Physics 1: University Physics for Scientists & Engineers

Please note, this is a work in progress, and as such, will undergo lots of modification until the end of the semester. Most notably, the
page breaks, which I want to place at strategic places (so as not to cut off something important into 2 pages), but trying to do it now
will only fail as I add and remove lines, so I will do that only at the end. In the meantime, keep this in mind.

Chapter 1: Physics and Measurement

o

Chapter 2: Motion in One Dimension

o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5 Ex.6 Ex.7
Chapter 3: Vectors
o Ex.1 Ex.2
Chapter 4: Motion in Two Dimensions
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5 Ex.6
Chapter 5: The Laws of Motion
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5
Chapter 6: Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newtons Laws
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5 Ex.6
Chapter 7: Energy and Energy Transfer
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5 Ex.6
Chapter 8: Potential Energy
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5
Chapter 9: Linear Momentum and Collisions
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5 Ex.6 Ex.7 Ex.8 Ex.9
Chapter 10: Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5 Ex.6 Ex.7 Ex.8 Ex.9 Ex.10
Chapter 10.9: Rolling Motion
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3
Chapter 11: Angular Momentum
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5 Ex.6 Ex.7 Ex.8 Ex.9 Ex.10
Chapter 12: Static Equilibrium and Elasticity
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5 Ex.6 Ex.7 Ex.8 Ex.9 Ex.10
Chapter 15: Oscillatory Motion
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5 Ex.6 Ex.7 Ex.8 Ex.9 Ex.10
Final Exam Study Guide
o Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3 Ex.4 Ex.5 Ex.6 Ex.7 Ex.8 Ex.9 Ex.10
o Ex.11 Ex.12 Ex.13 Ex.14 Ex.15 Ex.16 Ex.17 Ex.18 Ex.19 Ex.20
Comment [as1]: Notes for
Monday, June 12, 2006 begin here

Page 1 of 59

I. Chapter 1: Measurements
II. Chapter 2: Motion in One Dimension

(return to top)
(return to top)

A. Purpose:
B. Definitions (and symbols):

1. Distance (d) (scalar) is the total length of space that an object travels.
2. Displacement (D) (vector) is the length of space between your origin and your destination.
3. Speed (s) (scalar) the rate of movement of a particle.
a. Average Speed = the ratio of the distance covered in a certain time
i.

S=

d
t

b. Instantaneous Speed = how fast you are going at any particular instant. It is also known as the
magnitude of the instantaneous velocity.

i.
S(t ) =| v |
4. Velocity (v) (vector) the rate of displacement of a particle
a. Average Velocity = the ratio of displacement covered in a certain time
i.

vX =

x
t

b. Instantaneous Velocity = the velocity of an object at an instant in time.

i.

vx = lim

t 0

x dx
=
t dt

5. Acceleration (a) (vector) the rate at which velocity changes

a. Average Acceleration = the ratio of velocity covered in a certain time
i.

r r
r v f vi vr
=
a
t
t

b. Instantaneous Acceleration = the acceleration of an object at an instant in timed

i.

r
dv
r
a(t) =
dt

C. Example 1:
1. A particle begins traveling 5 feet to the right and then stops and travels to the left for 2 feet,
traveling the entire distance in 3 seconds. Assuming average velocity, analyze the problem.
a. What is the distance (d) and displacement (D)?
r
i.
d = 7 ft
D = 3 ft (or 3ft right, 3 ft east, +3i ft)
b. What is the average speed ( s ) and instantaneous speed (s)?
i.

r 7
s =| v |= = 2.33 ft/s
3

s=2.33 ft/s (if constant)

c. What is the average velocity ( v ) and instantaneous velocity (v)?

r
r
i.
v = 1i ft/s
v 2.33 ft/s

d. What is the average acceleration ( a ) and instantaneous acceleration (a)?

Page 2 of 59

i.

r v f vi (2.33) (2.33)
a=
=
= 1.55 ft/s 2
t
3

ii.

draw the path of the particle

Comment [as2]: Notes for

Wednesday, June 14, 2006 begin
here.

Chapter 2 (Motion in One Dimension)

iii.

Regarding average velocity since the displacement is 3 feet in 3 seconds, the average
velocity is 1 ft/s. this would mean that a particle traveling at 1ft/s directly towards the goal (as
opposed to the other particle which went forward 5ft and then returned 2 feet), will arrive at
the same time as the particle traveling the longer route. As for instantaneous velocity, there
is not enough information to figure this out (we dont know if velocity is constant or
changing).

D. Example 2:

1. A car goes west for 40 miles in 2/5 hours and then stops for hour. It then goes east for
70 miles in 7/10 hours. Assume the car is going at constant speed and its initial & final
speeds are not zero.
a. What is the average speed of the car in the first stage, second stage, & the whole trip?
i.

s1 =

40
= 100mph
2/5

s2 =

70
= 100mph
7 / 10

stot =

110
= 68.75mph
1 2 7
+ +
2 5 10

b. What is the average velocity of the car in the first stage, second stage, & whole trip?
i.

r
v1 = 100 mph

r
v 2 = 100 mph

r
30
v tot =
= 18.75 mph
1.6

c. What is the average acceleration of the car in the first stage, second stage, & whole trip?

i.

r
v f (1) vi(1) 0 (100)
v f (2) vi(2 ) 100 0
r
a =
a1 =
=
= 250mph 2
=
= 142.86mph 2
2
t1
t
2/5
7 / 10
r
v f (2) vi(1) 100 (100)
atot =
=
= 125mph 2
1.6
ttot

d. Draw the path of the particle & include all relevant data

e. Graph x vs. t, v vs. t, s vs. t, & a vs. t & show the geometrical meanings of the average values.

E. Example 3:
Page 3 of 59

Chapter 2 (Motion in One Dimension)

1. A particle is traveling on a path given by the equation x(t) = (t 2 4)(t + 5) from 0 t 6
seconds. Fully analyze the particles path, its speed, velocity and acceleration.
a. Step 1: figure out the significant markers related to the position function (at the beginning, end and
when the function equals zero). To figure out how far the particle will travel and when it will cross
the origin (t=0).

i.
ii.

x(t) = t 3 + 5t 2 4t 20
x(0) = 20
x(6) = 352 (These will be our initial & final positions)

iii.

x(t) = 0

0=t 3 + 5t 2 4t 20

t=2

(this is the time the particle will be at the origin)

b. Step 2: derive the position function to get the velocity function and its significant markers (again at
the beginning, end, and when the function equals zero) to determine its velocity at the beginning
and end of its path. Where the function equals zero, the particle has no velocity and could
either continue on its path, or change direction.

i.
ii.

x '(t) = v(t) = 3t 2 + 10t 4

v(0) = 4
v(6) = 164 (These will be our initial & final velocities)

iii.
iv.

v(t) = 0 0 = 3t 2 + 10t 4 t = 0.361 (velocity is zero here)

x(0.361) = 20.745 (This means at 0.361 seconds, the position will be at either a local

max or local min, IF the sign changes. In this case, the sign changes from negative to
positive, meaning x(0.361) is a local minimum. This also tells us our problem will be broken
down into two stages, the one with the negative velocity (up to t=0.361) and the one with
the positive velocity (from t=0.361 and beyond).
c. Step 3: derive the velocity function to get the acceleration function and its known values.

i.
ii.

x ''(t ) = v'(t) = a(t) = 6t + 10

a(0) = 10
a(6) = 46 (These will be our initial & final accelerations)

d. Step 4: find the average speed for stage 1, stage 2, and the average of both
i.

372.745
.745
= 66.1 m/s
= 2.06 m/s S2 =
(6 .361)
.361
372.745 (.745)
Stot =
= 62.25 m/s
6

S1 =

e. Step 5:r find the average velocity

for stage 1, stage 2, and the average of both
r
i.
v1 = 2.06 m/s v2 = 66.1 m/s

r
372
vtot =
= 62 m/s
6

f.

Step 6: find the average acceleration for stage 1, stage 2, and the average of both

i.

r 0 (4)
= 11.08 m/s 2
a1 =
0.361
r
164 (4)
a tot =
= 28 m/s 2
6

r
164 (0)
= 29.08 m/s 2
a2 =
6 0.361

g. Draw a picture of the particles motion and graph the x, v, s, & a functions.

Page 4 of 59

Chapter 2 (Motion in One Dimension)

F. Linear Kinematics Equations (for objects undergoing constant acceleration)

1. Basic Velocity Function
a. v f = vi + at = this is the fundamental velocity equation
2. Other Kinematic Equations
a. v 2f = vi2 + 2a(x f xi )
velocity, acceleration, & position
1
b. x f = xi + (vi + v f )t
position, velocity & time
2
1
c. x f = xi + vi t + at 2
position, velocity, time & acceleration
2
3. Freefall Kinematic Equations since acceleration is -9.8 m/s we can use these:
a. v f = vi 9.8t
velocity & time
b. v 2f = vi2 19.6(x f xi )
c.

x f = xi + vi t 4.9t

position & velocity

position, velocity, & time

G. Example 4:

1. Car A is going at 75mph when it realizes its closing in on the car in front of him (car B). Car
B in front of him is 200ft away and is moving at 65mph when car A hits the brakes,
decelerating at 2ft/s. Car B also notices this and 1 second later, accelerates at 3ft/s.
a. Is there an accident and if yes, what are their velocities upon impact?
i.
Step 1 convert mph to ft/s and find out the velocity & position after 1 second

b)

75 mi 1h 5280 ft
= 110 ft / s
h 3600 s 1mi
v f = 110 4(1)2 = 106

c)

car 1 x f = xi + vit +

d)

car 2 x f = 200 + 95.3 3(1) + 0 = 295.33 ft

a)

Page 5 of 59

65

5280
= 95.3 3 ft / s
3600

1 2
1
a t = 0 + 1 1 0 + ( 4 )(1) 2 = 1 0 8 ft
2
2

Comment [as3]: Notes for

Monday, June 19, 2006 begin here

Chapter 2 (Motion in One Dimension)

ii.

Step 2 determine the position equations for both vehicles from 1 second onward.

car 1 x f = xi + vi t +

a)

1 2
at
2

x f = 108 + 106t 2t 2

1
3
car 2 x f = 295.3 3 + 95.33t (3)t 2
x f = 295.33 + 95.33t + t 2
2
2
Step 3 set both vehicles final positions ( x f ) to equal each other. If they have a solution,

b)

iii.

then a collision will occur.

3 2
t
2

a)

108 + 106t 2t 2 = 295.3 3 + 95.33t

t = 10.667 16.152i

b)

A solution cannot have imaginary numbers, so there is no solution = they do not collide.

b. If they do not collide, what is the distance of their closest approach?

i.
Step 1 find their closest approach by adding both position equations (making them one)
and finding the resultant equations derivative. Then maximize the derivative to find its local
max/min.

3
f (t) 108 + 106t 2t 2 = 295.3 3 + 95.33t + t 2
2
f (t) 187.33 10.66t + 27 t 2

a)

f '(t) 7t 10.66

f '(t) = 0

7t 10.66 = 0

t = 1.524s (time of max or min distance)

car 1 x f = 108 + 106(1.524) 2(1.524)2 = 264.879 ft

3
car 2 x f = 295.3 3 + 95.33(1.524) (1.524)2
x f = 444.104
2
329.137 264.879 = 179.225 ft (this is the closest they will ever get)

b)
c)
d)
e)

time of closest approach is 2.524 seconds.

H. Example 5:

1. Train A is going to the left at 30m/s when he sees train B going to the right at 25m/s on the
same tracks 160m away. Train A decelerates at 2m/s and train B decelerates at 3m/s. Is
there an accident and if so, what are their velocities upon impact?
a. Draw a diagram showing the trains and their relevant values

b. Step 1- calculate the trains x positions and set them equal to each other (same x = collision). This
will return the time at which they collide.

i.
ii.

Page 6 of 59

1
(train A) x f = 160 30t + (2)t 2
2
1
(train B) x f = 0 + 25t (3)t 2
2

= 160 30t + t 2

3
= 25t t 2
2

Chapter 2 (Motion in One Dimension)

iii.

3
160 30t + t 2 = 25t t 2
2
t = 3.45s

5 2
t 55t + 160 = 0
2

c. Step 2 check the velocities of the trains upon impact. This tells us both the impact velocity and if
validates the equation. If the velocities of the trains keep the same sign, the time of collision is
valid

i.

(train A) v f = (30) + (2)(3.45) = 23.1 (sign remains the same)

ii.

(train B) v f = (25) + (3)(3.45) = 14.65 (sign remains the same)

d. In this case, both trains retain their signs. This means the time of collision is valid. If one of the
trains changed sign, it would mean the train stopped before the aforementioned time which
invalidates the equation. In this case, we need to find out when the sign-changing train has zero
velocity because this is its final resting point. Once we figure that out, we simply treat the rest of
the problem (with the other train) as a simple train hitting the wall equation with the wall being
the train that stopped. To find out the time of the REAL collision, set the other trains x position to
the same and find the time and velocity of impact!

I. Vertical Motion Problems Including Freefall

1. In the case of freefall, we use the same equations, but now because we always know that g
is 9.8, we use that for all vertical motion problems (except where acceleration is affected by
something else).

J. Example 6:

1. A guy on a building 50m high throws a ball up with a velocity of 20m/s. The ball goes up, and
then returns but keeps going to ground level where there is a lake. Upon hitting the lake, its
acceleration changes to 2m/s down, taking 12 seconds to reach the floor.
2. Questions:
a. What is the depth of the lake?
b. What is the final velocity?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Step 1 find out the time the ball hits the water

i.

1
y f = yi + vi t + at 2
2
0 = 50 + 20t 4.9t 2
t = 5.83 (the time it hits the water)

b. Step 2 find its velocity upon hitting the water

i.
v f = 20 9.8(5.83)
v f = 37.134m / s
c. Step 3 now use that velocity, the time left in 12 seconds,
and the known acceleration in water to figure out the depth
of the lake and velocity upon impact.

1
Depth = Vi t + at 2
2
i.

ii.

Page 7 of 59

1
= (37.134)(12 5.83) + (2)(12 5.83)2
2
= (37.134)(6.17) (6.17)2
= 267.161m
Lake v f = 37.13 + (2)(6.17) = 49.47m / s

Chapter 2 (Motion in One Dimension)

K. Example 7:

1. A rocket goes up for a constant acceleration for 8 seconds, then its engines fail and it goes
into a freefall, hitting the ground with a velocity of 200ft/s.

2. Questions:
a. What is the total time for this trip?
b. What is the acceleration of the rocket?
c. What is the maximum height of the rocket?
3. Solution Strategy: since we have multiple unknowns, we
have to figure out a way to relate them to each other.
a. Step 1 figure out how the velocity relates to the height
i.
v f = vi + at = 0 + a(8) = 8a
(This is the final velocity of the rocket during its firing
stage. This will become the initial velocity of our rocket
in its freefall stage)

ii.

y f = yi + vi t +

1 2
1
at = 0 + 0 + a(8)2 = 32 a
2
2

(This will be the final height of the rocket during its firing
stage. This will become the initial height of our rocket in
its freefall stage)
b. Step 2 we now have enough to calculate the descent since
we have all variables but time. We can use the velocity
squared function (the one that excludes time) to put it all
together.

v 2f = vi2 + 2a(y f yi )
i.

200 2 = (8a)2 + 2(32)(0 32a)

a = 13.68

Keep in mind, the a in this final equation is NOT the same as the a in our previous two
equations. Since this equation is based on the freefall, the a is -32ft/s, whereas the
previous a was based on the rockets propelled ascent.
c. Step 3 with our acceleration, we can now figure out the time at which the rocket has zero
velocity (the top) and from there, get the position at the top ( y f )

i.

v f = vi + at

y f = yi + vi t + 1 2 at 2

y f = 32a + 8at 16t 2

0 = 8(13.68) + (32)t
t = 3.42s

y f = 32(13.682) + 8(13.682)(3.42) + (16)(3.42)2

y f = 625.02 ft

III. Chapter 3: Vectors

A. Coordinate Systems

(return to top)

1. Background - There are various systems for denoting vectors, such as Polar Coordinates,
bearing (N, S, E, W) & magnitude or component vectors.
a. Polar coordinates example:
i.
10m @ 260
b. Bearing & magnitude example:
i.
10m @ 10W of N
c. Component vectors example:
i.

Page 8 of 59

10Cos(260)i
10Sin(20)i
which is equivalent to:
10Sin(260) j
10Cos(20) j

Chapter 3 (Vectors)

B. Example 1:

1. A box has the following forces applied to it ( ax = 4N , ay = +2N ). Draw a picture of the box
with its vectors and find out what is the resultant vector in polar format.
2. Solution Strategy:
a. Step 1: add up the vectors
i.

(4)2 + (2)2 = 4.472

b. Step 2: find the angle

i.
Tan 1 ( 42 ) = 26 = 180 26 = 154

C. Example 2:

1. A car goes 40 miles at 35 N of W in hr and then turns around and goes 30 miles at 60 E
of N in 3/5hr.

2. Questions: since this is a two stage problem, we will find all relevant data for all stages)
a. Find s1 , s2 , stot
r r r
b. Find v1 , v2 , vtot
r r r
c. Find a1 , a2 , atot
d. Draw the path of the car

3. Solution Strategy:
a. Step 1 determine the unit vectors for both lines and add them up
ur
i.
A = 40Cos(145)i + 40Sin(145) j = 32.766i + 22.943 j
ii.
iii.

ur
B = 30Cos(22)i + 30 Sin(22) j = 27.816i + 11.238 j
32.766i + 22.943 j + 27.816i + 11.238 j

= 4.95i + 34.183 j

b. Step 2 find the resultant vectors magnitude and direction

i.
ii.

ur
C = 4.95 2 + 34.1832 = 34.540
34.183
Tan 1 (
) = 81.76
4.95

c. Step 3 - find the velocity and speed for all three stages:

i.
ii.
iii.

