whi t e

p A p e R

introduction
Over the last decade, finite element analysis (FEA) stopped being regarded only
as an analysts tool and entered the practical world of design engineering. CAD
software now comes with built-in FEA capabilities and design engineers use
FEA as an everyday design tool in support of the product design process.
However, until recently, most FEA applications undertaken by design engineers
were limited to linear analysis. Such linear analysis provides an acceptable
approximation of real-life characteristics for most problems design engineers
encounter. Nevertheless, occasionally more challenging problems arise, problems that call for a nonlinear approach.
The term stiffness defines the fundamental difference between linear
and nonlinear analysis. Stiffness is a
property of a part or assembly that
characterizes its response to the
applied load. Three primary factors
affect stiffness: Shape, Material, and
Part Support.

Historically, engineers were reluctant to use nonlinear analysis, because of its

complex problem formulation and long solution time. Thats changing now, as
nonlinear FEA software interfaces with CAD and has become much easier to
use. In addition, improved solution algorithms and powerful desktop computers
have shortened solution times. A decade ago, engineers recognized FEA as a
valuable design tool. Now they are starting to realize the benefits and greater
understanding that nonlinear FEA brings to the design process.

Differences between linear and nonlinear analysis

The term stiffness defines the fundamental difference between linear and
nonlinear analysis. Stiffness is a property of a part or assembly that characterizes its response to the applied load. A number of factors affect stiffness:
1. Shape: An I-beam has different stiffness from a channel beam.

2. Material: An iron beam is less stiff than the same size steel beam.

U N D E r S T A N D I N g N O N l I N E A r A N A ly S I S

3. part Support: A beam with a simple support is less stiff and will deflect
more than the same beam with built-in supports as shown in Figure 1.

If the change in stiffness is small

enough, it makes sense to assume
that neither the shape nor material
properties change at all during the
deformation process. This assumption is the fundamental principle of
linear analysis.

figURe 1: CANtilever beAm (top) hAs lower stiffNess thAN the sAme
beAm sUpported oN both eNds (bottom).

When a structure deforms under a load its stiffness changes, due to one or
more of the factors listed above. If it deforms a great deal, its shape can change.
If the material reaches its failure limit, the material properties will change.
On the other hand, if the change in stiffness is small enough, it makes sense
to assume that neither the shape nor material properties change at all during
the deformation process. This assumption is the fundamental principle of
linear analysis.
That means that throughout the entire process of deformation, the analyzed
model retained whatever stiffness it possessed in its undeformed shape prior
to loading. regardless of how much the model deforms, whether the load gets
applied in one step or gradually, and no matter how high the stresses that
develop in response to that load may be, the model retains its initial stiffness.
This assumption greatly simplifies problem formulation and solution. recall the
fundamental FEA equation:
[f] = [K] * [d]
where: [F] is the known vector of nodal loads
[K] is the known stiffness matrix
[d] is the unknown vector of nodal displacements
U N D E r S T A N D I N g N O N l I N E A r A N A ly S I S

This matrix equation describes the behavior of FEA models. It contains a very
large number of linear algebraic equations, varying from several thousand to
several million depending on the model size. The stiffness matrix [K] depends
on the geometry, material properties, and restraints. Under the linear analysis
assumption that the model stiffness never changes, those equations are assembled and solved just once, with no need to update anything while the model is
deforming. Thus linear analysis follows a straight path from problem formulation
to completion. It produces results in a matter of seconds or minutes, even for
very large models.
Everything changes upon entering the world of nonlinear analysis, because
nonlinear analysis requires engineers to abandon the assumption of constant
2

stiffness. Instead, stiffness changes during the deformation process and the
stiffness matrix [K] must be updated as the nonlinear solver progresses through
an iterative solution process. Those iterations increase the amount
of time it takes to obtain accurate results.
Understanding different types of nonlinear behavior

A generally accepted rule of thumb

suggests conducting a nonlinear
geometry analysis if the deformations are larger than 1/20th of the
parts largest dimension. Another
important factor to recognize is that
in cases of large deformations, the
load direction can change as the
model deforms.

