
m cp
m R ln 2 (5)
T
P
T
P1
T1
p1
T1

If cp = constant, then S 2 S1 m c p ln

T2
P
m R ln 2 (6)
T1
P1

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

For general case ( process ), change of entropy is given by,

S 2 S1 m cv ln

T2
V
T
P
m R ln 2 m c p ln 2 m R ln 2 (7)
T1
V1
T1
P1

or in specific values,

s 2 s1 cv ln

T2
v
T
P
R ln 2 c p ln 2 R ln 2 (8)
T1
v1
T1
P1

SPECIAL CASES:
a) Constant temperature process ( Isothermal process), T = Constant

S 2 S1 m R ln

V2
P
v
P
m R ln 2 or in specific values s 2 s1 R ln 2 R ln 2
V1
P1
v1
P1

b) Constant volume process , V = Constant

S 2 S1 m cv ln

T2
T
or in specific values s 2 s1 cv ln 2
T1
T1

c) Constant pressure process , P = Constant

S 2 S1 m c p ln

T2
T
or in specific values s 2 s1 c p ln 2
T1
T1

d) Reversible adiabatic process or isentropic process, S = Constant

Change in entropy is zero, S 2 S1 0 or S 2 S1
e) Polytropic process

n T2
S 2 S1 c v
ln
n 1 T1

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Problems on entropy:
Problem No.1. One kg of water at 273 K is brought into contact with a heat reservoir at
373 K. When the water has reached 373 K, find the entropy change of water, the heat
reservoir and of the universe.
Solution: Let T1 be the temperature of water, T2 be the temperature of heat reservoir.
Since reservoir is at higher temperature than that of water, when water is brought into
contact with the reservoir heat transfer occurs from reservoir to water and takes place
through a finite temperature difference (irreversible). The entropy of water would
increase and that of reservoir decrease so that net entropy change of the water and the
reservoir together would be +ve definite. To find the entropy change of water we have to
assume a reversible path between end states, which are at equilibrium.
1) Entropy of water
Heat reservoir
T2 = 373 K
T2

S water m c p
T1

dT
T

1 x 4.187 ln

m c p ln

T2
T1

373
1.3068 kJ / K
273

System (water)
T1 = 273 K
2) The temperature of the reservoir remains same irrespective of the amount of the heat
withdrawn.
Amount of heat absorbed by the system from the reservoir,
Q mc p T2 T1 1 x 4,187 373 273 418.7 kJ

Therefore, Entropy change of reservoir,

S reservoir

Q
418.7

1.1225 kJ / K (-ve sign indicates decrease in entropy)

T2
373

3) Entropy change of the universe

S universe S water S reservoir 1.3068 1.1225 0.1843 kJ / K

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Problem No.2. Two kg of air is heated from 270C to 4270C while the pressure changes
from 100 kPa to 600 kPa. Calculate the change of entropy.R = 0.257 kJ / kg K,
Cp = 1.005 kJ / kg K.
Solution: Given:
m = 2 kg
T1 = 27 + 273 = 300K
T2 = 427 + 273 = 700K

P1 = 100 kPa
P2 = 600 kPa

The general equation used for the calculation of change of entropy is given by,

S air S 2 S1 m c p ln

T2
P
700
600
m R ln 2 2 x 1.005 ln
2 x 0.257 ln

T1
P1
300
100

0.7821 kJ / K
Problem No.3. Ten grams of water at 20 0C is converted into ice at - 10 0C at constant
atmospheric pressure. Assuming specific heat of liquid water to remain constant at 4.184
J / g 0C and that of ice to be half of this value, and taking the latent heat of fusion of ice at
0 0C to be 335 J / g, calculate the total entropy change of the system.
Solution: Given :
m = 10 gm
Water is available at
temperature T1 = 20 0C = 293 k

Ice is to be formed at
temperature T4 = -10 0C = 263 K

Cp(water) = 4.184 J / g 0C

Cp(ice) = x 4.184 J / g 0C

= 4.184 kJ / kg 0C

SIII

SII

= x 4.184 kJ / kg 0C

SI

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Total entropy change of water (system) as it is converted into ice will be

S Total S I S II S III (1)

a)

S I i.e. entropy change of the system as it is cooled from 20 0C to 0 0C.

