COMPUTER SIMULATION & MODELING

UNIT I
1. System Definition and components
A System is defined as an aggregation or assemblage of objects joined in some regular
interaction or interdependence.
Or
A system is a collection of distinct objects which interact with each other.
The system is called dynamic where the interactions cause changes over time, static
otherwise.
Examples of the system may be given as:
o aircraft flying under the control of an autopilot,
o factory which produces some goods
o solar system - sun and planets interacting under influence of gravity
o chemical plant
o disease epidemic
o economy
o telephone network
(Some of these examples will be discussed in the class in detail.)
There are certain terms defined in reference with system:
Entity: an object of interest in a system
Attribute: denotes a property of an entity, may be many to a given entity.
Activity: any process that causes changes in the system
State of the system: a description of all the entities, attributes, and activities as
they exist at one point of time. The progress of the system is studied by following
the changes in the state of the system.
SYSTEM
TRAFFIC

ENTITIES
CARS

BANK

CUSTOMERS

COMMUNICATION

MESSAGES

SUPERMARKET

CUSTOMERS

ATTRIBUTES
SPEED
DISTANCE
BALANCE
CREDIT STATUS
LENGTH
PRIORITY
SHOPPING LIST

ACTIVITIES
DRIVING
DEPOSITING
TRANSMISSION
CHECKING-OUT

Figure: Examples of Systems

System Environment: A system is often affected by changes occurring outside the system.
For this purpose we need to draw a boundary between system and its environment. This
boundary depends upon the purpose of study.
The term endogenous is used to describe the activities occurring within the system and the
term exogenous is used to describe the activities in the environment that affects the system.
A system for which there is no exogenous activity is said to be a closed system, while a
system which does have exogenous activities is termed as open system.

2. Stochastic Activities

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COMPUTER SIMULATION & MODELING

UNIT I
Activities in a system can be either deterministic or stochastic. Where the outcome of an
activity can be described completely in terms of its input, the activity is said to be
deterministic. Where the effects of the activity vary randomly over various possible
outcomes, the activity is said to be stochastic.
If the occurrence of the activity is random, it will constitute the part of the environment.

3. Continuous and Discrete Systems

Systems, in which the changes are predominantly smooth, are called continuous systems. In
contrast, systems in which changes are predominantly discontinuous will be called discrete
systems.
Few systems are wholly continuous or discrete. However, in most of the systems one type of
changes predominates, so that systems can usually be classified as being continuous or
discrete.
There are also systems that are intrinsically continuous but information about them is only
available at discrete points in time. These are called sampled-data systems. The study of such
systems includes the problem of determining the effects of the discrete sampling.
This ambiguity in how a system might be represented illustrates an important point. The
description of a system, rather than the nature of the system itself, determines what type of
model will be used.

4. System Modeling
To study a system, it is sometimes possible to experiment with the system itself but in most
cases, testing a real-world system can be prohibitively expensive or outright impossible.
Seeing how an automobile collapses when it hits a barrier is an example of an expensive
exercise to conduct in reality. But by crashing simulated cars into simulated walls on a
workstation, automotive safety engineers can quickly evaluate potential designs and reduce
the number of real cars that must be instrumented and sacrificed at the test track.
An example of an impossible-to-realize experiment would be estimating the environmental
damage wrought by an asteroid colliding with the earth. At present, we lack the ability to
conduct this experiment in actuality. But on a computer, we can safely slam simulated
asteroids of all sizes and shapes into various parts of a simulated earth all day long without
having to worry about triggering real-world mass extinction.
Consequently, system studies are generally conducted with a model of the system. For the
purpose of most of studies, it is not necessary to consider all the details of a system; so a
model is not only a substitute for a system, it is also a simplification of the system.
Definition of a Model
A model is a simplified representation or replica of the real thing. The model can itself be a
real thing, for example when a mouse in an experiment plays the role of "little man."
However, a model can also be abstract or conceptual, as when ordinary or technical languages
are used to represent something in the real world. In ordinary language, the simplest kind of
abstract model is called an "analogy."
A model is the body of information about a system gathered for the purpose of studying the
system. Since the purpose of the study will determine the nature of the information that is
gathered, there is no unique model of a system. Different models of the same system will be

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COMPUTER SIMULATION & MODELING

UNIT I
reproduced by different analysts interested in different aspects of the system or by the same
analyst as his understanding of the system changes.

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COMPUTER SIMULATION & MODELING

UNIT I

The task of deriving a model of a system may be divided broadly into two subtasks:
1. Establishing the model structure (base model)
2. Supplying the data.
But these two subtasks are very intimately related to each other. Neither can be done without
the other.
Establishing the structure determines the system boundary and identifies the entities,
attributes, and activities of the system.
The data provide the values the attributes can have and define the relationships involved in
the activities.
The example of a supermarket system mode, in this context, will be discussed in the class.

5. Types of Models
Models used in systems studies have been classified in many ways. We will follow the
following classification structure.

