Department of Electronics

and Media Technology

14MT2003 Audio Engineering
MODULE 2: MICROPHONES

MODULE 2: MICROPHONES
Objectives:

What is an Input Transducer

Classification of Microphones
How to interpret Microphones Specifications?
Use of right Miking Techniques
Microphone accessories
Miking different musical instruments

Transducer
A transducer is a device that converts a signal in one form of energy to another
form of energy

Electromagnetic transducers

Microphones are input transducers that convert acoustical energy into electrical
energy.

Transducer Types:
Passive Transducers:
Convert acoustical energy directly into electrical energy (and vice-versa)
without the need for any external power feed.
Includes Dynamic, magnetic and piezoelectric microphones, as well as
condenser microphones using dc polarization

Active Transducers:
Convert electrical energy from an external source synchronously with the
sound vibrations they receive.
Carbon microphones and RF-condenser microphones make use of this
principle.

Velocity Transducers:
Magnetic microphones operating on the basis of the law of induction.
Their output voltage is proportional not to the extent, but to the velocity of
the diaphragm displacement.

Classification of microphone types

Classification of Microphones
Based upon Construction:
Dynamic microphone
Condenser microphone
Ribbon microphone
Electret condenser

Based upon Polar Pattern:

Omni Directional
Uni Directional/ Cardiod
Bidirectional/ Figure of Eight
Hyper-Cardioid
Super-Cardioid
Shot Gun

Microphone Fundamentals
Pressure transducers:
Only the front face of a pressure transducer is exposed to the sound field.
Diaphragm responds equally to all sound pressure fluctuations occurring at its surface.
Omnidirectional by nature.

Pressure gradient transducers:

They respond to the momentary sound pressure difference occurring between two
points A and B, which are a slight distance apart in the sound field.

TF = TFo cos V
TFo = field transmission factor (sensitivity) with
sound arriving perpendicularly to the diaphragm.
V = angle between the perpendicular to the
diaphragm and the direction of sound incidence.

Classification Based Upon Construction

Dynamic microphone
It consists of a rigid diaphragm,
typically 20 30 mm in diameter,
which is suspended in front of a
magnet
Cylindrical former is attached to the
diaphragm on to which is wound a
coil of very fine-gauge wire
When the diaphragm is made to
vibrate by sound waves the coil in
turn moves to and fro in the magnets

gap, and an alternating current flows

in the coil, producing the electrical
output

Operates on the Principle of

variable magnetic inductance

Classification Based Upon Construction

Dynamic microphone
Features:
Robust

Big and Heavy

Better Freq Response in Presence range
Rapid fall-off in response above 8 or 10 kHz
Applications:
Vocals

Pick up bass drum

Outdoor Sound reinforcement

Classification Based Upon Construction

Condenser microphone
The capacitor consists of a flexible
diaphragm and a rigid back plate,
separated by an insulator
The 48 volts DC phantom power

charges the capacitor

When

sound

waves

move

the

diaphragm the capacitance varies,

and thus the voltage across the

capacitor varies proportionally

Operates on the Principle of

variable capacitance

Classification Based Upon Construction

Condenser microphone
Features:
Light Weight

Higher sensitivity
High Level Output
Better immunity to interference
Applications:
Vocals

Instruments pick-up
Indoor/ Studio Recording

Classification Based Upon Construction

Ribbon microphone
Consists of a long thin strip of conductive
metal foil,

pleated to give it rigidity and

spring
Opposing magnetic poles create a magnetic
field across the ribbon
The electrical output of the ribbon is very
small, and a transformer is built into the
microphone which steps up the output.

Classification Based Upon Construction

Ribbon microphone
Features:
Capable of very high-quality results

Low-frequency resonance at around 40 Hz

Smooth High Freq response
(but roll-off above 14 kHz)
Applications:
Miking Acoustic instruments

Miking Classical ensemble

Directional Responses/ Polar Patterns

The polar pattern of each microphone indicates how sensitive it is to sound

coming from different directions.

The polar diagram is a form of two-dimensional contour map, showing the
magnitude of the microphones output at different angles of incidence of a
sound wave.
Large membrane microphone Side Fire
Small Membrane microphone End Fire

Omnidirectional Pattern

Picks up sound equally from all directions.

Achieved by leaving the microphone diaphragm open at the front, but completely
enclosing it at the rear.
High frequencies are picked up less well to the rear and sides of the mic.
Most immune to handling and wind noise since they are only sensitive to absolute

sound pressure

Omnidirectional Pattern
Typical polar diagram of an omnidirectional microphone at a number of frequencies
Applications:
To record a choir
Lapel/ Lavallier/ Collar Microphones

Advantages:
Extended and open bass response
Omni will always sound more natural and open

Less proximity effect

Disadvantage:
More prone to Feedback

Figure of eight or bidirectional pattern

A microphone with a figure of eight polar pattern picks up the sound from in front
of the microphone and from the rear but not the side
Microphones with this Figure of Eight polar pattern are typically ribbon or Large
Diaphragm Microphones
The output produced by a sound which is picked up by the rear lobe of the
microphone will be 180 out of phase compared with an identical sound picked up
by the front lobe

Figure of eight or bidirectional pattern

Typical polar diagram of a bidirectional microphone at a number of frequencies
Applications:

Record a dialogue.
Used in Midside stereo recording

Advantages:
Reduces unwanted room ambience
Maintains natural sound
Excellent for acoustic instrument miking

Disadvantage:
High Cost and delicate

Prone to Proximity effect

Cardioid or Unidirectional pattern

Cardioid may be considered theoretically as a product of omni and figure of eight

response

A cardioid microphone has the most sensitivity at the front and is least sensitive at
the back
It isolates from unwanted ambient sound

Much more resistant to feedback than omnidirectional microphones

Cardioid or Unidirectional pattern

Typical polar diagram of a Cardioid microphone at a number of frequencies
Applications:
Loud on stage Live Sound
Stereo Miking
Instrument miking
Advantages:
Immunity to feedback
Ideal for handheld application

Disadvantage:
Suffers from proximity effect
Prone to Handling, pop & wind noise

Hypercardioid Pattern

It is described mathematically by the formula 0.5 +cos. It is a combination of an

omni attenuated by 6 dB, and a figure-eight.

It is very directional and eliminates most sound from the sides and rear.
The hypercardioid has the highest direct-to-reverberant ratio of the patterns.
Good for excluding unwanted sounds such as excessive room ambience or unwanted

noise.

Hypercardioid Pattern
Applications:
Isolating the sound from a subject or direction

when there is a lot of ambient noise

Picking up sound from a subject at a distance

Advantages:
Good Isolation

Disadvantage:
By removing all the ambient noise,
unidirectional sound can sometimes be a little unnatural
Need to be careful to keep the sound consistent

Super-cardioid Pattern

Supercardioid microphones offer a narrower pickup than cardioids and a greater

rejection of ambient sound
They also have some pickup directly at the rear
They are the most resistant to feedback.

Shot gun polar Pattern

They offer very narrow pick up in the front to a significant distance.

They also have some pickup directly at the rear and sides
Used for recording on-location sounds in movies (Boom Mic).

Comparison of Polar patterns

Classification according to Ease Of Use

Handheld microphones

Most common & convenient type of Microphone

Used by the Stage artists, Presenters etc.
Can be used for Vocal as well as Instruments
Rugged design

Lavalier/ Collar Microphone

Allows Hands-free Operation

Used for TV, Theatre or public speaking applications
Used as wired or wireless

Headworn Microphone
Allows Hands-free Operation
Used for Sports & Speech

applications
Used as wired or wireless

Boundary Microphone

Used in Theatres & Conference rooms

Can be used in less-than-ideal acoustic spaces

Gooseneck Microphone

Directional Microphones used for Speech

Used Conference systems & Podiums

Large Diaphragm Microphone

Majorly Large Diaphragm are Condenser Microphones

High sensitivity and a good high-frequency response
Fixed on Stands & Shock mounts