273

S I

mc

293

dT
273 10
273
mc p ln

x 4.184 ln
T
293 1000
293

2.958 x 10 3 kJ / K
b)

S II

i.e. entropy change of water at 0 0C.to become ice at 0 0C

mQL
10 335

x
0.0123 kJ / K
T
1000 273

S II
c)

S III

i.e. entropy change of ice as it is cooled from 0 0C to -10 0C

263

S III

mc

273

p ( ice )

dT
263 10 4.184 263
mc p ( ice ) ln

x
ln
T
273 1000
2
273

7.807 x 10 4 kJ / K
Therefore total entropy change of water as it is converted into ice will be

STotal S I S II S III 2.958 x10 3 ( 0.0123 ) ( 7.807 x10 4 )

0.01604 kJ / K

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Problem No.4. A reversible engine as shown in figure during a cycle of operation draws
5MJ from the 400 K reservoir and does 840 kJ of work. Find the amount and direction of
heat interaction with other reservoirs.
300 K
200 K

400 K

Q2
Q3

Q1 = 5 MJ
E
W = 840 kJ

Solution:
Let us assume that Q2 and Q3 are the heat rejected by the engine to the reservoir at 300 K
and 200 K respectively.
From the Clausius theorem we have

And also,

Q1 Q2 Q3
Q

0 (1)

0
i.e.
T
T1 T2 T3

Q1 W Q2 Q3 ( 2)

Consider equation (1),

Q1 5 MJ , T1 400 K , T2 300 K , T3 200 K

Using ve sign for heat rejected in the equation, we have

5 x10 6 Q2 Q3

0,
400 300 200
Q
Q
i.e.12500 2 3 0
300 200
2Q2 3Q3 12500 x 600 7500000 (3)
6
3
and equation (2) gives, Q2 Q3 5 x10 840 x10 4160000 ( 4)

Solving equations (3) and (4), we get

Q3 0.82 MJ and Q2 4.98 MJ

Therefore the direction of heat interaction with the reservoirs are as follows
MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

300 K
200 K

400 K

Q2 = 4.98 MJ
Q3 = 0.82 MJ

Q1 = 5 MJ
E
W = 840 kJ

Problem No.5. Two kg of water at 80 0C are mixed adiabatically with 3 kg of water at 30

0
C in a constant pressure process of 1 atmosphere. Find the increase in the entropy of the
total mass of water due to mixing process. Cp of water = 4.187 kJ / kg K.
Solution:
Subsystem 1
2 kg of water at 80 0C
Subsystem 2
3 kg of water at 30 0C
And t1 t2

Let tf be the equilibrium temperature of the mixture of two subsystems

i.e. Subsystem 1 + Subsystem 2 and the final temperature tf is such that t2 tf t1.
Since energy interaction is exclusively confined to the two fluids, the system being
isolated.

m1c p1 t1 t f m2 c p 2 t f t 2 therefore

tf

m1c p1t1 m2 c p 2 t 2
m1c p1 m2 c p 2

since Cp1= Cp2 , tf will be given by

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

tf

m1t1 m2 t 2 (2 x80) (3 x30)

50 0C
m1 m2
(2 3)

Entropy change for the fluid subsystem 1,

Tf

S1 m1c p
T1

Tf
dT
323
m1c p ln 2 x 4.187 ln
T
T1
353

0.7437 kJ / K
This will be negative since T f T1
Entropy change for the fluid subsystem 2,
Tf

S 2 m 2 c p
T2

Tf
dT
323
m2 c p ln 3 x 4.187 ln
T
T2
303

0.8028 kJ / K
Increase in the entropy of the total mass of water due to mixing

S S1 S 2 0.7437 0.8028 0.0591 kJ / K

Since S is + ve definite, the mixing process is irreversible.
Problem No.6. A steel tool of mass 0.5 kg at a temperature of 350 0C is plunged
suddenly into an insulated vessel containing 10 kg of oil at a temperature of 20 0C. After
a time the temperature of the contents of the vessel becomes uniform. Assuming the heat
transfer to the atmosphere to be zero, and that none of the oil evaporates; evaluate the
increase in entropy of the final contents of the vessel. Take Cp of oil = 1.88 kJ /Kg K and
Cp of steel = 0.48 kJ /Kg K
Solution: Given
Steel
ts = 350 0C
ms = 0.5 kg
C steel = 0.48 kJ /Kg K