Although the process of changing stiffness is common to all types of nonlinear analyses, the origin of nonlinear behavior can be different, making it logical to classify nonlinear analyses based on the principal origin of nonlinearity.
Because it isnt possible to point out a single cause of nonlinear behavior in
many problems, some analyses may have to account for more than one type
of nonlinearity.
Nonlinear geometry
As already discussed, nonlinear analysis becomes necessary when the
stiffness of the part changes under its operating conditions. If changes in
stiffness come only from changes in shape, nonlinear behavior is defined
as geometric nonlinearity.
Such shape-caused changes in stiffness can happen when a part has large
deformations that are visible to the naked eye. A generally accepted rule of
thumb suggests conducting a nonlinear geometry analysis if the deforma-tions
are larger than 1/20th of the parts largest dimension. Another important factor
to recognize is that in cases of large deformations, the load direction can
change as the model deforms. Most FEA programs offer two choices to
account for this direction change: following and nonfollowing load.
A following load retains its direction in relation to the deformed model as shown
in Figure 3. A nonfollowing load retains its initial direction.

figURe 3: followiNg (or NoNCoNservAtive) loAd ChANges its direCtioN dUriNg the proCess of deformAtioN ANd remAiNs NormAl to the
deformed beAm (left). NoNfollowiNg, or CoNservAtive, loAd retAiNs
its origiNAl direCtioN (right).

A pressure vessel subjected to very high pressure that undergoes a drastic

change of shape provides another good example of the latter situation. The
pressure load always acts normal to the walls of the pressure vessel. While
linear analysis of this scenario assumes that the shape of the vessel does not
change, realistic analysis of the pressure vessel requires analyzing geometric
nonlinearity with nonconservative (or follower) loading.

U N D E r S T A N D I N g N O N l I N E A r A N A ly S I S

Changes in stiffness due to shape can also occur when the deformations are
small. A typical example is an initially flat membrane deflecting under pressure
(see Figure 4).

Changes in stiffness due to shape

can also occur when the deformations are small. A typical example is
an initially flat membrane deflecting under pressure. Initially, the
membrane resists the pressure load
only with bending stiffness. After
the pressure load has caused some
curvature, the deformed membrane
exhibits stiffness additional to the
original bending stiffness.

figURe 4: ANAlysis of A flAt membrANe UNder pressUre loAd reqUires

NoNliNeAr geometry ANAlysis eveN thoUgh the mAgNitUde of deformAtioN mAy be very smAll.

Initially, the membrane resists the pressure load only with bending stiffness.
After the pressure load has caused some curvature, the deformed membrane exhibits stiffness additional to the original bending stiffness (Figure 5).
Deformation changes the membrane stiffness so that the deformed membrane
is much stiffer than the flat membrane.

figURe 5: A flAt membrANe respoNds to loAd oNly with beNdiNg stiffNess. beCAUse of deformAtioN it Also ACqUires membrANe stiffNess.
therefore, it is mUCh stiffer thAN prediCted by liNeAr ANAlysis.

Some FEA programs use confusing terminology, calling all analysis of geometric nonlinearities large deformation analysis. This ignores the necessity to perform nonlinear analysis for smaller deformation.
Nonlinear material
If changes of stiffness occur due only to changes in material properties under
operating conditions, the problem is one of material nonlinearity. A linear material model assumes stress to be proportional to strain (Figure 6, below). That
means it assumes that the higher the load applied, the higher the stresses and
deformation will be, proportional to the changes in the load. It also assumes
that no permanent deformations will result, and that once the load has been
removed the model will always return to its original shape.

U N D E r S T A N D I N g N O N l I N E A r A N A ly S I S

figUre 6

if the loads are high enough to

cause some permanent deformations, as is the case with most
plastics, or if the strains are very
high (sometimes > 50 percent), as
occurs with rubbers and elastomers,
then a nonlinear material model
must be used.

U N D E r S T A N D I N g N O N l I N E A r A N A ly S I S

Although this simplification is acceptable, if the

loads are high enough to cause some permanent
deformations, as is the case with most plastics, or
if the strains are very high (sometimes > 50
percent), as occurs with rubbers and elastomers,
then a nonlinear material model must be used.
Due to the vast differences in how various types
of materials behave under their operating
conditions, FEA programs have developed
specialized tech-niques and material models to
simulate these behaviors. The table below offers
a short review of what material models work best
for which problem.

Hyperelastic

Model

Comment

Work well for incompressible elastomers

and Ogden

such as rubber.

Blatz-Ko

This model works for compressible polyurethan foam rubbers.

Viscoelastic

Several (optional with

This model works for hard rubber or glass.

other models)
Creep

Several (optional with

Creep is a time-dependent strain produced

other models)

under a state of constant stress. Creep is

observed in most engineering materials,
especially metals at elevated temperatures,
high polymer plastics, concrete, and solid
propellant in rocket motors.

Superelastic
Material Classification

Mooney-rivlin

(Shape memory alloys)

Nitinol

Shape-memory-alloys (SMA) such as

Nitinol present the superelastic effect. This
material undergoes large deformations in

Elastoplastic

Von Mises or Tresca

These model
for which a
a plateau be
stress. Mos
plastics are
material model

Drucker-Prager

This model
materials.

loading-unloading cycles without showing

permanent deformations.
5

figURe 7: stress-strAiN CUrve of AN elAstiC-perfeCtly plAstiC mAteriAl model. with this mAteriAl model the mAximUm stress mAgNitUde
CANt exCeed the limit of plAstiC stress (yield stress).

In dealing with analysis of an

elastic-perfectly plastic material
modelthat is, a material that has
lost all ability to return to its original
shape after deformationthe stress
remains constant above a certain
strain value.

In dealing with analysis of an elastic-perfectly plastic material modelthat is, a

material that has lost all ability to return to its original shape after deformation
the stress remains constant above a certain strain value. It describes the cast
iron material (this model is one of the simplest of nonlinear material models,
and its strain-stress curve is shown in Figure 8.) of a bulkhead held in place
very well by eight bolts.
linear analysis reveals a maximum von Mises stress of 614 MPa (89,600 psi)
as compared to a material yield of 206 MPa (30,000 psi). The results of that
linear analysis are shown in Figure 8.

figURe 8: liNeAr stress solUtioN of A bUlkheAd shows very high ANd

loCAlized stress CoNCeNtrAtioNs.

If the stresses exceed yield, will the bulkhead fall apart? To find out, an elastoplastic material model needs to be used for examining how much material will
go plastic. Figure 9 shows the nonlinear solution where the maximum stress
equals the yield stress. Plastic zones are still local, indicating that the bulkhead
will not fall apart. Of course, careful engineering judgment is required to decide
if this design is acceptable.

U N D E r S T A N D I N g N O N l I N E A r A N A ly S I S

If the stresses exceed yield, will the

bulkhead fall apart? To find out, an
elastoplastic material model needs
to be used for examining how much
material will go plastic. Plastic zones
are still local, indicating that the
bulkhead will not fall apart.

figURe 9: NoNliNeAr stress solUtioN obtAiNed with AN elAstiCperfeCtly plAstiC mAteriAl model. red zoNes iNdiCAte mAteriAl
goiNg plAstiC. the exteNt of plAstiC zoNes is loCAl.

Figure 10 shows the linear stress solution of an aluminum bracket. The maximum stress reads 44 MPa (6,400 psi) and ignores the fact that the material

yields at 28 MPa (4,100 psi).

figURe 10: liNeAr stress solUtioN of A hollow brACket reports

stress wAy Above the limit of mAteriAl yield stress.

Nonlinear material analysis can account for these results, where the material
yields when the maximum stress holds at 28 MPa (4,100 psi) (Figure 11, next
page). The nonlinear stress results indicate that the bracket is very close to collapsing. Plastic zones occupy almost the entire cross-section of the cantilever,
and a slight increase in the load magnitude would cause the cross-section to
become completely plastic and develop a plastic hinge that causes the bracket
to collapse.

U N D E r S T A N D I N g N O N l I N E A r A N A ly S I S

figURe 11: NoNliNeAr stress solUtioN shows mAximUm stress Not

higher thAN yield stress. the exteNt of the plAstiC zoNes iNdiCAtes
thAt the brACket is very Close to formiNg A plAstiC hiNge. it is At
the limit of loAd-beAriNg CApACity.

Modeling the simple act of taking an ordinary steel paper clip, unbending it,

and then bending it back, requires consideration of both nonlinear material

and nonlinear geometry. Figure 12 shows the deformed shape of the paper
clip using an elastic-perfectly plastic material model. Figure 13 shows residual
stresses after the clip has been bent back to the original shape.

figURe 12: ANAlysis of pAper Clip beNdiNg reqUires NoNliNeAr

mAteriAl ANd NoNliNeAr geometry ANAlysis. pAper Clip iN UNbeNt
positioN shows plAstiC stresses

figURe 13: pAper Clip beNt bACk iNto the origiNAl shApe shows
residUAl stresses..

U N D E r S T A N D I N g N O N l I N E A r A N A ly S I S

Loss of elastic stability (buckling)

Stiffness in a part also changes due to applied loads. Sometimes, loads
depending on how they are appliedcan either increase the stiffness (tension
loads) or decrease it (compressive loads). For example, a tight rope can take
an acrobats weight. A loose one, however, will make him fall. In cases of compressive load, if the changes in stiffness are sufficient to cause the structures
stiffness to drop to zero, buckling occurs and the structure experiences a rapid
deformation. It then either falls apart or acquires a new stiffness in its postbuckling state.
linear buckling analysis can be used to calculate the load under which a structure will buckle (Euler load). However, the results of linear buckling analysis are
not conservative. In addition, idealizations in the FEA model may result in the
predicted buckling load being much higher for the FEA model than for the real
part. Thus the results of linear buckling analysis should be used carefully.
Buckling does not necessarily equal catastrophic failure and the structure may
still be able to support the load after buckling has taken place. Nonlinear analysis will explain postbuckling behavior.

figUre 13

Figures 13 and 14 show a snap-through effect. The part retains its loadbearing capabilities even after buckling has taken place.

figURe 14: ANAlysis of sNAp-throUgh effeCt reqUires NoNliNeAr

ANAlysis.

U N D E r S T A N D I N g N O N l I N E A r A N A ly S I S

Contact stresses and nonlinear supports

If support conditions, including contacts, change during the application of
operating loads, nonlinear analysis is needed.
Contact stresses develop between two contacting surfaces. Therefore, the
contact area and the stiffness of the contact zone are unknown prior to solution. Figure 15 shows a stress solution of a typical contact problem. Even
though the contact stress area is very small compared to the overall model
size, the changing stiffness of the contact zone calls for nonlinear analysis.

If support conditions, including

contacts, change during the application of operating loads, nonlinear
analysis is needed.

figURe 15: CoNtACt stress ANAlysis thAt models stresses developiNg

betweeN two spheres (oNly oNe of the two CoNtACtiNg pArts
is showN) beloNgs to the CAtegory of ANAlysis with NoNliNeAr
sUpports.

Figure 16 shows an example of nonlinear supports. The effective beam length

and its consequent stiffness depend on the amount of beam deformation.
When the beam contacts the support, its stiffness increases because of the
drop in its active length.

figURe 16: this sUpport (wheN ACtivAted) ChANges the effeCtive

leNgth of beAm. CoNseqUeNtly, beAm stiffNess ChANges ANd the
problem reqUires NoNliNeAr ANAlysis.

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Nonlinear dynamic analysis

Dynamic analysis accounts for inertial effects, damping, and time-dependent
loads. A drop test, vibrations of an engine mount, airbag deployment, or
crash simulation all require dynamic analysis. But is dynamic analysis linear
or nonlinear? The qualifying rules are exactly the same as in static analysis.
If model stiffness does not change significantly under the applied load, then
linear dynamic analysis suffices. A vibrating engine mount or a tuning fork both
experience small deformations about the point of equilibrium and so can be
analyzed with linear dynamic analysis.
In many cases, however, linear
assumptions differ too much from
reality and provide crude or misleading information. Using the results of
linear analysis to decide if a part will
fail under its operating loads may
lead to over-design.

Problems such as crash simulation, analysis of airbag deployment, or modeling a metal stamping process all require nonlinear dynamic analysis because
both large deformations (nonlinear geometry) and large strains (nonlinear
material) occur.
how can nonlinear analysis help us build better products?
Nature is nonlinear. That means linear analysis can only approximate the real
nonlinear behavior of parts and assemblies. Most of the time, such an approximation is acceptable, and linear analysis can provide valuable insight into product characteristics. In many cases, however, linear assumptions differ too much
from reality and provide crude or misleading information.
Using the results of linear analysis to decide if a part will fail under its operating loads may lead to overdesign. For example, a bracket design analyzed only
with linear analysis requires the designer to stick with a requirement that stress
must not exceed the yield. But nonlinear analysis may show that some yielding
is acceptable. In that event, it becomes possible to save on the amount
of material used or to choose a less expensive material without compromising
structural integrity. An engineer may be concerned about too large a deflection
of a flat panel as tested with linear analysis, for another example, and overdesign it to compensate for that deflection without ever knowing that linear
analysis exaggerated the deformations, and it was fine as originally designed.
Nonlinear analysis in everyday design practice
Once an engineer gains enough experience to recognize nonlinear problems,
it becomes obvious that application of this technology isnt confined to exotic
situations. Designs that require or may benefit from nonlinear analysis abound
in every industry and in everyday design practice.
Here are several examples of products where the correct design decision
requires nonlinear analysis. Many of these problems involve more than one
type of nonlinear behavior.

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idler pulley (figure 17)

This stamped steel pulley may buckle under belt load before it develops
excessive stresses. Although a linear buckling analysis may be enough
to determine the buckling load, nonlinear analysis is required to study its postbuckling behavior.

figUre 17

Diaphragm spring (figure 18)

The nonlinear spring characteristic requires a nonlinear geometry analysis
to account for membrane effects.

figUre 18

Rollover protective structure (figure 19)

In the case of a rollover, the structure deforms past its yield, and absorbs
rollover energy. During this process it experiences large deformation
Understanding the effects of rollover requires combining nonlinear material
and nonlinear geometry analysis.

figUre 19

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12

Soft obstetric forceps (figure 20)

Soft obstetric forceps are designed to mold around a babys head during
forceps-assisted delivery. If too high traction and/or compression are applied,
the forceps are designed to slip off the babys head to prevent injuries. Analysis
of such forceps must combine nonlinear material and nonlinear geometry to
account for large deformations and nonlinear elastic material.

figUre 20

fan guard (figure 21)

This part requires nonlinear geometry analysis because of the membrane
stresses that develop during the deformation process. A nonlinear material
analysis may be required as well.

figUre 21

Snap ring (figure 22)

A nonlinear geometry analysis is required because of large deformations.
This ring may also be a candidate for a nonlinear material analysis.

figUre 22

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13

Airline luggage container (figure 23)

This airline luggage container requires a nonlinear geometry analysis because
of membrane effects in the blue lexan panels. In addition, the frame requires
a buckling or postbuckling analysis.

figUre 23

Office chair (figure 24)

In this example, large deformations of the frame may necessitate a nonlinear

geometry analysis. The seat and backrest require nonlinear geometry and nonlinear material analysis.

figUre 24

Allen wrench (figure 25)

The contact between the wrench and the socket screw necessitates a contact
stress analysis.

figUre 25
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14

Conclusion
The nature of frequently encountered analysis problems should be the yardstick by which to justify a decision to add nonlinear analysis capabilities to the
engineers FEA software. If day-to-day work requires nonlinear analysis only
occasionally, it may be better to ask for the help of a dedicated analyst or to
hire a consultant. If, because of the nature of the designed products, design
analysis problems routinely involve large deformations, membrane effects,
nonlinear material, contact stresses, buckling, or nonlinear supports, then
nonlinear analysis capabilities should be added to in-house FEA software
intended for use by design engineers.
The past ten years have conditioned engineers to the use of FEA as a design
tool. Now FEA software and computer hardware have matured enough so that
nonlinear analysis can be added to their toolboxes.

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