Page 9 of 59

v1 =

x f 1 xi1

40 0
= 60mph @35 N of W
2/3

t
30 0
v2 =
= 50 mph @ 68 E of N
3/5
ur
C
34.540
vtot =
=
= 27.268 @ 81.76 N of W
t tot 2 / 3 + 3 / 5

iv.

Since the speed is the absolute value of the velocity, your speed for stage 1 and stage 2 are
the absolute value of the velocity, but the third speed is NOT. Unlike the total velocity that is
the total displacement over the total time, the total speed is the total distance over the
total time.

v.

s1 = v1 = 60mph

s2 = v2 = 50mph

Chapter 3 (Vectors)
vi.

stot =

dtot 30 + 40
= 55.26mph
ttot 2 / 3 + 3 / 5

d. Step 4 find out the acceleration of the car

i.
a1 = 0 Because neither the velocity nor the direction changed
ii.
a2 = 0 Because neither the velocity nor the direction changed

iv.

r
v f vi [50Cos(22)i + 50Sin(22) j] [60Cos(145)i + 60Sin(145)]
atot =
=
19 / 15
ttot

v f vi (46.359i + 18.730 j) (49.149i + 34.415 j)

a3 =
=
ttot
1.26
95.508i 15.684 j
= 75.401i 12.382 j (Total acceleration in vector components)
1.26
r
atot = (75.401)2 + (12.382)2 = 76.411 (Total acceleration)

v.

= Tan 1

iii.

12.382
= 9.326 = 350.674 (theta of Total acceleration)
75.401

IV. Chapter 4: Motion in Two Directions

(return to top)

A. Background:

1. This chapter is really an extension of Chapter 2 (motion in one dimension) and Chapter
3(vectors). From chapter 2, we know that the motion of a particle is a function of time, from
which we can infer its velocity, and acceleration. From Chapter 3,

B. Distance (d)(in 2 dimensions)

1. When measuring the distance of an object moving in two dimensions, we must include all
distances traveled by the object.
a. if the path is linear or has linear segments, calculating its distance is a matter of adding up its
segments.

b. If the path is curved and we know the function that represents the curve, we can use the arc
length integral to determine its distance from point a to point b of the function.
b

i.

dcurve =

1 + f '(x)2 dx

C. Displacement (D)(in 2 dimensions)

1. Displacement is the distance between two points. In vector form, this works for any vector,
whether it be position, velocity, or acceleration.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Page 10 of 59

r
r
r
r
Displacement ( D) = rfinal rinitial = (x f xi )i + (y f yi ) j = r
r
Average Velocity v
t
r dr dx dy
Instantaneous Velocity v =
i+
j = vx i + vy j
=
dt
dt dt
r v f vi v
Average Acceleration a
=
t f ti
t
dv
Instantaneous Acceleration a
dt

Comment [as4]: Notes for

Wednesday, June 21, 2006 begin
here

Chapter 4 (Motion in Two Dimensions)

D. Example 1:

1. Problem: An object is traversing a path given by the equation y(x)=x from

(-1, 1) to (2, 8) feet. It is traveling at such a rate that dx/dt = 2 ft/s and it makes the journey in
1.5 seconds.
2. Questions:
a. Calculate the total distance traveled and the average speed.
b. Calculate the total displacement and the average velocity.
c. What is the initial & final velocity, initial & final speed, initial & final acceleration, and
average acceleration?

3. Solution Strategy:
a. Nota bene: a common mistake most people make is to confuse the position and the velocity
vectors and thus get the wrong result and cant figure out whyif your results are not what you
expected (but sometimes by coincidence they might work until you get to the acceleration vector),
be aware of which are needed for what!
b. Step 1 calculate the distance for this curve using the arc length integral, which you can use to
calculate the average speed.
2

i.

d=

1 + (3x 2 )2 dx = 10.178

ii.

10.178
s=
= 6.79 ft s
1.5

c. Step 2 calculate the total displacement and average velocity

r
i.
D = rf ri = (2i + 8 j) (1i 1 j) = 3i + 9 j

r
r D
9 2 + 32 9.487
v= =
=
= 6.325 ft s
1.5
t
1.5
= Tan 1 (9 / 3) = 71.57

ii.

iii.
d. Step 3 calculate the component-position function in order to derive
the velocity and acceleration functions.
Since y(t)=x, you need to figure out x(t) because your velocity function depends on both the
y position and the x position:

i.

a)

if

dx
dx
= 2 x = dt = 2dt = 2t + c
dt
dt

This equation will give us the x-position of the particle as a function of time but we still need to figure
out the constant c. we do this by remembering that at time = 0, x = -1 (see position graph)
b)

when t=0, x=-1, so x(0)=-1

x(0)=2(0)+c=-1

c = 1

x(t) = 2t 1

Now we know the x function and only need to recall the y function.
c)

y(x) = x 3
This equation was given. It gives us the y-position as a function of x-position. We can make it a
function of time by sticking the x function inside it

y(t) = y(x(t)) = (2t 1)3

once weve done this, were ready to put both functions together.
d)

r
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t) j = (2t 1)i + (2t 1)3 j

This equation creates a component-position function that tells us where the x and y components
of the particle are at any point in time. For example, at 1.5 seconds, it tells us the particle is at (2,8)
which matches our position function. This function is used to arrive at the velocity since the velocity
is a function of the absolute position over time.

ii.

Page 11 of 59

Once we have the position function r(t), we can derive it with respect to time to get the
velocity function:

Chapter 4 (Motion in Two Dimensions)

r
r dr
a) v =
= 2i + 3(2t 1)2 (2) j = 2i + (24t 2 24t + 6) j
dt
iii.

From here, we continue the process to get to the acceleration function:

r
a = (48t 24) j

a)

e. Step 4 with all necessary functions, calculate their values at the beginning
and end of the trip and any other significant landmarks (for example, if and
when the velocity and/or acceleration went to zero, we might want to know
that in some cases)
i.
We can see that the initial and final positions were given (which is
where we got our equations from, but if you want to check, plug them
back into the component-position function:

ri = r(0) = (0 1)i + (0 1)3 j = i j

r = r(1.5) = (2(1.5) 1)i + (2(1.5) 1)3 j = 2i + 8 j

a)
b)

ii.

Comment [as5]: The velocity

picture has an absolute placement
which might get messed up if you
move the whole thing around, so
keep this in mind

Now we calculate initial and final velocity:

vi = v(0 ) = 2i + (0 + 0 + 6) j = 2i + 6 j
v = v(1.5) = 2i + (24(1.5)2 + 24(1.5) + 6) j = 2i + 96 j

a)
b)

This tells us the velocity at the beginning and the end of the particles
trajectory.

iii.

Since the speed is the magnitude of the velocity vectors we get:

si = vi = 2i + 6 j
s = v = 2i + 96 j

a)
b)

iv.

Now we do the same for the acceleration:

ai = a(0) = (48(0) 24) j = 24 j

a = a(1.5) = (48(1.5) 24) j = 48 j

a)
b)

This tells us the acceleration at the beginning and end of the particles
trajectory.

f.

Step 5 this allows us to figure out the average acceleration:

i.

aavg =

v f vi
ttot

(2i + 96 j ) (2i + 6 j ) 90
=
j = 60 j
1.5
1.5

E. Example 2:

1. Problem: a particle is going at a constant speed in a counterclockwise circular motion with a

radius of 22ft. it starts at an angle of 25 and ends up at 287 in 10
seconds.
2. Questions:
a. What is the average speed and average velocity?
b. What is the instantaneous acceleration?
c. What is the average acceleration and show that it points to the
center when placed at the midpoint of the path.

3. Solution Strategy:
a. Step 1 find the average speed by calculating the distance
i.
d = r = 22[(287 25) 180 = 100.6 ft
ii.
s = d t = 100.6 10 = 10.06 ft / s
b. Step 2 find the velocity by completing the triangle to get the displacement (keep in mind that
since both sides of the triangle are the same length, you have an
isosceles triangle, which tells you two of its legs are the same angle (the

Page 12 of 59

Comment [as6]: Notes for

Monday, June 26,2006 begin here

Chapter 4 (Motion in Two Dimensions)

two legs that make angles with the leg of different length). We can use this to complete the
triangle.
i.
Using the law of cosines

ii.

a)

c 2 = a 2 + b 2 + 2abCos( )

b)

c = 22 2 + 22 2 + 2(22)(22)Cos (98) = 33.21

Using the law of sines

a)

Sin(a ) Sin(b )
=
b
r a
v = D t = 33.2110 = 3.321 ft/s

Sin(41) Sin(98)
=
22
x

x = 33.21

iii.
c. Step 3 the instantaneous acceleration is centripetal given its circular motion:

ac =

i.

v 2 3.3212
=
= 0.501 ft/s 2
r
22

d. Step 4 the average acceleration is (like in the previous example), is the result of the final minus
initial acceleration over time. The trick here though is finding the final and initial acceleration! One
thing to remember is that the velocity doesnt change throughout this
curve.
i.
The initial & final velocities require that we figure out their
vectors. Since the velocity vector in a circular motion is the
tangent (90 ) to the particles angular position, our calculations
only require simple math (as long as you understand the previous
statement)
a)
b)

ii.

Once we know the direction, we calculate the initial and final velocity by multiplying the
speed by the direction to get a component (vector) of the velocity.
a)
b)

iii.

v initial = x initial + 90 = 25 + 90 = 115

v final = x final + 90 = 287 + 90 = 17

v f = s f v f = 10.06 17 = 10.06[Cos(17)i + Sin(17) j] = 9.620i + 2.941 j

v = s v = 10.06 115 = 10.06[Cos (115)i + Sin(115) j ] = 4.251i + 9.117 j
i

from here, calculating the average acceleration vector is the same as other examples:
a)

b)
c)

r v f vi (9.620i + 2.941 j ) (4.251i + 9.117 j ) 13.872i 6.176 j

a=
=
=
10
t tot
10
r

a = 1.387i 0.618 j
r
a = 1.387 2 0.618 2 = 1.518 (The magnitude in case we need it)
.618
= 24 or 336
Tan 1
1.387

F. Projectile Motion

1. Background: Projectile motion is really an extension of our previous two-dimensional motion

problems, except simplified. The initial velocity vector is broken down into horizontal and
vertical components and these components are solved in their own kinematic equations. In
most cases, the airtime of the particle will determine the trajectory of the particle. This tells us
that we want to find out how long the ball is in the air (y-kinematics) and from that, we can
figure out how far the ball will go (x-kinematics) since both are related by time (the same
time, duh).

Page 13 of 59

Chapter 4 (Motion in Two Dimensions)

2. In this example, we can see a number of notable properties of a ball in projectile motion:
a. The horizontal velocity does not change (if we ignore wind resistance)
b. The vertical velocity is the same at the same y-position. So the catcher of the ball in this example
feels the same velocity with which the thrower threw it.

c. The point at which vertical velocity is zero is the apex of the curve, many problems will require
that you figure this out.

d. The only acceleration is vertical (g) which affects the velocity of the ball throughout the trip.

G. Example 3:

1. Problem: a basketball is thrown from a height of 610 towards

a basket 25 away and 10 high. The initial velocity of the ball is
28ft/s and the angle is 42.
2. Questions:
a. Does the person make the basket? What is the final velocity?
b. If not, what angle should they aim at?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. First we figure out the components of the initial velocity
i.
28Sin42 = 18.736
ii.
28Cos42 = 20.808
b. Now we calculate how long it takes the ball to travel 25 feet in the
x direction. Since this time will be our limiting time, we will then
use it to figure out our y altitude at that time. If it is exactly 10 ft, we have a basket. Any other value
will mean the ball is over or under the basket, thus missing.

i.

x f = xi + vi t

ii.

y f = yi + vi t +

25 = 20.81t

at

t = 1.20s

y f = 6.83 3 + 18.736(1.2) 16(1.2)2 = 6.276

iii. at x=25ft, y is only 6.3 feet, falling short of the basket.

c. Since the ball fell short, we try to determine an angle that (with the same velocity) will give us the
required (x=25, y=10) values. We set up both x and y equations and set them equal to each other

i.
ii.

Page 14 of 59

10 = 6.83 3 + 28Sin( )t 16t 2 (The y-equation)

25
(The x-equation)
25 = 28Cos( )t
t=
28Cos( )

Chapter 4 (Motion in Two Dimensions)

2

iii.

25

25

10 = 6.833 + 28Sin( )
16

28Cos( )
28Cos( )
16(625)
3.166 = 25Tan( )
(784)Cos 2 ( )
3.166 = 25Tan( ) 12.755Sec 2 ( )

no solution

d. Since there is NO angle at which we can launch it, we now keep the angle the same and change
the velocity to find out a velocity at which both would be the same(x=25, y=10).

i.

3.166 = 25Tan(42)

16(625)
vi Cos 2 (42)
2

v i = 30.596

H. Example 4:

1. Problem during a soccer game, a penalty corner kick is awarded to the attacking team.
The kicker, trying to get past the goalie, wants to kick the ball to his teammate who can then
head it into the goal. This header is at an angle of 10 from the kicker and right down the
middle of the field (32.5 meters).
2. Questions:
3. Solution strategy:

I. Kinematics of Circular Motion

1. Background: Centripetal (towards the center) acceleration occurs whenever a particle turns
a corner or otherwise travels in a circular arc or a whole circle. Calculation of centripetal
acceleration is the result of the direction changing (because while the object moves, its
acceleration keeps pointing to the center, constantly changing in angle), while the speed
usually remains constant; this is uniform circular motion. If both the speed and direction
change, then the particle undergoes non-uniform circular
motion.
a. Centripetal acceleration:

ac = 2 r =

r r
v v
vvCos(0)
v2
r =
r=
r r
rr
r

this is used in uniform circular motion

b. Tangential acceleration: at =

dv
dt

this is used in non-uniform circular motion along with the centripetal

acceleration equation, as both are components of an objects trajectory.

2. In uniform circular motion, since there is no tangential acceleration,

centripetal acceleration is also the total acceleration. In non-uniform circular motion, the
tangential component is simply tangential (at a 90 angle) to the radial component. The
resultant vector is the total acceleration. Another way to denote total acceleration (for both

types of circular motion) is to use the , r notation, but please note, that the r unit is
directed outwards, so if using it, you must reverse the sign of the centripetal vector.
a. atot =

ac 2 + at 2

(atot ) =

at
(for non-uniform circular motion)
ac

b. atot = ac ( r ) + at ( )

J. Example 5:

1. Problem A car starts out at an initial velocity of 6ft/s around a circle of 60ft radius. It
accelerates at a rate 3t+1 ft/s.

Page 15 of 59

Comment [as7]: Notes for

Wednesday, June 28, 2006 begin
here

Chapter 4 (Motion in Two Dimensions)

2. Questions:
What are the initial centripetal acceleration, initial tangential acceleration and initial total
acceleration (including its angle)?
b. What are the centripetal acceleration, tangential acceleration and total acceleration (including its
angle) after 12 seconds?

a.

3. Solution Strategy:
a. Figure out the centripetal and tangential components to calculate the resultant vector:

62
= .6 ft/s
60

i.

ac =

ii.

atot = .6 2 + 12 = 1.1662 ft/s

at = 3(0) + 1 = 1 ft/s
1
ArcTan = 59.04
.6

b. For question b, the challenge is figuring out the centripetal acceleration at 12 seconds. Since the
object is speeding up as it moves, its centripetal component will grow dramatically larger over
time. Remembering that velocity is the integral of acceleration, we simply integrate the
acceleration function with a time of 12 seconds and add 6 seconds (because the initial velocity
was 6 ft/s). From there, it's the same as the previous equations:
12

i.

v(12) = (3t + 1)dt + 6 = 234 ft/s

ac =

v 2 (234)2
=
= 912.6 ft/s 2
r
60

at = 3(12) + 1 = 37 ft/s 2
ii.

atot = 912.6 2 + 37 2 = 913.35

37
= 2.32
ArcTan
912.6

K. Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration

1. Background: this topic comes from the idea that observations of movement are often
related to the reference frame of the observer. For instance, a person walking down the
moving walkway between Caesars Palace and the Mirage would appear to be going much
faster to a stationary observer while an observer standing on the moving walkway would only
see him going at a normal walking pace. This relativity of speed
forms the basis of calculation of speeds where we would want to
figure out the movement of an object (an airplane) in a
moving medium (air), relative to a static position (the
ground). Just like the speed of the walkway walker
relative to the ground is simply the addition of the
speed of the belt and the speed of the walker, we
could calculate an airplanes speed relative to the
ground by adding its velocity relative to the air with the velocity of the air relative to the
ground.

L. Example 6:

1. Problem An airplane is headed from Seattle WA to Miami FL just in time for the hurricane
season. The distance between the 2 cities is 2400 miles and the angle is 40 S of E. A wind
rises up during the flight with a speed of 70mph @ 80 N of W
2. Questions:
a. If the plane wants to make the trip in 4 hours, what should their average airspeed and direction
be?

b. If the pilot forgets to account for the wind, where will the plane end up in 4 hours?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Make an image of the exercise to get an idea of the solution:

Page 16 of 59

Chapter 4 (Motion in Two Dimensions)

b. First we figure out the vectors for all three:

i.
ii.

iii.
iv.

2400mi
= 600 mi/hr
4hrs
vagy = 600Sin(320) = 385.673
vag = 600@40

vagx = 600Cos(40) = 459.627

vwgy = 70Sin(100) = 68.937
vwg = 70 @100

vwgx = 70Cos(100) = 12.156

vwg = ?

c. Next we use the pictures we made to figure out the unknowns for question a:
i.
vag vwg = vaw
ii.
iii.

vagy vwgy = vawy 600Sin(320) 70Sin(100) = vawy 454.61

=

=
vagx vwgx = vawx 600Cos(320) 70Cos(100) = vawx 471.78
454.61
(454.612 ) + (471.78 2 ) = 655.17
ArcTan
= 43.9 = 316.1
471.78

d. After that, we solve question b in the same way (but with its own equation of course)
i.
vag + vwg = vaw
ii.
iii.
iv.

V.

vagy + vwgy = vawy 600Sin(320) + 70Sin(100) = vawy 316.74

=

=
vagx + vwgx = vawx 600Cos(320) + 70Cos(100) = vawx 447.47
316.74
(316.74 2 ) + (447.47 2 ) = 548.22
ArcTan
= 35.3 = 324.7
447.47
dtotal = 548.22 4 = 2192.91 miles

Chapter 5: The Laws of Motion

A. Background:

(return to top)

1. How is Kinematics different from Dynamics: In Kinematics, youre asked to analyze a

motion (i.e. circular, left/right, up/down, projectile). In Dynamics, you are asked to examine
the forces which produce the motions you analyze in kinematics (gravity, normal, centripetal).

2. Fundamental Dynamic Equation:

F = ma

B. Example 1:

1. Problem - You have a block with mass 2kg, which is being moved with an initial velocity of
5m/s for 15m. The force moving it is 15N.

2. Questions:
Page 17 of 59

Chapter 5 (The Laws of Motion)

a. What is the final velocity?
b. Assume the same block but now it weighs 2lb, its initial velocity is 5ft/s, the force is 6lbs, and the
distance is 15ft. what is the final velocity now?

3. Solution Strategy:
a. Draw a diagram of the system

b. Set up the dynamic equation to analyze the forces:

i.
F = ma

6 = (2)a

a = 3m / s 2

c. Use kinematic equations along with the acceleration figure to calculate the final velocity:
i.
v f 2 = vi 2 + 2a(x f xi )
v f 2 = 5 2 + 2(3)(15)
v = 10.73m/s
d. For question b, we simply switch values, but keep in mind the weight is not the mass, we need to
convert it to mass to get an accurate value!
1slug
32 lb

i.

2lb

ii.

F = ma

16

slug
6lb = ( 116 slug)(a)

a = 96ft/s 2

C. Example 2:

1. Problem You have a block with mass 2kg, which is being moved vertically with an initial
velocity of 5m/s for 15m. the force moving it is 15N

2. Questions:
a. What is the final velocity?
b. Assume the same block but now it weighs 2lb, its initial velocity is 5ft/s, the
force is 6lbs, and the distance is 15ft. what is the final velocity now?

3. Solution Strategy:
a. In this instance, keep in mind that gravity is playing a part, so include it in our
initial dynamic calculations.

i.

F = ma

ii.

v f = 5 + 2(6.8)(15)
2

(6 19.6) = (2)a

a = 6.8

v f = 13.3i

since we get an imaginary number, this means with the given forces, the
block will never make it to 15m.
b. for part b, we again remember to convert the lbs to slugs before figuring out the
acceleration.

iii.

i.

F = ma

ii.

v f 2 = 5 2 + 2(64)(15)

(6lb 2lb) =

16

a = 64ft/s2

v f = 44ft/s

D. Weight, Mass, and the Normal force

1. Although the normal force is sometimes hard to figure out, an intuitive way of thinking about it
is think of it as your apparent weight because it is the normal force that gives us our
feeling of weight. For example, a person in a rapidly accelerating and rising elevator will feel
lighter because the normal force is higher (their weight will be the same). A person in the
same elevator, which is rapidly accelerating and going down, will fell very little apparent
weight, and as a matter of fact, if the acceleration of the elevator is the same as gravity, the
elevator passenger will feel weightless.

E. Example 3 (friction):
Page 18 of 59

Comment [as8]: Notes for

Monday, July 3, 2006 begin here

Chapter 5 (The Laws of Motion)

1. Problem You have a 3kg block being pulled with a force F. the coefficients of friction are
s= 0.6 and k= 0.4

2. Questions:
a. If the force applied is 5N, will the block move? If not, what is the magnitude of the force of static
friction?

b. What is the minimum force needed to move the block?

c. Once the block is in motion, what is the minimum force needed to keep it in motion without
accelerating it?

d. If the applied force is 1N greater than the answer in b, what will the blocks acceleration be?
e. If the applied force is 1N greater than the answer in c, what will the blocks acceleration be?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. See question b first, it will answer both a and b together.
i.
(Based on b) No.
ii.
fs = Fapplied = 5N
b. We first need to use the equation of the force of static
friction to figure out the maximum static friction force before the block slips.

i.
(Fmin = fs max ) s n

fs max (.6)(29.4) = 17.64N

c. Now we need to use the equation in part b but with k instead:
i.
(Fmin = fk ) k n

fk (.4)(29.4) = 11.76N
d. We figure out the acceleration (if any) by figuring out its net force:
i.
F = ma

F s n = ma

18.64 (17.64) = 3a

ii.

a = 2.29 3m/s 2

e. We do the same here except with the kinetic force:

i.
F = ma

F k n = ma

12.76 (11.76) = 3a

ii.

a = .3m/s 2

F. Example 4:

1. Problem the problem is the same as in example 3, but with the external force pulling at an
angle of 50 above the horizontal

2. Questions:
a. Same as in example 3.
b. Same as in example 3.
c. Same as in example 3.
d. Same as in example 3.
e. Same as in example 3.
f. What is the minimum force, which will lift the block? What will its acceleration be then?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. See question b first, it will answer both of these questions
i.
(Based on b) No.
ii.
fs = 5Cos50 = 3.21
b. Like before, we need to figure out the minimum force which can move the block, but this time, we
need to keep in mind it is made up of two components, both of which affect the equation, so we
will need to solve for two equations at once:
i.
Since the external force is reducing the normal force, we need to take it into account when
calculating the vertical forces:
a)

Page 19 of 59

= mg

n + FSin50 = 29.4

n = 29.4 FSin50

Chapter 5 (The Laws of Motion)

ii.

When calculating the horizontal forces, we again need to calculate the horizontal component
of the external force, this will combine both equations and give us the answer to b:

a)

= ma

FCos50 s n = 3a

FCos50 (.6)(29.4 FSin50) = 0

1.103F = 17.64

F = 16.002

b)
c)

.6428F 17.64 + .4596F = 0

c. This is the same as the previous equation but the coefficient of static friction is replaced by the
coefficient of kinetic friction:

FCos50 (.4)(29.4 FSin50) = 0

.9492F = 11.76

F = 12.389

i.
ii.

.6428F 11.76 + .3064F = 0

d. For this question, we simply increase the force by 1N and solve it as a dynamic equation:
i.
F = 17
(17)Cos50 (.6)[29.4 (17)Sin50] = 3a
ii.
10.9274 17.64 + 7.8137 = 3a
a = .367m/s 2
e. We do the same, except we use the kinetic values instead:
i.
F = 13.389
(13.389)Cos50 (.4)[29.4 (13.389)Sin50] = 3a

8.6063 11.76 + 4.1026 = 3a

ii.
f.

a = .3163m/s 2

In order to solve this, we set the normal force to zero and calculate the vertical acceleration. After
this, just plug it into the horizontal equation:

N + FSin50 = 29.4
N=0
FSin50 = 29.4
Fy = ma

i.
ii.

iii.

= ma

38.378Cos50 (0) = 3a

F = 38.379N
a = 8.223m/s 2

G. Example 5:

1. Problem the problem is the same as in example 3, but with the external force pulling at an
angle of 50 above the horizontal and the block is on a 20 incline.

2. Questions:
a. Same as in example 3.
b. Same as in example 3.
c. Same as in example 3.
d. Same as in example 3.
e. Same as in example 3.
3. Solution Strategy: (here one important tip is to accurately record the component vectors for
all relevant forces. A good idea is to rotate the inclined plane so that the incline is the x-axis.
All angles would need to be readjusted, but this often makes it easier)

a. Like the previous two, we need to go to b to figure out a:

i.
fs (5) = s n
fs (5) = (.6)(27.6270 (5)Sin30) = 15.07N
a)

ii.

Page 20 of 59

Since the force of static friction at 5N is less than the minimum force needed to move the block up
the incline (fsmax), the block will not move up.

Since the block is on an incline and we know it will not move up, we now need to know if the
block will move down. If not, then we need to find the force that keeps it from going down.

Chapter 5 (The Laws of Motion)

We need to figure out the force that stops the block from moving down. Since the pull is down and
friction acts against this force too, the friction force (which pulls up) plus the external force pulling
the block up should equal the force pulling the block down.

a)

fs(up) + F(5) = FDownRamp

1)

3)

fs ( up ) + (5 )Cos30 = 29.4Sin20
fs(up) = 10.0554 4.3301

4)

fs ( up ) = 5.7253

2)

b)

So the force of static friction up the block (against gravitys pull) fs(up) is the force keeping the block
from sliding down the ramp.

b. As in example 4, we must remember the force is at an angle, and will affect both the x and y
components of the equation, so we need to keep this in mind.

i.
ii.
iii.

F
F

= ma

= ma

n + FSin30 = mgCos20

n = 27.6270 0.5F

FCos30 (mgSin20 + s n) = 0

0.866F [10.055 + (.6)(27.6270 0.5F)] = 0

F = fsmax = 22.8388

iv. 0.866F 26.631 + 0.3F = 0

1.16F = 26.631
c. As in example 4, but we change our equation for the kinetic force:
i.
Fx = ma
FCos30 (mgSin20 + s n) = 0

ii.
iii.

0.866F [10.055 + (.4)(27.6270 0.5F)] = 0

0.866F 21.106 + 0.2F = 0
1.066F = 21.106

F = 19.799

d. Here we increase the minimum static force by 1 and calculate any acceleration. Keep in mind that
since we are exceeding the static force, we use the kinetic coefficient

i.
ii.

F = 23.8388
y = ma

iii.

F
F

iv.

4.1098 = 3a

n = 27.620 0.5(23.8388)

= ma

n = 16.2006

(23.8388)Cos30 [10.055 + (.4)(16.2006)] = 3a

a = 1.3700m/s 2

e. Here again, we increase the minimum kinetic force by 1 and calculate any acceleration
i.
F = 20.799
ii.
Fy = ma
n = 27.6270 0.5(20.799)
n = 17.2205
iii.

iv.

1.0693 = 3a

= ma

(20.799)Cos30 [10.055 + (.4)(17.2205)] = 3a

a = 0.3564m/s 2

VI. Chapter 6: Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newtons Laws

(return to top)

A. Background:

1. Objects traveling in a circular path can often be analyzed from a Newtonian perspective if we
keep in mind that Newtons 2nd law still applies. In this chapter, we will look at forces in
horizontal and vertical uniform circular motion. We will also analyze through a viscous
medium, which could be considered an extension of the principles of friction presented in the
previous chapter.

B. Horizontal Circular Motion

1. When calculating Horizontal Circular Motion, we will usually be dealing with a y-component
that is in equilibrium (thus giving us a reference point from where to solve our problems). It is
usually best to solve the y-component first for this reason.

Page 21 of 59

Comment [as9]: Notes for

Wednesday, July 5, 2006 begin here

Chapter 6 (Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newtons Laws)

C. Example 1:

1. Problem A 6lb ball is being rotated about a rod. The ball is being held by two lines, the
higher one at 40 to the horizontal and the lower line at 30 to the horizontal. The lower lines
length is 4ft. The highest tension in either string is 40 lbs before snapping.
2. Questions:
a. What is the shortest period that this ball can have?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. First we keep in mind this is an extension Newtons 2nd law in that
both the horizontal and vertical components should be set against
each other to determine the forces acting on them. We use the fact
the y-components are in equilibrium, and the fact one of the two
strings will reach 40lbs first (since angles and lengths are unequal
between T1 and T2). Our guess as to which one reaches first should
be a matter of instinct (in this case, T1 because T2 and the ball are
pulling down on it), but failing that, we can still figure it out.
b. First we set the y-components equal to each other and set one to 40lbs.

i.
ii.

=0
(T1 )(Sin40) = (T2 )(Sin30) + 6
(40)(Sin40) 6
T2 =
T2 = 39.4230
Sin30

(set T1 = 40)

iii. This proves our guess was right, when T1 hits 40, T2 will be close, at 39.42lbs
c. Now that we know T1 and T2, we can figure out the shortest period they can have by doing a few
algebraic manipulations on our centripetal acceleration equation keeping in mind that its velocity is
the same as its angular frequency () times its radius, and the angular frequency is a function of
its period (T):

i.
ii.
iii.

mv 2
and v = r
and
r
2
m(r )2
4 2mr
2
2
F
=
=
mr

=
mr
x
=
r
T
T2
4 2 (6 / 32)(4Cos30)
(T1 )(Cos40) + (T2 )(Cos30) =
T2

= ma =

2
T

T = 0.629s

D. Example 2:

1. Problem You have a car driving around a circle of radius 120 ft. the coefficient of static
friction is (.8)

2. Questions:
a. What is the fastest the car can go without slipping?

3. Solution Strategy:
a. Like all horizontal motion problems, we should start
out by figuring the vertical forces to get friction.

i.
n = mg
b. For horizontal forces, we recall friction is acting as a
centripetal force.

i.

Page 22 of 59

ac = fs = s n

ac =

mv 2
r

sn =

mv 2
r

Chapter 6 (Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newtons Laws)

mv 2
ii.
(.8)(mg ) =
v = (.8)(120)g
120
3600(sec/hr)
iii. 55.42ft/s
= 37.8mi/hr
5280(ft/mi)

v = 55.42ft/s

E. Example 3: (Review of Chapter 5)

1. Problem: (this review example will help us better understand how to solve example 4). You
have a block of mass m on an inclined plane. The coefficient of static friction is 0.6 and the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.4.
2. Questions:
a. What is the maximum inclination angle the plane can have before the block slips down?
b. If is 10 higher than in question b, what will the acceleration be?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. First we solve the y-component to figure out the normal force:
a)

ii.

=0

N = mgCos( )

Now we figure out the x-component to get :

a)

iii.

= ma

mgSin( ) s n = 0

Combine both equations:

a)
b)

mgSin( ) = s [mgCos( )]
mgSin( )
= s
Tan( ) = .6
mgCos( )

= 30.96

b. For this question, we simply plug in 40.96 or 41 (for simplicitys sake) and get the answer. Dont
forget to replace the coefficients of friction!

i.
n = mgCos( )
+
mgSin( ) k n = ma
ii.
9.8Sin(41) (.4)[(9.8)Cos(41)] = a
gSin( ) k [gCos( )] = a
iii. a = 3.47
4. Lessons:
a. The next problem will be a car navigating a banked turn. The problem will be a combination of
exercise 2 (horizontal circular motion) and exercise 3 (a banked road). The main thing to figure out
is the normal force.

F. Example 4:

1. Problem You have the same car from ex.2 but now the road is banked at an angle of 20.
2. Questions:
a. What is the maximum velocity the car can achieve without slipping?
b. What is the minimum velocity the car can achieve without slipping?
3. Solution Strategy:

a. In order to figure out the maximum, we need to consider the fast car scenario:
i.
Time to figure out the vertical components to get the normal force:

Page 23 of 59

Comment [as10]: This images

on this page were done at 300dpi.
The ones before it were only done at
72dpi which caused them to print
poorly. The only thing is the file size
is 4 times greater I decded to keep
the image at 200dpi because it was
the best tradeoff between size and
graphics. The only way to improve
the image would be to up it to
600dpi, but the file will become 5-10
times bigger and even worse, it will
take forever to scroll through the
document.

Chapter 6 (Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newtons Laws)

ii.

mg
Cos( ) ( s )Sin( )

Now we set up the horizontal components to figure out the centripetal acceleration and plug
in the y-based normal force equation to solve it. We remember that the force of static friction
pulls the car back into a circular path, so one of its velocity vector components is centripetal.
We also notice the normal force has a centripetal vector component too, so we put them
together and form our centripetal acceleration equation:

mv 2
= n[Sin( ) + ( s )Cos( )]
r

mac = (n)Sin( ) + ( s )(n)Cos( )

a)

iii.

n=

(n)Cos( ) ( s )(n)Sin( ) mg = 0

a)

Now plug in the equation for the normal force and solve:
a)

mg
mv 2
[Sin( ) + ( s )Cos( )]
=
r
Cos( ) ( s )Sin( )

b)

v2 =

c)

v=

d)

r mg[Sin( ) + ( s )Cos( )]
m Cos( ) ( s )Sin( )

v=

(32)(120)[Sin(20) + (.8)Cos(20)]
Cos(20) (.8)Sin(20)
3600(sec/hr)
79.409ft/s
= 54.14 mi/hr
5280(ft/mi)

(g)(r)[Sin( ) + ( s )Cos( )]
Cos( ) ( s )Sin( )
v = 79.409ft/s

b. The slow car scenario is actually quite simple; notice the only difference is the force of static
friction is acting in the opposite direction, if you do the math, you will notice it means all you do is
switch the signs in the final equation we have:

mg
Cos( ) + ( s )Sin( )

i.

n=

ii.

mg
mv 2
[Sin( ) - ( s )Cos( )]
=
r
Cos( ) + ( s )Sin( )

iii.

v=

(g)(r)[Sin( ) - ( s )Cos( )]
Cos( ) + ( s )Sin( )

iv.

v=

(32)(120)[Sin(20) - (.8)Cos(20)]
Cos(20) + (.8)Sin(20)

a)

mac = (n)Sin( ) - ( s )(n)Cos( )

v = 36.01i

The imaginary result simply means there is NO minimum speed. You can stop on the ramp because
the friction force alone is enough to keep the car in place.

G. Vertical Circular Motion:

1. Vertical Circular Motion, unlike horizontal circular motion has a constantly changing Normal
force, which makes calculating much more complicated. Since the Normal force is
gravitationally influenced, it is different at every point in the curve from its maximum at the
bottom (where n and g vectors are at 180) to its minimum at the top (where n and g are
pointing in the same direction). When solving equations with vertical circular motion, it is
important to remember the direction of the normal force in relation to gravity (which is always
pointing down and always the same magnitude).
2. Roller Coaster analogy:
a. Revolution Type: in this type, the roller coaster does a loop-the-loop on the inside of the track (if
it does it on the outside, the normal force would point in the opposite direction) and the normal
force points to the center of the circle. At the bottom, the normal force is greatest because it needs

Page 24 of 59

Chapter 6 (Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newtons Laws)

to counteract the force of gravity plus provide enough force result in centripetal acceleration. At
the top, the normal force is least because both the normal force and gravity are pointing towards
the center of the circle, thus, the normal force doesnt need much more to provide centripetal
acceleration.

b. Colossus Type: in this type, the train goes up and down hills. The normal force is also greater at
the bottom and least at the top, but for slightly different reasons. At the bottom of the turn, the
normal force acts just like it did in the revolution-type example, with both forces opposing each
other and the normal force pointing to the center of the radius. At the top though, unlike the loop,
the normal force points straight up (180 away from the center of the circle) so only gravity is
providing centripetal acceleration if at all. If the velocity is high enough up the hill and the rider
lacked a restraint, gravity would be unable to provide centripetal force (pushing the rider back into
the curve), the normal force would be zero, and the rider would fly out and become a projectile.
i.
Nota Bene: dont try to memorize the equations above, if you understand the forces acting
on the car, you can easily figure them out anyways, and if you cant, then memorizing isnt
going to help much at all either trust me!

H. Example 5:

1. Problem A designer is making a roller coaster similar to the one above with a revolutiontype loop and a few colossus-type hills and valleys.

2. Questions:
a. How fast should the ride be so the rider feels half their weight at the top of the hill?
b. How fast should the ride be so the rider feels weightless at the top of the loop?
c. How fast should the ride be so the rider feels twice as heavy at the bottom of the loop?
d. How do we calculate the normal force at any given position in the circle?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Since the weight a person feels is actually the normal force, we just set the normal force to and
solve for the equation:

i.

normally n=mg

ii.

mg ntop =

iii.

1
v 2 = r( g)
2

mv
r

n=

so now

v=

mg

mg

mg mv 2
=
r
2

1
v2
g=
r
2

rg
= 4.9r
2

b. Here again, we just set the normal force to zero and solve the top-of-loop equation:
i.

mv 2
mv 2
rmg

0 + mg =

v2 =
m
r
r
v = rg = 9.8r Guess what, this is also the minimum speed to do the loop!

ntop + mg =

ii.
c. Do you notice a pattern?
i.

Page 25 of 59

nbot mg =

mv 2
r

2mg mg =

mv 2
r

v2 =

rmg
m

Chapter 6 (Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newtons Laws)

v 2 = rg = 9.8r Hey, thats the same value as at the top of the loop!
ii.
d. This is just a matter of remembering that the normal force points to the center and is equal to the
force of gravity and the cosine of the angle it makes with the vertical (n=mgCos) because the
sine would actually be the tangent of the radius. Since at the bottom, we already know the
equation, we simply add the cosine to allow for the change in angle actually; we could add it to
the top or bottom, as long as the angles origin begins at the vertical down (e.g. the +x axis would
be 90 and the x axis would be -90) and it will work fine.

n mgCos =

i.

v2
n = m gCos
r

mv 2
r

I. Motion in the Presence of Resistive Forces (air, liquids)

1. Similarly to friction, resistive forces (air or water drag) oppose the objects direction, but
unlike friction, resistive forces in liquids tend to grow dramatically faster (the coefficient of
kinetic friction can also vary with speed, but the change isnt notable until the object goes
very fast).
a. In the case of slow moving particles or particles in a viscous fluid, the equation is:
i.
R = bv
b. And in the case of fast moving objects (in air):

R=

i.

1
D Av 2
2

D= drag coefficient (dimensionless)

(rho)= density of air

a)
b)

2. Terminal Velocity: when an object is initially dropped, its acceleration is equal to

gravity. Over time, the resistive force increases until it equals the downward
force: this is terminal velocity. Terminal velocitys dependence on mass is
the reason why heavier objects have a higher terminal velocity than lighter
objects and why they hit the ground faster:
3. Developing the Terminal Velocity Equation: though its not essential to
know how the equation is made (its not going to be on any tests), understanding
how we got the equation provides a nice chance to review basic calc skills and to see how
we tie together both the terminal velocity and force equations
a. First we set up the conditions

when mg = bv

vTerminal =

if Fy = mg bv

then

mg
b

ma = mg bv

so

dv
= mg bv
dt

b. Now a few simple algebraic manipulations to prepare our integrate for time

b
dv
= g v
m
dt

dv
= dt
g (b m )(v)

becomes

Next, we integrate this combined terminal velocity/force equation

v

c.

dv

g(

)(v)

= dt
0

Now, we set up the substitution necessary to integrate this

d. let u=g (b m )(v)

so

du =

b
v
m

and

Now we put it all back together and manipulate the logs

Page 26 of 59

dv =

m
du
b

Comment [as11]: Notes for

Monday, July 10, 2006 begin here

Chapter 6 (Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newtons Laws)

v m

e.

f.

du = t

(g) ( b m )(v )

( m b )ln u g

( m b )[ln[g (b m )(v)] ln(g)] = t

g (b m )(v )
bt
=
ln

Get rid of the natural log by raising it to the power of Eulers number

g.

g (b m )(v)
bt
= e( m )
g

bv
bt
= e( m )
mg

1 e(

bt

bv
mg

h. And voila! The velocity of an object under drag as a function of time!

mg
(bt m) = v(t)
1 e

i.

We should also note that:

if t = 0

then

v=0

if t

then

v mg b

4. Air-resistance modified kinematic equations:

( bt )
a. a(t) = v'(t) = ge m The acceleration of an object under air drag
b. y(t) =

mg m (bt m) m
bt
mg

[1 e( m )]dt =
t+ e
The position of an object under drag
b
b
b b

J. Example 6:

1. Problem The instructor dropped a paper with a mass of 4.7g from a height of 2m. The time
it took for the paper to fall is 1.37s.

2. Questions:
a. Calculate b (the coefficient of resistance) from this data
b. What is the terminal velocity for this paper?
c. What is the final velocity of the paper and did it reach terminal velocity?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Since we have the position (y), time (t), and mass (m), we can plug this into the position terminal
velocity equation.

i.

y(t) =

ii.

2=

mg m (bt m ) m
t+ e

b
b b

)( b )
(.0047)(9.8)
(.0047)
(.0047 ) e (1.37
(.0047 )
[(1.37) +

]
b
b
b

b = 0.02764

b. Just plug in all your known values into the terminal velocity equation
i.
mg = bv
(.0047)(9.8) = (.02764)v
vt = 1.6688
c. Use a kinematic equation to find the final velocity (velocity at time t) and compare
i.
ii.

(.0047)(9.8)
( (.02764 )(1.37 ) )
1 e (.0047 ) = 1.6659m/s

(.02764)
v f 1.6659
=
= 99.82% of terminal velocity
vt 1.6688

v(t) =

VII. Chapter 7: Energy and Energy Transfer

(return to top)

A. Background

1. Work: when a force is applied to an object and moves it, the resultant displacement of the
object can be quantified as work. In this way, work is the product of a force and the distance

Page 27 of 59

Chapter 7 (Energy and Energy Transfer)

it moves the object. There are many ways to calculate it, but all are based on this basic
concept. This should make it obvious but its worth stating: a force that does not result in
displacement
r r does no work.
a. W = F r = F r Cos

2. Relationship between Work and Kinetic Energy: Kinetic Energy has the same units
(Joules) as work and is can actually be derived from the basic work equation to prove its
equivalency if we assume the angle between the force and the system is zero, our
equation works out like this

r r

(ma)dr (1)

r r
dv dr
m
dt dt dt =

(ma )dr =

b. W =

r r

(F)dr Cos (0) =

a. W = F dr =

vf

(mv )dv =

vi

1 2 1 2
mv f - mvi
2
2

c. KE = 1 2 mv 2
3. Work-Energy Theorem: if work is done on a system by external forces and the only change
in the system is the speed, then the work is just the change in energy of the system.
a. K f = K i +

mv 2f =

mvi2 + W

b. This means that if a 1kg object is moving at 2m/s and its final velocity is 4m/s, its Work is the
same as its change of energy, which is 6 Joules.

4. Power: is the amount of energy (work) transferred during an interval or instant in time.
W dW
W
a. Paverage =
P instantaneous = lim
=
t 0 t
t
dt

B. Example 1: (comparison of dynamic versus work approaches)

1. Problem - A 2kg block with an initial velocity of
3m/s is moved 15 meters with a force of 10N.

2. Questions:
a. What is the final velocity of the box?
b. What is the average power?
3. Dynamic (chapter 5) Solution Strategy:
a. Figure out the acceleration (dynamics) and then
figure out the velocity (kinematics):

F = ma
v 2f = vi2 + 2ad

i.
ii.

10 = 2a
v 2f = 32 + 2(5)(15)

a=5
v f = 159 = 12.61m/s

b. This question cannot be answered with Dynamic equations

4. Work (Chapter 7) Solution Strategy:
a. To figure this out, we find the total work and then plug it into the work-energy theorem.
i.
Set up the basic work equation and fill in the variables:
r
a)

ii.

r
W = F r = (10) (15) = (10 ) (15 )Cos (0 ) = 150J

Now that you have work figured out, use the work-energy equation to get final velocity:
a)

mv 2f =

mvi2 + W

(2)v 2f =

(2)(3)2 + 150

b. To find the power, find the time the work was done and then solve
i.
12.61 = 3 + 5t
t = 1.925s
v f = vi + at
ii.

Paverage =

W
150J
=
78.13 watt
t 1.925s

C. Example 2: (how is work affected by a change in direction?)

Page 28 of 59

v f = 12.61

Chapter 7 (Energy and Energy Transfer)

1. Problem The same block as the one above is pushed with three different forces
(everything else remains the same). The first force pushing at 40 to the horizontal, the
second is pulling at 40 from the other side (140) and the last one is pulling up (90).
2. Questions:
a. What is the work done with the force in the 40 direction?
b. What is the work done with the force in the 90 direction?
c. What is the work done with the force in the 140 direction?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Figure out the
done at 40:
r work
r
i.
W = F r = (10)(15)Cos(40) = 114.906
b. Figure out the work done at 90:
i.
(10)(15)Cos(90) = 0
a)

The force doesnt move it, and so does no work

c. Figure out the work done at 140:

i.
(10)(15)Cos(140) = 114.9 (The force is losing)
ii. Is the result reliable?
a)
b)

1 2 1 2
mv f mvi
2
2
1
1
114.9 = (2 )v 2f (2)(3)2 = 10.29i
2
2

W =

We got an imaginary number, which means there is no

solution. That means the block never makes it to +15m
and probably moves backwards instead.
If it never makes it to 15m, then where does it stop?

iii.

iv.

a)
b)

W = K f Ki
(x) (10 )Cos (40) = 1 2 (2)(0)2 1 2 (2)(3)2
x = 1.17 this is where the block stops moving forward (and then goes backwards).

D. Zero and Negative Work:

1. When a force is perpendicular to the displacement, no work is done.

a. The Normal force is always perpendicular to displacement, so it never does work.
b. Any force acting as a centripetal force does no work.
2. When a force is greater than 90 to the displacement, it does negative work.
a. Friction always does negative work.

E. Example 3: (work done when force varies)

1. Problem same block as in the previous

example with the force at 40 to the

horizontal and the force is 10x
2. Questions:
a. What is the work done on this system?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Since the force varies as a function of displacement, we integrate it to get the work:
i.

W = (F)dr Cos ( ) =

15

(10x )dx Cos(40) = 861.799

0

4. Note:
a. In this example, the force (10x) will actually end up lifting the block at the 3.04 m mark, thus
causing work in the vertical direction too. Since this is an introductory example, we wont cover the
y-component, but in tests, if asked for total work, you must include the sum of both the horizontal
and vertical work.

Page 29 of 59

Chapter 7 (Energy and Energy Transfer)

F. Example 4: (work with a non-conservative force)

1. Problem the same block as before (2kg, vi=3m/s, xf=15m) but the force is now
r
F = 10xi + 3x 2 j (a non-conservative force)
2. Questions:
a. What is the total work done in the x and y
directions?

3. Solution Strategy:
a. Solve by integratingbut wait!
15

i.

15

(F i + F j ) (dxi + dyj )= (10x )dxCos(0)i + (3x )dyCos(90) j = 1125i + 0 j

2

4. Notes:
a. The work in the y direction is zero because displacement is zero.
b. Although in theory, the 3x would result in a lifting of the block at 2.55 feet, the problem does not
state

G. Example 5: (work with a variable force across a limited path)

1. Problem This time the block from the previous examples is going in a straight line from the
points (1, 4) to (10, 2). The force is varying in both the x and y directions, but the path is
limited to the straight line between the previously mentioned points.
2. Questions:
r
a. Find the work done by a conservative force ( F = 10xi + 3y 2 j )

b. Find the work done by a non-conservative force ( F = 10xi + 3x 2 j )

3. Solution Strategy:

a. Here we integrate each based on their paths:

i.

W =

xf

yf

10

xi

yi

f (x)dx + f (y)dy = (10x )dx + (3y )dy = 439J

2

b. The trick here is to solve the y parameter. Since it depends on the x parameter, the easiest thing
would be to integrate it on the x-scale (you can integrate it to the y-scale, but it would be
unnecessarily difficult and time-consuming, especially given the fact you already have enough to
solve it on the x-scale).
?

i.

(3x )dy (Since we need to integrate it to x, we need to find and equivalent equation)
2

ii.

y y1 =

y2 y1
(x x1 )
x2 x1

(This is about the most no nonsense way to get the slope, since its based on the points
were already given no need to find functions based on the forces because the path is
limited by the straight line)

Page 30 of 59

Comment [as12]: a.I need to

get back to this example to finish
the vertical component if
possible.

Chapter 7 (Energy and Energy Transfer)

24
iii. y 4 =
x 1
10 1

2
2
y= x +4
9
9

2
34
y= x+
9
9

iv.

Now the trick We differentiate implicitly to get our slope:

dy = 2 9 dx Now we can replace the dy with the dx in our integral and solve

v.

W =

10

(3x )(
2

dx ) = 222

The work is negative since the positive force is working against negative displacement. Now
we add the x work and the y work and were done

Wtotal = Wx + Wy = 495 222 = 273J

vi.

c. Extra: we want to change the path from a line to a parabola and compare the work done by
conservative and non-conservative forces on this path.
i.
The conservative force would do the same work as before (439J)
ii. The non-conservative force (3x) though, would require a whole recalculating of the path
times the force as we did in the first half of this example.
First we use the quadratic formula for our model of a parabola and meld it with our current xequation. Since our points are given, we can create two equations that we can add
together to give us one variable, from which we will then get our second variable.

a)

y = ax 2 + bx

b)

c) At y=4, the equation is: 4 = a(1)

d) At y=2 (the end), the equation is:

2 = a(10)2 + b(10)

iii.

+ b(1)
2 = 100a + 10b

e)

Set up one equation to cancel a variable in the second equation and you get:

f)

Subtract the second equation from the first one to get:

10(4 = a + b)

40 = 10a + 10b

(2 40) = (100a 10a) + (10b 10b)

= ( 19 45 ) + b
b = 199 45

g)

From which we get: 4

h)

Which gives us the equation of the parabola:

38 = 90a

a = 19 45

y = 19 45 x 2 + 199 45 x

Now we differentiate (like last time) to get the equivalent x-equation that we can integrate:

y = 19 45 x 2 + 199 45 x
dy = 38 45 xdx + 199 45 dx
iv.

dy = (2)(19 45 )(x)dx + 199 45 dx

dy = ( 38 45 x + 199 45 )dx

Now we put it back together and integrate on the x

10

Wtot = Wx + Wy = 495J + 3x 2 ( 38 45 x + 199 45 )dx = 495 1914.9 = 1419.9

1

v.

As is obvious, the conservative path is still the same because it only depends on the
beginning and end points. The non-conservative path, though, is totally dependent on the
path, so we need to integrate the force on the parabolic path. So we decide on a quadratic
equation (we could chose any equation for the parabola, but a quadratic is easier because of
its familiarity) and fit the y parameter to conform to the x parameter. Once we get the path,
we differentiate it implicitly to get the equivalency between y and x slopes (remember,
derivatives are slopes?). This, times our non-conservative force can now be integrated over
the x to get the work based on the path and the force on every point of that path.

H. What makes a force conservative?

1. Conservative Forces are forces that only depend on the initial and final position to
determine work. The path is irrelevant. Conservative forces always have a potential energy
(chapter 8) associated with them.

Page 31 of 59

Comment [as13]: Notes for

Wednesday, July 12, 2006 begin
here

Chapter 7 (Energy and Energy Transfer)

2. Non-conservative Forces are dependent on the path taken and so any irregular path
must be taken into account when calculating work done. They do NOT have a potential
energy associated with them.

I. Work Done by Gravity Forces (conservative)

1. Gravity is a conservative force which we can prove by comparing

three scenarios:

2. Work done in a freefall:

r r
a. Wg = F dr = F d Cos = (mg)(H i H f )Cos(0) = mgH
b. If it hits the ground(to find the velocity upon impact)
i.
Wg = mgH = 1 2 mv 2
v f = 2gh

3. Work done (against Gravity) going back up:

a. Wg = F d Cos = (mg)(H i H f )Cos(180) = mg H
4. Work done along a frictionless incline:
a. Wg = F d Cos = (mg)(d)Cos( )
b. dCos( ) = H So
c. Wg = (mg)H = mgH
5. Conclusion we can see that work done by or
against gravity is conservative because it doesnt
depend on the path (straight drop or a drop on an
incline). The fact that raising the block performs negative work also is part of why gravity is
able to store potential energy.

J. Work done by Spring Forces (conservative)

1. A Spring is another example of a conservative force, which we can prove by calculating the
work done based on Hookes Law (F=-kx):
2. Work Done in compression/extension:
r r xf
a. Ws = F dr = (kx)dx = 1 2 kx 2f
0

3. Work done by the spring returning to its origin:

0

a. Ws =

(kx )dx =

kx 2f

xf

4. Conclusion: work done on a spring is the same as work done

against gravity; it results in negative work (which is where a
conservative forces potential energy is stored. When the spring
returns to its natural position, the work it does then is positive.

K. Work done by Friction Forces (non-conservative)

1. This work is non-conservative because it always

depends on the path taken. Since the energy used

up by friction is only stored as heat, it cannot
return to the system and is essentially wasted; so
no conservation of forces occurs.
2. Calculation of friction work (flat surface):

Page 32 of 59

Chapter 7 (Energy and Energy Transfer)

d
r r d
a. W fk = F dr = fk dxCos(180) = k n dx = k nd
0

b. Conclusion: as we can see, frictions work is negative because it always in a direction opposite to
the displacement. We also see that the path of friction directly affects the work output.

L. Calculation of velocity on rough slopes of different lengths

(showing friction depends on path)

1. Work done on the block by the time it gets to the bottom of the ramp
Wblock = 1 2 mv 2f 1 2 mvi2 = 1 2 mv 2f 0 = 1 2 mv 2f
2. Calculating the work done by gravity minus friction to get our final velocity:
1 mv 2 = mgH + ( nd)
a. Wblock = Wg + W f
2
f
k
b.

c.

mv 2f = mgH k mgCos d

v 2f = g( H k Cos d )

vf =

v 2f = gH k gCos d
2g(H - k dCos )

3. Conclusion: we can see in our final equation that the work done by gravity is dependent on
the path and so the greater path (the longer slope) will result in greater friction work, and as a
result, end with a lower final velocity.

M.

Example 6: (work with a variable force, Pt II)

1. Problem A block is being pulled with a variable force of 2x at an angle of 40 for a distance
of 20m. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.1.

2. Questions:
a. What are the work done by the force (F), by friction (fk) and the total work?
b. Find the final velocity.
c. How long can this block be pulled before it is lifted?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Finding the first part is a simple work integration,
friction isnt much more complicated:
20

(2x )dxCos40 = 306.418J

i.

WF =

ii.

Calculate the normal force and use it to figure out friction (keeping in mind k is constant):

n + 2xSin = mg

n = (3)(9.8) 2xSin40

n = 29.4 2xSin40

20

W fk = fk d = k n d = k (n )dxCos(0) =
0

20

W fk = (.1) (29.4 2 xSin 40 )dx = 33.0885 J

0

iii.

Put them all together:

WTotal = WF + W fk = (306.418) + (33.0885) = 273.3295J

b. Remember the work-energy theorem

i.
Wtotal = K
273.330 =

Page 33 of 59

(3)v 2f 0

v f = 13.50 m s

Chapter 7 (Energy and Energy Transfer)

c. Just set the normal force equal to gravity to find the position at liftoff.
i.
2 xSin40 = 29.4
x = 22.869

VIII.

Chapter 8: Potential Energy

A. Background:

(return to top)

1. Conservative Forces: as stated in the earlier section on conservative forces, a force that is
path independent (gravity, spring) is conservative and by its nature, stores energy done
against it as potential energy.
a. Path Independent: This is the first condition of a conservative force. The work done does not
depend on the path, only the displacement between initial and final position.

b. Work on a closed path: This is the second condition of conservative forces. When an object goes
around a complete path under the influence of a conservative force, then the total work is zero

i.

A dr = 0

c. Component notation: for conservative forces, the component and its magnitude will be from the
same direction.
r

i.

F = 2x 2i (3y + 5) j Is conservative. Notice the i is dependent on the x and the j is

dependent only on the -3y-5. If instead, the i were dependent on the y and/or the j were

dependent on the x in any way, the equation would become non-conservative.

d. Relationship to Potential Energy: there is always a function associated with conservative forces
such that:

i.

r
dU
dU dU dU
Fc = U =
=
i
j
k=
dr
dx
dy
dz

e. Units of Energy: the typical units are Newton Meters (Nm) aka Joules (J)

2. Non-Conservative Forces: if a force is NOT path independent and/or if the work done by a
particle traveling a closed path is NOT zero, then the force is Non-Conservative (in other
words, if any of the two conditions for conservative forces is not met). And non-conservative
forces have no potential energy function associated with them.
a. Component Notation: non-conservative forces will have at least one component dependent on a
magnitude from a different direction.

i.

r
F = 2x 2 i 3xj The j is dependent on the x instead of the y.

b. Work on a closed path: unlike conservative forces, work always adds up as a path is traversed, so
work on a closed path will NEVER equal zero.

i.

NonConservative

r
dr 0

B. Example 1:

r
1. Problem - you have the following functions: F = 2x 2 i (3y + 5) j ,
2. Questions:
a. Find the associated Potential Energy function of this force.

3. Solution Strategy:
a. We go back to the relationship between a force and potential energy:
i.
ii.
iii.

Page 34 of 59

r
dU
Fc = U =
i
dx
dU

= 2x2
and
dx
2x3
then U x =
3

dU
j
dy
dU

= (3y 5)
dy
3y 2
and U y =
5y
2

Chapter 8 (Potential Energy)

iv.

2x 3 3y 2

2x 3 3y 2

U(x, y) =
5y + C =
+
+ 5y + C Joules

3
2
3 2

so

C. Example 2: (Comparison of Methods of Calculation; Ch5, Ch7, & Ch8)

1. Problem You have a block which is dropped from an initial height of yi,
2. Questions:
a. Calculate its final velocity using Newtons Laws (Chapter 5)
b. Calculate its final velocity using the Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem (Chapter 7)
c. Calculate its final velocity using the Potential Energy Method (Chapter 8)
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Actually, our solution harkens back to Chapter 2 (Kinematic Equations)
i.
v 2f = vi2 + 2 a( x f xi ) = 0 2 g(0 yi ) = 2 gy
v f = 2gy

b. Here we use the fact that work is a change in kinetic energy

i.
Wg = K
mgh = 1 2 mv 2f 1 2 mvi2 = 1 2 mv 2f 0
ii.

gh =

v 2f

v=

2gh

c. Even though we saw this in Chapter 7, including the U makes it more Chapter 8-like
i.
WNonCon + WExtForces = K + U
ii. since no non-conservative or external forces are acting on the block

0 = (K f K i ) + (U f U i ) = (K f 0) + (0 U i ) = K f U i

0=

mv 2f mgh

v 2f = gh

vf =

2gh

D. Example 3: putting it all together

1. Problem you have a block resting on top of an incline of 80ft at an angle of 25 with a
coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.2. The block will slide down the ramp and travel through a
loop with a 10m radius and a coefficient of static friction of 0.4. After passing the loop, it will
compress a spring with a stiffness constant of 250 lb/ft. In this example, ignore the constant
change of normal force in the loop and assume it is 10.

2. Questions:
a. What is the final velocity at the top of the circle? Will it complete the circle?
b. How much would the spring be compressed by if the height were 100ft?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. We calculate total work with the Work-Kinetic-Potential energy equation:
i.
WNonCon + WExtForces = K + U
ii. Time to figure out the variables involved in the inclines friction calculation:

k1 = (0.2)

Page 35 of 59

n1 = 6Cos25

d1 =

100
Sin25

Chapter 8 (Potential Energy)

iii.

Now we figure out the variables in the circles friction calculation:

(keep in mind the distance traveled is really the circumference at this point)

k 2 = (0.4)
iv.

n1 = (10)

d1 =

(2) (10)
= 10
2

There is only final kinetic energy, which is where we will get our velocity from

K = K f K i =

(6 32 )v2f 0 = 3 32 v2f

v.

Total potential energy is the sum of the initial height minus the loops height.

vi.

Now we set up the equation with the known variables:

U = U f U i = mgh f mghi = mg2r mghi = (6 )(2 )(10 ) (6 )(80 ) = 360

) (
)
) (0.4 )(10 )(10 ) = ( v )+ (360 )

0 + ( k1n1d1 ) ( k 2 n2 d2 ) =

(0.2 )(6Cos25 )(80 Sin25

mv 2f 1 2 mvi2 + U f U i
3

2
f

32

vii. And the solution is: v f = 17.424 m/s , but does it make the loop?
viii. Time to use the equation we developed back in chapter 6, example 5:

Vmin = rg = (10)(32) = 17.88

the blocks speed is a tad smaller than the minimum required to travel the loop. This means
that at some point before it hits the top of the circle, the normal force will be less than the
weight of the block and for a few moments, the block will behave like a projectile until it
encounters the other side of the loop and returns on its path. Given the tiny difference, this is
likely to be a tiny amount, but the math required to figure this out would be far greater than
the math required to figure out the example, so we will ignore that for now and leave this
problem at that.
b. Now we reuse the equation we previously had, but keep in mind the height is now 100 feet and
now the block is following the entire circle (not just half of it). Also, since the initial and final speeds
of the block will be zero (its velocity is zero at maximum spring compression), we need only
calculate the potential energy, and for final potential energy, we replace it with the spring potential
energy equation we got from Chapter 7, section J.

i.

( k1n1d1 ) ( k 2 n2 d2 ) = U f U i

ii.

(0.2 )(6Cos25 )(100 Sin25 ) (0.4 )(10 )(2 10 ) =

iii.

And we get x=0.8547ft.

250x 2 (6 )(100 )

E. Equilibrium:

1. Equilibrium and Potential Energy: all potential energy functions have points of equilibrium,
but the equilibrium can have three different types:
a. Stable Equilibrium when moved away from this equilibrium, the particle will return to
it. Graphically, this looks like a U-shaped graph and the point of equilibrium is at the
bottom.
b. Neutral equilibrium when moved away from this position, the particle will stay where
it is so long as where it is moved is also a point of equilibrium. This is like a U shaped
graph where the bottom of the U is extra long, looking like a floor.
c. Unstable equilibrium when moved away from this point of equilibrium, the particle will
not return to it and instead will move away from it. Graphically, this looks like an upside
down U-shaped graph with the particle at the top.

F. Example 4:

1. Problem: you have a the potential energy function for a spring which is - kx
2. Questions:
a. Find the associated force function
b. Find the points of stable & unstable equilibrium

Page 36 of 59

Comment [as14]: Notes for

Monday, July 17, 2006 begin here

Chapter 8 (Potential Energy)

3. Solution Strategy:
a. When trading between energy and force, we can use this simple relationship (if you notice
example 1, it follows this form):
derive

i.

ii.

U(x) F(x)
1 2 kx 2 F(x)
dU 1 2
dU 1 2
2 kx = (k)
2 x = kx
dx
dx

integrate

iii.
b. The points of stable & unstable equilibrium are the local max and min of U(x) or F(x):
i.
U(x) = 0 @ x=0 There is only one point of equilibrium and its at zero and stable.

G. Example 5:
1. Problem: You have the Potential Energy function u ( x ) = x 3 + 6 x 2 7 x + 12 J
2. Questions:
a. Calculate the points of stable & unstable equilibrium.
b. Calculate the associated force function.
c. What is the U(x) for the points of equilibrium.
d. What will happen if this particle is placed at x=0, x=-2, x=2
3. Solution Strategy:
a. First, refer to step b which gives us the force, from which we solve to

get the zeros of the force. Once we find those, we run the 2nd derivative
test on the zero forces to see if they are local maxima (unstable) or
minima (stable).

i.
ii.
iii.

F(x) = 0
3x 2 + 12x 7 = 0
F(x) = 0
at
x = 0.709, 3.291
U ''( x ) = F '( x ) = 6 x + 12 use this for local max/min
calculations

iv.

F '(0.709) = +7.7 positive 2nd derivative = concave up = local

min = stable

v.

F '(3.291) = 7.7 negative 2nd derivative = concave down =

local max = unstable

b. Here we just remember the relationship u(x)

F(x)
derive

i.

dU
x 3 + 6x 2 7x + 12 = 3x 2 + 12x 7 = F(x)
dx

c. Simple plug-n-chug
i.
U(.709 ) = 9.697
U(3.291) = 18.303
d. A view of the graph is the easiest thing to use to figure this out. Imagine the potential energy graph
is a path and a marble was placed at any of the points in question.
i.
If its placed at x=0, it would oscillate from x=0 and x=1.59 (the two places where its y-value
is 12) and if friction was a factor, it would eventually stop at 0.709.
ii. If a marble was placed at x=2, it would oscillate between x=2 and x=-0.236 (the two places
where its y-value is 14).
iii. If the marble was placed at x=-2, it would roll towards the right, but since there is no other
point on the graph on the right side that has a y-value of 58, it will just roll over the local max
at x=3.291 and keep going right off the graph (theoretically into negative infinity).

IX. Chapter 9: Linear Momentum & Collisions

A. Background:
Page 37 of 59

(return to top)

Chapter 9 (Linear Momentum and Collisions)

1. Inertia: the principle that describes how an object will resist a change in its velocity. Since
velocity is a vector and zero is a velocity, it encompasses everything from a body at rest will
resist being put into motion to a body in motion will resist having its speed or its direction
changed. Being a concept, it is not quantifiable; the quantification of inertia is momentum.
r
2. Linear Momentum ( p )( kg m s or slug ft s ): is the inertia of a body. Most often it is used to
refer to the inertia of a moving body because an objects momentum is a product of its mass
and its velocity. It is a vector quantity; thus it must be defined by magnitude & direction.
There is also (angular momentum, but this will be covered in chapter 11)
r
r
a. Formula: p = mv

r
3. Impulse: ( J )( N s or lb s ): the product of the force and the time during which it acts. Its
units are the same as Linear momentum, but the units look different to distinguish each.
a. Formula: I =

Fdt

4. Center of Mass: The point in an object or group of objects where the objects mass is evenly
divided on all sides. If an object could be tossed with a slight rotation, it would rotate around
its center of mass. If an object is hung by its center of mass, it would be perfectly balanced.
In most equations, when considering the kinematic qualities (velocity, acceleration) of a
particle, the center of mass can be used for modeling the particles motion because most
objects obey kinematic physics at their center of mass.
a. Formula: rcm =

m x

i i

rcm =

rdm
dm

5. Law of conservation of Linear Momentum: whenever two or more particles in an isolated

system interact. The total momentum of the system will remain constant.

B. The relationship between Newtons laws, Momentum & Impulse:

1. First: we start with Newtons basic law and rewrite acceleration into its derivative form:
r
r
dv
r
i.
F = ma
F=m
dt
b. Second: since mass is constant, we can include it in the derivative
i.

F=

r
r
d(mv) dp
Force is the time-derivative of momentum
=
dt
dt

c. Next we find the total force for a certain time by integrating it by t.

i.

Fdt = dp

r r tfinal
J = p tinitial

r
J = (p f - pi )

Were using shorthand here but the final and initial momentum are the momentum at the
initial and final time. This final equation is known as the impulse approximation and simply
states the impulse is the change in momentum of a system.

C. Example 1: (Comparison of Methods of Calculation; Ch5, Ch7, & Ch9)

1. Problem: you have a 5kg block that is being pushed a distance of 16m with an initial velocity
of 2m/s and a force of 10N.

2. Questions:
a. What is the final velocity using Newtons Laws?
b. What is the final velocity using the Energy
Approach?

c. What is the final velocity using the ImpulseMomentum Approach?

d. What if the force was instead 10t, the distance

were unknown, and time was 8s?

Page 38 of 59

Chapter 9 (Linear Momentum and Collisions)

3. Solution Strategy:
a. This is a straightforward application of Newtons laws and Kinematics
i.
F = ma
10 = 5a
2=a
ii.

v 2f = vi2 + 2 ad

v f = 4 + 2(2)(16) = 8.25m/s

b. We keep in mind that work and kinetic energy are related

F dx =

i.

W = K

ii.

mad =

iii.

2(2)(16) = v 2f 2 2

mv 2f 1 2 mvi2

mv 2f 1 2 mvi2

2ad = v 2f vi2
v f = 4 + 64 = 8.25m/s

c. The limitation with this approach is it requires time.

i.
v f = vi + at
8.2462 = 2 + 2t
t = 3.123
Of course, if we knew the final velocity, we wouldnt need to figure it out using this approach,
but there will be times when we will know the time and not the final velocity, so for now, lets
assume we didnt know how we got t=3.12 and use it to get the final velocity.

ii.
iii.

r r
J = Ft
r r
r
J = p f pi

r
J = (10)(3.123) = 31.23

31.23 = 5v f (5)(2)

v f = 8.25

d. Here we can use the more general impulse method, especially since everything is based on time
instead of distance.

i.
ii.
iii.

r
F = 10t
r
J = 320

r
vi = 2
r
8
J = 10tdt
0
r r
r
J = p f pi

d = 8s

320 = 5v f 5(2)

v f = 66m/s

D. What is the advantage of using the momentum/impulse approach?

1. Distance is not needed: if you have at least 2 of time, velocity, and mass, you have enough
to solve an equation.

2. Force as a function of time: would be impossible to solve any other way since the other
ways only deal with force as a function of distance (work, for example).

E. Example 2: (varying mass and force)

1. Problem: you have a 5kg box that is open at the top and an initial velocity of 2m/s. the force
acting on it is 10t+5 and the box travels an 8second distance and during the 8 seconds that it
travels, rain falling into the box increases its mass
by 200g per second.
2. Questions:
a. What is the impulse imparted on the box?
b. What is the final velocity?
c. What is the work done on the block?

3. Solution Strategy:
a. Impulse is the integral of force over a period of time
i.

r
J = Fdt =

(10t + 5)dt = 360N s

b. The velocity is the result of the change in momentum, but keep in mind the final mass has
increased.

i.

Page 39 of 59

m f = mi +

dm
t = 5 + (.2)8 = 6.6kg
dt

Chapter 9 (Linear Momentum and Collisions)

r
ii.
J = m f v f mi vi
360 = 6.6v f 5(2)

v f = 56.06m / s

c. Since you CANT calculate the integral of work without an x-distance, you must use the other
definition of work:

i.

W=

mv 2f 1 2 mvi2 =

(6.6)(56.06)2 1 2 (5)(2)2 = 10.361kJ

F. Collisions in one dimension

1. Relation to the impulse approximation: when multiple objects collide in the horizontal
plane in one dimension, they transfer their momentum such that the momentum is conserved
as long as no outside forces (impulses) change it. In reality, though, the change of
momentum is NEVER instantaneous and occurs over a very small period of time. Luckily,
most collisions (and in this chapter all of them) can be modeled by using the impulse
approximation (that momentum is transferred instantaneously from one object to another).
2. Conservation of Momentum: always applies in collisions, regardless of type. This means
that we need only know initial or final velocities and the mass to figure out the other
velocities.

G. Types of collisions:

1. Perfectly Elastic (extremely rare): 99-100% Kinetic Energy is conserved.

a. Example: pool balls colliding, momentum and kinetic energy are conserved almost 100%.

2. Semi-Elastic (most common): most kinetic energy is conserved

a. Example: a rubber tennis ball, which keeps most of its kinetic energy after impact.

3. Inelastic: most kinetic energy is lost

a. Example: two cars colliding.

H. Example 3: (1-dimensional perfectly elastic collision)

1. Problem: you have a 2kg block heading to the right at 3m/s and a 5kg block heading to the
left at 1m/s. they have a perfectly elastic collision which lasts .8 seconds.
2. Questions:
a. What are the final velocities of each block?
b. What is the impulse on each block?
c. What is the average force each block exerts on the other?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Since momentum AND kinetic energy are conserved, we use
both equations together to find both unknown variables. We
start with momentum and solve it for one variable. We then
plug in the variable from momentum into the kinetic energy
equation and that will give us our solution.

i.

m1v1i + m2 v2 i = m1v1 f + m2 v2 f

ii.

v1 f =

iii.

Don't let all the crazy subscripts confuse you, the subscripts are just for recordkeeping and
dont contribute mathematically to the equation.

iv.

v.

(2)(3) + (5)(1) = (2)v1 f + (5)v2 f

5
2 2 v2 f

m1v12i + 1 2 m2 v22i =

(2)(3)2 + 1 2 (5)(1)2 =

m1v12i + 1 2 m2 v22i
1

(2)v12f + 1 2 (5)v22 f

23

= v12f + 5 2 v22 f

1
46 = 35 v 2 10 v
= ( 1 2 5 2 v2 f )2 + 5 2 v22 f
4 2f
4 2f + 4
4
vii. v2 f = 1, 9 7 (or1.286) But -1 is our original velocity, so the only one left is 9/7, so:
viii. v1 f = 1 2 5 2 (9 7 ) = 19 7 or -2.714

vi.

23

b. We can use the impulse approximation.

Page 40 of 59

Comment [as15]: Notes for

Wednesday, July 19, 2006 begin
here

Chapter 9 (Linear Momentum and Collisions)

r
r
r
i.
J on 5 kg = p f pi = (5)(1.28) (5)(1) = 11.4Ns
r
r
r
ii.
J on 2 kg = p f pi = (2)(2.714) (2)(3) = 11.4Ns
This shows us the impulse of one is the opposite of the other, as it should be.

c. Since the force is constant, there is no need to integrate

i.
J = Ft
11.4 = F (.8)
F = 14.25

I. Example 4: (1-dimensional semi-elastic collision)

1. Problem: you have a 2kg block heading to the right at 3m/s and a 5kg block heading to the
left at 1m/s. they have a semi-elastic collision
which lasts .8 seconds, and the 5kg block
rebounds with a velocity of m/s.
2. Questions:
a. What is the velocity of the 2kg block?
b. What is the initial and final kinetic energy?
c. What is the % kinetic energy loss?
d. What is the impulse on each block?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. We keep in mind momentum is retained, so this is
simple algebra

i.

Pi(total ) = Pf (total )

1 = 2 v2 f + 5(.5)

v2 f = .75

b. We already know the initial kinetic energy from Example 3, so we only need final kinetic energy.
i.
K f = 1 2 (5)(.5)2 + 1 2 (2)(.75)2 = 1.19J
K i = 11.5J
c. Simply figure out the difference as a percentage:
i.

% Loss =

11.5 1.19
= 89.65% Loss
11.5

d. We canr again use the impulse approximation:

J on 5 kg = (5)(.5) (5)(1) = 7.5
so
i.

J on 2 kg = 7.5

J. Example 5: (1-dimensional inelastic collision)

1. Problem: you have a 2kg block heading to the right at 3m/s and
a 5kg block heading to the left at 1m/s. they have
an inelastic collision which lasts .8 seconds.
2. Questions:
a. What is the final velocity of the system?
b. What is the impulse on each block?
c. What is the percentage loss of kinetic energy?
d. Find the average force each block exerts on the
other.

3. Solution Strategy:
a. We know momentum is conserved, and since its
inelastic, we will only have one final velocity, so
we set up our equation with two initial velocities and one final velocity.

i.
ii.

r
r
pi (total ) = p f (total )
1 = 7v f

1 = (m1 + m2 )v f

vf =

b. The impulse approximation gives us the impulse

Page 41 of 59

Chapter 9 (Linear Momentum and Collisions)

r
i.
J on 5 kg = (5)( 1 7 ) (5)(1) = 5.71

so

J on 2 kg = 5.71

c. We figure out the final kinetic energy since we got it in Example 3:

K f = 1 2 (7)( 1 7 )2 = 114 or .0714
i.

11.5 .0714
= 99.38% Loss
11.5

% Loss =

ii.

d. Since the force is constant, weruse the simpler impulse-force

equation.
r
i.
J = Ft
5.71 = F(.8)
F = 7.14 N

K. Example 6: (2-dimensinoal elastic collision)

1. Problem: two balls on a frictionless plane are heading towards each other. Ball 1 is 2kg and
is heading to the right at 3m/s and ball 2 is 5kg and is heading to the left at 1m/s. Both balls
collide into each other, but one slightly above the other resulting in a change of ball 1s
trajectory from parallel to the x-plane to 70 above the x-plane.
2. Questions:
a. Find ball 1s final velocity
b. Find ball 2s final velocity
c. Find ball 2s angle of deflection
3. Solution Strategy:
a. There are various parts to this first solution: breaking it into components, weeding
out the trig functions, merging the momentum equations, merging with the kinetic
equation, and solving.
i.
First break it down into its components:
a)
b)

ii.

iii.

r
r
p f ( total ) = pi ( total )
r
r
r
r
p fx = pix i + p fy = piy j

) (

(pr

fx

) (

r
r
r
+ p fy = pix + piy

Now solve the x and y equations.

a)

2 v f 1Cos 70 + 5 v f 2 Cos = (2)(3) + (5)(1) = 1

b)

2 v f 1Sin 70 5 v f 2 Sin = 0

Now we move the 70 to the left sides, square both equations, and add them to each other.
Its critically important that you move the70 (known angle) to the side with only numbers, or
else your equation will cancel itself out in the end and you will have lost time.
a)

(5v

f2

Cos

) = (1 2v
2

Cos 70

f1

25v 2f 2Cos 2 = 1 4 v f 1Cos 70 + 4 v2f 1Cos 2 70

iv.

Page 42 of 59

(x)

b)

25 v Sin = 4 v Sin 70 (y)

c)

25v 2f 2Cos 2 + 25v 2f 2 Sin 2 = 1 4 v f 1Cos 70 + 4 v 2f 1Cos 2 70 + 4 v 2f 1Sin 2 70

2
f2

2
f1

Now we extract the velocity and voila! Pythagorean identities! And when youre done, you
also have an equation with a variable on one side
a)

v.

)
= 1 4Cos70 (v )+ 4v

25 v 2f 2 Cos 2 + Sin 2 = 1 4 v f 1Cos 70 + 4 v 2f 1 Cos 2 70 + Sin 2 70

2
f2

b)

25v

c)

v 2f 2 =

(1) = 1 4v f 1Cos70 + 4v (1)

1

25

( )

2
f1

25v

2
f2

f1

2
f1

4 25 Cos70 v f 1 + 4 25 v 2f 1

Now we set up the kinetic equation and solve for final velocity 2 squared so we can use it to
solve our momentum equation.

Chapter 9 (Linear Momentum and Collisions)

2
2
a) 1 2 (2)v f 1 + 1 2 (5)v f 2 =

(2)(3)2 + 1 2 (5)(1)2

v 2f 2 = (2 5 ) 11.5 v 2f 1 = 23 5 2 5 v 2f 1

v 2f 1 + 5 2 v 2f 2 = 11.5
vi.

Now we substitute the kinetic variable into the momentum equation and solve

2 5 v 2f 1 =

a)

23

b)

0=

14

25

v
2
f1

( )

25

4 25 Cos70 v f 1 + 4 25 v 2f 1

25

v f 1Cos 70 114 25

v f 1 = 2.903, 2.805

Negative values are invalid if we set up our equation right, because the only values we will get
(whether angle or magnitude) will be positive, indicating the magnitude of either the angle or of the
distance (yes, angles can be negative, but look at the equation, its set up so we can only get
positive values, so in this case, only positive values are valid).

b. Now with the hard part done, this is easy; just solve the easiest (kinetic) equation
i.
v 2f 2 = 23 5 2 5 (2.903)2 = 1.205 = 1.0186
c. To solve for the angle, plug your velocities into either x or y equation:
i.
2(2.2903)Cos70 + 5(1.1086)Cos = 1
= 100.24
a)

b)

Note 1: just like the previous double answer, this ones negative value is invalid. Though
instinctively, it seems that using -100.24 would be right (because it looks like the ball deflects
clockwise 100 degrees, or down) and using 100.24 would be wrong (because it looks like the ball
deflects counter-clockwise 100 degrees, or up), we are ignoring the fact that the answer only reflects
the magnitude of the angle, not its absolute direction. Therefore, since 100.24 is the magnitude, 100.24 would be as meaningless as -100mph when discussing speed (as opposed to velocity).
How then do we know what direction the 100 degrees is? You can do it the simple way (look at the
picture, esp. the vectors) or add the original velocity vectors, which will only work if the 100 is
clockwise (negative).
Note 2: when solving for the angle, use the cosine formulas instead of the sine formulas because
though the sine formulas can give you the answer, it could give you an answer that is off by 180
because of the inherent limitations of the sine function (remember the SAS calculations in trig class
and how they might give you the wrong angle?, if not, then go look them up).

L. Finding the Center of Mass of an Object:

1. The Center of Mass: of an object is the most important point for most mechanics
calculations because it is the point from where an objects velocity is modeled. It is also the
point around which it rotates if tossed in the air, and is the point on which it balances
perfectly if suspended at one point.
2. The Center of Gravity: of an object is the same as the center of mass if gravity is uniform
over the object (which on earth, it usually is unless the object is many miles long)
3. The Formulas:
a.

M.

xcm =

(m + x

FromOneEnd

M total

xdm
dm

ycm =

(m + y

FromOneEnd

M total

ydm
dm

Example 7: (2 parts)

1. Problem: you have a rod with different masses fused into it. At one end, a sphere with 1m
radius & 6kg. Next is 5m of rod with 10kg mass. Next is a sphere with 1.5m radius & mass
4kg. Finally, a rod 5m-long & 6kg mass.
2. Questions:
a. Find the center of mass of this rod from the left center of the ball.
b. Find the center of mass of this rod from the right
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Calculate the distance of each objects center from the center of the leftmost ball.

Page 43 of 59

Chapter 9 (Linear Momentum and Collisions)

xi mi m x + m x + m x + m x
2 2
3 3
4 4
xcm = i
= 1 1
i.
m1 + m2 + m3 + m4
mi
i

xcm

ii.

6(0) + 10(2.5 + 1) + 4(1.5 + 5 + 1) + 5(3 + 1.5 + 5 + 1)

=
= 4.7m
6 + 10 + 4 + 5

This is the distance of the center of mass from the center of the leftmost ball.

b. We do the same thing, and we should get the same position

5(1.5) + 4(1.5 + 3) + 10(2.5 + 3 + 3) + 6(1 + 5 + 3 + 3)

= 7.3m
5 + 4 + 10 + 6

i.

xcm =

ii.

This is the distance from the edge of the rod to the center of mass.
Check the answer

L = 13m

a)

xcm(right ) + xcm(left ) + 1mradius = 4.7 + 7.3 + 1 = 13

N. Example 8:
1. Problem:

a. Find the x and y center of mass of an object which has even density and fills a space bund by x
from x=0 to x=3

2. Solution Strategy (even density):

a. What we do is figure out the area to integrate, remember that in the area to integrate, there is
a constant and a variable, so when we differentiate, we leave the constant alone and only
differentiate the variable and its variable-dependent result
i.
Area of a vertical thin rectangle: da = y dx . We use this when we want to calculate
the x center of mass. Then, we can do the integral either with the
x or y variable.
ii. Area of a horizontal thin rectangle: da = (b x)dy , where b is
the final x value. We use this option when we want to calculate
the y center of mass. Then, we can do the integral either with the
x or y variable.
b. Now we relate the area to density because our initial integration is
based on density.

i.

surface mass density ( ) =

mass d dm

dm = da
area
da

c. Now we put our integrations together in the format:

i.

rcm =

rdm r da = rda = rf (r )dr = The rest is just plug n chug

dm da da f (r )dr
3

ii.

xcm =

xdm
dm

x da
da

xda
da

xydx
ydx

x( x )dx

(x

)dx

x dx
4

0
3

3
x dx

x5

0
4 3

= 2.4

27

iii.

ycm =

ydm
dm

y da
da

yda
da

y(3 x )dy
(3 x )dy

y(3 y

)dy

= 7.71

0
27

(3 y
0

3. Part 2 (uneven density):

Page 44 of 59

)dy
Comment [as16]: Notes for
Monday, July 24, 2006 begin here

Chapter 9 (Linear Momentum and Collisions)

a. Lets change the density from even, to density which changes as a function of x and y.
b. Our areas to integrate remain the same
c. The relation between area and density has been changed, but the only thing that happens is that
now, sigma has a changing variable and so when we drop it in, we cant just remove it like before,
we need to express it as its new value and remove the constants and keep the variables.

i.

dm = da

and

kx 2
(as x, ) (as y, )
y

d. Now the integration is just as simple as before, as long as were systematic

i.

xcm

ii.

kx 2
x2
x
x
k
da
y ydx
x da y
xdm

=
=
=
2
2
dm da kx da k x ydx
y
y

ycm

kx 2
y
(3 x)dy

ydm y da = y
=
=
2
dm da kx (3 x)dy
y

27

27

x dx
x(x )dx =
= 2.25
(x )dx x dx
3

0
3

27

(3 y 3 )dy
1

27

x2
1
0 y (3 y 3 )dy

27

(y ) (3 y )dy (3y
=
(y )
(3 y )dy (3y

y)dy
= 5.4

0
27

13

1)dy

O. Rocket Propulsion

1. Difference from normal propulsion: unlike a car, a rocket propels itself by ejecting gasses.

The weight of these gases and their acceleration produce the force (by Newtons 2nd law) that
propels the rocket upwards. Add to this the fact that the mass is reducing by the fuel that is
being spent, which increases the rockets acceleration further. The most
important point though is: as per the law of conservation of momentum,
momentum is conserved (e.g. though the rocket increases in speed, the
momentum remains the same since all forces generated are internal)

a. Fengine =

dp d(mv) dm
dm
dv
=
=
vexhaust + ma =
vexhaust + m
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

2. How gas momentum and rocket momentum add up:

d
a. M rocket vrocket = vexhaust mexhaust
M r (dv) = ve dme
b. dme = dM r (the increase in exhaust mass corresponds to a decrease in rocket mass)
vf

c.

Mf dM
M r (dv) = ve (dM r ) integrate
dv = ve

Mi M
vi

d. Thrust = ve

dM
dt

3. How to work the Rocket Equation

a. M f = 110 M i
vi = 0
Page 45 of 59

ve = 500m/s

M
v f - vi = ve ln i
Mf

Chapter 9 (Linear Momentum and Collisions)

M1
b. v f = (500 ) ln
= (500 )(ln (10 )) = 1151m/s
.1M
1

if the rockets mass drops to 1/100th of its initial mass, the speed is even greater

M1
= (500 )(ln (100 )) = 2303m/s
.01M 1

c. v f = (500 ) ln

so dropping the mass really helps!

P. Example 9:

1. Problem: A rocket with an initial mass of 90,000kg and a velocity of 10m/s is losing mass at
a rate of 50kg/s. the exhaust speed of the gas is 1000 m/s

2. Question:
a. What is the final velocity after 10 minutes?
b. What is the thrust force propelling the rocket forward?
c. How many minutes will it take the rocket to achieve escape velocity?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. First calculate the mass at 10 minutes, and then use the rocket equation.
i.
M f = M i M lost (t) 90, 000 (50)(600) = 60, 000
ii.

M
90000
v f = vi + (ve )ln i = (10) + (1000)ln
= 415.47m / s
60000
M
f

b. Simple plug and chug

Thrust = ve

i.

dM
= (1000)(50) = 50kN
dt

c. Set the rocket equations final velocity to escape velocity (11km/s), and then calculate time.
i.
ii.

X.

90000
x = 1.518 (Almost nothing left!)
11000 = (10 ) + (1000 )ln
x
M f = M i M lost (t ) 1.518 = 90, 000 (50)(60)(t ) = 29.999

Chapter 10: Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis (return to top)
A. Background
1. Rotational Motion: a particle that is moving about a fixed axis (rotating) has

measurable vectors that quantify its position, velocity, and acceleration. The
important distinction though, is how vector quantities (velocity, acceleration) are
handled; in circular motion, the angle is the axis of rotation and the magnitude is the
magnitude of the velocity or acceleration vector.
a. Right-hand rule: If you imagine gripping the axis of rotation with your fingers pointing
towards the direction of rotation, your outstretched thumb will point towards the angular
velocity vector.

B. Similarities between Rotational & Linear Kinematics

1. Equivalent Counterparts:
a. (rad)
x(m)
b. (rad/s)
v(m/s)
c. (rad/s 2 )
a(m/s 2 )
2. Kinematic Equations:
Rotational Kinematics

Page 46 of 59

Linear Kinematics

Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

f = i + t
v f = vi + at

f = i + i t + 1 2 t 2

x f = xi + vit + 1 2 at 2

2f = i2 + 2 ( f i )

v 2f = vi2 + 2 a( x f xi )

f = i + 1 2 ( i + f )t

x f = xi + 1 2 vi + v f t

3. Conversion Factors:
a. s(x) = r
b. vtangential = r
c. atangential = r

C. Similarities between Rotational & Linear Dynamics

1. Dynamic Equations:

Rotational Dynamics

Linear Dynamics

ac = (r ) r = r 2
r r
W = d

r
r
F = ma
2
ac = v r
r r
W = Fdr

W = K = 1 2 I 2
r r
P = t =
r
r
L = I
r
r
J = dt
r
r
J = L
r
r
= dL dt

W = K = 1 2 mv 2
r r
P = Wt = F v
r
r
p = mv
r
r
J = Fdt
r
r
J = p
r dpr
F = dt

= I

Chapter
5
6
7
7
7
9
9
9
9

2. New Definitions
r
a. Torque ( )( N m or ft lb ): can be thought of as a force that causes rotation. It is the product
of the force acting on a lever by its distance from the fulcrum. On a disk, it's the same thing; the
force acting to turn the disk times its distance from the axis of rotation.

=rF

= I
b. Moment of Inertia (MOI)( I )( kg m 2 or ft lb s 2 ): this is like mass, but in a rotational context,
i.

in other words, it describes the resistance the object will have to a change in the objects rotation
(whether at motion or at rest). An objects moment of inertia will be lowest at its center of mass.

i.

I = r 2 dm

c. Angular
r Momentum:
r r
i.
L=rp

D. Example 1:

1. Problem: A disk 1.2 m in diameter is rotating at an initial rate of 15rpm. It is made to

accelerate at a rate of .8rad/s. we want to know some things after 10 seconds

2. Questions:
a. What is the final angular velocity?
b. What is the final velocity at the rim of the disk, the centripetal acceleration, total acceleration, and
angular acceleration?

c. How many turns has it made?

3. Solution Strategy:

Page 47 of 59

Comment [as17]: This is really

a chapter 11 subject, but since the
teacher included it in the formulas, I
will include it here. I will flesh out
the definition once I get to the
chapter 11 notes for this definition.

Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

a. Plug it in the related kinematic equation. But first translate rpm into angular velocity.
i.
ii.

15rev 2 rad 1min

= 1.57rad/s
1min 1rev 60 s
f = i + t = 1.57 + (.8)(10) = 9.57 rad/s

b. Each velocity and acceleration has a simple formula:

i.
v f = r f = (.6)(9.57) = 5.74 m/s
ii.

ac = r 2 = (.6)(9.57)2 = 54.95 m/s 2

iii.

atot = atan + ac = r + 54.95 2 =

atot = ArcTan

iv.

( )
atot

((.8)(.6))2 + 54.95 2

= 54.94 m/s 2

.48
ac = ArcTan
54.95 = 0.5 ahead of a c

c. Find the total radians and convert to turns.

i.
ii.

i + f
1.57 + 9.57
t = 0+
10 = 55.7rad

2
2
1turns
55.7rad
= 8.86 turns
2 rad

f = i +

E. Applying Tangential Velocity to the Rotation of the Earth

1. Tangential Velocity on Earth: is a result of the spin it has about its axis. Depending on
where a person is, the spin can be more of a factor. At the equator, the
spin is greatest, exerting the greatest tangential velocity. If this velocity
matched the earths escape velocity, we would be flying off into space!
a. vtangential = (Rearth )(Cos )( )

1rev 2 rad 1hr

24hr 1rev 3600 s

b. vtangential = (6370km )(Cos )

c. vtangential = .463Cos km/s (Well below 11.2km/s)

d. To find out how much faster the earth needs to spin to exceed
escape velocity at the equator and at our latitude (33.56):

i.
ii.
iii.

vtangential = vescape = 11.2km/s

11.2km/s = (.463x )Cos (0 ) km/s

11.2km/s = (.463x )Cos (33.56 ) km/s

x = 24.19 times

x = 29.02 times

So since were closer to the poles than the equator, the earth has to spin faster to exceed
escape velocity at our latitude. A funny thing happens at the pole:

iv.

11.2km/s = (.463x )Cos (90 ) km/s

x=

At the pole (as at all locations on earth), your angular velocity is the same, but your
tangential velocity is zero since your radius from the center of rotation is zero.

F. Moment of Inertia: definition

Comment [as18]: Notes for

Wednesday, July 26, 2006 begin
here

1. Relationship to Rotational Kinetic Energy:

a. i = individual particles
b. K Rot =

K = (

mi vi2 =

2
i

i i

but is the same everywhere, so

c.

Page 48 of 59

(m r )
Krot =

2
2
mi ri =
i

I 2

Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

2. Dependence on mass and distance
a. In this picture, we see three cars on the side of a mountain turning around the road. Given the
same speed and road, the heaviest, widest car is most stable while the lighter car is less but the
narrowest car is least stable (because distance is a greater factor than weight). The cars are
numbered according to their stability.
b. The distance is a greater factor in determining the MOIs magnitude.

3. MOI and its relationship to Torque

a. Force is
to angular acceleration
r related
r
i.
F = matan
since a tan = r

r
then F = mr

b. Torque is related to force (when perpendicular)

i.

90
= r F Sin Sin

F = r

c. And Torques relationship to MOI

i.

r
2
r
r
=I
mr = r = mr 2 mr

= I

G. Example 2:

1. Problem: two balls on a massless rod are at rest. A force F causes them to spin about a
pivot point; one ball is a distance r from the pivot point while the second ball is half that
distance from the pivot point.
2. Questions:
a. What is the angular acceleration?
b. What is the final angular velocity after 10
seconds?

c. What is the tangential acceleration of each mass?

d. What is the tangential velocity of each mass?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Angular acceleration is a product of the MOI, which itself comes from all masses

( ) )r
2

rF = I total = m1r 2 + m2 r 2
r
r
r
4F
2
5
ii.
Fr = 4 mr =
5mr
b. Angular velocity is just the product
r of angular
r acceleration and time (10s)
8F
4F
i.
f = i + t = 0 +
(10) =
5mr
mr
i.

c. Tangential Acceleration depends on its distance from the pivot point.

i.

r
r
4F 4F
r
r
=
at(edge) = r = r
5mr 5m

at(mid)

r
r
r 4 F 2F
=
=
2 5mr 5m

d. Tangential Velocity is related to angular velocity by multiplying it by its radius of rotation.

vt(edge)

r
r
40 F 8F
=
= r = r
5mr m

vt(mid)

r
r
r
r 40 F 4 F
=
= =
2
2 5mr m

So we see that with the same force, tangential acceleration and velocity decrease as the radius
decreases.

H. Example 3:

1. Problem: you have a rod with negligible mass attached to 4 spheres at different lengths.
Sphere 1 is 5kg. Sphere 2 is 4kg and 2m left of Sphere 1 and 1m right from the pivot point.
Sphere 3 is 6kg, 1m right from the pivot point and 2m left of Sphere 2. Sphere 4 is 3kg and is

Page 49 of 59

Comment [as19]: I just added

the shadow to these spinny things,
but I got a compatibility warning
telling me that these shadows might
not look too hot in Word for
Windows 2003, so ill keep an eye on
that for both these and wont do
much else (shadow-wise) till I can
confirm the results.

Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

2m left of Sphere 3. The forces applied are: 30 (-50 absolute) on Sphere 1, 60 (-120
absolute) on Sphere 2, and 155 (25 absolute) on Sphere 4.

2. Questions:
a. What is the MOI of the center of mass?
b. What is the total torque of the system?
c. What is the angular acceleration and velocity of the system after 10 seconds?
d. What are the tangential acceleration and velocity of the system after 10 seconds?
e. How many turns has the system made in that time?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Since were measuring individual particles, we only need to calculate the distance each item has
from the center of mass.

x m
=
m
i

xcm

i.

5 (0 ) + 4 (2 ) + 6 (4 ) + 3(6 )
= 2.77
5+4+6+3

I CM = mi ri2 = 5 (2.78 ) + 4 (.78 ) + 6 (1.22 ) + 3(3.22 ) = 81.11kg m 2

2

ii.

b. The torque is the sum

r of all individual torques.
r
i.
tot = rtot Ftot = 3(12 )Sin50 + 1(10 )Sin120 + 3(8 )Sin155 = 155 N m
c. Angular acceleration is the ratio of torque to MOI. Angular velocity is the initial velocity plus the
velocity due to angular acceleration.

ii.
iii.

46.38 kgms 2 m
46.38Nm
=
= .5718s -2 (rad)
81.11kgm 2
I 81.11kgm 2
f = i + t = 0 + .5718(10) = 5.718s -1 (rad)

system =

i.

Note: why is a radian a unit less measure?

a)
b)

The definition of a radian is a section of a circle that is equal to its radius.

= 1m
s = r rs
=
= 1m

1m
=1
1m

d. Tangential acceleration and velocity depends on the distance from the pivot point
i.
at ( L & R.End ) = r = (3)(.5718) = 1.715m/s2
ii.
iii.
iv.

at ( InsideSpheres ) = r = (1)(.5718) = 0.5718 m/s2

vt ( L & R.Ends ) = r 10 s = (3)(.566 )(10 ) = 17.154 m/s

vt ( InsideSpheres) = r 10 s = (1)(.5718 )(10 ) = 5.718 m/s

e. Just solve the rotational kinematic equation and convert radians to turns
2
i.
f = i + i t + 1 2 t 2 = 0 + 0 + 1 2 (.5718 )(10 ) = 28.59rad
ii.

Page 50 of 59

28.3rad

1turn
= 4.55 turns
2 rad

Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

I. How to use the Parallel Axis (PA) Theorem and the Integral Form to find the
Moment of Inertia of an object.
1. Parallel Axis Theorem: When we know the MOI of an object through its center of mass
( I CM ) we can find the MOI through any other point which has a parallel axis to it by using:
a.

2
I AnyAxis = I CM + mtotal dFromCM

b. The minimum MOI of any object is the MOI at the center of mass. This also means that the easiest
way to rotate an object is through its center of mass. An object thrown in the air naturally rotates
around its center of mass.

J. Example 4:

1. Problem: you have a thin rod of negligible mass with two spheres at each end. Both spheres
have masses of 5kg and are 2m from each other.

2. Questions:
a. Which pivot point has the lowest MOI by the direct method?
b. Which pivot point has the lowest MOI by the PA method?
c. What is the MOI at a point midway between PP2 and PP1?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. We test each pivot point to see which gives us the lowest value:
2
2
i.
I PP1 = mi ri2 = 5 (1) + 5 (1) = 10 kg m 2

ii.

I PP 2 = mi ri2 = 5 (0 ) + 5 (2 ) = 20kg m 2

iii.

I PP 3 = mi ri2 = 5 (2 ) + 5 (0 ) = 20kg m 2

b. We need to calculate the MOI of the center of mass before using the PA
method. Since the object has evenly distributed mass, the center of mass
is the midpoint between the spheres and the MOI at that point is what we
got previously.

i.

I PP 2 = I CM + mtot r 2 = 10 + 10 (1) = 20 kg m 2

ii.

I PP 3 = I CM + mtot r 2 = 10 + 10 (1) = 20kg m 2

c. This is where the PA method is best; since we know the MOI of the center of mass, the rest is
simple math.

i.

Direct: I ( pp 2 pp1) =

ii.

PA:

m r

i i

= 5 (1.5 ) + 5 (.5 ) = 12.5 kg m 2

2

I ( pp 2 pp1) = I CM + mtot r 2 = 10 + 10 (0.5 ) = 12.5 kg m 2

2

K. Example 5: (extension of Example 3)

1. Problem: we have the same rod as in example 3, but now we add pivot points at the center
of mass and midway between the 6 and 3kg masses.

2. Questions:
a. What is the MOI at the point between the 6 and 3kg masses by the direct method?
b. What is the MOI at the point between the 6 and 3kg masses by the PA method?
c. What is the highest MOI of this object?
3. Solution Strategy:
a.

I 2 = 5 (5 ) + 4 (3) + 6 (1) + 3(1) = 170

2

( ) = 169.982 or 170

b. I AnyPoint = I CM + m tot r 2 = 81.111 + 18 2.2

c. the highest MOI is the point furthest from the center of mass.

Page 51 of 59

Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

i.
I REnd = 81.111 + 18(3.222)2 = 268 kg m 2

L. Example 6: (Integrating to get the Moment of Inertia)

1. Problem: you have a rod of uniform mass of length L.
2. Questions:

a. Calculate the MOI passing through the center of mass by integration and
substitution (Professor Kiledjians example)

b. Calculate the MOI passing through the center of mass by cull integration
(Physics book example)

3. Solution Strategy:
a. Here we figure out the MOI by finding the MOI of any axis and relating it to the PA theorem that
will return the MOI of the center of mass.
i.
First we recall the relationship between mass and length and reduce it to a differential. Next
we substitute which now allows us to integrate it on the x-axis
L

a)

ii.

= dx
I AnyAxis = x 2 dm dm

x 2 dx = x 2 dx =

L3

Now we need to figure out the value of , and we do that with another integration
L

a)

iii.

Substitute the value of in the first equation for the second one
a)

iv.

dx
m = dm dm=

m = dx = L = m L

I AnyAxis =

(m / L )L3 = mL2
3

Now use the PA theorem to get your answer:

mL2
mL2
= I CM + md 2
md 2 = I CM
3
3
2
1
mL2
L
=
m = mL2

3
2
12

a)

I AnyAxis = I CM + md 2

b)

I CM

b. Here we simply recall that is the mass to length ratio (since mass is uniform) and integrate
i.
We do the same substitution as before, but with more baggage

( )

dm= dx = L dx
I CM = r 2 dm
x 2 m L dx
m

a)

ii.

Now we recall that we want the MOI of the center of mass, which on a uniform rod is also at
the center of the rod, so our lower and upper limits will reflect this.
a)

I CM = m L

L /2

L /2

x 2 dx =

1
mL2
12

Very Powerful. Once we set up the integral, we could find the moment of inertia at any point on the
rod by changing the limits

M.

Recap of Moments of Inertia:

1. Rolling down a ramp: if you put a hollow sphere, a solid sphere, a hollow ring, and a solid
disk on a ramp. If they all had the same mass and radius, which one would make it down the
ramp first?
a. The rule here is based on the MOI of each item rolling down the ramp:
The lower the MOI, the faster the object will roll down the ramp, so
figuring out which one makes it down first is a matter of knowing each
objects MOI which will give us our answer

i.
ii.

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mr 2 (fastest)
2
Hollow Sphere = 3 mr
Solid Sphere =

Comment [as20]: Notes for

Monday, July 31, 2006 begin here

Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

iii. Solid Disk = 1 2 mr 2
iv. Hollow Ring = mr 2 (slowest)

N. Example 7:
1. Problem: A rod has a linear density that increases as =kx from the left end of the rod.
2. Questions:
a. Find the MOI for the left end, the center of mass, the minimum and maximum MOI.
b. Answer part a if =kx was measured from the center of the rod.
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Unlike a rod of uniform density (whose MOI at the ends is ML), the left side of the rod
will have a greater MOI on the left end than on the right end. The way to solve this is to
use two integrals, one to get MOI, and the other to get the value of the constant (k) as it
relates to mass.
i.
First we figure out the value of k, integrated into mass

( )

dx = kx dx
mLEnd = dm dm=

kx 3 dx = k x 3dx m =
3

ii.

kL4
4m
k= 4
4
L

Next we plug in our integrated k-mass value into our MOI equation and solve
4 m
dm = dx = 4 x 3 dx
L

4 mx 3
4m L
2
I LEnd = x dm x 2 4 dx = 4 x 5 = mL2
L 0
3
L
2

iii.

Now we can figure out the center of mass MOI by getting its x-position and integrating.

xdm = xdx = x (kx )dx =

=
dm dx (kx )dx
3

xCM

0
L

x 4 dx
3

x dx

L5

5 = 4L
L
5
4
4

I any = I CM + md 2

2 2
2
4
mL = I CM + m L I CM =
mL2
5
3
75

iv.

I max = I LEnd = 2 3 mL2

v.

I REnd = I CM + md 2 =

2
1
mL2 + m (1 4 5 )L =
mL2
75
15

b. This type of setup means the mass is symmetric down the middle, making it easier to figure out
the MOI of the center of mass. (The 2 I plugged in the integral is because of the odd exponent.
Since the range of integration is symmetric, integrating would give a zero, so instead we divide the
range of integration in half and multiply the result by 2).

( )

= dx = kx dx
mCM = dm dm

kx 3 dx = 2 k
3

i.

L /2

x 3dx m =

kL4
32 m
k= 4
32
L

32 mx 3
dm = dx = kx 3 dx =
dx
L4

ii.

32mx 3
64m L /2
1
I CM = x 2 dm x 2
dx = 4 x 5 dx = mL2
4

0
L
6
L

iii.

I EitherEnd = I CM + md 2 =

mL2 + m (L 2 ) = 5 12 mL2
2

O. Solving Problems Involving Rotational Dynamics

1. Problems such as these are similar to linear dynamics as long as you recall the equations
needed are very close to the ones we used previously.
r
r
a. = rFSin , I

b. I = r 2 dm

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Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

c. K = 1 2 I 2

P. Example 8:

1. Problem: You have two disks on top of each other, disk 1 (m = 10kg, r = 2m) and on top of
it, the disk 2 (m = 5kg, r = 1m). Disk 1 has a force of 8N pulling at 90 from the horizontal,
while disk 2 has a force of 6N pulling at 60 from the opposite horizontal axis.
2. Questions:
a. Find the angular acceleration of the disks.
b. What is the angular velocity after 12 seconds?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. Remember torque = MOI times angular acceleration
(MOI of a disk is mr)

i.

= I ( F1 F 2 ) = (1 2 m1r1 + 1 2 m2 r2 )

ii.

2
2
2 (8 ) 1(6 )Sin 60 = 1 2 (10 )(2 ) + 1 2 (5 )(1) = .48017

b. just plug it into the applicable rotational kinematics equation.

i.
f = i + t = 0 + (.48 )(12 ) = 5.76 rad/s

Q. Example 9:

1. Problem: You have an apparatus where one block is suspended off a ledge. It is tied
to another block and a hollow spherical pulley is transferring their tension. The
suspended block is 2kg and is 4m from the floor. The block tied to the suspended
block is 5kg and is resting on a flat surface with a coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.3.
The hollow spherical pulley has a mass of 3kg and a radius of
0.8m.
2. Questions:

a. What is the acceleration of the suspended block?

b. What is the suspended blocks final velocity as it hits the
ground?

c. How much work is done by friction and gravity?

d. Do part a and b by first doing part c and using the work-energy approach
3. Solution Strategy:
a. We figure it out by making 3 related equations & adding them together
i.
5k block = T1 k n = ma T1 (.3)(49 ) = 5a T1 - 14.7 = 5a
ii.

2k block = 19.6 - T2 = 2a

iii.

Pulley =

= I (T2 R T1 R ) = (2 3 mR 2 )
r

=a
T2 - T1 = 2 3 (3)R T2 - T1 = (2 R ) R
T2 - T1 = 2a

iv.

Add equations1 and 2 to get equation 4 and add it to equation 3 to solve:

1
2
4

T1 14.7 = 5a
+ 19.6 T2 = 2a
T1 - T2 + 4.9 = 7a

4
3

T1 - T2 + 4.9 = 7a
T2 T1 = 2a
4.9 = 9a a = .54

b. A simple kinematic equation

i.

v 2f = vi2 + 2ad v f = 0 + 2 (.54 )(4 ) = 2.087

c. Work equations hearken back to chapter 7 and 8

i.
Wg = mgh = (2 )(9.8 )(4 ) = 78.4

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Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

ii.
W fk = k nd = (.3)(49 )(4 ) = -58.8
d. We set up a work/kinetic energy equation and find the velocity from which we will get our
acceleration.

i.

Wtotal = K total Wg + W fk = (K 5kB + K 2kB + K Pul )

ii.

(78.4 ) + (58.88 ) = 2 (5 )v 2f + 1 2 (2 )v 2f + 1 2 I 2f

iii.

19.6 = 7 2 v 2f + 1 2

iv.

19.6 =

=3
t = r
m pul R 2 2f m
19.6 = 7 2 v 2f + R 2 2f v

vt = v f

v 2f + vt2
19.6 = 9 2 v 2f v f = 2.087

R. Example 10:
1. Problem: A rod of length L with a density similar to example 7 (=kx), except in this
example, the rod is vertical and is falling down from the right end to the left end.

2. Questions:
a. Calculate the tangential acceleration of the rod once its horizontal at the center of mass and at the
end of the rod.

b. Calculate the tangential velocity of the rod once it is horizontal at the center of mass and at the
end of the rod.

3. Solution Strategy:
a. We will reuse a lot of example 7s numbers for this example, which is lucky, if not, wed have to
reintegrate everything!
i.
We recall that the center of mass is 4/5th of the length.

6g
5L

= rF
= I
(4 5 L )(mg ) = (2 3 mL2 ) =

( )=

at = r = (45L )
ii.

6g
5L

24
25

g Not quite as fast as gravity

We do the same thing as at the center of mass, but change the length to L

(L )(mg ) = (2 3 mL2 ) =

( )=

3g
at = r = (L )
2L

3g
2L

3
2

g more than gravity

b. We will use the work/potential energy equation to figure this out.

i.

WCM = K mgh =

ii.

WLEnd = K mgh =

I 2 mg (4 5 L ) =

2 CM
1

I LEnd 2 mgL =

75

mL2 2 =

mL2 2 =

12g
5L

3g
L

S. Chapter 10.9 (part of Test 5): Rolling Motion

1. Background: Rolling motion is the combination of translational and rotational motion. It

occurs when an object encounters both types of motion. The tangential velocity at the TOP of
the wheel and the center of mass velocity are the most important factors to consider when
calculating rolling motion.
2. Examples of Rolling Motion:

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Comment [as21]: Notes for

Wednesday, August 2, 2006 begin
here.

Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

a. Pure Rolling Motion: The tangential velocity at the top is equal to the velocity at the center of
mass of the wheel. In pure rolling motion, the velocity at the contact point ( vtotal(bot) ) is zero.

i.

vtangential(top) = vCM

ii.

vtotal(top) = vtan + vCM = 2vCM

iii.

vtot ( front / back ) = 2

vtotal (bot ) = vCM vtan = 0

iv. If a wheel is slipping, it will achieve rolling motion when atan = acm
b. Overspin: when the tangential velocity is greater than the velocity at the center of mass of the
wheel. If there is enough friction, it will slow down the tangential velocity until it matches the
velocity of the center of mass. In real life, this is like when a car is taking off and burns rubber.
c. Underspin when the tangential velocity is less than the velocity at the center of mass of the
wheel. In real life, this is like when a car slams the brakes and goes into a skid.

3. Kinetic Energy: an object undergoing rolling motion develops both angular and linear kinetic
energy and both must be taken into account.
2
a. K = 1 2 I CM 2 + 1 2 mvCM
4. Rolling down a ramp: using the kinetic equation above, we can calculate the velocity of a
ball rolling down a ramp:
a. K =

2 I CM

( )
vCM

2
1
R + 2 MvCM K =

b. K f + U f = K i + U i

I CM
2
2 + M vCM
R

I CM
2
2 + M vCM + 0 = 0 + mgh vCM =
R

2gh
1 + (Icm MR 2 )

T. Example 1:
1. Problem: A solid sphere of 6kg mass and 2m radius is given an initial push of 10 m/s on a
surface whose coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.3

2. Questions:
a. How long does it take it to reach pure rolling motion and how far has it traveled?
b. What is its final tangential and center of mass velocity?

3. Solution Strategy:
a. Figure out the dynamic aspect of it (Ch5), then the rotational aspect of it (Ch10):
i.
First, figure out the center of mass and tangential acceleration.

F = ma n = ma mg = ma (.3)(9.8 ) = a a = -2.94m/s
r
= I FdSin90 = I nR = ( mR )
k

ii.

=a
k mgR = (2 5 mR 2 ) R = 5 2 k g R
at = 5 2 (.3)(9.8 ) = 7.35m/s 2
t

iii.

Next, use the previous info to get the center of mass and tangential velocities.

v f (CM ) = vi(CM ) + at = 10 - 2.94t

v f (tan) = vi (tan) + atant = 7.35t

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Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

iv.

Now put them together to get the time the tangential velocity will equal CM velocity.

v.

Finally, use that time to figure out how far it traveled

v f = vi + at 7.35t = 10 + 2.94t t = .97s

x f = xi + vi t + 1 2 at 2 = 0 + 10 (.97 ) + 1 2 (2.94 )(.97 ) = 8.33 m

2

b. Both are the same, so we solve for either.

i.
v f (cm ) = 10 2.94(.97) = 7.14 m/s

U. Example 2:
1. Problem:

a. Youve got a solid disk of 2kg mass and 1.5m radius on a 40 incline which is 4m tall.

2. Questions:
a. Find the tangential and center of mass acceleration
b. Find the friction force
c. Find the tangential, center of mass, and total top
velocity at the bottom of the incline

d. Find the time it takes the disk to make it to the bottom

of the incline

e. Solve part a by using the energy method.

3. Solution Strategy:
a. Since we are told this is pure rolling motion, we figure out
when both accelerations are the same.
i.
What torque rolls the ball? Friction of course!

= I ( f )(R )(Sin90) = (
r

( fs ) =

R = atan

mR
fs =

mR 2 ( fs )(1) = (1 2 mR )

mat

We know the moment our downward force equals our friction force, our ball will have
achieved pure rolling motion. We can solve for acceleration at this point too.

ii.

F = ma

f = 1 ma

CM

s
t
2
mgSin fs = maCM
mgSin 1 2 matan = maCM

tan = aCM
gSin 1 2 atan = aCM a
gSin =

a a = 2 3 (9.8 )Sin (40 ) = 4.2m/s2

b. Given the acceleration, we use our previous friction/torque equation to find the friction force.
i.
fs = 1 2 ma = 1 2 (2 )(4.2 ) = 4.2N Yes, the friction force equals acceleration when your
rolling item is a disk (I = mr)
c. Simple kinematic equations now
i.
ii.
iii.

= 4 / Sin 40
v 2f ( CM ) = vi2(CM ) + 2ad d
v f ( CM ) =

(2 )(4.2 )(Sin440 ) = 7.23m/s

v f (tan) = v f ( CM ) = 7.23m/s
v f (total @top) = v f (tan) + v f (CM ) = 14.46 m/s

d. Figure out the time now

i.
v f = vi + at 7.23 = 4.2t t = 1.721s
e. This is actually simpler in some respects, so long as you remember everything.
i.
WNonConservForces + WExtForces = K f K i U f U i

Page 57 of 59

ii.

0 + 0 =

iii.

mgh =

mv 2f + 1 2

)(

) (0 ) + (0 ) (mgh ) mgh =
( mR ) gh = v + v

mv + 1 2 I
2
f

2
f

2
f

R = v

2
f

2
f

mv 2f + 1 2 I 2f

Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

iv.

gh =

v 2f v f =

(9.8 )(4 ) = 7.23m/s

Notice how the speed at the bottom does not depend on the radius or mass of the disk

V. Example 3:
1. Problem: You have a system with a hollow sphere at the bottom of a ramp with a rope
attached to its top (to pull it up while allowing it to roll upwards unhindered). At the top of the
ramp, there is a hollow disk functioning as a pulley (mass 2kg and radius .5m). On the
vertical side of the ramp, there is a block that weighs 20kg.
2. Questions:
a. What is the final velocity of the block as it hits the ground?
3. Solution Strategy:
a. The easiest way to solve this is the energy method, the
setup is the hardest part, and you need to remember
that the pulley and sphere have both angular and linear
kinetic energy. You also have to remember the sphere
has potential energy

i.
ii.
iii.

(
0 = (

mv

0=

{[mgh ]

2
f block

sphere

(mgh )block

mv 2f

sphere

v.

) (
) +(

)
)

0 = K Block + K pulley + K sphere + U Sphere U block

{[mgh ]
iv.

)(

W NonConsForces + WExtForces = K f K i U f U i

block

2
f pulley

+ 1 2 mR 2

(mgh )block

)( )
v

mv 2f

pulley

sphere

mv 2f

I 2

sphere

sphere

((
1

mR 2

)( ) )
v

sphere

20 (2 )(.5 )2 2 4 2 (4 )(1)2 2
0 = v2 +
v +
2 v +
2 v +

2 (2 )(.5 ) 2 3(1)
(4 )(9.8 )(2 Sin 40 ) (20 )(9.8 )(4 )

) ( ) ( ) ( v ) + [50.395 784 ]

vi.

0 = 10 v 2 + v 2 + 2v 2 +

vii.

v=

(3 43)(733.605 ) = 7.154 m/s

XI. Chapter 11: Angular Momentum

A. Background:
B. Dd
C. How the cross product determines the torque:

1. A block pulled at varying angles to the moment arm results in a torque (twisting force) which
is the vector component of force at 90 to the moment arm. If we measure the angle of the
force from the moment arms direction, this vector component is the sine of the force. One
interesting point this illustrates is how the force is the same at two angles

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Chapter 10 (Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis)

D. Example 1:

r
r
1. Problem: You have two vectors, A (2i 3 j) and B (-i + 5 j) .
2. Questions:
a. Find the
r angle
r r between A & B
b. Find C = A B and its direction.
3. Solution Strategy:
a. To find the angle, we add up the vectors and get the inverse trig function

Cos =

(A )(B ) = (2 )(1)i + (3)(5 ) j =

A B

( 2 + 3 )( 1 + 5 )
2

17
= 157.63
18.384

b. To find the magnitude of C, do a little vector algebra, the direction is the sign

j k
i
r
3 0 2 0 2 3

+ k
j
C = 2 3 0 = i
1 5
1 0
5 0
1 5 0
k (2 )(5 ) (3)(1) = 7 k Straight up

E. Angular Momentum and its relationship to linear momentum

1. The cross product: Angular momentum is the cross product of the moment
arm and the linear momentum and the sine of the angle between them.

2. Different lengths mean different velocities: if a rod has two masses

rotating about a fixed pivot, their angular momentum is the sum of
the outer mass distance from the pivot and its momentum and the
inner mass distance from the pivot and the momentum (which
depends on its distance from the pivot).
3. Angular Momentum and linear motion: Any object with linear momentum also has
angular momentum (in other words, it doesnt need to be moving in a circular
pattern). In order to determine its angular momentum though, you need to determine
the reference point (pivot point) from which you calculate the angle between the pivot and the
object. if there is a point of reference (the ground) from which to determine the angle made
by the pivot and the object, then the angular momentum is the sine of this angle.

F. Example:
1.

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