Oil
toil = 20 0C
moil = 10 kg
C oil = 1.88 kJ /Kg K

We take the steel and the oil as our system. Applying the principle of conservation of
energy for this process, we get
Q W U KE PE (1)

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Where Q 0, W 0, KE 0, PE 0
Therefore U steel U oil 0 (2)

Let tf be the final temperature of the contents of the vessel. We have for the energy
balance

ms c steel t s t f moil coil t f t o therefore

tf

ms c steel t s moil coil t 0 (0.5 0.48 350) (10 1.88 20)

24.16 0 C
ms c steel moil coil
(0.5 0.48) (10 1.88)

Now, entropy change for steel is,

Tf

S steel ms c steel
TS

Tf
dT
(24.16 273)
ms c steel ln
0.5 0.48 ln
T
Ts
(350 273)

0.178 kJ / K
And, entropy change for oil is
Tf

S oil moil coil

T0

Tf
dT
(24.16 273)
moil coil ln
10 1.88 ln
T
To
(20 273)

0.26504 kJ / K
Therefore change in entropy of the final contents of the vessel,

S S steel S oil 0.178 0.26504 0.08704 kJ / K

Problem No.7. Calculate the entropy change of the universe as a result of the following
processes
1. A copper block of mass 0.6 kg and specific heat 150 J/kg K at 100 0C is placed in
a lake at 8 0C.
2. Two such blocks at 100 0C and 0 0C are joined together.
Solution:
Given:

Case i ) m 0.6 kg ,

Tc 100 0C 373 K ,

Cc 150 J / kg K 0.150 kJ / kg K ,
Tl 8 0C 281 K

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Suniverse SCopper block S Lake

When hot copper block is put into lake, the block shall cool down to the lake temperature
since lake is big and treated as sink.

T
281
i ) S Copper block m CC ln L 0.6 0.150 ln

T
373

C
0.0255 kJ / K
Heat lost by Copper Block Heat gained by lake
mC c ( TC TL )
0.6 0.150 (373 281) 8.28 kJ

S Lake

8.28
0.0295 kJ / K
281

Therefore S universe S Copper block S Lake

0.0255 0.0295 0.004 kJ / K
Case ii ) m 0.6 kg ,
Tc1 100 0C 373 K ,
Let

Tm

Cc1 Cc 2 150 J / kg K 0.150 kJ / kg K ,

Tc 2 0 0C 273 K

be the equilibrium temperature of the two copper blocks when they

communicate. i.e. Copper block 1 + Copper block 2 and the final temperature

Tm

is

such that Tc2 Tm Tc1. Since energy interaction is exclusively confined to the two
blocks, the system being isolated.

mcc1 Tc1 Tm mcc 2 Tm Tc 2 therefore

Tm

mcc1Tc1 mcc 2Tc 2 373 273

323 K
m cc1 m cc 2
2

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Tm

S I Block mcc1
Tc 1

T
dT
323
mcc1 ln m 0.6 0.150 ln
T
Tc1
373

0.01295 kJ / K
S II Block

Tm

mc

Tc 2

c2

T
dT
323
mcc 2 ln m 0.6 0.150 ln
T
Tc 2
273

0.01514 kJ / K
Therefore S universe S I block S II block
0.01295 0.01514 0.00219 kJ / K
Problem No.8. A heat engine is supplied with 278 kJ / s of heat at a constant fixed
temperature of 283 0C and the heat rejections take place at 5 0C. The following results
were reported.
i) 208 kJ / s of heat rejected. ii) 139 kJ / s of heat rejected. iii) 70 kJ / s of heat rejected.
Classify which of the results report a reversible cycle, irreversible cycle or impossible
cycle.
Solution:

Case (i)

Q 278 208

0.2482 , Since
T
556 278

0 irreversible

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Case (ii)

Q 278 139
T 556 278 0 ,

Since

Case (iii)

Q 278 70
T 556 278 0.2482 , Since

Q
T 0 reversible

Q
T 0 impossible

Problem No.9. 0.5 kg of ice block at -10 0C is brought into contact with 5 kg copper
block at 80 0C in an insulated container. Determine the change in entropy of i) ice block
ii) copper block iii) the universe.
Given specific heat of ice = 2 kJ / kg K, Specific heat of water = 4.2 kJ / kg K, Specific
heat of copper = 0.5 kJ / kg K, enthalpy of fusion of water at 0 0C = 334 kJ / kg.
Problem No.10. An inventor reports that she has a refrigeration compressor that receives
saturated Freon-12 vapor at -20 0C and delivers the vapor at 1 MPa, 50 0C. The
compression process is adiabatic. Does the process described violate the second law?
Solution:
State 1. Condition of Freon -12 at inlet to compressor saturated vapor at -20 0C
State 2. Condition of Freon -12 at the exit of compressor 1 MPa and 50 0C
Referring the Freon -12 tables we get, at state 1, s1= 0.7082 kJ/kg K and at state 2,
s2= 0.7021 kJ /kg K
For a steady state, steady flow, adiabatic process we can write second law as,s2 s1,
but for the given adiabatic process, s1> s2 therefore the process involve a violation of the
second law and would not be possible.
Problem No.11.One kg of ice at -5 0C is exposed to the atmosphere which is at 20 0C.
The ice melts and comes into thermal equilibrium with the atmosphere. i) Determine the
entropy increase of the universe.

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Heat absorbed by ice from the atmosphere is given by,

Q 1 2.093 (0 ( 5)) 1 333.3 1 4.187 ( 20 0)

427.5 kJ
Entropy change of the atmosphere

S atmosphere
a)

S I

, entropy change of the system(ice) as it is heated from -5 0C to 0 0C.

273

S I

Q
427.5

1.46 kJ / K
T
293

mc p

268

dT
273
273
mc p ln
1 2.093 ln
T
268
268

0.0389 kJ / K
b)

S II

, entropy change of the system(ice) as it melts at 0 0C to become water at

0 0C.

S II
c)

S III

, entropy change of water as it is heated from 0 0C to 20 0C

293

S III

mc

273

333.3
1.22 kJ / K
273

dT
293
293
mc p ln
1 4.187 ln
T
273
273

0.296 kJ / K
Therefore total entropy change of ice as it melts into water will be

S Total S I S II S III 0.0389 1.22 0.296

1.5594 kJ / K
Therefore entropy change of universe will be,

S universe S system S atmosphere 1.5594 1.46 0.0949 kJ / K

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Problem No.12. A 5 kg copper block at a temperature of 200 0C is dropped into an
insulated tank containing 100 kg of oil at a temperature of 30 0C. Find the increase in
entropy of the universe due to this process when copper block and the oil reach thermal
equilibrium. Assume that the specific heats of copper and oil are respectively 0.4 kJ /Kg
K and 2.1 kJ /Kg K.

Solution: Given
Copper block
tc = 200 0C
mc = 5 kg
Ccopper block = 0.4 kJ /Kg K

Oil
toil = 30 0C
moil = 100 kg
C oil = 2.1 kJ /Kg K

We take the copper block and the oil as our system. Applying the principle of
conservation of energy for this process, we get
Q W U KE PE (1)
Where Q 0, W 0, KE 0, PE 0

Let tm
balance

Therefore U copper block U oil 0 (2)

be the final temperature of the contents of the tank. We have for the energy

mc ccopper block t c t m moil coil t m t o therefore

tf

mc ccopper block t c moil coil t 0

mc ccopper block moil coil

(5 0.4 200) (100 2.1 30)

31.6 0 C
(5 0.4) (100 2.1)

Now, entropy change for copper block is,

Tm

S copper block mc ccopper block

Tc

T
dT
(31.6 273)
mc ccopper block ln m 5 0.4 ln
T
Tc
( 200 273)

0.8802 kJ / K
Now, entropy change for oil is
Tm

S oil moil coil

T0

T
dT
(31.6 273)
moil coil ln m 100 2.1 ln
T
To
(30 273)

1.106 kJ / K
Therefore change in entropy of the final contents of the vessel,

S S copper block S oil 0.8802 1.106 0.2258 kJ / K

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

PROPERTY DIAGRAMS WITH ENTROPY AS A COORDINATE:

Reversible
Adiabatic

s
T

Irreversible
Adiabatic

s
This diagram is useful to analyze the nature of the thermodynamic systems to visualize
the changes of state that occurs in various processes. This diagram possesses the
following features.
1. Area on the diagram have the dimensions of heat
2. In the mixed-phase region, the constant pressure lines are horizontal
3. In a reversible process the area under the curve is equal to the heat transfer in the
corresponding process
4. Vertical lines represents isentropic processes
5. In a reversible cycle, the area enclosed by the curve representing the process is
equal to the net heat transfer to the fluid and so, from the first law is also equal to
the net work.