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COMPUTER SIMULATION & MODELING

UNIT I
Physical Models
These are based on some analogy between such systems as mechanical and electrical,
electrical and hydraulic, or human and animal. In a physical model the system attributes are
represented by such measurements as a voltage or the position of a shaft or behavior towards
something.
For example, a scale model of an airplane can be used in a wind tunnel to investigate the
effects of different wing shapes. Human biological processes can be modeled by using
laboratory animals or cultures in test tubes to test medical treatments for possible use on
people. Social processes too can be modeled, as when a new method of instruction is tried out
in a single classroom rather than in a whole school system.
Mathematical Models
These models use symbolic notation and mathematical equations to represent a system.
A mathematical model is a conceptual model that uses mathematical languages rather than
ordinary languages to represent a particular scientific context. The scientific context itself
would ordinarily be one that exists in the real world and the model is necessarily a simplified
description of the actual context. Ordinarily a model represents what are believed to be a few
crucial features of this context and achieves simplification by omitting other aspects which
are less important or are irrelevant.
As an example of simplification, consider the physical models of aircraft used in engineering.
The dimensions of the wings would be accurately reproduced to scale but the color of the
wings might not be reproduced. Color is usually considered irrelevant to the "lift" and other

Figure: A function may be thought of as a black box that

accepts one or more input values and instantaneously
returns a related output value in response.

aerodynamic characteristics that are being predicted. Even here, though, it is possible to
conceive of special circumstances where the color might be relevant (e.g. by affecting wing
temperatures).
Another example
The basic idea of mathematical modeling is to find a mathematical relationship that behaves
in the same way the system of interest does. (The system in this case can be other
abstractions, as well as physical or biological phenomena.) For example, the increasing speed
of a falling rock can be represented by the symbolic relation v = gt, where g has a fixed value.
The model implies that the speed of fall (v) increases in proportion to the time of fall (t). A
mathematical model makes it possible to predict what phenomena may be like in situations
outside of those in which they have already been observedbut only what they may be like.
Often, it is fairly easy to find a mathematical model that fits a phenomenon over a small range
of conditions (such as temperature or time), but it may not fit well over a wider range.
Although v = gt does apply accurately to objects such as rocks falling (from rest) more than a
few meters, it does not fit the phenomenon well if the object is a leaf (air drag limits its speed)
or if the fall is a much larger distance (the drag increases, the force of gravity changes).
A second distinction, within the above classification, between static models and dynamic
models is made as follows:
Static Models
Static models can only show the values that system attributes take when the system is in
balance. A static model is one that does not account for time. It identifies the before and after

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T P Singh, Assistant Professor @ Department of CSE, School of Engg & Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida

COMPUTER SIMULATION & MODELING

UNIT I
outcomes but does not trace the path that the model takes to move from one equilibrium
position to another.
The supply and demand model (price determination) is an example of a static model in that it
identifies the two equilibrium positions, but it does not trace how the model moved between
the two positions.
Dynamic Models
These models follow the changes over time that result from the system activities. A dynamic
model contains time as a variable that can be used to trace how the model moves from one
equilibrium position to the next.
Discussion on Mathematical Models
Mathematical models are further classified based on the technique by which the model is
solved (actual values are assigned to system attributes). A distinction is made between
analytical and numerical methods.
Analytical methods are those which use the deductive reasoning of mathematical theory to
solve models. We know that only certain forms of equations can be solved. For example,
linear differential equations can be solved. Keeping this in mind, an engineer who restricts the
description of a system to that form will derive a model that can be solved analytically.
Numerical methods involve applying computational procedures to solve equations.
System simulation is considered to be a numerical computation technique used in
conjunction with dynamical models.

6. Static Physical Models (also termed as iconic models)

Examples of this type of models may be
o Scale models (Shipbuilding)
o Chemistry models (DNA)
Scale models are used in the wind tunnels and water tanks in the course of designing aircrafts
and ships. Although air is blown over the model, or the model is pulled through the water,
these are static physical models because the measurements that are taken represent attributes
of the system being studied under one set of equilibrium conditions.
Static physical models are also used as means of solving equations with particular boundary
conditions. There are many examples in physics where the same equations apply to different
physical phenomena. Examples will be discussed in the class.

7. Dynamic Physical Models

These models rely upon the analogy between the system being studied and some other system
of a different nature. The analogy usually depends upon an underlying similarity in the forces
governing the behavior of the systems.

Example
System A: Suspension of an automobile wheel when the automobile body is assumed to be
immobile in a vertical direction.
It represents
a mass that is subject to an applied force F(t) varying with time

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T P Singh, Assistant Professor @ Department of CSE, School of Engg & Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida

COMPUTER SIMULATION & MODELING

UNIT I
a spring whose force is proportional to its extension or contraction
a shock absorber that exerts a damping force proportional to the velocity of
the mass

The motion of the system is described the following differential equation:

Mx + Dx + Kx = KF (t)
Where,
x
M

distance moved
mass

K
D

stiffness of the spring

damping factor of the shock
absorber
System B: An electrical circuit with an inductance L, a resistance R, and a capacitance C,
connected in series with a voltage source that varies in time according to the function E (t).
The behavior of the system can be described by the following differential equation:
Lq + Rq + q/C = E (t) / C

where q is the charge on capacitance.