Boom Mic
Used for ENG
Used for Film Sound
Can pick up sound from

long distance

USB Microphone

Easy to use Plug & Play

Suitable for Home recording
Built in A to D convertor

Wireless Microphones

Electromagnetic waves are the carrier medium for information in wireless systems
Every WMS has to operate on one specific frequency
Transmitter and receiver of a system need to work on the same frequency
Two transmitters cannot be used with one receiver at the same time
Two systems operating on close frequencies at the same time can cause
interference problems

Parabolic Microphones

Hydrophone
Used underwater for recording or listening to underwater sound.
Based on a piezoelectric transducer that generates electricity when
subjected to a pressure change.

Miking Techniques
Mono Microphone Techniques
Distant Miking
Close Miking
Ascent Miking
Ambient Miking
Stereo Miking Techniques
Spaced Pair
Coincident Pair
Near Coincident Pair

Mono Microphone Technique

Distant Microphone Technique

Positioning of one or more mics at 3 feet or more from

the sound source
Picks up a tonally balanced sound from the instrument
or ensemble and also picks up the acoustic
environment ie reflected sound

Close Miking Technique:

The mic is placed 1" to 3' from the source.

Only direct, on - axis sound is captured.
Creates a tight present sound quality which effectively
excludes the acoustic environment.
Miking too close may colour the recorded tone quality
of a source.
Common technique when close miking is to search for
the instrument's "sweet spot"

Mono Microphone Technique

Accent Miking

A not too close miking technique used to

highlight an instrument in an ensemble which
is being picked by distant mikes.
The accent mike will add more volume and
presence to the highlighted instrument when
mixed together with the main mic.

Ambient Miking

An ambient mike is placed at such a distance

that the reverberent or room sound is more
prominent than the direct signals.
Restore natural reverb to a live recording
Used to pick up audience reaction in a live
concert.
In a studio, used to add the studio rooms
acoustic back in to a close miked recording

Stereo Miking Techniques

AB or Spaced Pair
The two mics (Omni or cardioid) are placed quite
far from each other to preserve a L/R spread or
soundstage.
Works on the arrival time differences between the
two mics to obtain the stereo image
In placing AB mics use the 3:1 Rule
The AB stereo method can give an exaggerated
stereo spread and can suffer from a perceived hole
in the center effect.
The sound can be warm and ambient but off
centre.

Sources can seem diffuse i.e not properly located.

Stereo Miking Techniques

XY or Coincident Pair
The stereo image is obtained by intensity
differences produced by the sound source
on each mic.
Two cardioid mics (Top angled L ,bottom
R) set at an angle of between 90 and 135
degrees.
The

angle

increases

the

intensity

differences and widens the stereo image.

2 omni mics can be used for more

ambiance.

Stereo Miking Techniques

MS miking Technique
The stereo image is obtained by intensity

differences produced by the soundsource

on each mic.
Utilizes a cardioid and a bidirectional
mic.
The side picks up ambient sound while
the mid picks up the direct sound.
May also by done on three channels of a
console with the 3rd channel containing
the reverse phase of the bidirectional mic.

Stereo Miking Techniques

Near Coincident or OSS (Optimal Stereo Sound)
Works on the principle of IID as well as

NOS

ITD
Two Techniques: NOS and ORTF
Microphone pair is separated by a
distance similar to that between the 2
ears
Uses the best features of AB and XY to
produce a soundstage with sharply
focused images and an accurate stero
spread

ORTF

Stereo Miking Techniques

Dummy head microphone

Microphone Specifications

Pick up patterns
Frequency Response
Proximity effect
Transcient response
Output level or Sensitivity
Overload
Impedence

Pick up patterns

Frequency Response
The frequency response of microphone is a measure of the consistency with
which it translates a given sound pressure level into a given audio signal level at
different frequencies.

Good quality microphones have uniform frequency response off axis also.
Presence peak can help to increase the intelligibility of sound.
On-axis and Diffused field responses vary especially in the higher frequency
range.

Frequency Response
On-and off-axis responses of DPA 4011 measured in 30 cm

Proximity effect
Proximity effect is an increase in low frequency response when a microphone is
very close to the sound source.
It is an inherent characteristics of directional microphones.
Sometimes causes preamplifier overload and cause distortion.

A low cut filter usually is an effective way to cure this problem.

Transient Response
Measure of microphones ability to render very sharp, fast musical attacks
and signal peaks.

Sensitivity
The ratio of the analog output voltage or digital output value to the input
pressure

Typically measured with a 1 kHz sine wave at a 94 dB SPL, or 1 pascal (Pa)

pressure.
In the data sheets the sensitivity always applies to the frequency 1 kHz, unless
otherwise noted.
Reference: 94 dBSPL 1 pascal = 10 bars = 10 dynes/cm2
Auditory threshold: 0 dBSPL 0.00002 Pa = 0.0002 dyne/cm2
The bar found in some non-European specifications refers to 74 dBSPL (20
dB less than 1 Pa) and the sensitivity or the sensitivity factor is not expressed
as transfer factor in the usual form of "mV/Pa" as open circuit voltage rating.

Overload
Distortion in sound is often blamed on microphone overload.
Overloading typically takes place in the amplifier stage and not in
microphone stage.
A good quality microphone should be able to withstand SPL of
140dBSPL or more without overloading.
With condenser mic overload point will be reduced if the battery
power is reduced.
Relation of microphone sensitivity to overload:
Eg: Mic sensitivity is -47dB SPL at 94dB SPL
The output level then would be -47 + (140-94) = -1dBV
This will surely overload the mixers preamplifier stage unless a PAD is used to drop the
signal level.

Impedence
Impedance is an electronics term which measures the amount of opposition a
device has to an AC current ( measured in ohms)
Often Mics with a hard-wired cable and 1/4" plug are high impedance
Mics with separate balanced audio cable and XLR connector are low impedance

This is a measurement of the AC resistance looking back into the microphone

Low (50-1,000 ohms)
Medium (5,000-15,000 ohms)
High (20,000+ ohms)

There is a limit to how much cable should be used between a high-impedance

microphone and its input. Losses will be evident in high frequencies and
output voltage levels above a distance of 20feet.
Low-impedance microphones and cable, microphone cables can be almost any
practical length, with no serious losses of any kind.
Low impedance microphones have better noise immunity.

Microphone Specifications

SM57
Behringer XM1800s
Behringer C2
Samson CO2
Behringer B2-Pro

Microphone Accessories
Windscreens
Blimp Windshield
Dead Cat
POP Filters
Microphone cables (Balanced and Unbalanced)
Boom Pole
Mic Stand
Handy Pistol Grip Mounts
Reflection Filters
Shock mounts

Windscreens

Blimp Windshield/ Dead Cat

POP Filter

Microphone Cables

Boom Pole

Mic Stand

Handy Pistol Grip Mounts

Reflection Filters

Shock Mounts

Miking Musical Instruments

Acoustic Guitar
Timbre and position
Large diaphragm condensers
The guitar's sweet spot

Close-miking with miniature condensers

Instrument clip mics for live situations

Miking a drum kit

Overhead
Hi-hat
Snare drum
Bass drum
Toms

Trumpet
The trumpet can generate sound with very high levels and also
compresses and accelerates the speed of sound.
Choose a microphone that can handle high levels comfortably
For a well balanced sound, position the microphone 30 to 50 cm
from the bell, slightly off axis.

Violin
Supercardioid microphone directionality pattern can be used
The position will always be a compromise trying to capture
the whole instrument with a narrow pick up pattern.

Miking Flute and Recorder

Approx. 5-10 cm away from the instrument, aim the mic halfway between the
mouthpiece and the left hand.
Omni directional microphone may be an advantage, due to their lower
sensitivity to wind and pop.
Due to its polar character, the flute can also be spot-miked behind and slightly
above the head of the player, pointing at the finger holes.