If the substance executes a Carnot cycle, its path on the T-s diagram is a rectangle.

TH
b

Processes:
Process a-b: Isentropic Process
Process b-c: Isothermal Process
Process c-d: Isentropic Process
Process d-a: Isothermal Process

d
TL
s

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

Efficiency of the Carnot engine is given by,

th

T
Area abcda TH ( s 2 s1 ) TL ( s 2 s1 ) TH TL

1 L
Area fbcef
TH ( s 2 s1 )
TH
TH

An irreversible process is represented by a line tending to the right, for this entropy
always increases.
THE ENTHALPY ENTROPY (h-s) diagram or MOLLIER diagram

In the enthalpy-entropy diagram the pressure and temperature lines naturally coincide in
the two-phase region.
Entropy postulations:
1. The entropy content of an isolated system can never decrease.
2. The entropy of any substance approaches a constant value as its temperature
approaches absolute zero.
3. For a perfect crystalline substance, its entropy is zero at the absolute zero of
temperature.
The nature of Entropy:
1. Entropy is a primitive concept
MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

2. Every system has entropy
3. Entropy is an extensive property
4. Entropy is that it is an index of that portion of energy content in a system that is
not available to do work
5. Entropy content of an isolated system is not conserved.

Available and Unavailable energy:

We have,
High Grade Energy
1 Mechanical Work
2 Electrical Energy
3 Water power
4 Wind power
5 Kinetic Energy of a jet
6 Tidal power

Low Grade Energy

1 Heat or Thermal energy
2 Heat derived from nuclear fission or
fusion
3 Heat derived from combustion of fossil
fuels

The complete conversion of low grade energy, heat into high grade energy, shaft work is
impossible.
That part of the low grade energy which is available for conversion is called as available
energy, while the part which, according to the 2nd law of thermodynamics, must be
rejected is known as unavailable energy.
If a cyclic heat engine is considered, the maximum work output obtainable from a certain
heat input is called the available energy (A.E.), or the available part of the energy
supplied. The minimum energy that has to be rejected to the sink is the unavailable
energy (U.E.).
Therefore,

Q1 A. E. U . E. or Wmax Q1 U . E. (1)
For a reversible cycle,

T2
( 2)
T1
For a given temperature T1, rev will increase with the decrease of T2. The lowest
practicable temperature of heat rejection is the temperature of the surroundings, T 0.
rev 1

Therefore, rev 1

T0
T1

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

T
And Wmax 1 0
T1

Q1 (3)

Consider a finite process X-Y , heat is supplied reversibly to a heat engine. Taking an
elementary cycle, if Q1 is the heat received by the engine reversibly at T1, then

T1 T0
T
Q1 Q1 0 Q1 A. E.
T1
T1
For the heat engine receiving heat for the whole process X-Y, and rejecting heat at T0
Wmax

T0
Q1
T
1
X

Wmax Q1

Wmax A. E. Q XY T0 sY s X
or U . E. Q XY Wmax i.e U . E. T0 sY s X .

The U.E. is thus the product of the lowest temperature of heat rejection, and the change
of entropy of the system during the process of supplying heat.

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.

VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg. Department

REFERENCES:
1. Engineering Thermodynamics by D.B.Spalding and E.H.Cole, ELBS, Third Edition
2. Fundamentals of Classical thermodynamics by G.J.Van Wylen and R.E. Sonntag,
John
Wiley and Sons, Third Edition
3. Fundamentals of Engineering thermodynamics by E.Rathakrishnan, PHI, 2000
4. Engineering thermodynamics Work and Heat Transfer by Gordon Rogers and Yon
Mayhew, Pearson Education, Fourth edition.
5. Engineering thermodynamics with applications by M. David Burghardt, HIE, Third
Edition
6. Engineering
Brothers

thermodynamics by C.P.Gupta and

R.Prakash, Nemchand and

7. Applied Thermodynamics by T.D.Eastop and A.McConkey, Pearson Education, Fifth

edition
8. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/

seclaw.html

MALNAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HASSAN -573 201.