Inspection of these two equations shows that they have exactly the same form and that the
following equivalence occurs between the quantities in the two systems:
Displacement
x
Charge
q
Velocity
x
Current
I (= q)
Force
F
Voltage
E
Mass
M
Inductance
L
Damping factor
D
Resistance
R
Spring stiffness factor K
1/ Capacitance 1/ C
This shows that these two systems are analogs of each other, and the performance of either
can be studied with the other.
Practically, it is simpler to modify the electrical system than the mechanical system.
Moreover, it is easy to model the effects electrically by placing limits on the voltage that can
exist on the capacitance.

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T P Singh, Assistant Professor @ Department of CSE, School of Engg & Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida

COMPUTER SIMULATION & MODELING

UNIT I
8. Static Mathematical Models
A static model gives the relationships between the system attributes when the system is in
equilibrium.
For example, in marketing a commodity there is a balance between the supply and demand
for the commodity. Both factors depend upon price. A simple model will exhibit what is the
price at which the balance occurs.
Structural Equation 1: The Demand Curve
Q=abP
Structural Equation 2: The Supply Curve
S=c+dP
Structural Equation 3: The Equilibrium
S=Q
The consumer demand (Q) is influenced by the price of the good (P). The higher the price
then the lower the demand whiles the higher their income the higher the demand.
The fact that linear relationships have been assumed allows the model to be solved
analytically. The equilibrium market price is given by the following expression:
P = (a c) / (b + d)

The above model was linear in nature. If we take non-linear market model in which the
demand will be represented by a curve that slopes downwards and the supply by a curve that
slopes upwards. It may not then be possible to express the relationships by equations that can
be solved. Some numeric method is then needed to solve the equations. Drawing the curves
to scale and determining graphically where they intersect is one such method.

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COMPUTER SIMULATION & MODELING

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9. Dynamic Mathematical Models
These types of models allow the changes of system attributes to be derived as a function of
time. The equation showing the relationships may be established with either analytically or
with a numerical computation, depending upon the complexity of the model.
The example of car wheel system will be discussed in the class.

10. The Full Corporate Model

The models used by various corporations to help in different aspects of planning their
operations are called corporate models. Their main use is in helping to understand what
conditions will prevail under different sets of assumptions.
We are assuming here that the corporation is in the manufacturing industry, and it is planning
to produce and market some new product.
The corporation falls into two major segments: the physical plant, which provides the means
for the production; and the management segment, representing the policy-making aspects of
the corporation. These two segments will operate within an environment. Thus, in this system
there will be three major subsystems:
Environment sub system
Production sub system
Management sub system
Let us take these sub-systems in detail one by one.

A. Environment Segment

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COMPUTER SIMULATION & MODELING

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The major element of this segment is market model, the set of relationships that determine
what the demand for the product will be. Demand is the main output of the model and price
and supply of the two main inputs.
Several other factors can influence the market like national economy, the population that
purchases the product and competition from other producers. All these factors carry their own
weights while affecting the market model.

B. Production Segment
The main input to this sub-system is the labor and machinery assigned for production. The
main output is the supply of the product. A distribution subsystem will also be needed to
investigate how the location of warehouses should be matched to population distribution.
The other factors which will influence this subsystem are national economy (wages will be
decided by this) and world economy (if the product has to be exported).

C. Management Segment
The main inputs are the demand for the product, and the capital investment to be made in the
business. The main outputs are the price to be set and the profit to be expected. A pricing
model sets the price, and a financial model decides how the investment capital is to be divided
between labor and machinery. A forecasting model will predict the future demand of the
product. Both national and world economy will affect this subsystem.
Putting A, B, and C segments give the full corporate model. This can further be expanded
which will strictly depend on the type and purpose of study.

11. Types of System Study

After a system model has been developed, there are three different ways to study the system:
System Analysis
System Design
System Postulation

System Analysis aims to understand how an existing system or a proposed system

operates. Instead to experiment with the actual system (ideal situation), a model is constructed
and the behavior of the system is investigated. The results obtained are interpreted in terms of
system performance.
System Design aims to produce a system that meets some specifications. Certain
components are selected by the designer and he plans to design the system around these. The
proposed system is modeled and its performance (obtained from system analysis) is compared
against the desired performance. If the predicted performance compares favorably with the

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COMPUTER SIMULATION & MODELING

UNIT I
desired performance, the design is accepted. Otherwise, the system is redesigned and the
process is repeated.
System Postulation aims to the characteristic of the way models are employed in social,
economic, political, and medical studies, where the behavior of the system is known but the
processes that produce the behavior are not. Hypotheses are made on a likely set of entities
and activities that can explain the behavior.
Many studies combine two or three of these aspects or alternate between them as the study
proceeds. The term system engineering is used to describe system studies where a
combination of analysis and design is used first to study and then design the system.
One example of each of above said types of system studies will be explained in the class.

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T P Singh, Assistant Professor @ Department of CSE, School of Engg & Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida